Smart Technologies For Sustainable Development

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
Sanjay Kumar Shukla

Srinivasan Chandrasekaran
Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Sreevalsa Kolathayar Editors
Smart
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Sanjay Kumar Shukla, School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup,
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Nagesh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
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Sanjay Kumar Shukla •
Srinivasan Chandrasekaran •
Bibhuti Bhusan Das Sreevalsa Kolathayar

•
Editors
Smart Technologies
for Sustainable Development
Select Proceedings of SMTS 2019
123
Editors
Sanjay Kumar Shukla Srinivasan Chandrasekaran
Discipline of Civil and Environmental Department of Ocean Engineering
Engineering, School of Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Edith Cowan University Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Perth, Australia
Sreevalsa Kolathayar
Bibhuti Bhusan Das Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Karnataka
National Institute of Technology Karnataka Mangalore, India
Mangalore, India
ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-15-5000-3 ISBN 978-981-15-5001-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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Preface
The problems caused by global warming and climate change have forced the
scientists and engineers to explore materials, methods and techniques, which can
bring sustainable developments in our villages, towns and cities. Attempts are being
made worldwide to create new/modified materials, often called smart materials,
which can help bring the developments closer to our safe and sustainable natural
environment. Researchers are also focussing on making suitable improvements in
design methodologies, construction techniques and maintenance strategies for
achieving the goals of sustainability. Keeping all these needs and developments in
mind, an International Conference on Smart Materials and Techniques for
Sustainable Development (SMTS-2019) was organized from 4 to 5 April 2019 at
Dr. N. G. P. Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India. This book includes the
selected papers from this conference dealing with several topics, including smart
structures and materials, innovation in smart composites, green construction
materials and technologies, optimization and innovation in structural design,
structural dynamics and earthquake engineering, structural health monitoring sys-
tem, nanomaterials, nanotechnology and sensors, smart biomaterials and materials
for energy conversion and storage devices.
We thank all the staff of Springer for their full support and cooperation at all the
stages of the publication of this book. We do hope that this book will be beneficial
to students, researchers and professionals working in the field of smart materials
and sustainable development. The comments and suggestions from the readers and
users of this book are most welcome.
Perth, Australia Sanjay Kumar Shukla

Chennai, India Srinivasan Chandrasekaran
Mangalore, India Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Mangalore, India Sreevalsa Kolathayar
v
Contents
Comparative Study of Pedestrian Vibration for Design of Steel

Arch Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Rahul Suresh, A. Sofi, and K. Ganesh
Lateral Load Analyses of Multi-storeyed Frames with and Without
Shear Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Akash John Koshy, A. Sofi, and A. R. Santhakumar
The Diagnosis for the Lack of Remote Village Electrification Using
Sustainable Energy in Labranzagrande . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Alan Achenkunju John and P. Venkatesh Kumar
Experimental Studies on the Suitability of Coconut Shell as a Filler
Material in Concrete Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Renuka Sai Gadekari, Sreevalsa Kolatayar, and Rajesh Kumar Chitrachedu
A Sustainable Approach to Turn Plastic Waste into Useful
Construction Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
K. Monish, J. John Jesuran, and Sreevalsa Kolathayar
Study on Mechanical Properties of M30 Grade Concrete
with Replacement of Cement by Wollastonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
D. Saranyadevi, P. Sabareeswaran, P. Paramaguru, and M. Surya Prakash
Flexural Behaviour of Auxetic Core Sandwich Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Ruby Vaguez and Simon Jayasingh
Correlation Between Surface Absorption and Chloride Ion
Penetration of Concrete with Nano Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
R. Vandhiyan, E. B. Perumal Pillai, and S. Lingeswari
Prediction of Setting Time and Strength of Mortar Using Soft
Computing Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Kiran Devi, Babita Saini, and Paratibha Aggarwal
vii
viii Contents
A Study on Dynamic Behaviour of Monoblock Concrete Sleepers

Using SAP2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
P. S. Rao, A. K. Desai, and C. H. Solanki
Spatial Machines for Heterogeneous MRI Data—A Critical
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Zabiha Khan and R. Loganathan
Influence of Fineness of Mineral Admixtures on the Degree
of Atmospheric Mineral Carbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
C. Farsana, Bibhuti Bhusan Das, and K. Snehal
Experimental Setup for Thermal Performance Study of Phase Change
Material Admixed Cement Composites—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
K. Snehal and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
The Behavior of Ambad Earth Dam Under Change in Water Level
and Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
B. M. Bhosale and Rohan Deshmukh
A Review on the Properties of Steel-Concrete Interface
and Characterization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
E. P. Sumukh, Sharan Kumar Goudar, and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Prediction of Compressive Strength and Electrical Resistivity
of Mortar Mixes Containing Industrial Waste Products . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Maninder Singh, Babita Saini, and H. D. Chalak
An Overview on Waste Materials Used in Engineered Cementitious
Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Studies on Modeling and Control of RCC Frame with MR
Damper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
R. Rakshita, C. Daniel, G. Hemalatha, L. Sarala, D. Tensing,
and S. Sundar Manoharan
Detection of Defects in Concrete Structures by Using Infrared
Thermography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Madhuraj Naik, Varadmurti Gaonkar, Ganesh Hegde, and Lalat Indu Giri
DSP-Based Implementation of MPPT Tracking and Sliding Mode
Control for Photo-Voltaic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Subramanya Bhat and H. N. Nagaraja
Analysis of Resilience Performance of Water Distribution
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
A. Ariffa Parakath and T. R. Neelakantan
Contents ix
Influence of Steel Fibers on Enhancing the Toughness Property

on Concrete: A Simplified Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Meyyappan Palaniappan, Jemimah Carmichael Milton,
Sathya Soroopan Ramasubramaniam, Hariharan Palvannan,
and Hariharasudan Sundararaj
Behavior of Zero-Cement Mortar: An Experimental Study . . . . . . . . . . 277
Jagan Sivamani and Mohammed Sulaiman
An Efficient Fire Detection System Using Support Vector Machine
and Deep Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Archana Venugopal, Febi Justin, Linju Santhosh, Riya Binny,
and NG Resmi
Engineering Properties of Heavyweight Concrete—A Review . . . . . . . . 297
B. P. Sharath and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Experimental Study on Lightweight Concrete with Copper Slag
and Pumice Stone, Leca as a Partial Replacement of Aggregates . . . . . . 315
V. Praveen Jesuraj and V. Sreevidya
Influence of Magnetic Water on Properties of Concrete
Paver Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
R. Malathy, N. Karuppasamy, V. Adithya, and P. Gokulapriya
Floor Response Spectra: An Investigation on Hospital Building . . . . . . . 337
H. D. Karthik Nadig, R. Sreekala, K. Sathish Kumar, and J. Simon
Behavior of Rectangular Footing on Geosynthetic Reinforced
Crusher Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Bandita Paikaray, Sarat Kumar Das, Benu Gopal Mohapatra,
and Sweta Sarangi
Evaluation of Pozzolanic Performance of Treated and Untreated
Bagasse Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
S. Sindhu, S. Praveenkumar, and G. Sankarasubramanian
Experimental Study on Bubble Deck Slab Using Palm Seeds . . . . . . . . . 369
M. Iswarya and V. S. Tamilarasan
Self-compacting Concrete: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
J. Abdul Bari and K. S. Krithiga
Strength Characteristics of Red Mud and Silica Fume
Based Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Chava Venkatesh, Madduru Sri Rama Chand, Nerella Ruben,
and Chereddy Sonali Sri Durga
x Contents
Effect of Green Corrosion Inhibitors on the Properties of Mortar

and Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
K. Kavya, S. Keerthana, and T. Pradeep
Utilizing and Optimizing Waste Resources in Paver Block . . . . . . . . . . . 407
S. Janaki Raman and Shanmugasundaram
Prediction of Strength Characteristics of Soil Using Neural
Network Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Amit Kumar and D. K. Soni
About the Editors
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Shukla is an internationally recognized expert in the field of

Civil (Geotechnical) Engineering. He is the Founding Editor-in-Chief of
International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering, published by
Springer Nature, Switzerland. He is also the Founding Research Group Leader
(Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering) at the Edith Cowan University,
Perth, Australia. He holds the Distinguished Professorship in Civil Engineering at
Delhi Technological University, Delhi, VIT University, Vellore, Chitkara
University, Himachal Pradesh, VR Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada,
India, and Fiji National University, Suva, Fiji. He graduated in Civil Engineering
from BIT Sindri, India, and earned his MTech in Civil Engineering (Engineering
Geology) and PhD in Civil (Geotechnical) Engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, India. His primary areas of research interest include geosyn-
thetics and fibres for sustainable developments, ground improvement techniques,
utilization of wastes in construction, earth pressure and slope stability, environ-
mental, mining and pavement geotechnics, and soil-structure interaction. He is an
author/editor of 14 books, including 7 textbooks and 258 technical articles,
including 158 refereed journal papers. Shukla’s generalized expression for seismic
active thrust (2015) and Shukla’s generalized expression for seismic passive
resistance (2013) are being used by practicing engineers worldwide for designing
the retaining structures. He has been honoured with several awards, including the
most prestigious IGS Award 2018 by the International Geosynthetics Society (IGS),
USA, in recognition of outstanding contribution to the development and use of
geosynthetics during the 2014-2017 IGS award period. He is a fellow of Engineers
Australia, Institution of Engineers (India) and Indian Geotechnical Society, and a
member of American Society of Civil Engineers, International Geosynthetics
Society and several other professional bodies. He is the Senior Editor of Cogent
Engineering (Civil and Environmental Engineering), and serves on the editorial
boards of more than 10 international journals, including ICE Ground Improvement,
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, and Journal of Mountain Science.
xi
xii About the Editors
Dr. Srinivasan Chandrasekaran is a Professor in the department of Ocean

Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India. He has over 27 years of
experience in teaching, research and industrial consultancy. His active research
areas include dynamic analysis and design of offshore structures, development of
new-generation compliant offshore platforms for ultra-deepwater oil and gas
exploration, structural health monitoring of ocean structures, risk and reliability, fire
resistant design of structures, use of Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) in
marine risers, and Health, Safety & Environmental (HSE) management in process
industries. He was a visiting fellow under the invitation of Ministry of Italian
University Research (MiUR) to University of Naples Federico II for two years. He
has authored about 160 research papers in peer-reviewed international journals and
refereed conferences organized by professional societies around the world.
Dr. Bibhuti Bhusan Das is currently serving as an Associate Professor at

National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal. Before joining NITK, he
served as Centre Head for National Institute of Construction Management and
Research, Goa and Indore Campus. He has been working as a Post-Doctoral
Research Associate and Adjunct Faculty in the department of Civil Engineering at
Lawrence Technological University, Southfield, Michigan, USA. His area of
research focuses on sustainability of construction and building materials such as
microstructure characterization of materials, non-destructive testing of concrete
structures, corrosion of reinforcement and durability studies on concrete and sus-
tainability in construction project management. He is an Associate Member of
American Concrete Institute and is a part of the International Faculty Network
Committee launched by ACI Education Foundation in 2009. He is an editorial
board member and reviewer to several national and international journals.
Dr. Sreevalsa Kolathayar pursued M.Tech from IIT Kanpur, Ph.D. from
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and served as International Research Staff at UPC
BarcelonaTech Spain. He is presently Assistant Professor in the Department of
Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, India.
Dr. Sreevalsa has authored five books and eight book chapters published by CRC
Press, Springer and Elsevier. He published 36 journal papers and 30 conference
papers. He is Editorial Board member of two International Journals and acted as a
reviewer for many international journals. His research interests include Ground
Motion Attenuation & Seismic Hazard Assessment, Local Site effects &
Liquefaction Susceptibility, Pseudo-dynamic approach for Seismic Loading,
Disaster Risk Reduction, Geogrids and Geocells, and Water geotechnics. He is
currently the Secretary Indian chapter of International Association for Coastal
Reservoir Research (IACRR), and Executive Committee Member of Indian Society
of Earthquake Technology. In 2017, The New Indian Express honored
About the Editors xiii
Dr. Sreevalsa with Edex award: 40 under 40 - South India’s Most Inspiring Young
Teachers. He is the recipient of ISET DK Paul Research Award from Indian Society
of Earthquake Technology, IIT Roorkee in 2018. Dr. Sreevalsa is in the roster of
two technical committees of ASCE Geo-Institute. He received “IEI Young
Engineers Award” by The Institution of Engineers (India), in recognition of his
contributions in the field of Civil Engineering.
Comparative Study of Pedestrian
Vibration for Design of Steel Arch Bridge
Rahul Suresh, A. Sofi, and K. Ganesh
Abstract Crossing over has been the key component in the advancement of the street
framework. Although analysts have given numerous important scientific commit-
ments with respect to the comprehension and displaying of passerby prompted vibra-
tions of footbridges, there is yet a need to figure out what genuine upgrades have been
accomplished in structure techniques. The extension and scope of arrangement have
relied upon the viable misuse of the most efficient materials accessible. This paper
introduces the structure and investigation of the bridge using STAAD.Pro software.
This article gives a basic diagram of the procedures proposed in the design of steel
arch bridge. Focus is set on the improvement of passerby load, the structure rules and
vibration countermeasures. Pedestrian vibration using different codes is also done to
do a comparative study of vibrations obtained.
Keywords STAAD pro · Design and analysis · Pedestrian vibration · Comparative

study
1 Introduction
A bridge is a method by which a street, railroad or different administrations is

conveyed over a snag, for example, a stream, valley and the other street or rail
route line, either with no moderate help or with just a set number of backings at
advantageous areas. Extension territory in sizes from the unobtrusive limited ability
to focus, say, a little waterway or the extraordinary instances of suspension, spans
R. Suresh · A. Sofi (B)

School of Civil Engineering, VIT, Vellore, India
e-mail: asofi@vit.ac.in
R. Suresh
e-mail: rahulsuresh94@live.com
K. Ganesh
L&T Infrastructure Engineering Limited, Manapakkam, Chennai, India
e-mail: Kgn@lntiel.com
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

S. K. Shukla et al. (eds.), Smart Technologies for Sustainable Development,
Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 78,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_1
2 R. Suresh et al.
across wide estuaries [1]. Appearance is normally less critical for the littler exten-
sions; yet in all cases, the creator will think about the presence of the fundamental
components, which make up the bridge, the superstructure and the substructure and
the pick extents which are suitable to the specific conditions considered [2]. The
utilization of steel frequently encourages the designer to choose extents that are
stylishly satisfying. Bridges are an essential part of transport infrastructure [3].
Steel has been chosen in situations where concrete was the rational construc-
tion material, and poorly designed concrete bridges have been supplanted by well-
designed steel alternatives. However, the results of several recent tenders have indi-
cated that for multispan bridges, a well-designed concrete deck is cheaper than the
steel composite equivalent [4].
The primary preferred standpoint of the basic steel over other development
materials is its quality and flexibility. It has higher solidarity to cost proportion in
strain and marginally lower solidarity to cost proportion in pressure when contrasted
and concrete. The stiffness to weight proportion of steel is a lot higher than that of
cement [5].
Hence, structural steel is a productive and conservative material in extensions.
Structural steel has been the normal answer for long-range spans since 1890 when the
Firth of Forward cantilever connect, the world’s significant steel connect around then
was finished From the modern Upset in the nineteenth century, bracket frameworks
of steel created iron were produced for bigger scaffolds, yet iron did not have the
elasticity to support large loads [6]. With the approach of steel, which has a high
tensile strength, a lot bigger extensions were fabricated, many utilizing the thoughts
of Gustave Eiffel. Bridges are arranged on the premise that how the four powers
specifically shear, pressure, strain and minute are conveyed in the bridge structure.
Furthermore, unlike those of road and railway bridges, users of footbridges are
directly exposed to vibration, which can produce feelings of discomfort or even
anxiety. In fact, pedestrian movement produces a complex system of forces, acting
in three directions and varying in time and space; these depend on the characteristics
of the pedestrian but are also modified by the interaction with other pedestrians and
by the perception of the structural motion [7, 8].
2 Methodology
The below flow chart shows the steps followed for the research work.
Comparative Study of Pedestrian Vibration for Design … 3
Data CollecƟon &

Literature Analysis
Detailed Analysis
& Design
ErecƟon
Methodology
Pedestrian
VibraƟon
3 Analysis and Design
The analysis of steel arch bridge is carried out for dead loads, superimposed loads
and live load live loads for pedestrian load are assigned to the model and load combi-
nations are used as per IRC 6:2016 standards [9]. Results for maximum load cases
were extracted and corresponding design has been done for the bridge.
3.1 Analysis
The different member property that was used for the bridge design and analysis has
been shown below (Fig. 1).
The grade of concrete M35 and grade of steel of E350 are considered for the
design of steel sections. The yield stress considered is 350 MPa. The unit weight of
steel is taken as 78.5 kN/m3. The Modulus of elasticity considered is 2 × 105 MPa.
The bridge is modelled in STAAD.Pro [10].
The different load cases and load combinations that is to be taken in the bridge
analysis are shown in Table 1.
Section forces are calculated for the bridge section in STAAD.Pro. The obtained
force is taken for the design of the sectional member and the longitudinal member.
Axial forces obtained are used for the design of column for the steel bridge hear
force and bending moment of the entire bridge is shown in Fig. 2.
4 R. Suresh et al.
Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of the entire member section
Table 1 Load cases and

Load cases Load combinations
Load combinations
Dead load (DL) 1.35DL + 1.35SIDL +
1.5LL + 0.9WL
Super imposed dead load 1.35DL + 1.35SIDL +
(SIDL) 1.15LL + 1.5WL
Live load (LL) 1.35DL + 1.35SIDL +
0.2LL + 1.5ELx
Wind load (WL) 1.35DL + 1.35SIDL +
0.2LL + 1.5ELy
Earthquake load (EL)
3.1.1 Temperature Analysis
Thermal effects have come in for close scrutiny in recent years. In the past, the
effect of non-linearity of temperature distribution across the dreck depth was not
Fig. 2 Shear force and bending moment
well understood so that, where thermal effet was considered, it was essentially the
effect of rise or fall in the overall mean temperature of the body over a long period
of time [9].
As structure became more complex and the distribution of temperature through
the deck depth, particularly its nonlinear profile, began to be understood better, the
need for a closer look into thermal effect arose. For this, two types of temperature
analyses should be done [11, 12].
• Positive Differential Temperature
The coefficient of thermal expansion is taken as 1.2 × 10−5 /°C (Fig. 3).
Using the equations the extreme fibre strain and the strain gradient can be
calculated.
0 Σ A − θ Σ Ay = αΣ At
6 R. Suresh et al.
Fig. 3 IRC 6 positive temperature diagram
Fig. 4 Reverse temperature

diagram
0 Σ Ay − θ Σ Ay 2 = αΣ Ayt
Then the eigen stress can be calculated using the equation shown
f ei = E C (0 − yθ − αt)
• Reverse differential Temperature
The coefficient of thermal expansion is taken as 1.2 × 10−5 /°C (Fig. 4).
Using the equations the extreme fibre strain and the strain gradient can be
calculated.
0 Σ A − θ Σ Ay = αΣ At
0 Σ Ay − θ Σ Ay 2 = αΣ Ayt
Then the eigen stress can be calculated using the equation shown
f ei = E C (0 − yθ − αt).
3.2 Design
The design of bridge is done after the analysis using STAAD. Pro. Different member
property was assigned for the design of the steel bridge. In this design tube, star,
bar (suspender) sections were used. During the design process, the design of deck,
as well as waist slab, was done [7]. The different types of checks were also done in
order to check whether the member was safe or not. When the member was so safe
then the section of the members was changed in order to make it a more economical
section. The section forces as well as the axial forces are taken from the STAAD
analysis.
3.2.1 Erection Methodology
These are the design steps for the erection of an arch bridge
• Installation of the arch frame
• Installation of deck steel elements on temporary supports and adjustment up to
the required position
• Assembly of the deck elements (Fig. 5)
• Assembly of the hangar bars and checking the length of each one
• Checking of the distance between the top and bottom holes for each hangar bar
• Installation of hangar bar
• A bush or a cushion will be provided between the longitudinal girder and the
temporary support so that there will not be any lateral movement while placing
the concrete slabs [13, 14].
• Casting of the concrete slab
• Removal of the temporary supports
• Finishing (Fig. 6).
4 Pedestrian Vibration
It is important to calculate the vibration to the design guidelines. These codes have
different methods analysing the pedestrian vibrations. The different design guidelines
are:
• IRC:SP:56/BS5600-2
• Eurocode 5 part-2
• Sétraa (French Technical Department for Transport, Roads and Bridges Engi-
neering and Road Safety).
8 R. Suresh et al.
Fig. 5 Erection of arch portion of the bridge
4.1 IRC:SP:56/BS 5400-2
The fundamental natural frequency f 0 of a superstructure which exceeds 5 Hz for

bridge that is not loaded in the vertical direction and 1.5 Hz for bridge that is loaded
in the horizontal direction, then the vibration is deemed to be satisfied.
If the superstructure fundamental natural frequency in the vertical direction is
equal to or less than 5 Hz, the
√ vertical acceleration (max) of any part of the superstruc-
ture shall be limited to 0.5 f 0 m/s−2 . The maximum acceleration can be calculated
as shown below [15, 16].
The maximum vertical acceleration a (m/s2 ) shall be taken as follows:
a = 4π 2 f 02 ys kψ
where
f o is the fundamental natural frequency (in Hz)
ys is the static deflection (in m)
k is the configuration factor see Table 2
ψ is the dynamic response factor see Fig. 7.
Fig. 6 Erection of the deck slab and removal of temporary support
Table 2 Configuration factor k
Dynamic response factors ψ are given in Fig. 1. In the absence of more precise
information, the value of δ (the logarithmic decrement of the decay of vibration due
to structural damping) given in Table 2 should be used (Table 3).
The natural fundamental frequency f0 is evaluated for the superimposed dead load
and may be calculated from the following

f 0 = C 2 /2πl 2 (E I g/M)
where
g is the acceleration due to gravity (in m/s2 )
10 R. Suresh et al.
Fig. 7 Dynamic response factor Ψ
Table 3 Logarithmic
Bridge superstructure δ
decrement of decay of
vibration Steel with asphalt or epoxy surfacing 0.03
Composite steel/concrete 0.04
L is the length of the main span (in m)

C is the configuration factor see Table 4
E is the modulus of elasticity (in kN/m2 )
I is the second moment of area of the cross section
M is the weight per unit length of the full cross section at mid-span (in kN/m).
Table 4 Configuration factor C

4.2 Eurocode 5 Part 2
For pedestrian vibrations in footbridge, Eurocode states that a maximum peak accel-
eration in all directions must be performed if the first natural frequency of the bridge
deck is less than 5 Hz for vertical vibrations or less than 2.5 Hz for lateral and
torsional vibrations. The allowable maximum acceleration according to Eurocode is
found in Table 5 and should be fulfilled by a considerable margin due to high uncer-
tainties in the calculation of the response [17–19]. The approach described here is
only valid for timber bridges with simply supported beams or truss systems excited
by pedestrians. In EC 5-2, it is stated that the model will be found in future versions
of EN 1991-2.
The vertical and horizontal acceleration for one person moving across the bridge
will depend on the natural frequency, mass of the bridge and the damping ratio shown
in the equation below:

200N
for f vert < 2.5H z
avert,1 = Mζ
100N
Mζ
for 2.5H z < f vert < 5H z
50N
ahor,1 = for 0.5H z < f hor < 2.5H z
Mζ
where
avert,1 is the vertical acceleration from one pedestrian
ahor,1 is the horizontal acceleration from one pedestrian
M is the mass of the bridge
ζ is the damping ratio of the bridge.
Vertical and horizontal accelerations for a group of people is given by:
avert,n = 0.23avert,1 nkvert
ahor,n = 0.18ahor,1 nkhor
where
avert,n is the vertical acceleration of n pedestrians
ahor,n is the horizontal acceleration from n pedestrians
n is the number of pedestrians on the bridge
Table 5 Allowable
Direction of vibrations Max accelerations (m/s2 )
acceleration according to
Eurocode Vertical 0.7
Horizontal-normal use 0.2
Horizontal-exceptional crowd loads 0.4
12 R. Suresh et al.
Fig. 8 Relationship between the first natural frequency and the coefficient kvert and khor according
too EC 5-2
k vert /k hor is the coefficient dependant on the natural frequency of the bridge and
can be found in Fig. 8.
The number of pedestrians should be taken as follows:
4.3 Stéra
“Dynamic behaviour of footbridges” a group working for the French Technical

Department prepared this design guideline for Transport, Roads, Bridges Engineering
and Road Safety (Sétra). The code gives a methodology to evaluate the response of
bridge structures subjected to pedestrian loading. The following steps are shown
below in Fig. 6 (Fig. 9).
The code provides two choices for the client to work on the design of the bridge.
The client can decide what type of load or traffic, class the bridge belongs to and
what type of comfort criteria is required for the bridge. The client’s traffic class is
the total amount of pedestrians or the density of the pedestrian loading on the bridge.
The different density or loading depends on the various classes from a large crowd
(Class I) to scares crowd in remote areas (Class IV). If the client chooses a scare
or lower class a more economical section can be used for the design of the bridge,
thus reducing the cost and also to ensure freedom to architectural design. Well if a
lower class is chosen it increases the risk of pedestrian feeling uncomfortable due to
strong acceleration. But if the bridge is designed using the large crowd class then it
will exceed the design concepts or the limits [20, 21].
The four categories of comfort level are like the first three for the acceptable to the
last one is unacceptable vibrations. The comfort level often depends on the location
and the number of people who are using the bridge. This type of bridge is used for
most sensitive people like elderly, disabled people, school children, etc.
The acceleration of bridge deck and comfort criteria are linked which is calculated
using the different load cases which are described. The allowable acceleration is made
in terms of acceleration range instead of a particular single value. The various ranges
Fig. 9 The design procedure as defined by Sétra
of acceleration are shown in Table 6 for vibration in a vertical direction. The first three
accelerations shown are of comfort criteria from maximum, average and minimum.
The last is the unacceptable range and also the most uncomfortable criteria.
The fundamental natural frequency can be calculated using the formula below:

n2π EI
fn =
2L 2 ρS
where
L is the entire span of the bridge (in m)
E is the Young’s modulus of steel (in N/m2 )
I is the moment of inertia of deck (in m4 )
ρ S is the linear density of deck (in Kg/m)
Table 6 Vertical vibration for comfort criteria

14 R. Suresh et al.
Fig. 10 The design procedure as defined by Sétra
Table 7 Density of
Class Density d of the crowd
pedestrians
III 0.5 pedestrians/m2
II 0.8 pedestrians/m2
The force to be taken for modes in the vertical direction:

ξ
Fs = d × (280N )X cos 2π f v t × 10.8 × ×Ψ
n
where
ζ is the damping ratio of the deck
Ψ is the value of Factor from Fig. 10
d is the density of the crowd from Table 7.
The acceleration under vertical load is given by:
1 4× F
Accmax =
2ζ ρ Sπ
where
F is the surface load that is applied
ρ S is the linear density of deck (in Kg/m)
ζ is the damping ratio of the deck.
In both vertical and horizontal directions, there are four frequency ranges,
corresponding to decreasing risk of resonance:
• Range 1: maximum risk of resonance
• Range 2: medium risk of resonance
• Range 3: low risk of resonance for standard loading situations
• Range 4: negligible risk of resonance (Table 8).
Table 8 Frequency range (Hz) of the vertical and longitudinal vibrations
Table 9 Frequency from different codes

IRC:SP:56/BS 5400-2 Eurocode 5 part 2 Stéra
Fundamental Frequency (Hz) 3.711 1.17 3.59
Table 10 Acceleration from different codes

IRC:SP:56/BS 5400-2 Eurocode 5 part 2 Stéra
Acceleration amax < alim avert(1) < alim 2.6 Hz < fn < 5 Hz
0.016 < 0.963 m/s2 0.394 < 0.7 m/s2 Range 3
avert(n) < alim Accmax = 0 (Range 3 Low risk of
0.471 < 0.7 m/s2 Resonance)
4.4 Comparison with Different Codes
The modulus of elasticity is taken as 2.05 × 108 kN/m2 , moment of inertia 0.221 m4 ,
acceleration due to gravity 10 m/s2 , mass of the entire bridge 31.7 kN/m, density of
crowd (d) 0.5 (class III) 0.8 (class II) 1.0 (class I).
The frequency is calculated as per the different codes and is shown in Table 9.
After the calculation of the frequency, the acceleration is calculated [22] with
which we can predict the safety of the structure or not. The calculated acceleration
is shown in Table 10.
5 Conclusion
In this paper, a detailed design for the steel arch bridge was explained. Also, a
comparison of pedestrian vibration using different code was done. It can be concluded
from the following points:
• Analysis was done with different members with the loads so that the economical
section can be used for bridge design which can reduce the cost project.
• The different checks for the deck as well as the waist slab are done such as the
shear, crack width, moment of inertia, deflection have been done.
16 R. Suresh et al.
• The erection of the bridge has been discussed in detail so that the erection can be
done without any difficulties.
• Finally, the pedestrian vibration was calculated for this steel arch bridge using
three different codes and was compared so that it shows more information
regarding the vibration of the bridge.
• The vibration obtained can now be used to check whether the bridge will fail or
not. So by using this technique, we can reduce the failure of bridges that have
happened in the past like the Lively bridge in Milan.
References
1. Hong R, Khudeira S (2013) Chicago’s first tied-arch bridge. Practice Period Struc Design
Construct 19(3):04014011
2. Dey P, Narasimhan S, Walbridge S (2016) Evaluation of design guidelines for the serviceability
assessment of aluminum pedestrian bridges. J Bridge Eng 22(1):04016109
3. Ivorra S et al (2013) Dynamic behavior of a pedestrian bridge in Alicante, Spain. J Perform
Construct Facilit 29(5):04014132
4. ASCE Committee on Construction Equipment and Techniques (1989) Concrete Bridge Design
and Construction in the United Kingdom. J Construct Eng Manage 115(4):618–635
5. Rao A (2006) Design and construction of the longest rope-stayed newspaper foot-bridge. J
Profess Issues Eng Educ Practice 132(2):112–117
6. Štimac Grandić I (2015) Serviceability verification of pedestrian bridges under pedestrian
loading. Tehnički vjesnik 22(2):527–537
7. Ricciardelli F, Demartino C (2016) Design of footbridges against pedestrian-induced vibrations.
J Bridge Eng 21(8):C4015003
8. Fujino Y, Siringoringo DM (2015) A conceptual review of pedestrian-induced lateral vibration
and crowd synchronization problem on footbridges. J Bridge Eng 21(8):C4015001
9. IRC: 6-2017, Loads and stresses (revised edition) with latest amendments
10. IS:800-2007, General construction in steel
11. Benjeddou O, Limam O, Ouezdou MB (2017) The experimental and the theoretical analysis of
the serviceability behavior of a deployable footbridge. Archi Civil Mech Eng 17(2):293–306
12. Qiu W-L et al (2010) Stability analysis of special-shape arch bridge. Tamkang Univ Sci Technol
13(4):365–373
13. Joshi V, Srinivasan M (2018) Walking crowds on a shaky surface: stable walkers
discover millennium bridge oscillations with and without pedestrian synchrony. Biol Let
14(10):20180564
14. Barker C et al (2005) Footbridge pedestrian vibration limits-Part 1: pedestrian input. In:
Footbridge 2005 international conference
15. BS-5400-1978 (Part 2), Steel, concrete and composite bridges
16. IRC:SP 56-2011, Guidelines for steel pedestrian bridges
17. EN 1991-1-5 (Part 1), Action on structures
18. EN 1993-1-1, Design of steel structures
19. EN 1994-1-1 (Part 1), Design of composite steel and concrete structures
20. Dymond BZ, Roberts-Wollmann CL, Wright WJ, Cousins TE, Bapat AV (2013) Pedestrian
bridge collapse and failure analysis in Giles County, Virginia. J Perfor Construct Facilit
28(4):04014006
21. Xu C, Sugiura K, Qingtian S (2018) Fatigue behavior of the group stud shear connectors in
steel-concrete composite bridges. J Bridge Eng 23(8):04018055
22. Heinemeyer C, Feldmann M (2009) European design guide for footbridge vibration. In:
Footbridge vibration design. CRC Press, pp 13–30
Lateral Load Analyses of Multi-storeyed
Frames with and Without Shear Walls
Akash John Koshy, A. Sofi, and A. R. Santhakumar
Abstract Multi-storeyed buildings are popping up more and more in India due to
its ever-growing need for accommodation as opposed to its subsequent lack of land
area. It is a known fact that as the height of the structure increases, lateral loads
become a crucial part of the design. Shear walls are among one of the most common,
cheap and effective methods by which lateral loads are resisted. In this paper, a study
is made on multi-storeyed buildings of a symmetric plan with shear walls provided at
multiple locations across the plan. The total length and thickness of walls were kept
constant throughout all cases. Straight walls and L-shaped R.C.C. walls were made
use of. Linear static, linear dynamic and non-linear static analyses were performed.
Comparisons were made based on roof-level displacement, drift, stiffness of structure
and ductility to find the best-performing configuration.
Keywords Linear analyses · Pushover analysis · Storey displacements ·

Inter-storey drift · Ductility
1 Introduction
This paper deals with the comparison of structural stability of multi-storeyed R.C.C.
frames against lateral forces, when shear walls have been provided at different loca-
tions throughout the plan. The building plans taken for the study were symmetrical,
and square in shape.
A. J. Koshy
School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: akash.john303@gmail.com
A. Sofi (B)
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Vellore
Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: asofi@vit.ac.in
A. R. Santhakumar
Civil Engineering, Anna University, Guindy, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: santhaar@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_2
20 A. J. Koshy et al.
Shear walls are vertical structural elements that resist in-plane lateral loads by
utilizing cantilever action. Reinforced cement concrete shear walls have been taken
for this study. Three building models were taken into consideration, and under each
case, shear walls were provided at six different locations as straight and L-shaped
flanged walls. The thickness and total length of walls were kept unchanged throughout
all the different scenarios to find the influence of above-mentioned walls on the
response of structures, based on their positioning alone. The variation in response,
as the structure’s height and bay width were increased, was studied. All the analyses
were performed using ETABS 2017. The whole procedure involves the following
basic steps: Modelling, Linear analyses, Designing and Pushover analysis. Anal-
yses were performed for Zone III, conforming to IS 1893: 2016. All members were
designed utilizing IS 456: 2000 and detailed with recommendations from IS 13920:
2016.
Non-linear analyses require proper modelling of structures with non-linearity
introduced. The basic procedure for pushover analysis of a moment-resisting frame
using ETABS is explained in [1]. The author explains the procedure for manually
performing pushover analysis in [2]. From [3], shear walls can be modelled by
multiple methods like single column method, fibre or frame modelling, multilayered
shell modelling and shell model with fibre hinges. For modelling the wall as a shell
element, both fibre and multilayered approach gave almost similar results according
to [4–6]. However, proper hinge occurrence can’t be pinpointed in the multilayered
model, even though it is the more accurate one. Thus, fibre hinge was chosen for
analysis. [7–14] are associated with studies regarding linear analyses of structures
with shear walls [13] showcases the effect of curtailment in shear walls, and reduction
in the amount of steel used in frame members when shear walls are introduced is
discussed in [7]. Non-linear analyses involving shear walls are performed in [15]. A
general comparison between different papers regarding similar topics was obtained
from [16, 17] and was helpful for the study.
2 Objective of the Study
The objectives of the study include:

• To analyse the structures using Equivalent static, Response spectrum and Pushover
Analysis;
• To find the optimum location of shear walls in each scenario.
3 Description of Models
Three R.C.C. frames were considered. The base model is a symmetric, G+4 storey,
R.C.C. frame with 6-m-long bays. The latter models have 11-m beam spans and
double the number of storeys, respectively. Shear walls are introduced in each of
Lateral Load Analyses of Multi-storeyed Frames … 21
Table 1 Geometrical properties of structures

S.No. Structure Case A Case B Case C
1 Number of storeys 5 5 10
2 Length in X and Y direction (m) 30 55 30
3 Floor height (m) 3.5 3.5 3.5
4 Building height (m) 17.5 17.5 35
5 Slab thickness (mm) 125 125 125
6 Beam size (mm) 300,400 500,600 400,500
7 Column size (mm) 400,400 600,600 700,700
Table 2 Material properties

S.No. Material Grade
1 Concrete (Beam, Column) M30
2 Concrete (Slab) M25
3 Rebar HYSD 415
Table 3 Seismic data

S.No. Parameter Case A Case B Case C
1 Seismic zone III III III
2 Damping ratio (%) 5 5 5
3 Importance factor 1.2 1.2 1.2
4 Soil type Medium soil Medium soil Medium soil
5 Response reduction factor 5 5 5
6 Time period 0.287 s 0.212 s 0.575 s
the above-mentioned cases at specific locations, either as straight or L-shaped walls.

Detailed information regarding models is provided in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
4 Loading
The load cases used for the analyses are listed below:
• Dead load (DL).
• Live load (LL)—Taken as 2.5 kN/m2 .
• Masonry load (ML)—Taken as 20 kN/m3 .
• Wind load (WL)—According to IS 875: 2015.
• Seismic Load (EL)—According to IS 1893: 2016.
The load combinations for linear static analysis are given below:
• 1.5 (DL + ML)
• 1.5 (DL + ML + LL)
• 1.5 (DL + ML ± WL)
• 1.2 (DL + ML + LL ± WL)
• 1.5 (DL + ML ± EL)
• 1.2 (DL + ML + LL ± EL)
• 0.9 (DL + ML) ± 1.5WL
• 0.9 (DL + ML) ± 1.5EL.
Since the buildings are symmetrical, and because columns are of square section,
wind and seismic analyses in only X-direction were performed. Masonry loads were
applicable only for peripheral beams in all storeys, excluding the roof. In addition
to the above-mentioned combinations, ones including loading by response spectrum
functions were also considered for design.
5 Shear Wall Positioning
The different positions at which shear walls are provided for Case A model is shown
from Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The same trend is followed for the remaining two
cases, i.e., B and C. Wall thickness was taken as 200 mm.
Fig. 1 Core
Fig. 2 Core with opening
Fig. 3 Straight-1
6 Analysis Results
Equivalent static, response spectrum and pushover analysis were performed on all
models.
Fig. 4 Straight-2
Fig. 5 L-1
7 Linear Analyses
Equivalent static analysis was performed based on user inputted time periods and
response spectrum analysis was done for zone III. The load combination 0.9 (DL
+ ML) ± 1.5EL was found to be most critical for design and results displayed,
corresponding to the same unless mentioned otherwise.
Fig. 6 L-2
Fig. 7 L-3
8 Base Reactions
Base reactions are functions of the total weight of the building. As such, all models
are expected to have similar base reaction values, sparing some deviation due to
addition or removal of beams and columns as required for the model considered.
Figure 8 represents the comparison of base reactions.
Base Reactions (kN)

8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
CASE A CASE B CASE C
MRF CORE CORE-OPENING STRAIGHT-1 STRAIGHT-2 L-1 L-2 L-3
Fig. 8 Base reactions in kN
9 Top Storey Displacements
The maximum lateral displacement undergone by topmost stories in each case is

compared in Fig. 9.
Top Storey Displacements (mm)

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
5 STOREY 6m 5 STOREY 11m 10 STOREY 6m
Fig. 9 Top storey displacements in mm

20
18
16
14
MRF
12 CORE
Elevation (m)
CORE-OPENING
10
STRAIGHT-1
8 STRAIGHT-2
L-1
6
L-2
4 L-3
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Storey drift
Fig. 10 Storey drifts for Case A
10 Storey Drift
The difference in two consecutive storey displacements divided by that storey’s height
gives the considered storey’s drift value. It is an important parameter in designing
partition or curtain walls as they might crack due to larger drift values. Figures 10,
11 and 12 represents storey drifts in Cases A, B and C, respectively.
The maximum storey drifts of different cases, from analyses, are charted in Fig. 13.
It should be noted that when shear walls are provided, the maximum storey drifts
occur at storeys that are near the top, in contrast to bare moment resisting frames,
where it occurs at lower storey levels.
11 Stiffness
Stiffness refers to the structure’s rigidity or its ability to resist displacement under
the effect of a force. Maximum storey stiffness was observed at the ground floor and
its variation among the different cases are charted in Fig. 14.
20
18
16
14
MRF
CORE
12
CORE-OPENING
10 STRAIGHT-1
STRAIGHT-2
8 L-1
L-2
6
L-3
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
Fig. 11 Storey drifts for Case B
40
35
30
MRF
25
CORE
Elevation (m)
CORE-OPENING
20
STRAIGHT-1
STRAIGHT-2
15
L-1
10 L-2
L-3
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008
Storey drift
Fig. 12 Storey drifts for Case C

Maximum storey drifts

0.009
0.008
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
Fig. 13 Maximum storey drifts
Maximum storey stiffness (kN/m)

7000000
6000000
5000000
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
Fig. 14 Maximum storey stiffness in kN/m
12 Non-linear Static Analysis
Commonly known as pushover analysis, here, the considered building is given a

user-specified lateral displacement until the structure is incapable to deform. Such
an analysis gives a good idea on the pattern of building failure or hinge formation.
The modelling of the structure or more precisely, the inclusion of non-linearity by
means of hinges are of utmost importance here. M3, moment hinges are provided
at ends of beams, and P-M2-M3 hinges are provided at the ends of columns. Shear
Case A
0.45
0.4 DESIGN SPECTRUM
0.35 MRF
CORE
Spectral Acceleration (g)
0.3
CORE-OPENING
0.25
STRAIGHT-1
0.2
STRAIGHT-2
0.15
L-1
0.1
L-2
0.05
L-3
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Spectral Displacement (mm)
Fig. 15 Pushover curves for Case A
walls are modelled as shells itself with fibre hinges along with uniform reinforcement
ratio in either direction applied. NTC 2008 was made use of, for obtaining the target
displacements.
13 Pushover Curves
The capacity curves for the different scenarios have been plotted against a scaled
design spectrum function corresponding to Zone III as per Indian standards in
Figs. 15, 16 and 17 for Cases A, B and C, respectively.
14 Performance Points
The capacity curves for the different scenarios have been plotted against a scaled
design spectrum function corresponding to Zone III as per Indian standards in Table 4.
Case B
0.45
DESIGN SPECTRUM
0.4
MRF
0.35
CORE
Spectral Accelaration (g)
0.3
CORE-OPENING
0.25
STRAIGHT-1
0.2
STRAIGHT-2
0.15
L-1
0.1
L-2
0.05
L-3
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 16 Pushover curves for Case B
15 Ductility
It is the ability of the considered structure by which it can withstand displacements

or deformations without catastrophic failure. It is one of the most important terms
in earthquake engineering, in the sense, if ductility is more, then the probability of
life endangerment is less. It is expressed as the ratio of displacement at performance
point to the displacement at the formation of first hinge. Data regarding ductility for
various cases are tabulated in Table 5.
16 Results and Discussions
• Base reactions, in all cases, for every model were mostly similar. It is worthy
to note that base reactions for L-3 in all cases gave the least value. There was a
reduction of base reaction from bare MRF by 5.6% for L-3 followed by straight-2
by 2.28%. The general trend is similar among all cases.
• A huge reduction in top storey displacements is seen throughout all models when
the shear wall is provided.
Case C
0.45
DESIGN SPECTRUM
0.4
MRF
0.35
CORE
Spectral Acceleration (g)
0.3
CORE-OPENING
0.25
STRAIGHT-1
0.2
STRAIGHT-2
0.15
L-1
0.1
L-2
0.05
L-3
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Fig. 17 Pushover curves for Case C
– Core walls perform the best in all cases by reducing the maximum storey
displacements by 85% from the base value.
– In five-storeyed structures, straight walls (straight-2) perform better than L
shaped walls (L-3) by 10.98%.
– In ten-storeyed structures, L shaped walls (L-3) perform better than straight
walls (straight-2) by 5.3%.
• Storey drifts follow the same pattern as storey displacements.
– Core walls outperform others by maximum drift reduction of 85.8%.

– Straight walls perform better than L shaped ones at five-storeyed height and
L-shaped walls perform better for ten-storeyed structure.
• Stiffness follows the same trend in all cases with core walls providing maximum
resistance to lateral loads. An increase in stiffness by 88% form base models were
observed.
• Performance points imply that core walls perform the best by providing the best
shear capacity and minimum displacement.
• Ductility varies differently among all the cases:
– For Case A, straight walls provide maximum ductility.

– For Case B, L-shaped walls provide maximum ductility.
– For Case C, straight wall along periphery performs best.
Table 4 Performance points
MRF Core Core-opening Straight-1 Straight-2 L-1 L-2 L-3
Case A
Displacement (mm) 199.14 54.52 57.35 85.57 81.92 82.28 71.19 68.72
Base shear (kN) 3322.8 10635.8 10218.1 6142.67 5259.8 5061.6 4872.9 4418.09
Case B
Lateral Load Analyses of Multi-storeyed Frames …
Displacement (mm) 160.17 60.0 62.7 75.8 75.87 104.94 104.94 102.66
Base shear (kN) 13451.3 16612.4 15695.8 13650.8 13359.4 13496.8 13496.8 12606.1
Case C
Displacement (mm) 70.2 44.5 45.8 45.1 43.8 57.5 57.46 57.6
Base shear (kN) 13943.7 22087.7 21240.7 18329.8 17258.3 16434.2 16406.4 15408.8
33
Table 5 Ductility
Case MRF Core Core-Opening Straight-1 Straight-2 L-1 L-2 L-3
A 1.51 1.57 2.60 6.11 8.70 5.58 5.25 4.37
B 4.64 3.22 3.34 5.20 4.74 6.74 6.48 3.10
C 1.79 4.46 4.45 2.98 4.70 3.17 3.41 2.90
L-shaped walls follow the same trend in all cases with L-3 exhibiting lesser
ductility than L-1 and L-2, giving similar values. For the longer span structure,
straight-1 outperformed straight-2. Only in case 3 did core walls have greater ductility
than other configurations. Thus, generally, core walls gave greater ductility for a taller
building.
17 Conclusions
Considering all the factors that are provided in the paper, core walls perform the
best for the given structure heights. In the shorter and taller structures, core walls
exhibited the best results in terms of roof level displacement, storey drift and stiffness
as per linear analyses. Pushover analysis also places core walls at the apex in terms
of performance points. The only area where core walls suffer is in terms of ductility.
Core walls provide the least ductility in almost all cases but it makes up for that with
its clearly higher shear capacity.
L-shaped walls performed better than straight walls for the taller building, further-
more, it also helps in containing the torsional effects. If analyses were performed
for even taller structures, L-shaped walls might prove to be even more effective than
core walls.
For shorter structures, straight walls performed better as opposed to L-shaped
walls with respect to displacement parameters and stiffness. Straight walls provide
adequate ductility in all cases and have better performance points as compared with
L-shaped walls. It is a configuration that does well or performs adequately in every
scenario.
References
1. Shah MD, Patel SB (2011) Nonlinear static analysis of RCC frames (software implementation
ETABS 9.7). In: National conference on recent trends in engineering & technology
2. Chopra AK, Goel RK (2004) A modal pushover analysis procedure to estimate seismic demands
for unsymmetric-plan buildings. Earthquake Eng Struct Dynam 33(8):903–927
3. Anwar N, Aung TH (2016) Modelling of shear walls for non-linear and pushover analysis of
tall buildings
4. Debnath PP, Choudhury S (2017) Nonlinear analysis of shear wall in unified performance based
seismic design of buildings. Asian J Civil Eng 4(18):633–642
5. Fahjan YM, Kubin J, Tan MT (2010) Nonlinear analysis methods for reinforced concrete
buildings with shear walls. In: 14th European conference on earthquake engineering
6. Kubin J, Fahjan YM, Tan MT (2008) Comparison of practical approaches for modelling
shearwalls in structural analyses of buildings. In: The 14th world conference on earthquake
engineering
7. Husain MA, Mahmood OI (2017) Comparative study for different types of shear walls in
buildings subjected to earthquake loading. Al-Nahrain J Eng Sci 20(2):358–367
8. Mishra S, Singh VK (2018) Optimization of location of shear wall in irregular multi storey
building. Int J Eng Res Mech Civil Eng 3(4)
9. Sahu V, Khare GP, Sahu DK (2018) Behaviour of multistorey building with different shear wall
arrangements with and without central cross shear wall. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 5(1)
10. Jaya P, Alandkar PM (2016) Drift analysis in multistoried building. Int J Eng Sci Res Technol
11. Aliya WK, Charkha SD, Determination of base shear and displacement for multi-storey building
with different location of shear wall using STAAD.Pro. Int J Eng Innov Technol (IJEIT) 4(11)
12. Sud A, Shekhawat RS, Dhiman P (2014) Effect of different shear wall configurations on seismic
response of a moment-resisting frame. Euro Scienti J ESJ 10(10)
13. Shekhawat RS, Sud A, Dhiman P (2014) Economical placement of shear walls in a moment
resisting frame for earthquake protection. Int J Res Eng Technol 3(9):346–352
14. Maheedhar BR, Kumar MA, Nagarjuna S, Prasad CVSR (2018) Analysis and design of G +
12 storey building with shear wall effect with two basements. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET)
5(5)
15. Nazari YR, Saatcioglu M (2017) Seismic vulnerability assessment of concrete shear wall
buildings through fragility analysis. J Build Eng 12:202–209
16. Khandelwal DN, Mhetre MS (2017) A review on optimum height and location of shear walls
in high-rise buildings. Int J Innov Eng Sci 2(9)
17. Tuppad S, Fernandes RJ (2015) Optimum location of shear wall in a multi-storey building
subjected to seismic behavior using genetic algorithm. Int Res J Eng Technol (IRJET) 2
The Diagnosis for the Lack of Remote
Village Electrification Using Sustainable
Energy in Labranzagrande
Alan Achenkunju John and P. Venkatesh Kumar
Abstract This paper focuses on the analysis of electrification prospects for a remote
village in Colombia. The main goal is to define the best sizing of a hybrid power plant
to serve the microgrid with renewable energy resources like solar, wind, hydro, etc.
The yearly average of energy potential and load consumption is the main requirement.
In spite of the extension of coverage in electrification in the mentioned sectors,
these have never been included in any project which contributes to accentuate the
conditions of poverty. This paper is a case study of the rural area of the municipality
of Labranzagrande, which does not have an energy service. Adding to this problem,
its location is in the so-called isolated areas. The proposed solution to the lack of
energy in homes can also be applicable for schools in whose classrooms there is no
service either.
Keywords Hybrid · Renewable energy · Photovoltaic · Microgrid · Remote

village · Hydropower · Electrification
1 Introduction
This is the analysis of the prospects for remote village electrification in the state of
Boyacá Colombia, where there is the provision to build a microgrid. The objective
is to develop generation systems with a hybrid power plant to serve the microgrid
according to the availability of renewable energy resources [1, 2]. This case study
defines the energy needs of the town to draw its consumption curve and assume its
evolution over time. Various technically feasible energy solutions have been assessed
for the rural area. But the rural areas are not connected with the utility grid and
these systems do not satisfy the amount of required supply. For these situations, the
A. A. John · P. V. Kumar (B)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and
Sciences, Coimbatore, India
e-mail: venkateshkumar@karunya.edu
A. A. John
e-mail: alanakjohn@hotmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_3
38 A. A. John and P. V. Kumar
approach of hybrid technology has been introduced. It can work fully with renewable
sources as well as partially on conventional resources [3, 4]. Despite the extension of
coverage in the electrification of the referred sectors, these have never been included
in any project, thus contributing to accentuate the conditions of poverty.
2 Scope and Goals
• To analyze and evaluate renewable energy potential mainly for resources such as
Solar Radiations, Wind, and Hydro Potential at the Labranzagrande locality in
the Department of Boyacá [5].
• To make the prefeasibility analysis and estimate the load demand.
The planning system should follow the main goal of building an eco-friendly
system that is a more pollution-free system. The system is a cost-effective analysis
of a hybrid system for a sensible repayment period.
3 Area for Case Study
The rural area of the municipality of Labranzagrande does not have an energy service.
Adding to this problem, its location is in the so-called Isolated Areas shown in Fig. 1.
Verda Guayabal is an area where there are 74 consumers unable to connect to
the grid. So, the difficulty of expansion of the grid and the transportation facility
difficulty lead to the proposal of a Project with Renewable Energy.
A. Current Scenario
The study of the current scenario of the location and the geographical features, the
energy consumed by the people, and the energy potential of the area are helping to
provide a verdict for the energy solutions [6]. The analysis will give a conclusion for
deciding the various systems and their advantages. From this, we can easily find out
feasible solutions for rural electrification.
• Inside the Ministry, the Weather Change Moderation Group discourses all prob-
lems related to climate in the country, and Colombia’s hydraulic potential, solar
potential, and greenhouse emissions are very low per unit of GDP (0.2 tCO2e)
and per capita (1.3 tCO2e).
• The Organization of Latin American Energy (OLADE) assessed that CO2 emis-
sions from electricity generation in 2003 were 6.5 million tons. At present, 30%
of CO2 emissions in Colombia are derived from the energy sector [7, 8].
The diagnosis of locations to be electrified requires a load consumption rate.
Moreover, the load curve demand area should be analyzed and the energy production
rate of the rural area should be calculated.
The Diagnosis for the Lack … 39
Fig. 1 Municipality map of

Labranzagrande
B. Load Consumption of Labranzagrande
The estimation of electricity demand for rural villages is not easy. The finest way to do
it would be to study an equivalent village powered by a community with renewable
resources. Then it would be convenient to measure the electricity generated and
narrate it to the village we are interested in.
The typical load consumption of a rural town is usually composed of a prominent
peak at night corresponding to the use of lighting, a peak in the morning/noon, and
a baseload is shown in Table 1. The curve demand of 96 users is shown in Fig. 2 for
24 h. The daily maximum demand for electrical usage by the people is at the peak
hours between 6:00 a.m. and 8:00 a.m. and from 6:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m.
• The main goal of estimating the load consumption of the users is to determine the
energy needs and the sizing of the power generation system.
• The economic activities performed by the users of this area are mainly agriculture,
cow farming, crop cultivation, etc.
• For one user, the total load consumption per day is 5,940 W and the total capacity
of electric load is 1,195 watts.
• The energy consumed and the load demand assessed for the total number of users
in the rural area is 74.
• The total electric load consumption of users per day is 441 kWh and for one month
is 13,231 kWh. Total capacity of the electric load is 88 kW.
Table 1 Daily electrical load consumption of rural areas in Labranzagrande

Load Watts Qty Total Watts Use Hrs/Day Total
AC DC Wh/day
Lamp 60 5 300 3.8 1140.0
Water Pump 150 1 150 1.0 150.0
Blender 400 1 400 1.0 400.0
Television 60 1 60 4.0 240.0
Radio 20 1 20 8.0 160.0
Refrigerator 200 1 200 15.0 3000.0
Phones 10 3 30 0.3 10.0
Self Consumption of the 35 1 35 24.0 840.0
equipments
AC total connected watts 1160 Average daily load AC 5100
DC total connected watts 35 Average daily load DC 840
Total load watts 1,195 Total Wh/day 5,940
Fig. 2 Electrical load consumption curve
The initial assessment and location identification have be done for energy potential
analysis. The analysis of the renewable energy potential of solar, wind, and hydraulic
is necessary to estimate the range of energy production (kWh), the sizing of power
capacity of generation (kW), and estimation of renewable resources exploitation in
the area of study.
C. Energy Potential
The analysis of the renewable energy potential of solar, wind, and hydraulic is neces-
sary to estimate the range of energy production (kWh), the sizing of power capacity
of generation (kW), and estimation of renewable resources exploitation in the area
of study.
The solar radiation in Labranzagrande per year is an average value of 4.75
kWh/m2 , which is shown in Fig. 3. The source for finding solar irradiation is the
World Atlas which has all kinds of information about renewable energy resources.
The wind resource is good only on the Pacific Coast, but for the Department
of Boyacá, it is less as compared to the other departments in Colombia. The wind
speed, air density, and direction are important parameters used for calculating the
wind energy potential of the area (Fig. 4).
The evaluation of the hydro potential throughout the Department of Boyacá
receives the main attention among local resources, being one of the objectives of
this work.
Figure 5 shows the water flow rate of the River Cravo Sur having 20 50 m3 /sand
the location for rural areas. The River Cravo Sur has a flow rate of 40 m3 /s.
4 Energy Solutions
The renewable energy potential analysis of solar, wind, and hydro shows that solar and
hydroelectric system is more feasible. The interconnection to the existing utility grid
is the finest solution at present but for that, there are some restrictions with financial
and environmental risks. The economic viability is more important to consider the
expansion of the grid to tie. If we are going to build a power generation system,
utilizing the renewable resources of the area is more beneficial than the grid-tie.
The challenges for the grid connection are the environmental problems and
distance of the users from a particular area. The energy solutions for Labranzagrande
are classified along with their risks, advantages, and methods for the generation and
transmission systems. The analysis of load consumption and energy potential range
of the rural area head for the different energy generation solutions are classified
below:
1. Isolated PV for Dispersed users
2. PV–MCH Hybrid Solution without connecting to the grid.
3. PV–MCH Hybrid Solution with connection to the grid
4. Connect to the grid without a generation system.
The reasons for selecting hybrid solutions mainly geographically, technically, and
financially are categorized below:
Fig. 3 Solar global horizontal irradiation of Colombia

Fig. 4 Wind speed of Labarzagrande
• The main reason for selecting Photovoltaic–Microhydro Hybrid Power Plant in

this area is the higher energy potential rate of Solar and Hydro.
• The PV potential rate is 24.5 KW and the hydro potential rate from the River
Cravo Sur is 65 MW which is really beneficial for this kind of power generation
system in this area and it is also helpful for empowerment of rural areas.
• The alternative solution which is available on the location is the connectivity to
the main grid. The financial investment and environmental risks are high. So in
order to find a better solution for this, we go for the hybrid power plant which is
economically feasible and reliable to the company.
5 Conclusions
The rural area of the municipality of Labranzagrande does not have an energy service.
Adding to this problem, its location is in the so-called Isolated Areas. Renewable
resources potential is analyzed for the rural area given the full potential range of
solar and wind. The energy solutions by analyzing the potential and other criteria
and simulation results in HOMER Pro which states that PV–MCH Hybrid Off-Grid
System is more feasible financially and economically.
Fig. 5 Water flow rate of Labranzagrande
References
1. Energización solar fotovoltaica para las viviendas de las Zonas Rurales no inter comunica
das del Municipio de Labranzagrande Boyacá. “PROYECTO: ENERGIZACIÓN SOLAR
FOTOVOLTAICA PARA LA ZONA RURAL DEL MUNICIPIO DE LABRANZAGRANDE
DEPARTAMENTO DE BOYACA BENEFICIARIOS: 96 FAMILIAS”
2. Atlas Potencial Hidoenergetico de Colombia, 2015 UPME
3. http://atlas.ideam.gov.co/presentacion/
4. http://sig.simec.gov.co/GeoPortal/Carrusel/Home
5. Electric Power Development Co., Ltd., Guideline and manual for hydropower development, vol
2 small scale hydropower. 2011 Japan International Cooperation Agency
6. Meshram S, Agnihotri G, Gupta S (2013) Modeling of grid connected DC linked pv/hydro
hybrid system. Elect Electro Eng Int J (ELELIJ) 2(3)
7. Kusakana K, Munda JL, Jimoh AA (2009) Feasibility study of a hybrid PV-micro hydro system
for rural electrification. IEEEAFRICON 2009, 23–25 Sept. 2009, Nairobi, Kenya
8. D-026-18 AUTOGENERACIÓN A PEQUEÑA ESCALA Y GENERACIÓN DISTRIBUIDA.
http://apolo.creg.gov.co/Publicac.nsf/1c09d18d2d5ffb5b05256eee00709c02/83b41035c2c4
474f05258243005a1191
Experimental Studies on the Suitability
of Coconut Shell as a Filler Material
in Concrete Cubes
Renuka Sai Gadekari, Sreevalsa Kolatayar, and Rajesh Kumar Chitrachedu
Abstract Globally, the consumption of concrete is raising high. The production of

cement raises the carbon footprint and causes depletion of non-renewable resources.
Researchers are formulating new technologies to save the resources, energy for the
next generations, to reduce disposal problems and to make the product or structure
economical. For this purpose, recycled waste and treated natural materials, etc., are
used as a substitute for cement, aggregates, or reinforcement. This paper presents
studies conducted to analyze the performance of a coconut shell as a filler. The mate-
rial used in the present study was naturally available, cost-free, and non-toxic mate-
rial. The strength performance of different concrete cube specimens with coconut
shells in their different orientations was assessed by conducting compressive strength
tests. From the results, the effective position and orientation of the shell in the concrete
cube were found out.
Keywords Compressive strength · Orientation · Rebound hammer ·

Construction · Impact value
1 Introduction
There is a depletion of river sand and aggregates mined from rock quarries that are
used as raw materials in manufacturing concrete. Nowadays many waste materials
can be reused in manufacturing composite materials. Coconut shell is a strong, natu-
rally available, and eco-friendly material. The untreated shell resists decay and there
will be less loss in the strength even though the shells are thrown into a garden
R. S. Gadekari
Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, Tirupati, India
S. Kolatayar (B)
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Mangalore, India
e-mail: sreevalsa@nitk.edu.in
R. K. Chitrachedu
Ashoka Institute of Engineering & Technology, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_4
46 R. S. Gadekari et al.
compost. It is a high potential material for the development of new composites

because of their high strength. Agunsoye et al. [1] revealed that the crushed coconut
shell can be used in casting new metal matrix composites to ameliorate the strength,
resistance toward bad weather, etc.
The rough texture and hardness of coconut shell provide high impact strength
to the composites in which it has been used as a filler material. Keerthika et al. [2]
observed that the tensile strength, hardness, breaking strength, and specific gravity
of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber can be efficiently increased with the use of coconut
shell powder as a filler material. Coir fiber and coconut shell powder together provide
good stiffness and flexural strength [3] to pelletized polyethylene waste. Agunsosoye
et al. [4] found that the rough texture of the powdered coconut shell improves the
properties like the hardness of polyethylene waste and reduces the porosity by acting
as a filler material.
Related to innovations in pavement materials with products of coconut shell Jeffry
et al. [5, 6] carried out studies on nano-charcoal coconut shell ash (NCSA) in bitumen.
NCSA improved the performance of bitumen in resisting fatigue cracks and rutting.
Aminah et al. [7] conducted tests and concluded that the coconut shells can produce
lightweight concrete and reduce the cost of construction by replacing coarse aggre-
gate with coconut shells. Coconut shell aggregate can be treated only for water
absorption, as other treatments were not required. Kukarni and Gaikwad [8] observed
no bond failure in the test specimens as there will be adequate bonding between the
coconut shell aggregate concrete and the steel bars. Research work conducted by
Ahlawat and Kalurkar [9] proved that the CS aggregates can be effectively used in
reinforced concrete construction. The percentage increase of CS powder as a filler
material in concrete gives high split tensile strength [10]. Gunasekaran et al. [11,
12] carried out various experiments to understand the behavior of coconut shells
as aggregate in concrete. Some of the conclusions drawn from their research work
are lower wood–cement ratio results in weaker bonds between wood and concrete
matrix. The present paper discusses the direct usage of coconut shells as a filler
material.
2 Materials
2.1 Coconut Shell
Coconut shells were collected from Palakkad, Kerala, India. Some of the coconut
shells have a small hole at its crown part, and some are without a hole. The thickness
of shells varies from 2 to 4 mm, height 50 to 70 mm, and diameter 70 to 110 mm.
Shells were dried in the sunlight to remove moisture from it.
Experimental Studies on the Suitability of Coconut Shell … 47
Table 1 Mechanical
S. No. Property Value (%) Reference
properties of coconut shell
1 Impact value 9.01 IS: 5640–1970
[14]
2 Crushing value 2.76 IS: 2386 Part
IV–1963 [15]
3 Abrasion value 1.50 IS: 2386 Part
IV–1963 [15]
2.1.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
Important properties like moisture content and water absorption tests were conducted
to know the physical properties of the coconut shell. As there are no separate test
procedures for coconut shells to find the above properties, the shells were crushed
into small pieces of size 2–10 mm. Then the standard procedures available to test
coarse aggregate were used. The moisture content came out to be 3.92% as per IS:
2386 Part III–1963 [13] and water absorption was 19.87%.
The mechanical properties of coconut shells, like impact, crushing, and abrasion
values, were found to measure the resistance of shell toward impact loads, gradually
applied load and wear, respectively. The values are tabulated in the following Table 1.
2.1.2 Compressive Strength Properties
The shell is tested under the universal testing machine (UTM) with different orien-
tations to know the maximum load taken by the shell and to study the failure pattern
of the shell. The different orientations of the shell are shown in Fig. 1.
After a number of trials, it is observed that the coconut shell (with hole-crown up),
i.e., CSHU will take a load of about 7 kN. The load taken by shells in their different
orientations is shown in Table 2. The failure of a coconut shell with a hole (Fig. 2) is
safe as the crack will extend up to the hole and it stops. As there is no material at the
hole the load will not pass through the other half shell. The failure of coconut shell
without a hole occurs at the crown part and the failure will be sudden.
2.2 Plain Concrete
A normal M25 mix has been used to cast all concrete cubes. Based on specific gravity,
water absorption, the total moisture content of coarse and fine aggregates, and by
considering mild exposure conditions, the proportion of mix was 1:1.821:2.766 as
per IS: 10262–2009 [16]. Ordinary Portland Cement of 43 grade, river sand, and
mined quarry coarse aggregates were used in casting cubes. The concrete cubes of
Fig. 1 a Coconut shell (with hole-crown up) CSHU. b Coconut shell (with hole-crown down)
CSHD. c Coconut shell (without hole-crown up) CSU. d Coconut shell (without hole-crown down)
CSD
Table 2 Load-bearing
S. No Type and orientation Maximum load (KN)
capacity of coconut shells in
their different orientations 1. CSHU 7.29
2. CSHD 4.12
3. CSU 5.28
4. CSD 2.68
Fig. 2 Failure pattern of

coconut shell with a hole
Table 3 Different concrete cubes

S. No. Type of concrete cube Position of shell in the Designation
concrete cube
1. Normal – – N
2. CS infilled with concrete Crown up Top SCHUT
with a nominal cover of Bottom SCHUB
25 mm
Crown down Top SCHDT
Bottom SCHDB
3. Hollow shells with no Crown up Bottom SHUB
nominal cover Crown down Top SHDT
150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm were cast with a nominal cover of 25 mm for concrete
infilled shells and no cover for hollow shells.
3 Different Orientations of Coconut Shell in Concrete

Cubes
The casting of concrete cubes carried out by placing CS of both types in different
orientations. Three sets of concrete cubes were cast. From the compressive testing
of the coconut shell, it was clearly observed that the shell having holes had shown
the best results. Due to this reason, all concrete cubes were cast by placing coconut
shells with a hole. As placing a hollow concrete shell with the crown up in top portion
and crown down in the bottom portion is not possible in site conditions, these two
patterns were not cast. The details of different concrete cubes are given in Table 3
and are shown in Fig. 3.
About 42 concrete cubes were cast with the above-specified positions and orien-
tations to analyze the compressive strength of concrete cubes for 7 days and 28 days
of curing period.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Rebound Hammer Test
Rebound hammer test, a non-destructive test was done as per the standard procedure
specified in IS: 13311 (Part 2)–1992. The compressive strength of concrete cubes was
measured from the rebound number. The calibration chart given by the equipment
manufacturer was used to measure the compressive strength. The results are presented
in Table 4.
Fig. 3 a CS crown down in bottom portion of cube (DB) (CS infilled with concrete). b CS crown
down in top portion of cube (DT) (CS infilled with concrete or hollow CS). c CS crown up in bottom
portion of cube (UB) (CS infilled with concrete or hollow CS). d CS crown up in top portion of
cube (UT) (CS infilled with concrete)
Table 4 Compressive strength of concrete cubes from Rebound Hammer test

S. No. Specimen details 28 days compressive strength (MPa)
1. N 25
2. SCHUT 16
3. SCHUB 24
4. SCHDT 12
5. SCHDB 18
6. SHUB 26
7. SHDT 15
From the above results, it can be seen that the cubes in which shell was in the
bottom portion shown high compressive strength. The hollow shells and shells infilled
with concrete gave almost the same strength. But, the failure pattern of different
concrete cubes was not known with a rebound hammer test. To observe this and to
find the reason behind the strength, compression tests were performed.
4.2 Compressive Strength Tests
Figure 4 shows the 7-day compressive strength and Fig. 5 shows the 28-day compres-
sive strength of different specimens as specified in Table 3. From the above compar-
ison charts, it can be clearly seen that the specimen with crown up shell at its bottom
Fig. 4 Compressive strength of different specimens (7 days cured)
Fig. 5 Compressive strength of different specimens (28 days cured)
portion provided higher compressive strength. The infilled shell concrete cubes did
not show much good results than the hollow shell concrete cube. While testing,
different failure patterns were observed.
While performing the compressive strength test of concrete cubes having CS, it
was observed that the shell took the load which was transferred from concrete to CS
after the formation of the first crack. As discussed earlier in Sect. 2.1.2, the concrete
shell can withstand up to a load of around 7 kN. It can be observed clearly that due
to the presence of CS, the crack took a path as seen in Fig. 6. This indicates that the
concrete cubes with CS are satisfying the serviceability criteria. The hollow shells
in the concrete cube with crown up in the bottom portion showed the best results
Fig. 6 Failure pattern of

SHUB
as the shell at that position acted as filler material and are load-bearing blocks.
As these blocks are cost-effective, provides an aesthetic appearance, high strength
than conventional concrete cubes, and good thermal insulation, these can be used in
constructing structural elements like beams and slabs.
5 Conclusion
This study introduced a coconut shell which is a sustainable and low-cost material as
a potential filler in concrete cubes. The effective shell orientation and its position in
the concrete cube were effectively evaluated for its applicability as a filler material
in structural members. It was concluded that the average compressive strength of
SHUB and SCHUB concrete cubes was higher. This showed that infilling the shells
with concrete does not make much sense. By placing the hollow shells in structural
members, the overall cost of construction reduces as the quantity of cement, coarse
and fine aggregates will be saved with the inclusion of CS. Further investigation will
pave the way for the incorporation of CS in structural members like beams and slabs.
References
1. Agunsoye JO, Talabi SI, Bello SA, Awe IO (2014) The Effects of cocos nucifera (coconut shell)
on the mechanical and tribological properties of recycled waste aluminium can composites.
Tribol Ind 36(2):155–162
2. Keerthika B, Umayavalli M, Jeyalalitha T, Krishnaveni N (2016) Coconut shell powder as
cost effective filler in copolymer of acrylonitrile and butadiene rubber. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf
130:1–3
3. Kuburi LS, Dauda M, Obada DO, Umaru S, Dodoo-Arhin D, Iliyasu I, Mustapha S (2017)
Effects of Coir Fibber loading on the physio-mechanical and morphological properties
of coconut shell powder filled low density polyethylene composites. Procedia Manufact
7:138–144
4. Agunsosoye JO, Isaac TS, Samuel SO (2012) Study of mechanical behaviour of coconut shell
reinforced polymer matrix composite. J Miner Mater Character Eng 11:774–779
5. Jeffry SNA, Jaya RP, Abdul Hassan N, Yaacob H, Satar MKIM (2018) Mechanical performance
of asphalt mixture containing nano-charcoal coconut shell ash. Constr Build Mater 173:40–48
6. Jeffry SNA, Jaya RP, Hassan NA, Yaacob H, Mirza J, Drahman SH (2018) Effects of
nanocharcoal coconut-shell ash on the physical and rheological properties of bitumen. Constr
Build Mater 158:1–10
7. Aminah S, Tukiman, Sabarudin M (2009) Investigate the combination of coconut shell and
grained palm kernel to replace aggregate in concrete: a technical review. In: The proceedings
of national conference on postgraduate research (NCON-PGR), 1st October 2009, UMP
Conference Hall, Malaysia, 2009
8. Kukarni PV, Gaikwad SKB (2013) Comparative study on coconut shell aggregate with
conventional concrete. Int J Eng Innov Technol 2(12):67–70
9. Ahlawat D, Kalurkar LG (2015) Performance of coconut shell as coarse aggregate in concrete:
a review. Int Res J Eng Technol 2(4):1096–1100
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(2017) Properties of concrete containing coconut shell powder (CSP) as a filler. IOP Conf Ser
Mater Sci Eng 271(1):1–8
11. Gunasekaran K, Kumar PS, Lakshmipathy M (2011) Mechanical and bond properties of
coconut shell concrete. Constr Build Mater 25(1):92–98
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an aggregate for concrete. Nat J Ind Concr Inst 12(2):27–33
13. IS: 2386 (Part III)–l963, Indian standard methods of test for aggregate for concrete, Part III
specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and bulking
14. IS: 5640–1970, Indian standard method of test for determining aggregates impact value of
soft coarse aggregate
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mechanical properties
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A Sustainable Approach to Turn Plastic
Waste into Useful Construction Blocks
K. Monish, J. John Jesuran, and Sreevalsa Kolathayar
Abstract The world economy is surging and newer technologies are evolving with
the time. The construction sector is about to undergo a huge transformational change.
The people of the world are looking forward to residing in houses made of sustain-
able materials. The people are concerned about increasing levels of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. The cement production is accompanied by huge green-
house gas emissions. On the other hand, waste plastics are becoming a nightmare
for the people residing in developed and underdeveloped countries, as the waste
management becomes difficult in those places. This research discusses a poten-
tial solution to address the above-stated issues of concern, i.e., plastic waste into
construction blocks with lower cost and rapid construction phases. A study was
conducted to examine the effectiveness of using LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene),
(major sources of waste and least recycled plastic) with waste materials like bottom
ash, copper slag, and ceramic in different proportions to create blocks. This study
compares the mechanical properties of different mix proportions of raw materials to
find an optimum composition. This paper also investigates the pre-eminence of the
newly developed composite block over the conventional brick in terms of economic
viability, environmental sustainability, and construction superiority.
Keywords LDPE · Low cost · Composites · Bottom ash · Copper slag · Ceramic
1 Introduction
The Management of waste has gained a huge thrust in the developing countries like
India. As per Census of India [1], the population of India is reaching 1.32 billion.
Central Pollution Control Board (2015) shows that 0.143 million tons of solid wastes
K. Monish · J. J. Jesuran
Department of Civil Engg, Amrita School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
Coimbatore, India
S. Kolathayar (B)
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Mangalore, India
e-mail: sreevalsakolathayar@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_5
56 K. Monish et al.
are generated per day in the country out of which only 77% has not been processed in
accordance with the guidelines which poses a serious threat to the country. Narrowing
the issues to the plastic waste, the Central Pollution Control Board (2015) survey
shows 15342.6 tons of plastic waste per day is produced. Out of this enormous waste
is recycled and the plastic waste mainly LDPE is littered and uncollected because
of its low recycling value. It is a well-known fact that India is undergoing a huge
development; the people of India are shifting from their shelter from the mud-based
hut to brick mortar homes. As a result of this, the demand for the brick and the cement
is increasing, and the cement production is associated with greenhouse gas emission.
In this paper, we are going to address the alternative solutions for the above-stated
problems by using LDPE with other waste materials to develop interlockable bricks.
Plastic is generally classified into two categories, namely thermoplastic and ther-
mosetting plastic. The thermoplastic has the superiorly of being recycled without
altering its property [2]. Out of the total waste produced, the thermoplastic contributes
to 78% [3], and the polyethylene and PET are categorized as a thermoplastic. Of the
total plastic produced in the world, LDPE comprises 17% of volume [3]. LDPE is a
soft material of low cost, and it has a good ductile and impact resistance.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is also one of the more prevailing plastic wastes
in the environment. The decomposition period for PET is higher than the LDPE.
Many researchers incorporated the plastic waste into the concrete matrix. But they
recommended incorporation of plastic waste below 2% of the total weight of the
concrete [4]. Many research works have been done on natural residues [4–6]. Hamid
and Sahrim [7], Félix et al. [8] tried to incorporate different coupling agent to increase
the binding property between the plastic and the filler. Mohan [9] examined the
effectiveness of using LDPE and HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene) with easily
procurable materials like sand, rice husk, and sawdust, in different proportions to
create the interlocking blocks.
2 Materials and Methodology
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
The waste plastic carry bags are procured from the Amrita Recycling Plant. It is
subjected to cleaning with the water, and the cleaned plastic is shredded using the
shredder machine into pieces of size varying from 2 to 50 mm. The density of the
LDPE is 0.9 gm/cm3 , and the melting point is around 130 °C.
A Sustainable Approach to Turn Plastic Waste … 57
2.1.2 Bottom Ash
The Bottom Ash (BA) is mainly produced as a waste in the thermal power plants, and
the bottom ash is mainly used as the landfill but there are many problems associated
with it [10]. The density of the bottom ash was found to be 700 kg/m3 [11]. It is
sieved through an 800-micron sieve to avoid the carbon content as it decreases the
mechanical properties of the composite.
2.1.3 Polyethylene Terephthalate
The main source for the PET plastic is plastic bottles. The melting point of the PET
was around 260 °C, and the density was around 1.38 g/cm3 . The plastic bottles are
obtained from the Amrita Recycling Plant and shredded into pieces of size 5 to
50 mm.
2.1.4 Copper Slag
The copper slag is the main byproduct produced in the manufacturing process of the
copper from its ore. The size of the copper slag is further reduced, and it is generated
as waste. The density of the copper slag is found out to be 3.61 g/cm3 .
2.1.5 Crushed Ceramic Aggregates
Ceramic is non-recyclable. Ceramic wastes are products which have good mechanical
properties. The process of manufacturing will create a lot of wastes. The causes
for such generation of wastes are breakage or improper manufacturing. Ceramic
materials contribute 54% of waste within the construction and demolition wastes.
The ceramic is crushed and sieved through an 800-micron sieve. The density of
ceramic was found to be 2.4 g/cm3 .
2.1.6 Used Engine Oil
The used engine oil is used as a coupling agent on the experimental basis. The waste
engine oil poses a serious threat to the environment as it has the potential to convert
the cultivable soil into uncultivable soil.
58 K. Monish et al.
2.2 Methodology
2.2.1 Process of Development
The molds of size 7 cm × 7 cm × 7 cm were prepared, and the molds were placed
one over the other so that the resultant size of the mold will be 7 cm × 7 cm × 14 cm.
The silicone spray is sprayed over the inner surface of the mold for the easy removal
of the block. The composite sample consisting of different material with different
compositions was prepared by hand mix, and the mix was placed in the mold in the
layer and it was hand compacted. The mold is placed in the hot air oven for 3 h of
time at 170 °C. The distance from the mold to the coils will be around 15 cm, and the
walls of the mold are 3 cm thick. So the effective temperature inside the mold will
be 105 °C. The mold was taken out, and it was subjected to mechanical compaction
of about 35 MPa for about 5 min. The block was removed out of the mold and was
cooled to room temperature by exposing it to outer environment for about 24 h. The
resultant block has a size of about 3 cm, and for the tests purpose, the cubes of around
3 cm were cut out from the block.
3.1 Density
The densities of BA, CA, LDPE, PET, and CS were found to be 0.7 g/cm3 , 2.4 g/cm3 ,
0.93 g/cm3 , 1.32 g/cm3 , and 3.61 g/cm3 , respectively, where BA was found to be
having the lowest density and CS with the highest density. The lowest density was
observed in LDPE:BA (2:1) with oil of about 0.85 g/cm3 (Table 3), and the highest
density was observed in LDPE:CS (2:1) with oil of about 1.54 g/cm3 (Table 4). With
the addition of 10% of the coupling agent, it was evident that there was a decrease
in densities in all the composite mixes.
3.2 Compression Test
In India, IS: 1077 standard recommends a minimum value of 3.5 MPa for compressive
strength for the brick. According to European code minimum, compressive strength
for clay brick is 5 MPa. The ASTM advises a minimum of 10.7 MPa for brick for
light weather area and 20.7 MPa for hard weather. Figure 1 illustrates the variation
of compressive strength with respect to different ratios of the different composites
which is mentioned in the Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Fig. 1 Variation of compressive strength of blocks with respect to varying mix ratios
Table 1 LDPE with bottom ash including carbon

Sl No. LDPE: BA Avg density (g/cm3 ) Avg compressive Water absorption (%)
strength (MPa)
1 2:1 0.901 11.93 5.4
2 4:1 0.91 9.81 3.2
3 3:1 0.906 16.54 4.2
Table 2 LDPE with bottom ash

Sl No. LDPE: BA Avg density (g/cm3 ) Avg compressive Water absorption (%)
strength (MPa)
1 2:1 0.907 23.27 4.9
2 4:1 0.921 17.56 2.9
3 3:1 0.909 31.41 3.2
Table 3 LDPE with bottom ash and oil

Sl No. LDPE: BA Machine oil (%) Avg density Avg compressive Water absorption
(g/cm3 ) strength (MPa) (%)
1 2:1 10 0.85 23.77 1.9
2 4:1 10 0.88 19.13 1.8
3 3:1 10 0.86 32.46 1.5
60 K. Monish et al.
Table 4 LDPE with ceramic

Sl No. LDPE: CA Avg density (g/cm3 ) Avg compressive Water absorption (%)
strength (MPa)
1 2:1 1.29 15.48 7.8
2 4:1 1.21 16.7 5.1
3 3:1 1.24 20.97 5.9
Table 5 LDPE with ceramic and oil

Sl No. LDPE: CA Machine oil (%) Avg density Avg compressive Water absorption
(g/cm3 ) strength (%)
1 2:1 10 1.26 15.9 6.9
2 4:1 10 1.14 18.3 4.3
3 3:1 10 1.19 22.12 4.9
Table 6 LDPE with copper slag

Sl No. LDPE: CS Avg density (g/cm3 ) Avg compressive Water absorption (%)
strength (MPa)
1 2:1 1.54 19.85 5.1
2 4:1 1.38 18.62 4.2
3 3:1 1.49 18.97 4.5
Table 7 LDPE with copper slag and oil

Sl No. LDPE: CS Machine oil (%) Avg density Avg compressive Water absorption
(g/cm3 ) strength (MPa) (%)
1 2:1 10 1.49 21.43 2.3
2 4:1 10 1.31 19.24 1.7
3 3:1 10 1.42 20.15 1.9
3.2.1 Low-Density Polyethylene with Bottom Ash
From Table 2, it can be inferred that (3:1) mix ratio yields the highest strength in this
composite with a strength of about 16 MPa, which satisfies all the standards’ require-
ments except the ASTM norm in hard weather condition, and a lower compressive
strength was observed for mixes with higher filler material content. This behavior
can be explained due to the lack of adhesion between plastics and filler materials. By
the addition of coupling agent, the strength was found to hike since the hydrophobic
property of the plastic and the hydrophilic property of the aggregates tend to reduce
due to the formation of an interfacial layer between plastics and fillers, thus obtaining
the highest strength in the entire study.
Table 8 LDPE with PET and bottom ash

Sl No. LDPE: PET: BA Avg density (g/cm3 ) Avg compressive Water absorption
strength (MPa)
1 4:2:1 1.45 18.25 6.1
3.2.2 Low-Density Polyethylene with Ceramic Aggregates
From Table 5, it can be inferred that (3:1) mix ratio with the addition of 10% oil
yields the highest compressive strength of about 22 MPa, and every mix with ceramic
aggregates had potentially crossed 15 MPa and that every mix ratios had satisfied all
the standard requirements except ASTM norm in hard weather condition.
3.2.3 Low-Density Polyethylene with Copper Slag
Table 6 highlights that (2:1) mix ratio with the addition of coupling agent yields the
highest compressive strength of about 21.4 MPa, and every mix was found to satisfy
the standard requirements. In this composite, the strength tends to rise proportionally
to the weight of the filler material up to a limit.
3.2.4 Low-Density Polyethylene with PET and BA
The melting point of PET was high though we tried with 170 °C. The resultant block
had the PET particle without being melted. The strength of that block was found to
be 18.25 MPa with water absorption of 6.1 (Table 8).
3.3 Water Absorption Test
The test was carried in accordance with the Indian Standard Code 3495 part 2. For
all the composites, with the rise in plastic content, the water resistance was found
to be increasing as the plastic owns good water resistive properties, Furthermore,
the addition of the coupling agent decreases widely the water absorption due to the
elimination of pores and by making the composite more finer and glossy in finish.
LDPE with BA (3:1) from Table 3 tends to give the highest water resistive property,
with water absorption of about 1.5%.
62 K. Monish et al.
4 Conclusions
This study presented a potential solution to turn plastic waste into construction blocks
with lower cost and rapid construction phases. It examined the effectiveness of using
LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene), which is a major source of waste and least recy-
cled plastic, along with waste materials like bottom ash, copper slag, and ceramic
in different proportions to create construction blocks by comparing the mechanical
properties of different mix proportions of raw materials, and an optimum composition
was arrived.
The LDPE plastic and the PET plastic could be mixed in its semi-molten state. The
suitable temperature for the mixing process will be around 250 °C. The best block
is 3:1 of plastic and ceramic. The main problem associated with the plastic bricks is
its fire resistance. The future research can be carried out with the incorporation of
the fire retardant materials like compounds of bromides.
References
1. Census of India (2011) Provisional population totals. Government of India, New Delhi
2. Wahid et al (2015) Utilization of plastic bottle waste in sand bricks. J Basic Appl Scient Res
2090–4304. ISSN
3. Koranteng J (2016) Developing composites from waste plastic and sawdust, Report
4. Rahman KS et al (2013) Flat-pressed wood plastic composites from sawdust and recycled
polyethylene terephthalate (PET): physical and mechanical properties. SpringerPlus 2(1):629
5. Arrakhiz FZ et al (2012) Mechanical properties of high-density polyethylene reinforced with
chemically modified coir fibers: impact of chemical treatments. Mater Des 37:379–383
6. Chen RS et al (2015) Biocomposites based on rice husk flour and recycled polymer blend:
Effects of interfacial modification and high fiber loading. BioResources 10(4):6872–6885
7. Hamid MRY, Sahrim AH (2011) Effect of flame retardants on wood plastic composites-HDPE
based. In: Key engineering materials, vol. 471. Trans Tech Publications
8. Félix JS, Domeño C, Nerín C (2013) Characterization of wood plastic composites made from
landfill-derived plastic and sawdust: volatile compounds and olfactometric analysis. Waste
Manag 33(3):645–655
9. Mohan HT et al (2017) Transforming urban waste into construction blocks for a sanita-
tion infrastructure: a step towards addressing rural open defecation. In: Global humanitarian
technology conference (GHTC), 2017 IEEE. IEEE
10. Seniunaite J, Vasarevicius S (2016) Leaching of copper, lead and zinc from municipal solid
waste incineration bottom ash. In: International scientific 36 conferences “environmental and
climatic technologies”, October 2016
11. Kochert S et al (2009) Transforming bottom ash into fly ash in the coal fired power stations.
In: World of Coal Ash conference, May 2009
Study on Mechanical Properties of M30
Grade Concrete with Replacement
of Cement by Wollastonite
D. Saranyadevi, P. Sabareeswaran, P. Paramaguru, and M. Surya Prakash
Abstract This paper reports effect of concrete using replacement such as wollas-
tonite powder for cement. In the project work, the concrete grade of M30 was selected,
and IS method was used for mix design. The properties of material for cement,
wollastonite powder and coarse aggregate were studied for mix design. The various
strengths of concrete like compressive strength and split tensile strength were studied
for replacements of cement using wollastonite powder. The mix proportion has been
taken as 1:1.65:2.92.
Keywords Replacement of cement · Wollastonite powder · Properties of

materials · Compressive strength · Split tensile strength
1 Introduction
Concrete is a composite material composed of water and coarse granular mate-

rial (the fine and coarse aggregate) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the
cement or binder) that fills the space among the aggregate particles and glues them
together. Concrete is widely used for making architectural structures, foundations,
brick or block walls, pavements, bridges or overpasses, highways, runways, parking
structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, etc.
Nowadays, production of cement becomes environmental hazards since it releases
large amount of carbon dioxide. To overcome this problem, it is very essential to
D. Saranyadevi (B) · P. Sabareeswaran · P. Paramaguru · M. Surya Prakash

Department of Civil Engineering, SNS College of Engineering, Coimbatore-35, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: sarancivilsnsce@gmail.com
P. Sabareeswaran
e-mail: sabareeswaran16798@gmail.com
P. Paramaguru
e-mail: paramaacivil@gmail.com
M. Surya Prakash
e-mail: sooryah03@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_6
64 D. Saranyadevi et al.
research the alternative methods. In order to fulfil the requirement of the cement,
certain alternative materials must be found.
Wollastonite powder is used in the concrete as alternative material. It is the product
obtained from grinding the wollastonite rock. When it is introduced in concrete as
a replacement material, it reduces the environmental pollution, space problem and
also reduces the cost of concrete.
The replacement of cement by using wollastonite powder leads to consumption
of generated wollastonite powder and solve the environmental pollution problem.
The chemical analysis, specific gravity, sieve analysis and compressive strength are
identified for various percentages of wollastonite powder.
2 Materials Used
2.1 Cement
The ordinary Portland cement of grade 43 is used in this study.
2.2 Wollastonite Powder
Wollastonite Powder is basically powder grinded from wollastonite rock. Wollas-

tonite powder generally consists of crushed wollastonite stone with most particles
passed through a 90 µm sieve. As with course aggregate, this can be primary,
secondary or recycled sources. Wollastonite is a naturally occurring mineral named
in honour of English mineralogist and chemist Sir W. H. Wollaston (1766–1828).
Wollastonite is a calcium metasilicate (CaSiO3 ) mineral [1] with particles similar
to cement particles by size. The main constitutions are calcium oxide and silicon
dioxide. Additional to this, it also contains iron, magnesium, manganese, aluminium,
potassium and sodium (Table 1).
Table 1 Chemical
Material Composition %
composition of wollastonite
CaO 45–48
SiO2 47–52
Al2 O3 3–5
Fe2 O3 1–3
MgO 3–4
Na2 O 0.08
K2 O 0.51
Study on Mechanical Properties of M30 Grade Concrete … 65
Table 2 Physical properties

Properties Value
of fine aggregate
Type Natural
Specific gravity 2.62
Fineness modulus 3.17
Zone II
2.3 Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate was purchased which satisfied the properties of fine aggregate required
for experimental work, and the sand conforms to the zone II as per the specifications
of IS 383:1970 (Table 2).
2.4 Course Aggregate
Course aggregates are particles greater than 4.75 mm sieve, but generally range
between 9.5 and 37.5 mm in diameter [2]. They can either be from primary, secondary
or recycled sources. Primary or Virgin aggregates are either Land or Marine-Won.
Gravels constitute the majority of course aggregate used in concrete with crushed
stone making up most of the remainder (Table 3).
3 Mixing of Materials
The mix design for concrete is in the proportion of 1:1.65:2.92 for all the specimens
which are to be casted and tested [3].

Properties Value
of coarse aggregate
Type Crushed
Specific gravity 2.73
4 Material Properties
4.1 Sieve Analysis Test
4.1.1 Cement
Sieve analysis is done for cement as per IS 4031 (part I)-1996. The first step involves
breaking any air-set lumps in the cement sample with finger. 100 g of cement is taken
and sieved through 90-micron sieve. The percentage of weight retained is less than
10%.
4.1.2 Wollastonite
Wollastonite powder is taken and placed on top of the 90-micron sieve. Sieving is
done manually for 15 min, and weight retained on sieve is found. It is noted that the
percentage retained on sieve is less than 10%.
4.2 Compressive Strength Test
The standard mould size of 150 mm × 150 mm is used for casting. Curing is done
for 7, 14 and 28 days [4]. For concrete cubes and the compression strength test is
done in compressive testing machine as per IS 516:1959 for the standard concrete
and for the partial replaced samples [5].
4.3 Split Tensile Test
Tensile strength is one of the basic and important properties of concrete. So, it is
necessary to find the strength of the concrete at which the concrete members may
crack. The standard mould size of 150 mm × 300 mm is used for casting. The
specimens casted for various percentage replacement of wollastonite powder were
cured and tested. Curing is done for 7, 14 and 28 days. Split tensile test is done as
per IS 5816:1999 for the control concrete and for the partial replaced samples.
5.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete
See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.

Compressive Strength N/mm2
50
40
30
20
10
0
7 days 28 days
% Replacement of 5% of Wollastonite powder
Conventional Concrete 5 % Wollastonite
Fig. 1 Replacement of 5% of wollastonite powder
45
40
Compressive Strength N/mm2
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
7 days 28 dyas
Conventional Concrete 10% Wollastonite

45
40
Compressive Strength N/mm2 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
7 days 28 dyas
5.2 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete
See Figs. 4, 5 and 6.
4
3.5
Split tensile Strength N/mm2
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
7 days 28 dyas

3.5
Split tensile Strength N/mm2 3
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
7 days 28 dyas
4
3.5
Split tensile Strength N/mm2
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
7 days 28 dyas
Conventional Concrete 15 % Wollastonite
6 Conclusion
Based on the experimental study, the following results have been found:
• The optimum percentage of replacement for fine aggregate by wollastonite powder
of M40 grade concrete and the target mean compressive strength of the tested
specimen have been studied.
• By the usage of wollastonite powder, the soil scarcity can be reduced.
• Conventional concrete shows the compressive strength of 23.2, 27.2 and

40.6 N/mm2 at 7, 14 and 28 days, respectively.
• When the wollastonite is replaced for 5%, the compressive strength increases by
4.1 and 6.87% at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
• When the wollastonite is replaced for 10%, the compressive strength increases by
3.47% at 28 days.
• When the wollastonite is replaced for 15%, the compressive strength does not
have any changes.
• Conventional concrete shows the tensile strength of 2.8 and 3.44 N/mm2 at 7 and
28 days, respectively.
• When the wollastonite is replaced for 5%, the tensile strength increases by 11.7
and 4.65% at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
• When the wollastonite is replaced for 10%, the tensile strength increases by 3.57
• When the wollastonite is replaced for 15%, the tensile strength decreases by 2.1
• Wollastonite concrete increases the compressive and tensile strength effectively.
It is advantageous to use wollastonite in concrete.
References
1. Mishra AK, Mathur R, Goel P (2007) Marble slurry dust and wollastonite-inert mineral
admixtures for cement. IRC Technical papers/20207/ Indian-Highway
2. IS: 383-1970. Specification for coarse and fine aggregate from natural sources for concrete,
2nd revision. BIS, New Delhi
3. IS: 10262-2009. Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design. Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India
4. Dahiphale S, Khan K, Tikhe K (2007) Properties of concrete containing wollastonite. Int J Eng
Res Mech Civil Eng. ISSN (Online) 2456-1290
5. IS: 516-1959. Method of test for strength of concrete. BIS, New Delhi
6. Mathur R, Mishra AK, Goel P (2007) Influence of wollastonite on mechanical properties of
concrete. J Sci Ind Res 66:1029–1034
7. Masthanvali K, Thrimurthi Naik D (2017) Effect of wollastonite, flyash and silica fume on
strength of concrete. Int J Mag Eng Technol Manag Res 4:419–428
8. Pradhan D, Dutta D (2013) Influence of silica fume on normal concrete. Int J Eng Res Appl
3(5):79–82
9. Neville AM, Books JJ (1999) Concrete technology. International Student Edition. Addison
Wesley Longman Ltd. ISBN 981-840-4
10. Shetty MS (1999) Properties of concrete theory and practice, 4th edn. S. Chand & company
Ltd. ISBN 81-219-0348-3
Flexural Behaviour of Auxetic Core
Sandwich Beam
Ruby Vaguez and Simon Jayasingh
Abstract Auxetic is a material or a structure which has gained popularity due to

its enhanced properties; they are widely used in the field of biomedical, aerospace,
automotive, military and textile industry. They exhibit negative Poisson’s ratio, that
is, unlike unconventional materials, they become wider when uniaxially stretched
and thinner when uniaxially compressed. They exhibit enhancement in physical
properties like vibration absorption, shear resistance, indentation resistance, fracture
resistance and lower fatigue crack propagation. In this paper, a 3D unit cell was
numerically modelled to evaluate the auxetic behaviour, and parametric analysis was
done to evaluate the performance of different designs of unit cell, and it was compared
with the equivalent monolithic one. Various design parameters considered were the
height of the vertical connecting strut and the centre and radius of the curved strut
of the core. It was found that a curved strut core shows auxetic behaviour, and as
the distance of the centre of the curved strut increases, the deflection of the unit cell
increased. This 3D unit cell was then numerically modelled to sandwich beam with
auxetic core subjected to three-point bending. The behaviour of the structure was
studied numerically using Abaqus/CAE 6.14.
Keywords Auxetic · Curved strut · Unit cell · Composite sandwich beam ·

Negative Poisson’s ratio
1 Introduction
Sandwich composite structures are widely used in naval, automotive applications,

aerospace and sporting due to their high-energy absorption capacity, strength to
R. Vaguez (B)
Structural Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
e-mail: rubyvaguez@gmail.com
S. Jayasingh
Department of Structural and Chemical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore,
India
e-mail: simon.jayasingh@vit.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_7
72 R. Vaguez and S. Jayasingh
weight ratio and stiffness to weight ratio [1, 2]. A sandwich structure commonly
consists of two thin high-strength face sheets and a low-density core. The advantage
of this structure is that it utilizes the strength and stiffness of the face sheet and the
shear, bending and buckling resistance and energy absorption of the core [3–5]. The
bending behaviour of sandwich composite structures depends upon the geometry
of face sheets, the material used and the topology of the core [1]. A wide range
of novel materials have been used as cores in sandwich structures such as open
cell and closed cell foam, honeycomb cellular foam, corrugated foam and lattice
foam. Lately, auxetics have been gaining importance owing to their enhancement
in physical properties like fracture resistance, shear resistance, vibration absorption,
indentation resistance and lower fatigue crack propagation [5–7].
Auxetics are materials and structures with negative Poisson’s ratio, they exhibit
an unusual behaviour that is under uniaxial tension, these materials and structures
expand transversely, and under uniaxial compression, they contract transversely.
They unlike unconventional materials become wider when uniaxially stretched and
thinner when uniaxially compressed. Auxetics can be a single molecule, a crystal or
a macroscopic structure. Some natural auxetic materials are α-Cristobalite (SiO2 ),
Pyrolytic Graphites, single crystal such as Pyrite (FeS2 ) and some types of zeolites
such as Siliceous Zeolite MFI-Silicalites [8].
In this paper, a 3D unit cell was numerically developed and subjected to uniaxial
compression to investigate the Poisson’s ratio. This 3D unit cell was then numerically
modelled to a sandwich structure with auxetic core subjected to three-point bending.
The behaviour of the structure was studied numerically using Abaqus/CAE 6.14.
The numerical approach using ABAQUS was validated based on experiment
conducted by Tiantian Li and Lifeng Wang on ‘Bending behaviour of sandwich
composite structures with tunable 3D-printed core materials’. In this work, mechan-
ical testing such as the compression test and three-point bending test were performed
on sandwich structures containing 3D-printed core materials with truss, conventional
honeycomb and re-entrant honeycomb core to study the bending behaviour [1]. The
numerical simulation was done using finite element analysis software Abaqus, and
plane stress condition was assumed during simulation. The load v/s displacement
graphs were plotted to compare the strength of each material [1]. The experimental
approach conducted by Tiantian Li and Lifeng Wang on ‘Bending behaviour of sand-
wich composite structures with tunable 3D-printed core materials’ was validated
using Abaqus/CAE 6.14.
2 Numerical Model
2.1 Auxetic Unit Cell
The auxetic core investigated in this work is a curved structure which exhibits negative
Poisson’s ratio. The 3D geometry of the core provides biaxial negative Poisson’s ratio
Flexural Behaviour of Auxetic Core Sandwich Beam 73
responses from all directions as compared to uniaxial behaviour of 2D auxetic unit.

Figure 1 shows the auxetic unit cell.
The configuration of the auxetic unit cell is defined by the height of the vertical
connecting strut and the centre and radius of the curved strut. All the linking struts,
curved struts and vertical struts have a circular cross section of radius, r = 0.2 mm,
while the struts forming the top and bottom bases have square cross section with
width, d = 0.4 mm [6, 9]. The base of unit cell is of width, L2 = 2Lsin(θ) and
the total height of the unit cell, H = 2a + 2Lcos(θ) and the total width of the unit
cell is W = 2c + L2, where c = 1 mm [6, 9]. The dimensions have been chosen
with reference to the work done by Gabriele Imblazano, Phuong Tran et al. on ‘A
numerical study on auxetic core sandwich panel under blast loading’.
Nine models of auxetic unit cells are created by varying the length of vertical strut
from no strut to 2 mm strut and by varying the distance of the centre of the curved
strut from the datum plane, from 1 to 3 mm, keeping the width of the unit cell as a
constant. Figure 2 shows the design parameters considered for the parametric study.
The baseline model taken is that of the model with 1 mm vertical strut and 2 mm
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of 3D curved auxetic core
Fig. 2 Design parameters

Table 1 Material properties

S. No. Property Input data
and Johnson–Cook
parameters of annealed steel 1. q (kg/m3 ) 7900
SS304 2. E (GPa) 200
3. m 0.3
4. TM (K) 1673
5. Tr (K) 293
6. A (MPa) 310
7. B (MPa) 1000
8. n 0.65
9. C 0.07
10. e0 (s–1) 1.00
11. m 1.00
distance of the centre of the curved strut from the datum plane. A static load is applied
on the baseline model and displacements, strains and Poisson’s ratio are calculated
numerically [10]. Geometric non-linearity is considered due to large deformations.
2.2 Material Property
In the research by Gabriele Imblazano, Phuong Tran et al., the rate-dependent prop-
erty of annealed steel SS304 is used [10]. Annealed steel SS304 has a reduced higher
ductility and yield strength due to the annealing manufacturing process. It is utilized
for both the auxetic and monolithic modelling (Table 1).
2.3 Poisson’s Ratio of Auxetic Unit Cell
Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of transverse engineering strain to the axial
engineering strain. The auxetic unit cell is modelled in Abaqus/CAE with a uniform
static loading applied at the top base, while the bottom base is being simply supported
in the vertical direction. The strain, displacement and effective Poisson’s ratio are
then numerically calculated. It was noticed that more the length of the vertical strut,
the lower the absolute value of negative Poisson’s ratio, and more the distance of the
curve centre from the datum place, more the absolute value of negative Poisson’s
ratio. The value of negative Poisson’s ratio of the baseline model is found to be −1.17.
Fig. 3 Baseline model of

unit cell
2.4 Uniform Static Loading
Uniform static load is applied on the nine unit cells. The top facet of the unit cells is
subjected to uniform static loading, while the bottom facet is being simply supported
in the vertical direction. In Abaqus/CAE, the load type is assigned as concentrated
force, on each node along the width with a magnitude of 15 N, and the failure load
and deflection are noted. Figure 3 shows the load applied on the model.
2.5 Auxetic Core Sandwich Beam
Three models of auxetic core sandwich beam are created. The beam is created for
core with no strut and curve 1 mm, core with 1 mm vertical strut and curve 1 mm
and core with 2 mm vertical strut and curve 1 mm. The Auxetic core sandwich beam
is modelled to have a core, of two layers of unit cell, along the width and depth,
and maintaining a length of 110 mm, sandwiched between the two metallic facets.
Figure 4 shows the baseline model of beam.
The material property input is same as that for the unit cell. The top and bottom
facets are modelled as shell elements with a thickness of 2 mm. They are meshed using
quadrilateral shape mesh, and element type chosen is that of S4R type. The auxetic
core is modelled with mesh element type B31. Figure 5 shows the meshed model
of the auxetic unit cell. The equivalent monolithic model of same areal volume and
Fig. 4 Baseline model of auxetic core sandwich beam
Fig. 5 Meshed auxetic unit

cell
material property is created for three-point bending. For the baseline case, the mono-
lithic beam is 4.47 mm thick. The baseline model is also meshed using S4R element
type. The performances of these models under three-point bending are studied, and
load versus displacement graph was obtained.
2.6 Three-Point Bending
The auxetic core sandwich beam is subjected to three-point bending, with a span
length of 60 mm. The load was applied as concentrated force on the top facets, and
simply supported boundary condition was applied at the bottom facets. Figure 6
shows the beam subjected to three-point loading (Fig. 7).
3 Result and Discussion
The baseline model of the auxetic unit cell is first analysed in this work. The auxetic
unit cell is made of a top facet, a sandwiched core and a bottom facet with 1 mm
vertical strut, 1 mm curve and 9.327 mm base. Figure 8 shows the deformed baseline
model. The unit cell is subjected to a uniform static load, and the failure load and
deflection graph is noted. Uniform static load is applied to the other models, and the
load versus deflection graphs are plotted.
Fig. 6 Three-point bending

Fig. 7 Bending characteristics of curve 1, 2 and 3 mm unit cell

Fig. 8 Deformed model of baseline unit cell
3.1 Effect of Length of Vertical Strut
Figure 7 depicts the effect of change in length of vertical strut on the load-carrying
capacity of curve 1 mm, curve 2 mm and curve 3 mm auxetic unit cell, respectively. It
is observed that as the length of the vertical strut increases the load-carrying capacity
decreases and deflection increases.
3.2 Effect of Curve Radius
Figure 9 depicts the effect of the distance of the curve centre from the datum plane
for no strut, strut 1 mm and strut 2 mm auxetic unit cells, respectively. It is seen that
as the distance from the datum plane increases the load-carrying capacity decreases
and the deflection also increases.
3.3 Auxetic Core Sandwich Beam
Figure 10 shows the deformed model for the baseline model of auxetic core sandwich
beam. It is seen that the auxetic beam gives the same behaviour as in the unit cell.
That is, as the length of the strut increases, the load-carrying capacity decreases and
the deflection increases, and as the distance of the curve centre increases, the deflec-
tion increases and load-carrying capacity decreases. Figure 11 shows the bending
behaviour of the auxetic core sandwich beam.
Fig. 9 Bending characteristics of no strut. Strut 1 mm and strut 2 mm unit cell
Baseline Beam Model
Monolithic Beam Model
Fig. 10 Deformed model of auxetic core sandwich beam and monolithic beam
4 Conclusion
Numerical investigations of the bending behaviour of auxetic unit cell, auxetic

core sandwich beam and equivalent monolithic steel plates were conducted. The
composite auxetic core sandwich beam was modelled by assembling multiple layers
of similar auxetic unit cells and the two top and bottom facets. The Poisson’s ratio
and auxetic behaviour of the auxetic core unit cell and the auxetic core sandwich
beam were controlled by changing the length of the vertical strut and the distance
of the curve centre from the datum plane. The auxetic core was meshed with beam
Fig. 11 Bending characteristics of auxetic core sandwich beam of curve 1 mm and equivalent
monolithic beam
elements to reduce computational time. The baseline and parametric analyses were
conducted using annealed steel SS304 for both auxetic core and the facets.
Uniform static loading was applied on the auxetic unit cell and three-point bending
test was done on the auxetic core sandwich beam. It was found that as the length of
the strut increases the load-carrying capacity decreases and the deflection increases,
hence concluding that the curved struts are the main load-carrying members. The
curved struts were seen to undergo compression both longitudinally and transversely,
thus proving the auxetic behaviour. On increasing the distance of the curved strut
from the datum plane, it was seen that the load-carrying capacity decreases and the
deflection increases; this was due to the intersecting of the curved strut as the curve
radius increases. The intersecting of the struts was seen to reduce the load-carrying
capacity of the entire structure.
No strut and curve 1 mm auxetic unit cell was found to take 212 and 498% more
load than the strut 1 mm and strut 2 mm auxetic unit cell. It was also seen that no
strut and curve 1 mm beam was found to take 63.75% more load than the equivalent
monolithic beam of same volume and material property.
References
1. Li T, Wang L (2017) Bending behaviour of sandwich composite structures with tunable 3D-
printed core materials. J. Compos Struct
2. Imbalzano G, Linforth S et al (2018) Blast resistance of auxetic and honeycomb sandwich
panel: comparison and parametric designs. J Compos Struct
3. Zenkert D, Nordisk I (1997) The handbook of sandwich construction. Engineering Materials
Advisory Services Ltd., Cradley heath, West Midlands
4. Gibson LJ, Ashby MF (1999) Cellular solids: structure and properties. Cambridge University
Press
5. Allen HG (2015) Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels: the commonwealth and
international library: structures and solid body mechanics division. Elsevier
6. Imbalzano G, Tran P et al (2015) Three-dimensional modelling of auxetic sandwich panels for
localised impact resistance. J Sandw Struct Mater
7. Hu LL, Zhou MZh, Deng H (2019) Dynamic indentation of auxetic and non-auxetic honeycomb
cores under large deformation. J Compos Struct
8. Jin X, Wang Z et al (2016) Dynamic response of sandwich structures with graded auxetic
honeycomb cores under blast loading. J. Compos Part B Eng
9. Imbalzano G, Tran P et al (2016) A numerical study of auxetic composite panel under blast
loading. J Compos Struct
10. Choi JB, Lakes RS (1995) Analysis of elastic modulus of conventional foams and of re-entrant
foam materials with a negative Poisson’s ratio. Int J Mech Sci
Correlation Between Surface Absorption
and Chloride Ion Penetration of Concrete
with Nano Silica
R. Vandhiyan, E. B. Perumal Pillai, and S. Lingeswari
Abstract Durability of concrete is greatly affected by water absorption and its trans-
portation. A less permeable concrete is more durable. Nano Silica (NS) when added
to concrete can perform as a filler material and also participate in pozzolanic reaction
to improve the density of concrete. In this investigation, concrete samples were made
by adding NS to concrete. The compressive strength increased with increase in NS
content up to 1.5%. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test showed improvement in concrete’s
density with increase in NS content. Sorptivity test demonstrated the reduction of
surface absorption with increase in NS. Reduced chloride ion penetration was also
prominent during Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT). Relation between water
absorption and current passed was found, and using this relation, prediction chart
and formula were proposed.
Keywords Nano silica · RCPT · Sorptivity · UPV · Surface absorption
1 Introduction
Durable reinforced concrete is the need of the hour. Concrete being a porous material
is susceptible to damage by infiltration of harmful substances through its external
surface and their advancement through the pore system leading to various durability
problems. The passage of water in the pore structure of concrete has an important
role in the deterioration of concrete structure. This pore water carries various
corrosive ions and directly participates in some physical and chemical deterioration
processes [1].
R. Vandhiyan (B)
Department of Civil Engineering, PSNA College of Engineering & Technology, Dindigul, India
e-mail: vandhianr@gmail.com
E. B. Perumal Pillai
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
S. Lingeswari
Department of Civil Engineering, SSM Institute of Engineering & Technology, Dindigul, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_8
84 R. Vandhiyan et al.
Table 1 Composition of
Chemical composition Percentage (%)
nano silica
SiO2 99.88
Al2 O3 0.007
TiO2 0.006
Fe2 O3 0.001
Carbon 0.03
Addition of Nano Silica (NS) to concrete improves its density and also contributes
to the strength development of cement matrix [2]. The concrete with NS performs
better because of its filler effect and pozzolanic reaction. The larger surface area
provided by NS speeds up the rate of hydration and pozzolanic reactions. The
strength and durability of concrete with NS improve due to the increased presence
of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C–S–H) formed when NS reacts with free calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ) [3]. Many studies have proved that NS improves the hydra-
tion process, compressive strength, tensile strength, and abrasive resistance, and
decreases the permeability of concrete [, 4–6]. In this work, compressive strength of
concrete with NS and without NS was compared with its corresponding Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity (UPV) values to show the improvement in density of the concrete with
NS. Further, improvement in density and pore structure was found by conducting
sorptivity test. Then, Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) was also performed
on the concrete samples to find the permeability.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
The specific surface area of NS used was 201 m2 /g, and chemical composition
was 99.9% SiO2 (Table 1) in powder form. The Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
was used as obtained from the market. River sand conforming to Zone I as per IS:
383-1970 [7] was used as fine aggregate. Broken stones of 20 mm conforming to IS:
383-1970 [7] were used as coarse aggregate. Superplasticizer with chemical base
melamine formaldehyde and specific gravity 1.20 kg/l manufactured by chemical
company Sika was used.
2.2 Mixing of Ingredients
The NS was added in proportions of 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2% by weight of cement in the
concrete mix, and the samples were designated C1, C2, C3, and C4, respectively, and
Correlation Between Surface Absorption … 85
Table 2 Ingredients for 1 m3 of concrete

Mix designation C0 C1 C2 C3 C4
Cement (kg) 394.3 394.3 394.3 394.3 394.3
Fine aggregate (kg) 638.3 638.3 638.3 638.3 638.3
Coarse aggregate (kg) 1191 1191 1191 1191 1191
Nano silica (kg) 0 1.97 3.94 5.91 7.89
Superplasticizer (kg) 0 1.77 1.97 2.37 2.96
Water (l) 197 197 197 197 197
the base mix with 0% NS was designated C0 (Table 2). All the specimens were water
cured. The mixing technique plays an important role while fine materials like NS are
used. The adding of NS to mix leads to decrease in workability due to interaction
between the NS and the wet cementitious mix [8]. If the superplasticizer interacts
with NS first, reactivity gets reduced; to avoid this, water and other ingredients were
mixed thoroughly first to ensure proper dispersion of NS. Superplasticizer was added
later and mixed to have uniform dispersion [9].
2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
The UPV values were taken from cubes of size 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm
before they were subjected to compression test. Application of petroleum gel on the
faces of concrete and transducers ensured the acoustical coupling between them.
This acoustical coupling helps the ultrasonic pulses to pass into the concrete and
then get detected by the receiving transducer.
2.4 Sorptivity Tests
Sorptivity test shows the concrete’s capacity to absorb and transmit water through
it by capillary suction. The test was conducted as per ASTM C 1585 [10]. The
cylindrical concrete specimens used were of diameter 100 mm and thickness 50 mm.
The sides of the specimen were sealed with wax. The end of the specimen that should
not be exposed to water was sealed using plastic sheet, and secured in place by an
elastic band.
The specimen was placed inside a pan with only 2 mm of the exposed surface
immersed into the water. The weight of the specimen was measured 18 times up to
eight days. The weight was measured at 60 s, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60 min, then every hour
up to 6 h, and then once a day up to 8th day.
2.5 Rapid Chloride Penetration Test
This test was conducted in accordance with ASTM C1202 [11]. Specimen samples
were cut from concrete cubes of size 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm, diameter of
the RCPT cylindrical specimens being 100 mm, and thickness 50 mm. The sides of
the specimen were sealed with wax.
3 Experimental Results and Discussion
3.1 UPV and Compressive Strength
Ultrasonic pulse transmission velocity (V ) was determined at km/s by using the

Equation 1
L
V = (1)
T
where L is transmission distance in kilometers and T is transmission time inside
the concrete in seconds. The pulse velocity increases with increase in the age of the
concrete irrespective of its composition (Fig. 1). As the age of the concrete increases,
the hydration of cement also increases. Due to this, the capillary pores/voids were
reduced, and so the resistance against conduction of pulse declines [12]. The samples
Fig. 1 UPV at various days of curing

Fig. 2 Comparison of compressive strength
with NS have a faster pulse velocity than the sample without NS on the 7th day. Simi-
larly, the compressive strength (Fig. 2) of samples with NS was higher on the 7th day.
The compressive strengths of C3 (29.48 N/mm2 ) and C4 (29.63 N/mm2 ) samples
had a very little difference of 0.5%, but the pulse velocity of C3 (3.42 km/s) and C4
(3.7 km/s) had a greater difference of 7.99%. This must be due to the presence of
excess NS particles that supports the easy transmission of pulse through the concrete.
The increase in compressive strength of samples containing NS must be attributed
by the large quantity of tricalcium silicate (C3 S) formed during the pozzolanic reac-
tion [13]. The free Ca(OH)2 reacts with this abundant C3 S to form C–S–H. Due to
this reaction, the density and strength of the matrix improves. The presence of NS
accelerates the hydration by providing more nucleation sites [14].
The pulse velocity and strength increased for all samples on the 14th day, and
the concrete properties were better as the NS content increased. On the 28th day the
compressive strength of sample with 2% NS (C4) was 4.41% less than the sample
with 1.5% NS (C3). Also, the C3 sample had 1.47% more compressive strength than
C4 sample on the 60th day. The reduction in compressive strength of C4 compared
to C3 must be due to the presence of excess NS particles than the quantity required to
react with Ca(OH)2 . The excess NS occupies space in the matrix without contributing
to the strength [15]. But the pulse velocity was higher in C4 samples on both 14th
and 60th days because the transfer of waves was supported by excess NS particles
filling the nano-sized pores.
Earlier studies have shown that UPV is affected by the water cement ratio, quantity
of aggregates, curing temperature, and compressive strength [16, 17]. Addition of
Fig. 3 UPV versus compressive strength
NS improves the strength of concrete and fills the voids which increases the UPV.
Figure 3 clearly shows that UPV increases with increase in compressive strength.
Also, it is noted that the UPV has a higher value for the same compressive strength
when the concrete has a higher NS content.
On 28th day, the samples C3 and C4 were in excellent class (as per IS 13311-1
[18]), and other samples were categorized as good. On 60th day, C0 and C1 were in
good category, and the rest of the samples were in excellent category.
3.2 Sorptivity
The amount of water absorbed increases with increase in time as expected. But the
absorption was very rapid during the first 6 h after which it became slow. This can
be noted from the Fig. 4, and also it shows that the water absorption decreases with
increase in NS content.
It is very evident that the specimen with no NS had a higher rate of absorption than
the specimens with NS. Figure 5 shows that the initial rate of absorption decreases
with the increase in the NS content. This shows that the presence of NS increases
the density of the concrete and improves pore structure.
It was observed that the secondary rate of absorption was far less than the initial
rate of absorption for all the specimens. The specimen without NS has greater absorp-
tion rate compared to the specimens containing NS as seen in Fig. 6. This reinforces
the fact that addition of NS reduces the porosity of concrete. The initial rates of
absorption of concrete samples C1, C2, C3, and C4 were 19.87, 26.67, 32.55, and
38.04% less than that of C0 sample, respectively. The secondary rates of absorption
of concrete samples C1, C2, C3, and C4 were 20.58, 20.58, 37.77, and 37.77% less
Fig. 4 Water absorption with respect to time
Fig. 5 Initial rate of absorption
than that of C0 sample, respectively. The concrete with NS was absorbing less water,
and water absorption is inversely proportional to the NS content in the concrete
specimens. Park et al. [19] have found that permeability is influenced by the surface
water absorption of concrete. This proves that the use of NS reduces the surface
water absorption which in turn reduces the permeability and improves the durability
of concrete.
Fig. 6 Secondary rate of absorption
3.3 Chloride Permeability
The initial current consumption by C0 was high compared to all the specimens with
NS. The current readings at 30 min for C0, C1, C2, C3, and C4 specimens were 0.109
Amps, 0.092 Amps, 0.083 Amps, 0.081 Amps, and 0.075 Amps, respectively. The
concrete with 0.5% NS was consuming 15.21% less current than the control specimen
without NS. Similarly, initial current readings for C2, C3, and C4 were 23.50, 25.81,
and 29.49% less than that of C0 specimen, respectively. Figure 7 shows that there
was reduction in charge passed with increase in NS content. Also, the current reading
at 30 min interval increased up to 6 h in a linear fashion for all samples, and because
of this linear change, the sample with the lower initial current had the lowest charge
passed. It was obvious that the concrete with higher NS had better pore structure
and resistance to current flow. The chloride permeability of the concrete reduced
due to the increased density of the concrete and blocking of pores by NS. The total
charge passed was calculated as per ASTM C1202 [11]. The charges passed by C1,
C2, C3, and C4 samples were 9.28, 14.97, 18.68, and 21.53% less than that of C0
sample, respectively. This shows that as the NS content increases the permeability
of concrete decreases.
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the water absorption (in sorptivity test) and
current flow (in RCPT) with respect to time (6 h). The slope followed by both water
absorption and current flow is similar. So the initial water absorption of the concrete
directly relates to the current flow in the RCPT. This shows that the measure of water
absorption can help in assessing the current consumed by the concrete sample during
the RCPT.
Fig. 7 Current passed versus duration
Based on the above philosophy, a graph was plotted with water absorption in
X-axis and current values in Y-axis as seen in the Fig. 9. The values for calculating
water absorption at 90, 150, 210, 270, and 330 h were not recorded while conducting
the experiment, so interpolation was done to obtain those values. A polynomial trend
line was fitted with the plottings. Equation 2 satisfies the curve.
Y = −8 × 108 X 4 + X 3 107 − 40986X 2 + 96.087X + 0.0089 (2)
4 Conclusions
The experiments proved that the addition of NS has positive impact on concrete’s
strength and durability. It was also ascertained that plasticizers are essential when
using NS. The addition of plasticizer as the last ingredient after the thorough mixing
of other components aids in better dispersion of NS and thus ensures positive results.
Addition of 1.5% NS by weight of cement to the concrete gave the highest
compressive strength gain of 37.85% more than the concrete without NS on 28th
day. 1.5% NS concrete (C3) was 4.6% and 1.49% stronger than the 2% NS concrete
(C4) on 28th and 60th day, respectively. Hence, it can be concluded that the addition
of NS beyond 1.5% may lead to reduction of compressive strength of concrete.
UPV test showed an increase in UPV speed with increase in NS content. The
increase in UPV speed indicates the reduction in pores and increase in density of
concrete due to addition of NS.
Fig. 8 Water absorption versus current flow of a C0, b C1, c C2, d C3, e C4
Sorptivity test showed a reduction in rate of surface water absorption with increase
in NS quantity in concrete. Since surface absorption is directly related to the perme-
ability of concrete, it can be said that the permeability of concrete reduces due to
the addition of NS. This supports the finding that due to addition of NS the pores in
concrete reduce thus improving the pore structure.
RCPT shows that chloride ion penetration was controlled by the addition of NS,
and it again confirms that the presence of NS in concrete makes it less permeable to ion
transportation. Current passed during RCPT can be related to the water absorption,
and thus water absorption value at any given time can help predict the current flow
during the same time.
Fig. 9 Relation between surface water absorption and current flow
References
1. Ye H, Jin N, Jin X, Fu C (2017) An experimental study on relationship among water sorptivity,

pore characteristics, and salt concentration in concrete. Period Polytech Civil Eng 61(3):530
2. Ehsani A, Nili M, Shaabani K (2017) Effect of nanosilica on the compressive strength develop-
ment and water absorption properties of cement paste and concrete containing fly ash. KSCE
J Civil Eng 21(5):1854–1865
3. Lu JX, Poon CS (2018) Improvement of early-age properties for glass-cement mortar by adding
nanosilica. Cement Concr Compos 89:18–30
4. Ardalan RB, Jamshidi N, Arabameri H, Joshaghani A, Mehrinejad M, Sharafi P (2017)
Enhancing the permeability and abrasion resistance of concrete using colloidal nano-SiO2
oxide and spraying nanosilicon practices. Constr Build Mater 146:128–135
5. Singh LP, Karade SR, Bhattacharyya SK, Yousuf MM, Ahalawat S (2013) Beneficial role of
nanosilica in cement based materials—a review. Constr Build Mater 47:1069–1077
6. Behfarnia K, Rostami M (2017) Effects of micro and nanoparticles of SiO2 on the permeability
of alkali activated slag concrete. Constr Build Mater 131:205–213
7. IS 383 (1970) Specification for coarse and fine aggregates, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi
8. Rajendiran V, Stalin VK (2016) Effect of nano silica on the performance of cementitious grout
for ground modification. Jpn Geotech Soc Spec Publ 2(63):2138–2143
9. Berra M, Carassiti F, Mangialardi T, Paolini AE, Sebastiani M (2012) Effects of nanosilica
addition on workability and compressive strength of portland cement pastes. Constr Build
Mater 35:666–675
10. ASTM C (2004) 1585-04. Standard test method for measurement of rate of absorption of water
by hydraulic-cement concretes. ASTM International
11. ASTM C (2005) 1202-05. Standard test method for electrical indication of concrete’s ability
to resist chloride ion penetration. ASTM International
12. Nik AS, Omran OL (2013) Estimation of compressive strength of self-compacted concrete with
fibers consisting nano-SiO2 using ultrasonic pulse velocity. Constr Build Mater 44:654–662
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early stage hydration of tricalcium silicate incorporating silica nanoparticles: part I. Constr
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Prediction of Setting Time and Strength
of Mortar Using Soft Computing
Technique
Kiran Devi , Babita Saini, and Paratibha Aggarwal
Abstract Soft computing techniques, i.e., linear regression, artificial neural

network, genetic expression programming, etc., are being practiced for the predic-
tion of data. In this study, artificial neural network model predicted the consistency,
setting time, and compressive strength of mortar at various curing time. The eighteen
distinct mix proportions of cement mortar consisting of accelerators, i.e., calcium
nitrate and triethanolamine as additives and stone powder as replacement of cement
were selected for the prediction of various parameters. The accelerators are used
to fasten the stiffening of cementitious materials and speed up the construction
work. Stone powder was used to minimize the consumption of cement and prob-
lems associated with waste to the ecosystem. The laboratory data set was used for
the prediction model. The appropriate artificial neural network model constitutes
mix constituents as input parameters, i.e., cement, sand, water, and additional mate-
rials. The results from ANN training in multilayer feedforward neural network were
evaluated and compared with the experimental results. A graphical representation
between predicted and experimental results was also drawn. Results showed that
artificial neural network technique was found effective for the prediction of various
parameters of cement mortar with high correlation coefficients and low values of
mean absolute error and root mean squared error.
Keywords Accelerators · Stone powder · Soft computing technique · Artificial

neural network
K. Devi (B) · B. Saini · P. Aggarwal

Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra 136119, India
e-mail: kiranbimbhra@gmail.com
B. Saini
e-mail: babitasaini6@gmail.com
P. Aggarwal
e-mail: paratibha@rediffmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_9
96 K. Devi et al.
1 Introduction
Concrete is a basic construction material composed of cement, aggregates, and water.

Sometimes, admixtures are used to improve certain properties of cementitious mate-
rials. Among admixtures, accelerators are used to shorten the setting of cement
mortar and concrete. Also, accelerating admixtures increase the rate of development
of strength by accelerating heat of hydration. The use of accelerators in mortar and
concrete allows early stripping of outer formworks during construction and speed
up the construction work [1, 2]. On the other hand, huge amount of harmful gases
are emitted during the production of Portland cement, and to reduce this, alterna-
tive materials to cement has become the need of today. Also, stone industries are
causing wastes in the form of dust and slurry which have hazardous impacts on the
ecosystem. To minimize the consequences of stone waste on ecosystem, it can be
utilized in construction industries as partial replacement of cement [3–6].
Several techniques are being used to predict the various parameters from experi-
mental results. Soft computing techniques have become famous among all the tech-
niques due to their better capabilities and accuracy. Soft computing techniques consist
of computational technique and algorithms to give solution for complex computa-
tional problems [7]. Artificial neural network (ANN) is a modeling tool based on
non-linear statistical data which find the relation between input and output parameters
[8]. ANN predictive model comprises three layers: first layer, i.e., input layer which
indicates the input parameters; middle one, i.e., hidden layer, consists of neurons;
and last layer, output layer, consists of output parameters or target or results. The
neurons are connected with each layer in various layers. It is not mandatory that
number of hidden layers should be identical to number of neurons in each hidden
layer.
ANN model learning consists of two stages: training in which input data values
are fed in ANN input layer and results are given in the target or output layer; and
testing involves one forward pass using saved weight of predictive model [9]. ANN
solved many complex problems due to interconnected computing elements. ANN
has many applications in various fields, i.e., aerospace, banking, industrial, medical,
automotive, engineering, robotics, securities, transportation, telecommunications,
defense, and credit card activity checking [10]. It has many applications in civil
engineering, i.e., concrete durability, workability, concrete construction smoothness,
cost analysis, and mechanical properties of concrete [11].
Intelligent prediction system, i.e., ANN model was found to be very effective for
the prediction of compressive strength development of concrete [12]. The prediction
of elastic modulus of normal and high strength concrete using ANN was found
to be a feasible tool [13]. ANN can be used as an alternate approach to predict
the compressive strength of self-compacting concrete [14]. The predictive models,
i.e., linear regression (LR), ANN, and support vector regression (SVR) were used to
predict the compressive strength of HPC and also proposed hierarchical classification
and regression (HCR) approach to improve the performance. HCR with 4-classes
SVM in first level together with single ANN had least mean absolute percentage
Prediction of Setting Time and Strength … 97
error [15]. The prediction of compressive strength of high-performance concrete was

done with the help of multiple regression analysis and artificial neural network model.
ANN gave more accurate results with high correlation [16]. The compressive strength
of mortar mixes with variant strength class was predicted using ANN technique with
good precision and accuracy [17]. ANN and genetic expression programming (GEP)
model predicted properties of cement mortar consisting of micro silica and gave high
accurate results [18]. The compressive and flexural strength of mortar consisting of
modified zeolite additives was predicted using ANN model and gave good results
and correlation [19]. GEP model had potential to predict the compressive strength of
mortar and also strength as input data increased the accuracy of predictive model [20].
Research significance
In the present study, artificial neural network technique predicted the consistency
and setting time of cement paste of various eighteen mixes consisting of calcium
nitrate (CN), triethanolamine (TEA),and stone powder from Kota stone (SP). Also,
prediction of compressive strength of different mortar mixes at 3, 7, and 28 days was
carried out. The cement, sand, water, CN, TEA, and SP were taken as input parameters
and setting time (initial (IST) and final setting time (FST)) and compressive strength
as target or output. Multilayer perceptron feedforward was trained through error
backpropagation algorithm in this study.
2 Methodology
In the present study, data set of 18 mix proportions of cement mortar consisting of
accelerators, i.e., CN, TEA, and SP were used, and detailed description was given
by [2]. To predict the consistency, setting time, and compressive strength, artificial
neural network technique was adopted. ANN is a computational model based on
the structure and functions of biological neural networks, and complex relationship
between input and output was modeled with ANN modeling tool. The WEKA 3.8.2
software was used for the prediction. Multilayer perceptron with two hidden layers
of four and two neurons was constructed to train, test, and validate the experimental
results. The cement, sand, water, CN, TEA, and SP were taken as input parameters,
and consistency, setting time, and compressive strength of mortar at 3, 7, and 28 days
in MPa was taken as output parameter. The different eighteen data sets with minimum,
maximum, mean, and standard deviation of various parameters have been given in
Table 1.
The architecture of ANN model consist 6–2–6 where first digit indicates number
of input parameters, 2 indicates the hidden nodes, and last digit indicates target output
to be predicted. The example architecture of 28 days compressive strength as output
parameter of predictive model has been shown in Fig. 1, and remaining targets were
also similar in nature with their individual outputs.
Lowest value of root mean square error (RMSE) was the criterion to stop training
of ANN model. Lower values of RMSE indicated the better performance of neural
98 K. Devi et al.
Table 1 Statistical range of input parameters for ANN model

Parameters Min. Max. Mean Std. Dev.
Cement (kg/m3 ) 517.5 575 546.267 23.123
Sand (kg/m3 ) 1725 1725 1725 0
Water (kg/m3 ) 322 368 348.217 13.265
CN (kg/m3 ) 0 5.8 3.867 2.813
TEA (kg/m3 ) 0 0.6 0.194 0.262
SP (kg/m3 ) 0 57.5 28.756 23.123
Consistency 28 32 30.278 1.153
IST (min.) 9 175 86.833 48.913
FST (min.) 30 290 187.833 81.481
3 days compressive strength (MPa) 21.62 35.8 27.979 3.729
Fig. 1 ANN predictive model
network. Regression value is used to determine the correlation between input and
target in neural networks, and R-value of unity indicates strong relationships. RMSE
and R-values were the standard for assessment of network performance [21].
3 Analysis of ANN Predictive Model
The appropriate ANN model comprises prediction model for consistency, setting
time (ST), and compressive strength (CS) of mortar consisting of accelerators and
SP. In ANN model, two hidden layers with four and two neurons were constructed,
trained, and tested with the experimental data of various 18 mix proportions of mortar.
The comparison of ANN predictive results was compared with laboratory results.
The prediction of various parameters of cement mortar using ANN has been shown in
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively. Figures 2, 3, and 4 illustrated the prediction of
consistency, setting time, and comparison with the experimental results, respectively.
The comparison of experimental results of strength at various ages was compared
with predicted values and shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7.
The correlation coefficient, R was found near to unity for all the predictive output
values. Also, RMSE and mean absolute error (MAE) were low for all parameters.
The values for R, R2 , MAE, RMSE, and equation for all output values have been
given in Table 2.
Consistency
32.5
32
31.5
Predicted values
31
30.5
30
29.5
y = 0.9936x + 0.2079
29
R² = 0.9987
28.5
28
27.5
27.5 28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5
Experimental values
Fig. 2 Predicted versus actual values of consistency
Fig. 3 Predicted versus Initial setting time

actual values of IST 200
Predicted values
150
100
50 y = 1.0032x - 1.2029
R² = 0.997
0
0 50 100 150 200
Experimental values
100 K. Devi et al.
Fig. 4 Predicted FST versus 350 Final setting time

actual FST
300
250
Predicted values
200
150
100 y = 0.9911x + 2.9149

50
R² = 0.9998
0
0 100 200 300 400
Experimental values
Fig. 5 Predicted versus 40 3 Days Compressive strength

actual 3 days CS
35
Predicted values
30
25
y = 0.9925x + 0.5342
R² = 0.9925
20
20 25 30 35 40
Experimental values
Fig. 6 Predicted versus 45 7 Days Compressiev strength

actual 7 days CS
40
Predicted values
35
30
25 y = 1.0177x + 0.1936
R² = 0.9547
20
20 25 30 35 40 45
Experimental values
4 Conclusions
The present study signifies the possibility of neural network for the prediction of
various parameters of cement mortar. The data for consistency, setting time, and
compressive strength of 18 different mixes of cement mortar at various ages were
collected. CN, TEA, and SP enhanced the consistency and reduced rather than dimin-
ished the setting time for all the mix proportions. The exercise of CN and SP in
50 28 Days Compressive strength
45
Predicted values
40
35
30
y = 1.0003x + 0.054
R² = 0.9999
25
20
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Experimental values
Fig. 7 Predicted versus actual values of 28 days compressive strength
Table 2 Results from ANN predictive model

Target R R2 MAE RMSE Equation
Consistency 0.9994 0.9987 0.332 0.0429 y = 0.9936x + 0.2079
Initial setting time 0.9985 0.997 1.6599 2.7949 y = 1.0032x + 1.2029
Final setting time 0.9999 0.9998 1.516 1.88 y = 0.9911x + 2.9149
3 days compressive strength 0.9963 0.9925 0.3854 0.4517 y = 0.9925x + 0.5342
mortar enhanced the strength, while TEA decreased compressive strength. ANN
model was trained, and tested results for various input parameters of cement mortar
were compared with the experimental results. The neural network model had very
low mean absolute error and root mean squared error for all the predictive parameters.
The correlation coefficient for output parameters, i.e., target was found near to unity.
Therefore, ANN predictive model for these 18 mixes gave results with high precision
and accuracy. ANN predictive model can be used for the prediction of consistency,
setting time, and compressive strength of cement mortar consisting of accelerating
admixtures and stone waste.
102 K. Devi et al.
References
1. Devi K, Saini B, Aggarwal P (2018) Effect of accelerators with waste material on the properties
of cement paste and mortar. Comput Concr 22:153–159
2. Devi K, Saini B, Aggarwal P (2018) Combined use of accelerators and stone slurry powder in
cement mortar. Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019, vol 21, pp 1–8
3. Khodabakhshian A, de Brito J, Ghalehnovi M, Shamsabadi EA (2018) Mechanical, environ-
mental and economic performance of structural concrete containing silica fume and marble
industry waste powder. Constr Build Mater 169:237–251
4. Rana A, Kalla P, Csetenyi LJ (2015) Sustainable use of marble slurry in concrete. J Clean Prod
94:304–311
5. Devi K, Acharya KG, Saini B (2018) Significance of stone slurry powder in normal and high
strength concrete. Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019, vol 21, pp 484–492
6. Singh H, Garg P, Kaur I (eds) (2018) In: Proceeding of 1st international conference on
sustainable waste management through design. Springer Nature America
7. Naderpour H, Nagai K, Fakharian P, Haji M (2019) Innovative models for prediction
of compressive strength of FRP-confined circular reinforced concrete columns using soft
computing methods. Compos Struct 215:69–84
8. Eskandari H, Tayyebinia M (2016) Effect of 32.5 and 42.5 cement grades on ANN prediction
of fibrocement compressive strength. Proc Eng 150:2193–2201
9. Khashman A, Akpinar P (2017) Non-destructive prediction of concrete compressive strength
using neural networks. Proc Comput Sci 108:2358–2362
10. Diab AM, Elyamany HE, Elmoaty MAEA, Shalan AH (2014) Prediction of concrete compres-
sive strength due to long term sulfate attack using neural network. Alexandria Eng J
53:627–642
11. Prasad BKR, Eskandari H, Reddy BVV (2009) Prediction of compressive strength of SCC and
HPC with high volume fly ash using ANN. Constr Build Mater 23:117–128
12. Lee S (2003) Prediction of concrete strength using artificial neural networks. Eng Struct 25:849–
857
13. Demir F (2008) Prediction of elastic modulus of normal and high strength concrete by artificial
neural networks. Constr Build Mater 22:1428–1435
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concrete (SCC) mixtures with mineral additives using artificial neural network. Constr Build
Mater 25:4105–4111
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classification and regression technique. Autom Constr 24:52–60
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compressive strength prediction models for high performance concrete containing nano silica
and copper slag using regression analysis and artificial neural networks. Constr Build Mater
114:528–535
17. Eskandari H, Nik MG, Eidi MM (2016) Prediction of mortar compressive strengths for different
cement grades in the vicinity of sodium chloride using ANN. Proc Eng 150:2185–2192
18. Azimi-Pour M, Eskandari-Naddaf H (2018) ANN and GEP prediction for simultaneous effect
of nano and micro silica on the compressive and flexural strength of cement mortar. Constr
19. Onyari EK, Ikotun BD (2018) Prediction of compressive and flexural strengths of a modified
zeolite additive mortar using artificial neural network. Constr Build Mater 187:1232–1241
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prediction of compressive strength of cement mortar using GEP method. Constr Build Mater
198:27–41
21. Naderpour H, Rafiean AH, Fakharian P (2018) Compressive strength prediction of environ-
mentally friendly concrete using artificial neural networks. J Build Eng 16:213–219
A Study on Dynamic Behaviour
of Monoblock Concrete Sleepers Using
SAP2000
P. S. Rao, A. K. Desai, and C. H. Solanki
Abstract A high-speed train is one which often operates at a speed above 200
kmph (125 mph). High-speed trains bring about new challenges in the construction
of strong railway roadbeds so as to protect mechanical components of trains and track
structures from damage, to improve the comfort of riding for passengers and to reduce
ground vibration and noise pollution. While designing railway tracks, irregularities of
the wheels and rails must be accounted for, as they may induce considerable dynamic
loads. For a track structure, the most important part is a concrete sleeper. There is a
continuous need for the improvement in the analytical tools for the dynamic analysis
of the concrete sleepers. A 3D FEM model of the concrete sleeper is developed in
SAP2000 version 18.0 software considering two conditions, that is, when sleeper is
placed on-site without any constraints and when it is placed on ballast. The results
obtained are finally validated with the previously done work on STRAND7 software
by comparing their mode shapes.
Keywords High-speed rails · Concrete sleepers · Vibration analysis · SAP2000
1 Introduction
In order to maintain spacing between the rails; sleepers are tied to the rails. This helps
to maintain the positioning and level of the tracks. This leads to the even distribution
of dynamic loading through the sleepers onto the track structure. They also act as
an electrical insulator between the two rails. The commonly used materials for the
construction of sleepers are (1) Wooden sleepers, (2) Metal sleepers and (3) Concrete
sleepers. Based on the design speed of train and the cost of the project, the appropriate
P. S. Rao (B)
APSIT, Thane, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: psrao@apsit.edu.in; poojasrao.brd@gmail.com
A. K. Desai · C. H. Solanki
SVNIT, Surat, Gujarat, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_10
104 P. S. Rao et al.
Fig. 1 Concrete sleepers [7]
material is selected for the construction of sleepers. Commonly used concrete sleepers
are monoblock sleepers, reinforced twin block sleepers and prestressed sleepers.
Reinforced twin block sleeper was first developed in France. The sleeper is light
in weight and comprises two concrete blocks that are joined together with the rigid
steel beam to restrict their lateral movement with the passage of train; see Fig. 1a. The
sleepers are designed for the service life of about 50 years and can withstand varying
operating frequency. It is commonly used in the countries like France, Belgium,
Denmark, Netherlands, Greece, etc. Countries like United States of America, Canada,
Sweden, Australia, England, Germany, China and many more have adopted ballast-
less technology for the high-speed rails. These countries commonly use prestressed
reinforced concrete beams also known as prestressed monoblock sleepers for hauling
light and heavy transits on ballastless track.
The concrete sleepers are designed either as a rigid or as a flexible beam. For
the operating frequency below 100 Hz, they are modelled as rigid beam, and as
flexible beam for the operating frequency up to 300–400 Hz using Euler–Bernoulli
or Rayleigh–Timoshenko beam theory, Tore Dahlberg, 2003 [1]. As the rails are
discretely supported by the sleepers at a regular interval of 0.65 m, stiffness along
the rail increases with the passage of wheel over the rails. The frequency of vibrations
induced in the rails due to spacing between sleepers is given by the Eq. (1):
v
f = (1)
D
where v is the train velocity and D is the span between two sleepers (0.65 m).
2 Literature Review
Grabe et al. [2] studied the effect of under-sleeper pads while analysing sleeper–
ballast interaction. As per their theory, in case of ballasted track structure, the pres-
ence of under-sleeper pads will increase the contact area between the angular ballast
particles and the underside of the concrete sleeper. This further leads to reduction
in the ballast breakdown which leads to reduction in total track settlement. They
concluded with the static and cyclic load test with about one million loading that the
A Study on Dynamic Behaviour of Monoblock … 105
use of pad will help reduce regular wear and tear of ballast and will help increase
their service life. Clark et al. [3] developed prototype of railway sleepers using FEM
technique, and determined its resonant frequency. The modal analysis of various
components of the track structure was conducted to develop and analyse the influ-
ence of train loading on the mode shapes of the components. The numerical analysis
exhibited zero tension condition near the supports. Kishore Kumar and Sambasivarao
[4] studied the impact of trainload at two points on the sleeper where passing rails
rest on them. The modal analysis of the sleeper in the unrestraint condition depicted
that natural frequencies in unrestraint condition is lesser than the natural frequencies
of the sleeper subjected to restraints representing actual in situ condition. Their study
showed that in order to understand the dynamic behaviour of the sleeper condition it
is necessary to analyse the interaction between the sleeper and underlying ballast. Li
[5] did dynamic and static analysis on a prestressed concrete sleeper. The interaction
between sleeper and ballast was analysed to study structural behaviour of the sleeper
using finite element modelling. ANN was adopted to understand the behaviour of
sleeper under a various support condition. The study considered the influence of
movement of rail seat in the vertical direction and development of stresses at various
critical locations on rail seat. Kaewunruen et al. [1] conducted experimental modal
analysis of prestressed concrete sleepers to understand the influence of void in situ
conditions. The frequency considered for the study ranges from 0 to 1600 Hz. The
impact for this range of frequency was generated using hammer excitation tech-
nique. Bruel & Kjaer PULSE dynamic analyser captured the frequency generated by
means of the hammer, and the results were further processed using the STAR Modal
analysis package for various excitation frequency. Remennikov and Kaewunruen [6]
conducted their study to determine the factors that lead to the development of cracks
in the prestressed concrete sleepers as such cracks add to maintenance cost of the
railway track. Their findings include parametric analysis of free vibration response of
concrete sleeper when placed on rail pads with different properties. Based on Timo-
shenko beam theory, the sleeper was modelled as beam element supported by spring
elements which represent ballast support to the sleepers at their base. The dynamic
performance of railway track when subjected different types of rail pads was later
summarized by analysing the first five mode shapes obtained through modal analysis.
Kumaran et al. [7] discussed the dynamic response of prestressed concrete sleeper due
to irregularities in wheel and rail, for various parametric conditions. The time history
analysis of the vehicle and track was made using MSC/NASTRAN to comprehend
the dynamic behaviour of sleepers. The dynamic amplification factors for deflection,
ballast pressure and bending moments of track for various vehicle–track conditions
at various operating frequencies were critically reviewed.
3 Modelling of Sleeper
Australian standard gauge sleeper was considered in the present work. The sleeper is
having symmetricity in two directions. The span of the sleeper is 2700 mm. The top
width of the sleeper is 220 mm with a base measuring 270 mm. The centre-to-centre
distance between the rails is 1676 mm which represents broad gauge. The schematic
representation of sleeper is shown in Fig. 2. In SAP, solid element is used to model
sleeper as a solid monoblock with trapezoidal section. Springs are used to represent
ballast, with the stiffness equivalent to the stiffness of ballast in vertical direction.
The ends of the sleeper were restrained in all three translational directions. In free
condition, it is assumed that sleepers are just lying on the layer of ballast; thus, while
modelling free condition, the sleepers were resting without any constraints (Tables 1,
2 and 3).
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of trapezoidal monoblock concrete sleeper used for study
Table 1 Sleeper material

Sr. No. Parameters list Symbol Values
properties used for validating
model [6] 1 Flexural rigidity EIc 4.6 MN/m2
2 Ballast stiffness kb 13 MN/m2
3 Sleeper density S 2750 kg/m3
4 Effective stiffness ke 17 MN/m2
Table 2 Natural frequencies of the validated in situ sleeper study model

Mode Sleeper 1, STRAND7 Sleeper 2, EXPERIMENTAL Study model SAP2000 (Hz)
(Hz)[6] (Hz) [7]
1 122 155.22 135.88
2 314 413.70 380.65
3 607 503.85 632.95
4 997 775.67 740.85
5 1486 1168.48 1174.28
Table 3 Natural frequencies of the validated free-free condition sleeper study model
Mode Sleeper 1, STRAND7 Sleeper 2, Study model SAP2000 (Hz)
(Hz)[6] EXPERIMENTAL (Hz)[7]
1 122 135.71 99.4
2 314 404.83 135.84
3 607 481.36 295.47
4 997 767.84 345.65
5 1486 1155.31 380.65
The results of natural frequencies and mode shapes of the free and in situ railway
concrete sleeper are given in Table 4. The lowest fundamental frequency obtained
in a condition devoid of constraints on the sleeper through Eigen Frequency Modal
Analysis is 99.4 Hz, while the same in an actual field condition yields 135.88 Hz by
constraining the bottom and adjacent surface. This on comparing with the previous
work done by various researchers shows the average percentage error is within 10%.
The outcome of modal analysis in the said conditions is shown in Table 4. The current
study signifies the importance of ballast–sleeper interaction based on the fact that
for the in-situ condition, the frequencies are substantially higher and thereby aids to
conclude that the ballast cushions the sleeper effectively. Thus, it can be summarized
that actual field boundary conditions have a tremendous influence on derivation of
the natural frequency and generation of dynamic mode shapes of concrete sleepers,
and hence it is recommended to model the boundary conditions of the sleepers as
per field condition to minimise the fatality caused by undermining the importance
of ballast–sleeper interaction.
Table 4 Change in mode shapes of concrete sleepers (in situ)

Mode Field condition Deformed shapes Frequency (Hz)
1 1st bending 135.88
2 2nd bending 380.65
3 3rd bending 632.95
4 4th bending 740.85
5 1st twisting 1174.28
5 Conclusion
Modal analysis is one of the widely used technique for the prediction of vibration
response of the concrete sleepers. These vibration parameters of concrete sleepers
assist in the development of a realistic dynamic model of railway track. The results of
the modal analysis for the concrete sleepers under different boundary conditions are
presented in the paper. The study shows that ballast sleeper interaction had a notable
influence on the natural frequency and vibration mode shape of concrete sleepers as
ballast cushions sleeper effectively.
Natural Frequency, Hz 200 500
Natural Frequency, Hz
400
150
300
100 FF
IS 200
50
100
0 0
SLP1 SLP2 SLP3 SLP1 SLP2 SLP3
700 1200
600 1000
500
800
400
FF 600
300
IS 400
200
100 200
0 0
SLP1 SLP2 SLP3 SLP1 SLP2 SLP3
Fig. 3 Comparative analysis of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th mode for free-free (FF) and in situ (IS) sleepers
conditions
References
1. Tore Dahlberg (2003) Railway Track Dynamic-A Survey”, Solid Mechanics IKP Linkoping
University
2. Grabe PJ, Mtshotana BF, Sebati MM, Thunemann EQ (2016) The effects of under-sleeper pads
on sleeper–ballast interaction. J S Afr Inst Civil Eng 58(2):35–41. Paper 1241
3. Clark A, Kaewunruen S, Janeliukstis R, Papaelias M (2017) Damage detection in railway
prestressed concrete sleepers using acoustic emission. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 251:012068.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/251/1/012068
4. Kishore Kumar. D and Sambasivarao K (2014) Static and dynamic analysis of railway track
sleeper” International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 2, Issue 6
5. Shan Li (2012) Railway Sleeper Modelling with Deterministic and Non-deterministic Support
Conditions Master Degree Project
6. Kaewunruen S, Remennikov A M (2007) Investigations of static and dynamic performance of
railway prestressed concrete sleepers. http://ro.uow.edu.au/engpapers/359
7. Remennikov, A. M. and Kaewunruen, S 2005 Investigation of vibration characteristics of
prestressed concrete sleepers in free-free and insitu conditions.http://ro.uow.edu.au/engpapers/
284
8. Kumaran G, Devdas Menon, Krishnan KN (2003) Dynamic studies of rail track sleepers in a
track structure system Journal of Sound and Vibration 268 485–501
Spatial Machines for Heterogeneous MRI
Data—A Critical Review
Zabiha Khan and R. Loganathan
Abstract Biomedical Engineering enables better quality of life to the medical condi-
tions of people. Magnetic Field Applications in biological aspects and manipulations
of tissue engineering sorted out the diagnostic solutions. MRI has become the poten-
tial emerging tool to gain capabilities to overcome obstacles of biomedical field.
The Combination of Image Processing in MRI with the ability to produce targets,
presents a disruptive technology which affects the criticality of healthcare.
Keywords MRI · Biomedical engineering · Image processing
1 Introduction
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) provides the treatment in the form of precise
targeting, processing, and quantification and is widely used in medical technology to
detect tissue abnormalities and tumors. It studies the human anatomy and analyzes the
full body producing high spatial resolution images of soft tissue for the detection of
disease. Considering many parameters to characterize the pathology using a contin-
uous process, the extraction and analysis of large amounts of advanced quantitative
imaging features is referred as “Radiomics” [1].
Radiomics can be used to build descriptive and predictive models relating
to the features such as gene–protein signatures. Radiomics can provide valuable
diagnostics, prognostic, or predictive information.
Z. Khan (B)
Computer Science & Engineering, VTU, Belagavi, India
e-mail: zabi007@gmail.com
R. Loganathan (B)
Computer Science & Engineering, HKBK College of Engineering, Bengaluru, India
e-mail: logu73@yahoo.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_11
112 Z. Khan and R. Loganathan
2 MRI, a Diagnostic Tool!!
MRI images are generated using a magnetic field approximately 10,000 times
stronger than the earth’s magnetic field. It also provides maps of anatomical structure
with Magnetic Resonance of hydrogen (1H) nuclei in water and lipids measured by
MRI Scanner. Signal values have 4096 shades and can be represented by a pixel [2].
MRI scanner is available at 1.5T or 3T. During the process, a radio frequency pulse
will be introduced resulting in spinning protons to move out of the alignment. Also, a
radio antenna inside the scanner helps in detecting the signal and creating the image.
MRI can confirm early stage tumor, thus correctly stratifying patients into
active surveillance which ensures the appropriate treatment. SVM (Support Vector
Machines) can be used as supervised learner. In SVM, every object is represented by
a point in the n-dimensional space, used for regression and classification. However,
consensus on which technical approaches and combination of Multiparametric
MRI (Multiparametric-Medical Resonance Imaging) techniques should be used for
specific clinical indications remains a challenge.
Multiparametric imaging consists of the combination of T1 and T2—weighted
atomic imaging and functional MR techniques including Diffusion Weighted
Imaging, Dynamic Contrast Enhanced Imaging, and Spectroscopy Imaging. As
reported, accuracies of Multiparametric MR Imaging techniques for different
indications are inconsistent; suitable conclusions are difficult to arrive at [3].
3 MRI Protocol
All scans were obtained with 1.5T MR Scanner using Integrated Endo-Rectal Pelvic
Phased array coil [4]. Recent advances in MRI in detecting the cancer with multi-
parametric approach help in realizing MP-MRI into the real world as a diagnostic
tool. MP-MRI is widely used for characterizing tumor [5].
4 Key Technologies and Challenges in Radiomics
As per QIN (Quantitative Imaging Network), guidelines established by NCI (National

Cancer Institute), implementation of Radiomics includes acquisition and recon-
struction of standardized images, segmentation, feature extraction, and quantitative
data analysis. The physiological property assessment using different techniques of
MRI provides a novel approach into the microvasculature vessel permeability and
volume fractions [6]. However, in the early stage development, there are innumerable
problems that must be solved in Radiomics from original.
Spatial Machines for Heterogeneous MRI Data … 113
Table 1 The table below lists

Source Variable
the qualitative variables and
their respective sources in Scanner Pulse sequence
DCE-MRI Software Image formation
Input functions
Software bug handling
Operator Image parameters
5 Image Extraction to Data Analysis
Authors have adopted accurate Quantitative measurement of perfusion parameters by

DCE-MRI which may impact heavily on the clinical care of cancer patients. Image
Data Quantification methods will reduce turnaround time leading to the optimal
treatment [7].
Major sources of variability in DCE-MRI are MRI Scanner, Post Image
Processing, and Operator. But each MRI scanner has its own configuration
performing with Pulse Code Sequences including reconstruction schemes [8]
(Table 1).
6 Quantitative Imaging
Process of extracting measurable information from images to find the amount and
extent of the diseases provides reproducible numerical results. An effort has been
made by authors toward achieving better results for quantitative and qualitative image
formation [9].
7 Advances in Image Acquisition
Lot of advances in image acquisition will improve quality and resolution of imaging
along with diversity in imaging modalities. Radiomics and Radiogenomics are the
outcome of quantitative imaging; by incorporating the signs of informatics into
medical imaging, we create a powerful driver for the precision medicine activities
[10].
114 Z. Khan and R. Loganathan
8 Advances in Image Classification
The labeling of images into one of a number of predefined categories can be referred
as Image Classification. It is a critical step for high-level processing; also, it is the
last step in the process to detect and classify the image into normal and abnormal
form.
9 Deep Learning Based Image Recognition
This is an unexplored area of research gaining lot of attention by the researchers

nowadays. Using this approach, accelerated MRI can be produced with the help of
Deep Learning which leads to shorter duration in measurements obtained from the
data acquired. Currently, authors of this paper are involved in Deep Learning based
image classification [11].
10 Work Done so Far
Detailed critical review of research papers [1–12] has been carried out by the authors
of this paper. As per the references indicated [1–12] from International and National
scenario, it is observed that MRI data is surely heterogeneous. Ample research work
has been carried out on medical imaging, quantitative measurements of different
parameters by different techniques in MRI, Image Data Quantification, and chal-
lenges in Radiomics. Hence, further work on Deep Learning based image recognition
related to Prostate Cancer is under progress [12].
11 Conclusion
This paper describes different aspects of image processing techniques for MRI
imaging to improve the Performance, Classification, and Accuracy in detecting
tumors with preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction, and classification
overviews of image processing techniques. Future work will be extended to detect
the types of tumors in MRI which may provide results efficiently involving both
qualitative and quantitative labels.
Acknowledgements Assistance provided by Dr. N. S. Kumar (Professor and Director R&D, GCE,
Ramanagaram) was greatly appreciated.
Spatial Machines for Heterogeneous MRI Data … 115
References
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Ourselin S, Vercauteren T. Interactive medical image segmentation using deep learning with
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10. Cheng R et al. Deep learning with orthogonal volumetric HED segmentation and 3D surface
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selection of input images affect the resulting synthetic CT?
Influence of Fineness of Mineral
Admixtures on the Degree
of Atmospheric Mineral Carbonation
C. Farsana, Bibhuti Bhusan Das, and K. Snehal
Abstract Global carbon dioxide concentration is rising at the rate of 2 ppm every
year, which had led to the demand of sustainable development. In construction
industry, manufacturing of cement is the main source of global anthropogenic carbon
dioxide emissions. Carbon capture and storage is a recent technology which had
helped to sequester carbon dioxide from atmosphere and thus helps in reducing the
greenhouse effect to a certain extent. This study mainly focuses on the atmospheric
mineral carbonation of mineral admixtures like fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS), and silica fume (SF), which are the industrial by-products and
are being treated as waste. This study also focuses on the effect of fineness of different
mineral admixtures on the degree of atmospheric mineral carbonation. Fly ash with
three different levels of fineness (FA, FA I, and FA II), GGBS with three different
levels of fineness (GGBS, GGBS I, and GGBS II), and silica fume were mixed with
activators like lime and gypsum and were left for atmospheric mineral carbonation.
Mineralogical characterisations were done using X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermo
gravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Degree of
carbonation of the samples was analyzed and calculated using the TGA results. From
the comparative analysis of all the samples, it was found that GGBS II had highest
degree of carbonation. It was also observed that calcium-based compounds like
calcite, aragonite, vaterite, calcite magnesium syn, gismondine, waikarite, calcium
silicate hydrate, diopside, calcium sulfate, and portlandite were formed in the samples
after 45 and 90 days of atmospheric mineral carbonation. However, it was observed
that with increasing levels of fineness of mineral admixtures, there was no significant
change in the degree of atmospheric mineral carbonation.
C. Farsana · B. B. Das (B) · K. Snehal

Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal 575025, India
e-mail: bibhutibhusan@gmail.com
C. Farsana
e-mail: Farsa000@gmail.com
K. Snehal
e-mail: snehalshine090@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_12
118 C. Farsana et al.
Keywords Carbon dioxide emissions · Mineral admixtures · Atmospheric mineral

carbonation · XRD · TGA · SEM
1 Introduction
The world population is increasing rapidly day by day leading to industrialization,

urbanization, globalization of market economy, and environmental pollution. The
combined effect of all these has led to climate change, which is threatening to cause
damage to human life on the earth. Global warming is major effect of the climate
change. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s
atmosphere and oceans as a result of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere [1].
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), during the
period 800–1200, i.e., before the industrial revolution the carbon dioxide (CO2 )
concentration remained nearly constant at about 280 ppm (parts per million). IPCC
data shows that the atmospheric CO2 concentration is rising at an approximate rate
of 2 ppm every year (IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage,
2005). IPCC recommends that atmospheric CO2 concentration must be reduced to
the 1990 level or less in the next 20–30 years and, therefore, major CO2 -emitting
industries must take decisive measures for achieving drastic cuts in CO2 emissions
within this period [2, 3].
Concrete is the most widely used building material in the world because of its
strength and durability, among other benefits. Concrete is used in nearly every type
of construction, including homes, buildings, roads, bridges, airports, and subways
[4, 5]. The production of Portland cement, which is an essential constituent of
concrete, leads to the release of significant amount of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases (GHGs) [6–8]. According to Gigaton throwdown initiative 2009, the cement
industry contributes to about 5% of the global anthropogenic CO2 emissions [9].
Thus, it is clear that cement industries are contributing significantly to the climate
change. For the sustainability of cement and concrete industries, they must take deci-
sive measures for achieving significant reduction in CO2 emissions. Significant CO2
reduction can be achieved through replacement of cement in concrete by optimum
amount of supplementary cementitious materials [6, 7, 10, 11]. Fly ashes, ground
granulated blast furnace Slag (GGBS), silica fume, geopolymers, rice husks, etc,.
are some of the supplementary cementitious materials available to replace cement
[7, 10, 12–15].
Thermal power industries produce million tons of coal fly ash each year, which
are usually disposed in the form of piles and landfills leading to the environmental
as well as health issues [16–19]. Several studies show that fly ash can be used up to
25–30% replacement level to cement depending upon the quality of ash (4–5, 15).
According to American Concrete Institute, the substitution of Portland cement by
25% of fly ash reduces overall CO2 emission by 30–50% [6, 15, 18, 19]. American
Coal Ash Association estimates that fly ash in concrete is responsible for avoiding
12 million tons of CO2 emissions each year [1, 18]. World’s steel production is also
Influence of Fineness of Mineral Admixtures … 119
increasing day by day due to the increasing needs of population. This has led to the
production of slag, by-product in the manufacture of steel. Majority of slag usually
remains unused. Researches report that substantial portion of the normal Portland
cement in concrete can be replaced by GGBS, generally about 50% [10, 20]. While
comparing with Portland cement, manufacture of GGBS requires less than a fifth of
the energy and produces less than a fifteenth of the carbon dioxide emissions [10,
21]. Studies also show that as slag is rich in calcium and magnesium oxide it can be
also used as a feedstock for carbon dioxide sequestration [10, 20–23].
The alternative method to control the global warming is CO2 absorption. The
carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a new technology which can be achieved
through geological storage, ocean storage, and storage below sea bed and through
mineral carbonation [24]. Mineral carbonation is a process similar to natural weath-
ering process. It is an exothermic reaction between metal oxides bearing materials
and carbon dioxide which results in the formation of thermodynamically stable
carbonate minerals [19, 24, 25]. Unlike other sequestration process, mineral carbon-
ation provides permanent trapping of carbonate mineral where post monitoring is
not essential once CO2 sequestration is done. However, the natural carbonation is
a slow process. Pre-treatment like grinding is one of the ways to improve the rate
of carbonation. Mineral carbonation can be achieved through direct carbonation,
direct gas–solid carbonation, direct aqueous carbonation, and indirect carbonation
[11, 12, 24–27]. In direct method, carbonation takes place in single step. While in
indirect method, calcium and magnesium are first extracted from the mineral and
then carbonated.
The calcium and magnesium-bearing industrial residues like coal fly ash, steel
slag, and waste concrete can be used as a feedstock for carbon dioxide sequestra-
tion [7, 12–15, 21, 24]. Carbon dioxide sequestration can be achieved economically
through the mineral carbonation of calcium-bearing sulfated mixture of admixture
to atmospheric conditions in open place [28]. During mineral carbonation, initially
dissolution of silica and alumina occurs in the presence of calcium and sulfate which
results in the formation of unstable mineral ettringite, which further decomposes to
form the carbonate and sulfate minerals [29]. Thus, it seems that carbon dioxide
capture and storage technology, low-temperature burning technology, and increased
admixture content of cement are effective methods of reducing the carbon dioxide
emissions.
Considering this in view, current experimental investigation was carried out
focusing on to the atmospheric mineral carbonation. Mineral admixtures like fly
ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and silica fume, which are the indus-
trial by-products are being used in this study. This study also presents the effect
of fineness of different mineral admixtures on the degree of atmospheric mineral
carbonation through advanced characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction
(XRD), thermo gravimetric analysis (TG-DTA), and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). In addition, influence of fineness of mineral admixtures such as fly ash with
three different levels of fineness ranging from 2100 to 3350 cm2 /g (FA, FAI, and
FAII), GGBS with three different levels of fineness ranging from 3500 to 4700 cm2 /g
(GGBS, GGBS I, and GGBS II), and silica fume (200,000 cm2 /g) mixed with acti-
vators like lime and gypsum was left for atmospheric mineral carbonation in order
to study the rate of atmospheric mineral carbonation.
2 Materials and Material Characteristics
The present study was focused on to determine the potential of atmospheric mineral
carbonation. The mineral admixtures used in present experiment investigation are:
The class F fly ash procured from Udupi Power plant, Padubidri, Karnataka;
GGBS procured from locally available sources in Jindal Steel and Power Limited,
Bengaluru, Karnataka; and Silica fume procured from Manjeshwar Techno Trades,
Mangalore (named as “CORNICHE SF”) confirming to ASTM C1240:2005 and IS
15388:2003 standards were used in the present study. In this study, fly ash with three
different levels of fineness (FA, FA I, and FA II), GGBS with three different levels
of fineness (GGBS, GGBS I, and GGBS II), and silica fume with unaltered fineness
were considered. The received samples of fly ash of fineness 2162 cm2 /g and GGBS
of fineness 3530 cm2 /g were named as FA and GGBS, respectively, while the grinded
samples of fly ash and GGBS were named as FA I (2874 cm2 /g), FA II (3349 cm2 /g),
GGBS I (3917 cm2 /g), and GGBS II (4670 cm2 /g), respectively.
In order to activate the mineral admixtures for atmospheric mineral carbona-
tion, the current study made use of activator such as hydrated lime containing small
percentages of calcium oxide and gypsum; both procured from Sri Durga Laboratory
Equipments, Mangalore were used.
The physical properties of the materials used in present investigation are presented
in Table 1. The consistency of different mixes used in present study is shown in the
Table 2.
Table 1 Physical properties of the received and grinded samples

Sl. No. Materials Specific gravity Fineness (cm2 /g) Normal consistency (%)
1 FA 2.18 2161.86 32.00
2 FA I 2.28 2873.45 32.50
3 FA II 2.33 3349.14 33.00
4 GGBS 2.86 3529.41 35.00
5 GGBS I 2.89 3917.27 36.50
6 GGBS II 3.03 4670.03 37.00
7 SF 2.26 200,000 83.00
Table 2 Consistency of the mixes for carbonation

Sl. No. Samples Admixture (gms) Lime (gms) Gypsum (gms) Consistency (%)
1 FA 375 15 10 34
2 FA I 375 15 10 34.5
3 FA II 375 15 10 35
4 GGBS 375 15 10 37
5 GGBS I 375 15 10 38
6 GGBS II 375 15 10 39
7 SF 375 15 10 85
3 Experimental Study
3.1 Sample Preparation
The preparation of sample involves two steps, i.e., (a) grinding (ball milling) and (b)
preparation of mix for atmospheric mineral carbonation.
Grinding (ball milling)
The received samples of fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS) were subject to mechanical grinding by means of ball mill. Fly ash was
grounded to the fineness of 2873.45 cm2 /g (FA I) and 3349.14 cm2 /g (FA II) after
grinding for the duration of 1 h and 2 h, respectively, in ball mill. Similarly, GGBS was
also grounded to the fineness levels of 3917.27 cm2 /g (GGBS II) and 4670.03 cm2 /g
(GGBS III) after grinding for 21 /2 h and 5 h, respectively, in ball mill.
Preparation of mix for atmospheric mineral carbonation.
The seven sample mixes for atmospheric mineral carbonation were prepared by
mixing mineral admixtures with lime and gypsum in the ratio of 100:4:3 [24]. Water
was also added to make the paste workable. Amount of water added was determined
using the consistency of the mix. Then the prepared samples were grounded into
powder and kept in porcelain dish and was exposed to open atmosphere for mineral
carbonation for a period of 45 days and 90 days. After 45 days and 90 days of
carbonation, few grams of each carbonated sample were taken out and were tested for
X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) in order to check the
carbonation rate. Figure 1 represents the prepared samples for atmospheric mineral
carbonation.
FA FA1 FAII
GGBS GGBS1 GGBSII
SF
Fig. 1 Prepared samples of FA, FA I, FA II, GGBS, GGBS I, GGBS II, and SF
3.2 Analysis and Measurement of Carbonation
The extent of carbonation after 45 days and 90 days of atmospheric exposure is

analyzed by means of three techniques, i.e., X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), thermo
gravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscope (SCM).
XRD was used to determine the mineralogical characteristics of the received
samples and the carbonated sample. The test was carried out at a deflection angle
ranging from 20° to 80° at a scanning speed of 2°/min. The intensity peak data
obtained from XRD were then analyzed using X-Pert High Score Plus software. XRD
gave different peaks at different intensities corresponding to diffraction angles. Each
peak corresponds to a specific mineral. As calcite and calcium-based compounds
were present, it was concluded that the sample was carbonated.
TGA was carried out by taking few milligram of the powdered sample in a plat-
inum pan and was properly placed in the furnace. The sample was then heated from
50 to 100 °C at heating rate of 10°/min and from 100 to 900 °C at 20°/min in air
with a purge rate of 20 ml/min. The recorder automatically records the change in
weight with temperature. From the plot between weight and temperature, the weight
loss was analyzed. The mass loss in the TGA curve indicates the consumption of
some bound water and calcium hydrates during the decarbonation. The degree of
carbonation using TGA results was analyzed based on two different methods:
Method I: Based on study conducted [13], degree of CO2 sequestration can be
calculated as follows:
Rloss
Eb = × 100. (1)
1 − Rloss
where Eb = CO2 sequestration efficiency of the carbonated paste (%) and Rloss =
weight loss due to the decarbonation of carbonates in the carbonated paste between
500 and 900 °C (%).
Method II: Based on the study conducted by [21], degree of carbonation can be
calculated as follows:
m500◦ C −900◦ C
CO2 content (wt%) = × 100, (2)
m105◦ C
where m500°C–900°C = weight loss of the sample between 500 and 900 °C from
TGA graphs (mg) and m105°C = weight of sample at 105 °C from TGA graphs (mg).
CO2 (wt % ) MWCa (g/mol)

100−CO2 (wt % )
× MWCO2 (g/mol)
Carbonation Degree, ζ(% ) = × 100 (3)
Atot (g/g)
where MWCa = molecular weight of Ca in g/mol, MWCO2 = molecular weight of

CO2 in g/mol, and Atot = total weight of admixture per weight of paste (g/g).
Morphological study was carried out by means of scanning electron microscope
to analyze the microstructure of carbonated and non-carbonated samples.
4.1 Results of XRD Analysis
The mineralogical composition of the samples was analyzed and was depicted in
Fig. 2a–g, and Table 3 presents the pattern list of XRD peaks.
Fig. 2 XRD patterns of non-carbonated and carbonated samples of a FA b FA I c FA II d GGBS

e GGBS I f GGBS II g SF
Fig. 2 (continued)
Table 3 Pattern list of XRD peaks

Symbol Compound name Chemical formula
Q Quartz SiO2
M Mullite, syn Al4.75 Si1.25 O9.63
S Sillimanite Al2 SiO5
K Kieserite MgSO4 (H2 O)
D Diopside CaMgSi2 O6
τ Moissanite 3\ITC\RG, syn SiC
α Calcite CaCO3
ρ Gypsum, syn CaSO4 .2H2 O
ε Gismondine CaAl2 Si2 O8 .4H2 O
η Calcite, magnesium, syn (Mg0.06 Ca0.94 )(CO3
λ Calcium silicate hydrate Ca2 SiO4 .0.50H2 O
μ Aragonite CaCO3
φ Augite Ca(Mg0.85 Al0.15 )((Si1.70 Al0.30 )O6 )
ζ Parawollastonite CaSiO3
δ Coesite SiO2
χ Magnetite Fe3 O4
γ Calcite CaCO3
Waikarite CaAl2 Si4 O12 .2 H2 O
σ Grossite, syn CaAl4 O7
Calcium sulfate CaSO4
π Vaterite, syn CaCO3
ψ Portlandite, syn Ca(OH)2
From the XRD patterns of non-carbonated fly ash, it can be observed that fly ash
contains minerals like quartz, mullite, sillimanite, and kieserite. It can be observed
from the XRD patterns of 45 days carbonated fly ash samples (FA, FA I, FA II)
that some of the quartz, mullite, sillimanite, and kieserite minerals were replaced by
calcite, aragonite, diopside, gypsum, gismondine, calcium silicate hydate, and augite.
But it is clear from the XRD patterns of 90 days carbonated samples of fly ash that
most of the minerals found in non-carbonated samples were replaced by calcium-
based compounds like calcite, calcite magnesium, aragonite, calcite magnesium syn,
diopside, waikarite, and calcium sulfate (Fig. 2a–c).
No significant peaks can be analyzed from the XRD patterns of non-carbonated
GGBS. But after 45 days of carbonation, calcite peaks can be identified in the samples
of GGBS (GGBS, GGBS I, and GGBS II). XRD patterns of GGBS samples after
90 days show more peaks with the presence of calcium-based compounds like calcite,
vaterite, portlandite, and diopside (Fig. 2d–f).
XRD patterns of non-carbonated silica fume show the presence of minerals such
as diopside and moissanite. XRD patterns of 45 days carbonated sample of silica
fume (SF) shows the presence of calcite, calcite magnesium, and coesite, while XRD
patterns of 90 days carbonated sample show the presence of calcite and gismondine
peaks (Fig. 2g).
So it is clear from the mineralogical analysis that calcium-based compounds were
formed after 90 days of carbonation which indicates that the samples were getting
carbonated with time.
4.2 Results of TGA Analysis
The results of thermo gravimetric analysis of the received samples of fly ash, GGBS,
and silica fume are shown in Fig. 3a–c. TGA results of 45 days of carbonated samples
are shown in Fig. 4a–g. TGA results after 90 days of carbonation are shown in
Fig. 5a–g.
From TGA test results of non-carbonated and carbonated samples, it can be
observed that there is a significant weight loss between 100–200 °C, 200–500 °C,
500–900 °C. The weight loss between 100 and 200 °C was mainly due to the decom-
position of moisture content in the sample [13, 21]. But it can be observed that weight
loss between 200 and 500 °C was less compared to the other two. This weight loss
was mainly due to the decomposition of magnesium-based carbonates and other
organic compounds [21]. A significant weight loss can be observed between 500 and
900 °C, which was mainly due to the decomposition of calcium carbonates and other
calcium-based compounds [13, 21, 25].
A comparative analysis of percentage weight losses of received samples was done
and is depicted in Fig. 6. A comparative analysis of percentage weight losses between
500 and 900 °C for different samples with different fineness was done and is plotted
in the Figs. 7, 8, and 9.
a 17.43
25.00
6.000
17.42
20.00
17.41
4.000
15.00
17.40
10.00 2.000
17.39
DTA uV
TG mg
5.00 17.38
0.000
17.37
0.00
-2.000 17.36
-5.00
17.35
-10.00
-4.000
17.34
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0

Temp Cel
b 25.00
0.000
17.20
20.00
17.19
-1.000
17.18
15.00
-2.000 17.17
DTA uV
TG mg
10.00
17.16
-3.000
5.00
17.15
0.00
-4.000 17.14
-5.00 17.13
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0

Temp Cel
c -2.00 20.10
35.00
-4.00
20.00
-6.00
30.00
-8.00
19.90
25.00
-10.00
-12.00 19.80
DTA uV
TG mg
20.00
-14.00
19.70
15.00 -16.00
-18.00
19.60
10.00
-20.00
-22.00 19.50
5.00
-24.00
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0

Temp Cel
Fig. 3 TGA of days received samples a FA b GGBS c SF

34.40
250.0
a -2.00
b 220.0
10.00
40.00
200.0
-4.00 8.00 34.20
200.0 180.0
39.80
-6.00
6.00
160.0 34.00
-8.00
39.60
140.0
150.0 4.00
-10.00
33.80
DTA uV
DTA uV
TG mg
120.0
TG mg
39.40
-12.00
100.0 2.00
100.0 -14.00
39.20 33.60
80.0
0.00
-16.00
60.0
39.00
-18.00 33.40
50.0 40.0 -2.00
-20.00 38.80
20.0
33.20
-4.00
-22.00
0.0
0.0 38.60
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0
Temp Cel Temp Cel
c 220.0
d 160.0
4.000
31.60
200.0 -2.00 21.80
140.0 3.000
180.0 -4.00
21.60
31.40
120.0 2.000
160.0
-6.00
21.40
1.000
140.0 100.0
-8.00 31.20
21.20
120.0 0.000
DTA uV
TG mg
DTA uV
TG mg
80.0
-10.00
100.0 31.00 -1.000 21.00
-12.00 60.0
80.0
-2.000
20.80
-14.00 30.80 40.0
60.0
-3.000
20.60
40.0 -16.00
20.0
30.60 -4.000
20.0 -18.00 20.40
0.0
-5.000
0.0
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0
Temp Cel Temp Cel
250.0
e 15.00
f 0.00
200.0
26.00 33.50
-5.00
180.0 10.00
200.0
25.80
160.0
-10.00
5.00 33.00
25.60
140.0
150.0 -15.00
0.00
120.0 25.40
DTA uV
TG mg
32.50
DTA uV
TG mg
-20.00
100.0 -5.00
25.20
100.0
80.0
-25.00
-10.00
25.00
32.00
60.0
-15.00 -30.00
50.0
40.0 24.80
20.0 -20.00 -35.00 31.50

24.60
0.0 0.0
-25.00 -40.00
24.40
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0
Temp Cel Temp Cel
19.00
g 100.0
0.00
18.90
80.0
-2.00
18.80
60.0
-4.00
18.70
40.0 -6.00
DTA uV
TG mg
18.60
20.0 -8.00
18.50
0.0 -10.00
18.40
-20.0 -12.00
-14.00 18.30
-40.0
-16.00 18.20
-60.0
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0

Temp Cel
Fig. 4 TGA of 45 days carbonated samples a FA b FA I c FA II d GGBS e GGBS I f GGBS II

g SF
4.3 Analysis of Degree of Carbonation
Degree of carbonation of the samples after 45 and 90 days of carbonation was calcu-
lated based on the method suggested by Cao, W. and Yang, Q. (2015) and Huijgen,
26.00
a 160.0 b 180.0
-10.0 21.50
25.90
140.0
160.0 -5.00
-20.0
120.0 25.80
21.40
-30.0 140.0
100.0
25.70
21.30 -10.00
-40.0 120.0
80.0
25.60
-50.0
60.0
DTA uV
DTA uV
TG mg
100.0
TG mg
21.20
25.50
-60.0 -15.00
40.0
80.0
21.10
25.40
20.0 -70.0
60.0
0.0 -80.0 -20.00 25.30
21.00
40.0
-20.0 -90.0 25.20
20.90
-40.0 20.0
-100.0 -25.00
25.10
-60.0 0.0
20.80
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0
Temp Cel Temp Cel
0.00
c 140.0 17.70 d 20.0
18.60
140.0
-5.00
120.0 0.0
17.60 120.0
-10.00 18.40
100.0
-20.0
-15.00 100.0
17.50 18.20
80.0
-40.0
-20.00
80.0
DTA uV
DTA uV
60.0
TG mg
TG mg
18.00
17.40
-25.00 -60.0
60.0
40.0
-30.00 17.80
-80.0
17.30 40.0
20.0
-35.00
20.0 -100.0 17.60
0.0 17.20
-40.00
0.0 -120.0
17.40
-20.0
-45.00
17.10
-20.0
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0
Temp Cel Temp Cel
31.80
e 250.0
33.40
f 5.00
35.00
200.0 31.60
33.20
0.00
30.00
150.0 31.40
33.00
200.0
25.00 -5.00
31.20
32.80 100.0
20.00
-10.00 31.00
32.60
50.0
150.0
15.00 30.80
32.40
-15.00
DTA uV
DTA uV
TG mg
TG mg
0.0
10.00 30.60
32.20
100.0 -50.0 -20.00
5.00 30.40
32.00
-100.0 -25.00 30.20

0.00 31.80
50.0
-150.0 30.00
-5.00 31.60 -30.00
29.80
-10.00 31.40 -200.0
-35.00
0.0
29.60
31.20
-15.00 -250.0
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0 800.0 900.0
Temp Cel Temp Cel
g 0.00
14.30
70.00
-5.00 14.25
60.00
14.20
50.00
-10.00
14.15
40.00
-15.00 14.10
DTA uV
TG mg
30.00
14.05
-20.00
20.00
14.00
10.00
-25.00 13.95
0.00
13.90
-30.00
-10.00 13.85
-20.00 -35.00 13.80
100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0 700.0

Temp Cel
Fig. 5 TGA of 90 days carbonated samples a FA b FA I c FA II d GGBS e GGBS I f GGBS II

g SF
W.J.J., Witkamp, G., and Comans, R.N.J. (2005) [13, 21, 25], and comparative anal-
ysis of both the methods for 45 and 90 days is depicted in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11,
respectively. From the comparative analysis, it was clear that GGBS II had highest
degree of carbonation followed by GGBS I and GGBS for both 45 and 90 days of
carbonation.
Fig. 6 Comparison of % % Wt loss at 500˚C-900˚C

weight losses of received 1
samples of FA, GGBS, and
0.8
% weight loss b/w

SF
500˚C-900˚C
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
FA GGBS SF
Fig. 7 Comparison of % 3
% weight loss b/w 500˚C-900˚C
weight loss of
2.5
non-carbonated (received)
and carbonated samples of 2 FA
fly ash (CFA, CFA I, CFA II)
1.5 CFA
CFA I
1
CFA II
0.5
0
45 Days Carbonated 90 Days Carbonated
Fig. 8 Comparison of %
% weight loss b/w 500˚C-900˚C
5
weight loss of
non-carbonated (received) 4
GGBS
and carbonated samples of
GGBS (C-GGBS, C-GGBS 3
C-GGBS
I, C-GGBS II)
2
C-GGBS I
1
0
Fig. 9 Comparison of % 3
weight loss of
2.5
non-carbonated (received)
% weight loss b/w
500˚C-900˚C
and carbonated samples of 2

silica fume (CSF) 1.5
SF
CSF
1
0.5
0
Degree of carbonation (%)

4
3
Cao et.al.
2
Huijgen
1
et. al.
0
FA FA I FA II GGBS GGBS I GGBS II SF
Fig. 10 Comparison of calculated degree of carbonation of the different samples at 45 days based
on the two different methods
5
Degree of carbonation (%)
3
Cao et.
2
al.
1 Huijgen
et. al.
0
FA FA I FA II GGBS GGBS I GGBS II SF
Fig. 11 Comparison of calculated degree of carbonation of the different samples at 90 days based
on the two different methods
4.4 Results of SEM Analysis
The results of the morphological analysis of non-carbonated and carbonated samples

using SEM were shown in Figs. 12, 13, and 14.
It can be observed from the SEM results of non-carbonated samples of fly ash that it
appears to be spherical in shape with smooth surface and were loosely packed. While
in the carbonated samples, it can be observed that some of the particles were fused
together with the other particles, and they appear to be porous in their morphology
(Fig. 12). The SEM results of non-carbonated GGBS samples depict that particles
appear to be crystalline in shape with lots of pores in between them. However, in
the carbonated samples of GGBS, particles appear to be agglomerated which may
be due to the formation of calcite minerals. It can also be noticed that less pores
were present in between the particles (Fig. 13). While, in case of non-carbonated
silica fume, irregurlar shaped particles were found to dispersed in the matrix. While
in carbonated samples, it can be observed that the degree of reaction happens to
be significant and the particles were found to be fused together with fewer pores
between them (Fig. 14).
FA CFA FA1
CFA1 FA II CFA II
Fig. 12 SEM results of non-carbonated and carbonated samples of fly ash
GGBS C-GGBS GGBS I
C-GGBS GGBS II C-GGBS I
Fig. 13 SEM results of non-carbonated samples and carbonated samples of GGBS
While comparing the SEM results of non-carbonated samples of fly ash with
different fineness, there do not appear any distinct morphological differences. Both
fine particles (FA I, FA II) and coarser particles (FA) of fly ash appear to be round in
shape, while coarser particles had some finer particles in between them. In carbonated
samples of fly ash with different fineness (FA, FA I, and FA II), a rim of carbonation
products can be observed on the particles but not much difference can be noticed
Fig. 14 SEM results of

non-carbonated and
carbonated samples of silica
fume
SF CSF
with different fineness levels. In non-carbonated samples of GGBS with all levels of
fineness (GGBS, GGBS I, and GGBS II), it can be observed that particles appear to be
crystalline and flaky in shape. In coarser samples, bigger as well as smaller particles
can be seen. While in carbonated samples, particles appear to be fused together but
no significant difference can be observed with different fineness levels of GGBS.
5 Conclusions
From the results and discussion, following conclusions can be drawn.

Mineral admixtures like fly ash, GGBS, and silica fume get carbonated with
45 and 90 days of atmospheric mineral carbonation. With 45 days of atmospheric
mineral carbonation, only few of the compounds present in mineral admixtures gets
converted into calcium-based compounds. But with 90 days of carbonation, most
of the compounds present in the non-carbonated samples of fly ash, GGBS, and
silica fume gets converted into calcium-based compounds such as calcite, aragonite,
vaterite, calcite magnesium syn, calcium silicate hydrate, gypsum, calcium sulfate,
gismondine, diopside, and waikarite.
Analysis using method I (according to Cao and Yang [13]) had highest degree of
carbonation compared to the method II (according to Huijgen et al. [21]). GGBS II
achieved degree of carbonation of 4.605%, which is highest among all the mineral
admixtures.
Bonded arrangement of particles found in the morphological studies of carbonated
samples is mainly due to the formation of calcite and other calcium-based compounds
during the atmospheric mineral carbonation.
With the increase in the fineness of mineral admixtures, there is no significant
change in their degree of atmospheric mineral carbonation.
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Experimental Setup for Thermal
Performance Study of Phase Change
Material Admixed Cement
Composites—A Review
K. Snehal and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Abstract Phase change material (PCM) is a prospective material with a caliber to

store thermal energy. The hasty development in the modern world and lavish life style
amplified the energy demand. Building and infrastructure are the leading energy and
material consumers over the globe. Conservation of building energy associated to
heating and cooling is made possible by embedding PCM in construction materials
(like concrete) which has a great potential to improve the thermal comfort of the resi-
dents. The concrete coupled with PCMs has a tendency to improve the thermophysical
properties like heat capacity/thermal mass and thermal insulating property besides
with an ability to save energy for the development of sustainable built environment.
There are so many techniques and experimental setups used by the researchers to
analyze the thermal performance of PCM-admixed cementitious systems. In line to
this, an attempt has been made to review the different experimental setup used by
various researchers to study the thermal facets (heat capacity, thermal cycle, thermal
conductivity, etc.) of PCM-doped cementitious systems
Keywords Phase change material · Thermal cycle · Thermal conductivity · Heat

capacity
1 Introduction
The sensible heat and latent heat are the two categories of thermal energy storage
techniques [1, 2]. Amongst the two thermal energy storage techniques, latent heat
which is isothermal in nature possesses larger ability to store energy [3, 4]. Phase
change material (PCM) is one such potential material which can store latent heat
during the cycle of phase change from solid to liquid and vice versa [5–7]. The rapid
K. Snehal · B. B. Das (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal 575025, India
K. Snehal
e-mail: snehalshine090@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_13
138 K. Snehal and B. B. Das
growth in urbanization increased the need for energy where building and infrastruc-
ture industries are the globe’s prime source for energy consumption. At this juncture,
developing an energy-efficient building and construction material is of great poten-
tial. Considering this in view, introducing PCM as a latent heat storage material in
chief building materials like cement composites has been suggested by researchers
as a media to improve the thermal efficiency of building [5, 8, 9] by reducing heating
and cooling load [4]. The several factors that influence the inside air temperature
of a building includes outside climatic conditions like temperature variation, solar
heat, wind speed, etc., along with other physical properties like thickness of wall,
window/wall area ratio, thermal conductivity of wall, etc., and few other factors
like indoor heating sources, supplementary heating/cooling system, etc. Balancing
the indoor temperature differences in building plays a significant role in thermal
comfort and at the same time increases the thermal effectiveness [4, 10]. Researchers
had reported that PCMs have a significant potential in improving thermal mass/heat
capacity [11, 12] as well as in improving the thermal resistivity by lowering the
thermal conductivity [8, 13] of cement composites. Figure 1 depicts the balancing
effect on indoor temperature by the influence of thermal mass.
For the effective utilization of PCMs as thermal energy storage material in cemen-
titious system, it should possess certain desirable thermodynamic, kinetic, and chem-
ical properties [15]. Literature says PCMs integration in any form of application mate-
rial will induce the temperature responses [16]. The specific heat, latent heat capacity,
heat flow, thermal cycle, and thermal conductivity are the significant thermophys-
ical properties needed to be assessed for PCM-integrated cementitious system [11].
In general PCM-doped cement composites are characterized by means of differen-
tial scanning calorimeter for analyzing the thermal performance of the material by
considering the small quantity of material (~4 mg) [17]. As of to monitor real scale
building adopted with PCM-integrated material is a complicated, expensive, and
time-consuming procedure. In context to this, researchers have employed few other
Fig. 1 Balancing indoor

temperature by the influence
of thermal mass (Source
Saulles [14])
Experimental Setup for Thermal Performance Study … 139
feasible techniques in laboratory scale for investigating the thermal performance of

cement composite materials.
This paper refers to the review on different experimental setups used by various
researchers to study the thermal aspects of PCM-admixed cementitious systems.
2 Experimental Setup for Thermal Performance Study
Researchers had made use of various approaches to measure the thermal

cycles/thermal storage capacity of PCM-integrated cementitious system, and
majority of the researchers had incorporated differential scanning calorimeter (DSC)
to analyze the thermal properties. However, an attempt has been made to assemble
few different experimental procedure/set up adopted by the previous researchers to
analyze the thermal property techniques [17–28].
The experimental setup used by Cellat et al. [18] in their study is a programmable
thermo stated water bath [Huber CC, Fig. 2a] to measure the heating/cooling curves
of PCM (butyl stearate) which was controlled by the temperature range of 5–35 °C
at the rate of 1 °C min−1 . The procedure involved is stated by the authors; the test
tube containing 10 ml of sample is taken and placed in water bath, and the change
in temperature was recorded by the data logger at the interval of 10 s which was
measured by T-type thermocouples (accuracy of ±5 °C). Authors have reported that
as the lifespan of PCM is reliant on its thermal cycle stability the test was carried out
by means of aforementioned experimental setup by subjecting the samples to heating
and cooling cycles, i.e., initially by heating the sample above the PCM melting point
and cooling below its freezing point. The sample was subjected to 1000 thermal
cycles, and the thermal properties of each sample after the 200 successive thermal
Fig. 2 a Experimental apparatus to measure heating and cooling curves in water bath b heating
and cooling curve of PCM (Source Cellat et al. [18])
cycles were analyzed by means of differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The

Fig. 2b represents measured thermal cycles (heating and cooling curve).
Farnam et al. [19] employed the longitudinal guarded comparative calorimeter
(LGCC) to analyze the thermal response of PCM-included mortar specimens through
heating and cooling activities, and to carry out this analysis authors have made use of
PCM-based mortar specimens (LWA or an embedded tube form) of size 25.4 × 25.4
× 50.8 mm. Authors have stated that in order to yield the one-dimensional heat flow
temperature gradient is produced in specimen and 2 m bars were used at the top and
bottom of specimens with known thermal properties to examine the temperatures
at different positions. Researchers had used two-stage cold plate (CascadeCCP-22,
TECA, Chicago, Illinois) method by varying the specimen temperature from 24 to
−40 °C (at the heating and cooling rate of 4 °C/h and −2°). It was also stated that to
accomplish thermal equilibrium the constant temperature was maintained at 24 °C
for 1 h and −40 °C for 4 h, then equilibrium was maitained for one test cycle (refer
Fig. 3 for the LGCC heat flow curve). Authors also used low temperature differential
scanning calorimeter (LT-DSC) to analyze the thermal properties of PCMs.
The study by Gunasingh and Hemalatha [20] evaluated the inside variation of
PCM (paraffin) modified concrete temperature by means of positioning the “K-
type” thermocouple before placing the concrete at the center and the sides of the
mold (Fig. 4). Their experimental setup included the endemically fabricated digital
thermometer with seven segmented LED display to measure the temperature and
even the inside temperature of concrete cube.
Lecompte et al. [21] in parallel to the analysis of thermal properties (latent heat,
specific heat, phase change temperature) of PCM-based concrete by DSC, a hot plate
apparatus (similar setup by Franquet et al. [22]) is also used as to evaluate the thermal
Fig. 3 LGCC heatflow curve for PCM-based mortars prepared from a Type 1 cement b Type V
cement (Source Farnam et al. [19])
Fig. 4 Experimental setup

to measure the temperature
by means of positioned
K-type thermocouples
(Source Gunasingh and
Hemalatha [20])
responses as well as the thermal conductivity of the specimens (Fig. 5). The experi-
mental setup consists of two cryothermostats and heating resistance (located at the hot
side) and thermal guards (to ensure one-dimensional heat transfer). On monitoring
the cryothermostat temperature and heating power, the hot and cold plate tempera-
tures were kept in control. Hence, three K-type thermocouples were surrounded on
the surface of plates to measure the temperature; in addition to that, hot plate was used
to monitor the power dissipation through heating resistance, thereby allowing entire
power transmission to the specimen. Authors had mentioned that specimen of size
13 * 13 * 2 or 5 cm3 (comprised of K-type thermocouple at the center placed during
casting) was used which was sandwiched between hot–cold plates, and the temper-
atures were recorded via data logger as well as heat flux by means of flux meters.

for thermal response
measurement (Source
Lecompte et al. [21])
Researchers had enforced several temperature levels so as to attain the stationary

state and thus to characterize the thermal responses of specimens.
The innovative experimental methodology used by Pisello et al. [17] involved
coupling of two experimental appliances (Hot Disk thermal constant analyzer
surrounded by environmental climatic chamber, Fig. 6) to investigate the influence
of temperature fluctuation on PCM-admixed concrete. Researchers made use of Hot
Disk appliance which utilizes [23] transient plane source (TPS) method to charac-
terize the two identical samples of same material. Whereas, environment chamber
(601 × 810 × 694 mm) is furnished with inbuilt thermocouples and solar stim-
ulator to regulate air temperature, relative humidity, and radiative power. Double
Nickel spiral (10 µm thick) plane was fastened between two identical samples
(10 × 10 × 5 cm) which is employed as a heat source and dynamic sensor subjected
electrical heating. While the entire sandwiched setup was covered by 10 cm thick
polyurethane foam over four faces leaving the top and bottom faces to have a direct
expose to controlled environment, the entire sandwiched setup was placed in envi-
ronmental climatic chamber and subjected to hygrothermal cycle. The samples gets
exposed to the developed variation in heat, probe temperature increases with increase
in time. Fundamental thermal property mainly relies on the nature of surrounding
samples. Authors stated that time-dependent resistance to electric heat sensed by hot
disk sensor was measured as thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity in addition
to specific heat of the material.
Niall et al. [24] employed an experimental setup to analyze the heating behavior of
PCM (microencapsulated and impregnated lightweight aggregate form) incorporated
concrete panels. Authors used the concrete panels of the size 200 mm × 200 mm
× 200 mm (cured for 28 day and dried for extra 28 days) embedded with three
thermocouples at a depth of 50 mm in addition to the thermocouples at front and rear
faces of the panels in order to record the temperature by means of data logger (Fig. 7).
Researchers introduced an artificial light source (Follow 1200 pro lamp) in order to
imitate the heat energy transfer from natural light source (sunlight) to the exposed
panel. While it is possible to regulate the wavelength of the emitted electromagnetic
waves from pro lamp, in addition to this, insulated light box was fabricated to avoid
the environmental effects (i.e., temperature discrepancy).
Fig. 6 Experimental arrangement a TPS sensor sandwiched between two identical concrete
samples b concrete sample guarded by polyurethane foam c final experimental setup within
environmental chamber (Source Pisello et al. [17])
Fig. 7 Schematic
representation of
experimental setup of light
box (Source Niall et al. [24])
The thermal properties characterized by Pisello et al. [17] of PCM-admixed

concrete composites made use of in-lab analysis tool which included
(a) Solar spectrophotometer and integrating sphere (Shimatzu SolidSpec-3700) in
accordance to ASTM E1980–11 [29] was employed to analyze the variation in
concrete optical surface finishing corresponding to the presence of PCM (refer
Fig. 8a).
(b) Thermal emissometer (AE1 RD1) in accordance to ASTM C1371-04a [30]
was employed to characterize the thermal properties like thermal conductivity,
thermal diffusivity, and specific heat (refer Fig. 8b). Whereas, authors mention
that kapton-covered flat tungsten spiral probe present in the equipment (placed
in a single sided alignment) performed as a source of heat and thermometer
resistance, super insulating material was placed on the opposite side of the probe,
with known thermal properties imputed to the large irregularity of one side
surface of the specimens. Researchers had conducted experiments at ambient
Fig. 8 Experimental
apparatus for thermal and
optical energy analysis
a solar spectrophotometer
b thermal emissometer c hot
disk (Source Pisello et al.
[17])
Fig. 9 Experimental setup to measure heat transfer and flow (left) and encapsulated flat plate (right,
Source Zalba et al. [10])
temperature condition (i.e., at about 20–22 °C) where majority of the PCM in
the composites are in liquid phase. Authors reported that the experiments were
repeated for three times for each sample, and mean value is considered as the
final data.
(c) Hot disk method in accordance to ISO 22007-2 [31] was employed to measure
the thermal conductivity (refer Fig. 8c)
Zalba et al. [10] made use of a closed air experimental apparatus inbuilt with fan for
air movement, heating and cooling system with ability to fix the suitable temperature
of air as well as a thermal storage unit to measure the airflow and temperature; Fig. 9
(left) represents the experimental setup. Authors have reported that the experiment
was carried out with the flat plate encapsulate (other than any other geometry, Fig. 9
right) for the reason that PCM heat transfer would be monitored by encapsulate
thickness; melting and solidification process is uniform in corresponding to the plane
at the center of the plate and fall in air pressure is less. Authors stated that by means
of calibrated platinum resistance thermometers (5 nos) placed in both inlet and outlet
conduits of storage unit air temperature was measured and airflow via calibrated flow
meter; the complete stored data were assessed through specific software.
The experimental study carried out by Borreguero et al. [25] made use of an exper-
imental setup as represented in Fig. 10. This setup comprised of aluminum hollow
metallic box (10 * 6 * 3 cm) maintained at desired temperature via constant deminer-
alized water flow using peristaltic pump from a thermostatic bath. The aluminum cell
also includes an internal diffuser plate to improve liquid distribution and to endure
the same temperature. Researchers made use of 3 cm thick specimen and positioned
it on top of aluminum cell which was insulated with 2 cm thick cork boards. Overall
eleven K-type thermocouples were utilized as a media to measure temperatures,
among which nine were placed on exterior surface of the specimen and rest two
were located at the inlet and outlet borders of the cell along the liquid flow direc-
tion. The signals measured by thermocouples were recorded by means of computer
using NOKEVAL program. Study was carried out in two different ways (1) absorp-
tion study—varying the set point of thermostatic bath (21–40 ± 0.1 °C) and (2)

to study the thermal
properties of gypsum boards
(Source Borreguero et al.
[25])
reversibility study—cyclically varying the set point of thermostatic bath (21–36 ±

0.1 °C).
Dong et al. [26] studied thermal performance of hollow special ball impregnate
PCM modified concrete by making use of self-designed experimental set up (Fig. 11)
were PCM concrete panels of size 200 mm × 200 mm × 40 mm was used. Self-
designed experimental model includes a two compartment wooden box separated by
an internal wooden wall with 200 mm × 200 mm × 40 mm opening. A foam-made
test room was positioned within the compartment (at back) built with an internal
dimension of 200 mm × 200 mm × 200 mm and internal opening similar to internal
wooden wall. Whereas, the front compartment was placed with hollow reflective
paper coated PVC envelope in order to develop constant and stable temperature field.
Researchers had placed the concrete panel in the opening of the test room with the aid
of suitable sealant (to avoid air gap). They had used four K-type thermocouples (to
measure temperature) among which one was placed at the center of the test room and
the other two on the external and internal surfaces of the concrete panel. Finally, the
Fig. 11 Experimental setup to measure thermal performance a constituents uses b setting up of

the specimen c complete experimental setup and its top view (Source Dong et al. [26])
Fig. 12 Transient hot-bridge experimental setup (Source Saeed [27])
fourth one is used to measure the environmental temperature and positioned within
the compartment where the test room was stored. Setup also consists of heating
source (500 W lamp) at 500 mm distance on the front side. The temperature changes
were recorded by means of data logger during the process of heating (by lamp) the
sample for about three hours and then cooling (switch off the lamp) until sample
reaches an environmental temperature.
The study conducted by Saeed [27] on thermal conductivity measurement of PCM-
admixed cementitious samples employed Transient Hot-Bridge technique (Fig. 12).
Experimental setup was equipped with a kapton-insulated sensor enforced by 105 ×
42 mm metal frame. The directly inserted sensor into the sample acts as a temperature
probe and source of heat. Researchers depending upon the type of PCM applied a
suitable current (of 0.049 A) and measurement time (55 s). The computer connected
with data acquisition unit records the data, and the software (Intuitive Windows®
based software) computes the thermophysical properties like thermal conductivity,
heat capacity, and thermal diffusivity.
The study on thermal transmission of PCM cement composites by Jeong et al. [28]
utilized the calibrated hot box method (Fig. 13) which analyzes the realistic thermal
performance of building components like wall. This experimental setup consists
of cold and hot chambers along with a specimen-locating panel. The temperature
difference between the hot and cold boxes across the placed specimen of 20 °C was
created, and the temperature was recorded once the heat flow from hot to cold system
reaches constant value.
Fig. 13 Diagram
representing the plan of the
calibrated hot box (Source
Jeong et al. [28])
3 Conclusions
The following can be concluded from the above review.

Among various approaches used by the researchers to measure the thermal
cycles/thermal storage capacity of PCM-integrated cementitious system, differen-
tial scanning calorimeter (DSC) is used in extent to analyze the thermal properties.
The hot plate method is noticed to be the relevant and easy technique to analyze
thermal conductivity. However, other alternate simple and easy setup to measure the
thermal cycles is also recommended by the researchers.
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tural analysis of concrete containing microencapsulated phase change materials. Int J Pavement
Eng 14(5):449–462
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change materials and applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 13:318–345
4. Zhang Y, Zhou G, Lin K, Zhang Q, Di H (2007) Application of latent heat thermal energy
storage in buildings: state-of-the-art and outlook. Build Environ 42:2197–2209
5. Ling TC, Poon CS (2013) Use of phase change materials for thermal energy storage in concrete:
an overview. Constr Build Mater 46:55–62
6. Bentz DP, Turpin R (2007) Potential applications of phase change materials in concrete
technology. Cement Concr Compos 29:527–532
7. Jayalath A, Mendis P, Gammampila R, Lu A (2011) Applications of phase change materials

in concrete for sustainable built environment: a review. In: Proceedings of the international
conference on structural engineering, construction and management, at Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1
8. Kuznik F, David D, Johannes K, Roux JJ (2011) A review on phase change materials integrated
in building walls. Renew Sustain Energy Revolut 15(1):379–391
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energy storage systems: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Revolut 18:246–258
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11. Ricklefs A, Thiele AM, Falzone G, Sant G, Pilon L (2017) Thermal conductivity of cementitious
composites containing microencapsulated phase change materials. Int J Heat Mass Transf
104:71–82
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self-compacting concrete containing micro-encapsulated phase change materials. Cem Concr
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The Behavior of Ambad Earth Dam
Under Change in Water Level
and Earthquake
B. M. Bhosale and Rohan Deshmukh
Abstract This study presents a dynamic analysis and effect of a change in water
level on a zoned earth dam subjected to earthquake motion in which pore water
pressure, effective stresses, and displacements are calculated. The finite element
method is used in the analysis of the Earth dam. As a case study, the Ambad dam
is selected, which is located on the Ambad River in Nashik district of Maharashtra
and constructed of the zoned embankment, it has a total length of 0.946 km. The
height of the dam is 26.85 m. In the first case of analysis, different magnitudes of
earthquakes such as 5.4 and 8.8 are considered for a period of 10 s. The second case
is the change in the water level like rapid drawdown and slow drawdown conditions
are considered. It is concluded that the value of pore water pressure generated at the
base of the core is greater than that in the upper parts of the dam, the stress increases
during the earthquake and change in water-level analysis which indicates that the
soil continues to weaken during this period, the horizontal displacement increases
with the depth of the point of the crest and the largest horizontal displacement will
be at the base of the dam at the time of the earthquake and there is an attenuation of
the acceleration to some degree depending on the amplitude of the input horizontal
acceleration. To improve the stability, a factor of safety, stress and its displacement
in this project use the geogrid and grouting technique.
Keywords Earth dam · Earthquake · Finite elements · Geotextile · Grouting
B. M. Bhosale
Department of Civil Engineering, MCOERC, Nashik 422105, India
R. Deshmukh (B)
Civil Engineering Department, Terna Engineering College, Nerul, Navi Mumbai 400706,
Maharashtra, India
e-mail: rohandeshmukh520@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_14
152 B. M. Bhosale and R. Deshmukh
1 Introduction
The earthen dam is the most ancient type of embankment, as they can be constructed
with the natural material with a minimum of processing and embankment dam,
as defined earlier, is one that is constructedusing natural materials. Before nine-
teenth century earth dam is a homogeneous profile and after the nineteenth century
it is constructed as a zoned profile. In its simplest and oldest form, the embank-
ment dam was constructed with low-permeability soils to a nominally homogeneous
profile. The section of the dam provides a feature like neither internal drainage nor
a cut-off to restrict seepage flow through the foundation. This type of dam is not
having any facility to control seepage, but there was little progress in design prior to
the nineteenth century. It was then increasingly recognized that in principle, larger
embankment dams required two-component elements [1].
(1) An impervious water-retaining element or core of very-low-permeability of the
soil is, for example, soft clay or heavily remolded ‘puddle’ clay.
(2) Supporting shoulders of coarser earth fill (or rock-fills) provide structural
stability.
As a further enhancement to the design, the shoulders were frequently subject
to a degree of simple zoning, with finer and more cohesive soils placed adjacent to
the core element and coarser fill material toward either face or in some case sand
filter is also provided to minimize the seepage in dam body. Present embankment
dam design practice retains both principles. Compacted fine-grained silty or clayey
earth fills, or in some instances, manufactured materials, like asphalt or concrete,
are employed for the impervious core element. The stability of a slope of waterfront
geotechnical structures such as an earthen dam, artificial river embankment, marine
bunds are dependent on its geometry, pore pressure due to change in water level, soil
properties, and the forces to which it is subjected to internally and externally. The
pore pressure and surface water pressure are examples of such internal and external
forces that may be due to the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic effect on the slope
stability. Whether a slope is partially or totally submerged, the internal and external
forces that affect the slope can change as the water-level changes. As a result of
the water-level change, both seepage-induced pore pressures due to transient flow
and stress-induced excess pore pressures develop inside the slope [2]. Excess pore
pressures dissipate over time and consolidation takes place. The rate of dissipation of
excess pore pressures and a decrease in seepage-induced pore pressures depend on
the drawdown rate and the hydraulic conductivity and compressibility characteristics
of the slope materials and earthquake acceleration.
In highly permeable soils, stress-induced pore pressures mostly dissipate during
the drawdown. In soils with low-permeability, seepage-induced and stress-induced
pore pressures are not likely to dissipate at the same rate with the external water-level
changes; consequently, totally or partially undrained soil behavior will be observed.
The Behavior of Ambad Earth Dam Under Change … 153
In recent years, there have been rapid developments in the fields of computational
methods, software design and high speed and low-cost hardware of particular rele-
vance to slope stability analysis are the limit equilibrium and finite element methods.
However, when using limiting equilibrium methods to analyze slopes, several compu-
tational difficulties and numerical inconsistencies may occur in locating the critical
slip surface (depending on the geology) and hence establishing a factor of safety [3].
In general, the most important factors for slope stability analysis are
(1) The geometry of slope.
(2) The material properties of the soil.
(3) The forces acting on the slope.
The previous study considered three different examples with homogeneous and
inhomogeneous slopes taking into account the effects of (a) Rapid drawdown, (b)
Undrained clay soils, (c) Earthquake effect.
Nomenclature
γ unit weight of soil (kN/m3 ).
μ Poisson’s ratio.
ϕ angle of internal friction.
c cohesion (kN/m2 ).
k coefficient of permeability (m/day).
S u undrained shear strength.
EC , ES Young’s modulus of core and shell, respectively (MPa).
FS factor of safety.
|u| total hypothetical displacement.
2 Methodology
The paper presents the results of finite element modeling of the stability and seepage
analyses of the earth dam using PLAXIS 2D software [4]. The analysis has fully
coupled effects and mainly considers the interaction between the surface water and
groundwater, which forms the essential component of the coupled analysis [5, 6].
The two main parameters which were varied in the study to identify the changes in
the stability of the earth dam are the change in water level and earthquake effect. The
stability of the dam has been checked for the following conditions:
(1) The rapid drawdown in 10 days duration.
(2) The slow drawdown in 50 days duration.
(3) Earthquake during the low water level of the dam.
(4) Earthquake during full reservoir level of the dam.
The primary purpose and overall safety of the dam play a vital role in the design
criteria. Moreover, every design criteria must fulfill the following fundamental design
aspects [7]:
(1) Stability of embankment and foundation under critical conditions.

(2) Control of seepage and pressure in both the embankment and foundation.
(3) Safety measures to control the overtopping situation.
(4) Erosion control methods.
However, the seepage plays one of the deciding roles for the overall safety of
the dam, hence the present study is attempted to study minimize the seepage and
improve the stability factor.
In the present study, finite element based PLAXIS 2D software is used for the anal-
ysis purpose. The finite element model is developed and validated with the previous
study [8, 9] and then the parametric study is carried out by varying the parame-
ters like modulus of elasticity, the angle of internal friction of soil, the effect of a
change in water level, the effect of an earthquake, etc. Previous researchers [10] used
GeoStudio software to study the effect of varying amplitude and time of earthquake
on the earthen dam. Effect of seismic analysis on the earthen dam is shown in terms
of effective stress, pore water pressure, total stresses, and total displacement of the
dam.
2.1 Numerical Modeling
The following study is carried out by Finite Element (FE) approach with a plain
strain relationship. The soil of the earth dam is modeled by using Mohr–Coulomb
constitutive model; properties of the model are given in Table 1. A triangular medium
mesh is generated to connect all points in the geometry. Figure 1 shows the Ambad
earth dam’s Google Maps location and Fig. 2 shows the Ambad earth dam section
considered in the study.
Table 1 Soil properties

Parameters Unit Casing Foundation Hearting
Model – Mohr–Coulomb Mohr–Coulomb Mohr–Coulomb
Type – Drained Drained Undrained
γ (unsaturated and saturated) KN/m3 16.5, 20.5 15.8, 17.8 15.5, 17.5
E and μ KN/m2 2E4, 0.33 5E4, 0.3 2.5E4, 0.3
c , S u KN/m2 15 13.9 15.7
ϕ, ψ (Degree) 26.1, 1 24.22, 5 18.77, –
K m/day 0.25 0.01 1.00E−04
Fig. 1 Location of Ambad earth dam (Google Maps)
Fig. 2 Cross section of dam

2.2 Ambad Earth Dam
Ambad dam is located on the downstream of the Ambad river in Ambad village.
This Ambad village is located in taluka Dindori, district Nashik. Ambad dam is an
example of an earthen dam. The height of the dam is 26.85 m at R.D. 946 m. The
dam will store 4.825 million cubic meters of water. Total irrigation potential will be
526 ha.
Control Levels
Top of Dam—705.15 m.
Top of Hearting—704.15 m.
M.W.L—703.15 m.
F.R.L—701.65 m.
Sill level—688.00 m.
Stripped Level—678.30 m.
In this study, different flow functions were considered for each case along with
the high magnitude of an earthquake such as earthquake at full (high) reservoir level
of the dam, the rapid drawdown in 10 days duration, the slow drawdown in 50 days,
and earthquake at the low water level of the dam. The representative earth dam which
was considered for the finite element analysis was 26.85 m in height with the side
slope of 1 in 2.5 and 1 in 3 on the upstream side and 1 in 2 and 1 in 2.5 on downstream
sides, and 1 in 1 for hearting, with 30 m deep foundation. The high reservoir level
was 25 m high along with 5 m groundwater. Suitable hydraulic boundary conditions
were assigned to the upstream side, before the start of the upstream face and the last
portion of the subsoil part. The finite element mesh model in Fig. 3 and in Fig. 4 and
Fig. 5 shows the local magnitude of 5.4, 8.8.
Fig. 3 FEM model of Ambad dam

Fig. 4 Earthquake data of 5.4 magnitudes
Fig. 5 Earthquake data of 8.8 magnitudes

2.3 Soil Properties
Table 1 presents the soil properties used in the finite element analysis of the earth
dam. Table 2 shows the axial stiffness values of Geotextile and Grouting material.
The results of the finite element analyses by using PLAXIS 2D are depicted in Figs. 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25. Figure 6
shows the total displacement; Fig. 7 gives the variation of the normal strain and Fig. 8
shows the normal stresses in the body of an earth dam and the subsoil. Figure 9 shows
deformation in the earthen dam body.
Stability results are expressed in the form factor of safety (FOS) for all the cases
(Figs. 10 and 18). The various cases are shown along the X-axis; various cases
considered during the study are
Case-(1) Full Reservoir (F).
Case-(2) Empty Reservoir (E).
Table 2 Geotextile and

Identification Axial stiffness (EA) (KN/m)
grouting properties
Geotextile 800
Grouting 10,000
Fig. 6 Total displacement
Fig. 7 Normal strain

Fig. 8 Normal stresses
Fig. 9 Deformation of dam
Fig. 10 Graph plot for the factor of safety versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Case-(3) Earthquake when full reservoir with Geotextile (G1).

Case-(4) Earthquake when full reservoir with Grouting (G2).
3.1 Earthquake Analysis for 5.4 Magnitude
From Fig. 10, it is observed that FOS has been comparatively less for full reservoir
(case 1) condition than the empty reservoir (case 2) condition. In view of this situation,
Fig. 11 Graph plot for total displacement versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 12 Graph plot for horizontal displacement versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 13 Graph plot for vertical displacement versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 14 Graph plot for shear strain versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 15 Graph plot for mean stresses versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 16 Graph plot for pore water pressure versus various cases (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 17 Graph plot for shear strain versus mean stresses for (magnitude-5.4)
Fig. 18 Graph plot for factor of safety versus various cases (magnitude-8.8)
Fig. 19 Graph plot for total displacement versus various cases (magnitude-8.8)
Fig. 20 Graph plot for horizontal displacement versus various cases (magnitude-8.8)
Fig. 21 Graph plot for vertical displacement versus various cases (magnitude-8.8)
Fig. 22 Graph plot for shear strain versus various cases (magnitude-8.8)
Fig. 23 Graph plot for mean stresses versus various cases (magnitude 8.8)
Fig. 24 Graph plot for pore water pressure versus various cases (magnitude-8.8)
Fig. 25 Graph plot for shear strain versus mean stresses (magnitude-8.8)
seismic analysis was performed on full reservoir (case 1) condition along with the
use of geosynthetic and grouting material. It is observed that FOS is increased up to
2 during seismic conditions with the use of geotextile and grouting material.
From Figs. 11, 12, and 13, it is observed that for case-1 total, horizontal, and
vertical displacements are 0.2, 0.187, and 0.1 m resp. for an earthquake of magnitude
5.4. Similarly for case-3 and 4, total, horizontal and vertical displacements are found
to be less than 0.05 m. From Fig. 14, it is observed that the maximum shear strain
of 2.57% is observed in case-1 followed by 1.26% in case-2. Shear strain is less
than 0.5% for both case-3 and 4. From Fig. 15, it is observed that mean stresses are
683 kPa for case-1 and for case-3 and 4 it is less than 450 kPa.
3.2 Earthquake Analysis for 8.8 Magnitude
From Figs. 19, 20, and 21, it is observed that for case-1 total, horizontal, and vertical
displacements are 0.42, 0.45, and 0.32 m, resp., for an earthquake of magnitude 8.8.
Similarly for case-3 and 4; total, horizontal, and vertical displacements are found to
be less than 0.3 m. From Fig. 22, it is observed that the maximum shear strain of
12.5% is observed in case-1 followed by 2.3% in case-2. Shear strain is less than 2.2%
for both case-3 and 4. From Fig. 23, it is observed that mean stresses are 700 kPa for
case-1 and for case-3 and 4 it is less than 450 kPa.
4 Conclusions
[1] FEM PLAXIS 2D software is comparatively easy and user-friendly for calcu-
lating total displacement, stresses, and active pore water pressure of an earthen
dam. The factor of safety is found to be greater than 1.5 for low reservoir condi-
tion and found to be less than the stipulated values for full reservoir condition
after applying the different magnitudes of earthquake on the earthen dam.
[2] Use of geotextile and grouting technique in the earth dam body shows that
the factor of safety increases than stipulated values for both the full reservoir
condition and low reservoir condition.
[3] When the various earthquake conditions are applied on the earth dam, it is found
that displacement, strain, stresses, and pore water pressure are increased with
respect to an increase in the earthquake magnitude.
[4] By using the geotextile and grouting technique in the earth dam body, the
displacement, shear strain, pore water pressure, and mean stresses of an earth
dam is reduced by 50–85%, 80–90%, up to 90%, and 40–50%, respectively.
[5] Use of geotextile and grouting technique gives a better result for lower
magnitudes of the earthquake.
References
1. Novak P, Moffat AIB, Nalluri C, Narayanan R (2005) Hydraulic structures, 3rd ed. Taylor and
Francis. ISBN No. 0-415-25071-4
2. Mehmet MB (2007) Investigation of stability of slopes under drawdown conditions. Comput
Geotech 34(2):81–91
3. Hammouri NA, Malkawi AIH, Yamin MMA (2008) Stability analysis of slopes using the finite
element method and limiting equilibrium approach. Bull Eng Geol Environ 67:471
4. PLAXIS 2D (2012) Tutorial manual, Delft, The Netherlands
5. Freeze AR (1971) Three dimensional, transient, saturated-unsaturated flow in a groundwater
basin. Water Resour Res 7(2):347–366
6. Zhou Y, Li W (2011) A review of regional groundwater flow modelling. Geosci Front 2(2):205–
214
7. Li GC, Desai CS (1983) Stress and seepage analysis of earth dams. J Geotech Eng ASCE
109(7):946–960
8. Athani S, Shivamanth A, Solannki CH, Dodagoudar GR (2015) Seepage and stability analyses
of earth dam using finite element method. In: ICWRCOE2015
9. Shivamanth A, Athani SS, Desai MK, Dodagoudar GR (2015) Stability analysis of Dyke using
limit equilibrium and finite element method. Water Resour Res 4:884–891
10. Fattah MY, Alwash HH, Hadi SA (2016) Behavior of Khassa Chai Earth Dam under earthquake
excitation. Eng Technol J 34, Part (A)(15)
A Review on the Properties
of Steel-Concrete Interface
and Characterization Methods
E. P. Sumukh, Sharan Kumar Goudar, and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Abstract The Steel-Concrete interface (SCI) is usually regarded as the weakest

region, which influences both mechanical properties and durability of reinforced
concrete structures. Several researchers have well explored and defined the impor-
tance of SCI on the service life of the reinforced concrete structures as it directly
affects the durability. The primary objective of this paper is to report and compare
a variety of published findings and microstructural analysis on the SCI in one place
which appears in reinforced concrete. The information available on the occurrence,
formation, properties, various characterizing and analysing techniques of SCI are
reviewed for a better understanding of microstructural properties of SCI on the hard-
ened and durability properties of reinforced concrete. It was found that the SCI
exhibits significant spatial inhomogeneity along and around as well as perpendicular
to the reinforcing steel. Significant factors like quantification of porosity, porous
zone thickness and actions that affect the properties of SCI like wall effect, bleeding,
settlement and segregation of fresh concrete which were favourable to both initiation
and propagation of corrosion are described in this paper. The influence of w/c ratio,
hydration age, steel orientation and mineral admixtures on the distribution profiles
of hydration products and Engineering properties of SCI is also discussed.
Keywords Steel-concrete interface · Porosity · Service life · Water-cement ratio ·

Calcium hydroxide
E. P. Sumukh (B) · S. K. Goudar · B. B. Das

Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Mangalore 575025, India
e-mail: sumukhgowdaekkeri@gmail.com
S. K. Goudar
e-mail: sgcr17@gmail.com
B. B. Das

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_15
168 E. P. Sumukh et al.
1 Introduction
The interface refers to a place or an area or a point, where two or more systems
with different things meet and interact with or without affecting one another. In case
of concrete, there exists a number of interfaces in concrete as it is being produced
by the fusing several materials of different physical, morphological and chemical
characteristics. These interfaces play an important role in determining the unique
behaviour of concrete. The basic ingredients used for the production of concrete are
cement (less than 90 μm in size), water, fine aggregates (μm to mm in size), coarse
aggregates (certain mm in size), mineral admixtures such as fly ash (20–60 μm in
size), silica fume (less than 0.1 μm in size), ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS) (20–50 μm in size), chemical admixtures such as accelerators, retarders,
water-reducing admixtures, etc. These ingredients of concrete have a different range
of particle sizes, shape, texture and specific gravities (varies from 1 to 3.15), which
is also one of the reasons for non-homogeneity in concrete. Because of the non-
homogeneity between different ingredients, there exists a transition zone at their
interfaces and is being termed as the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) [1–5]. One of
the important transition zone, that is, ITZ between aggregate and cement paste was
explored extensively by the research community. However, there is another transition
zone in reinforced concrete between steel and concrete which has gained the attention
of researchers lately and is widely called as Steel-Concrete interface (SCI).
The SCI plays an important role in determining the mechanical and durability
properties of reinforced concrete [5–9]. The Steel-Concrete interfacial zone is also
defined as a region between steel and concrete with a slightly higher water to cement
ratio, and eventually a higher porosity than the bulk paste due to the wall effect. It was
also reported that there is a discontinuous layer of Ca(OH)2 present at the vicinity of
Steel-Concrete interface [6, 8–12]. Page [6] in 1975 was the first person to document
the existence of a dense Ca(OH)2 layer at the Steel-Concrete interface which acts
as the physical barrier for corrosion initiation. The Ca(OH)2 at the vicinity of Steel-
Concrete interface is helpful in maintaining the pH value at a relatively higher level.
Even though the Steel-Concrete interface has relatively high pH still, it is regarded
as the weakest region, which influences both mechanical properties and durability
of reinforced concrete structures [12–14].
Previously, it was believed that the characteristics at aggregate-cement paste
interface and Steel-Concrete interface are considerably the same [5, 8]. But the
recent developments in microstructure studies revealed that ITZ properties around
the aggregates-cement paste interface, ITZ properties at Steel-Concrete interface
and bulk cement paste differs significantly [8]. In the literature, it was observed that
some of the researchers designated the interface between steel and concrete as ‘steel-
cement paste’ interface even though the aggregates were part of the concrete in their
research investigation [8, 13]. The researchers did not mention the reason for desig-
nating the interface as ‘steel-cement paste’ interface. The authors feel that one of the
possible reasons may be adhesion of cement paste to the stationary reinforcement
bars in freshly compacted concrete because of the higher specific gravity of cement
A Review on the Properties of Steel-Concrete … 169
paste when compared to aggregates. The SEM images reported by many researchers
reveal that the aggregates are not present within a few micrometre distance (0–40 μm)
from the steel surface [5, 8, 12]. The porous nature of cement paste (up to a certain
micrometre distance) at the SCI is often being referred by the research fraternity
as the porous zone thickness [6–9, 12, 14]. The porosity at SCI, which is being
measured as porous zone thickness (PZT) plays an important role in determining or
forecasting the remaining service life of reinforced concrete structures in aggressive
exposure conditions. Hence, a clear understanding of properties of SCI is need of
the hour. There is a great deal of variability in reporting the properties of SCI such
as measurement of PZT and hydration products near the interface.
A systematic and detailed characterization of SCI is missing in the literature
despite the efforts of a few researchers. Hence, the present work aims to report the
published findings of the properties of SCI and characterization methods of SCI of
reinforced concrete.
2 Significance and Importance of SCI
Porosity or PZT at the SCI is a prime factor in forecasting the time required for
corrosion initiation to corrosion cracking [8, 15–17]. Prediction of time to corro-
sion cracking is a key element in evaluating the service life of corroded reinforced
concrete (RC) structures. For predicting the time to initial cover cracking, many
recent theoretical models have introduced the porous zone thickness at the SCI as
one of the important parameters. Tuutti [18] in 1980 proposed a theoretical model to
predict the service life of reinforced concrete structures, which did not include the
PZT parameter around the SCI. The proposed model is shown in Fig. 1.
According to Tuutti’s model of service life prediction, the service life of a structure
has two stages of corrosion degradation. The first stage of deterioration is corrosion
initiation period (To ). During this period, the penetration of CO2 or chloride ions from
the outside environment into the reinforced concrete structure takes place. These ions
dissolve in concrete pore solution, also migrate through voids, cracks, and crevices
of concrete and finally reach the SCI. Because of higher water to cement ratio at
the SCI, moisture and oxygen supply will be abundant compared to bulk concrete
which triggers the initiation of corrosion process [19]. The second stage was called
as propagation period (Tcr ). Soon after the corrosion initiation, the corrosion prod-
ucts start to exert an expansive pressure on the concrete. As the expansive pressure
exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, concrete cracking process begins which was
considered as the end of service life of structures. It was observed that the actual
service life of structures was considerably more than the predicted ones by Tuutti’s
service life prediction model. This confusion led the researchers to investigate the
SCI properties especially the PZT. Page and Treadaway [20] in 1982 reported the
existence of a porous zone at the SCI.
The concept of PZT at SCI was incorporated by Weyers [21] in 1998 and proposed
a three-stage model for service life prediction as shown in Fig. 2. In which the
Fig. 1 Tutti’s service life prediction model of corroded structures [18]
free expansion zone in between corrosion initiation and propagation period was
introduced. In the modified service life prediction model, the propagation period,
Tcr , was separated into two different periods. The first one is the free expansion
period, Tfree , represents time to fill corrosion products in the porous zone adjacent
to the corroding steel reinforcing bar. The second period, Tstress , represents the time
in which the corrosion products exerts an expansive pressure on the surrounding
concrete as the porous zone was already filled.
It was proposed that some amount of corrosion products formed after corrosion
initiation migrates away from the reinforcing steel through voids and crevices in the
concrete and some corrosion products fill the porous zone at SCI. During this period
no expansive pressure was exerted on the concrete surface, but once these pores in
porous zone were completely filled by the corrosion products, further formation of
corrosion products imparts expansive pressure on the concrete surface. This model
assumes that with the increase in the volume of corrosion products the expansive
pressure also increases linearly. This induces the tensile stresses inside the concrete.
When it exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, cover cracks were generated. Once
the cracks were generated, the expansive pressure exerted by corrosion products on
the surrounding concrete cannot be quantified as they may discharge out from these
Fig. 2 Three-stage service life prediction model proposed by Weyers [21]
cracks. So the generation of a cover crack in concrete represents the end of service
life of the corroded reinforced concrete structures.
Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of the corrosion-cracking process as proposed
by Weyers 1998. This modified service life prediction model was brought up with
certain assumptions to formulate the internal radial pressure, which occurs due to
the expansion of corrosion products. The basic assumption was about the expan-
sive stresses around the steel bar was due to the uniform development of corrosion
products around the steel reinforcing bar. Several models on volume expansion by
corrosion [21–23] were proposed by using this assumption. But in general, the devel-
opment of corrosion products around the steel reinforcement bar was not uniform
as the extent of corrosion varies around the steel reinforcing bar. This variation in
corrosion is mainly due to nonuniform surface exposure of steel bar to the corroding
environment.
Bazant [22] in 1979 suggested a mathematical model to measure corrosion initia-
tion and corrosion-cracking time, based on Weyers’s three-stage service life predic-
tion model [21] by considering the rate of corrosion, cover depth, steel reinforcing
bars spacing, steel reinforcing bar diameter and concrete properties such as tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio and creep coefficient. From these find-
ings, Liu and Weyers [24] in 1998 proposed a mathematical model wherein mass loss
rate of corroding steel and time to fill the porous zone around SCI before exerting the
Fig. 3 Corrosion and cracking process [21]
expansive rate of corroding steel and time to fill the porous zone around SCI before
exerting the expansive pressure were considered.
Rate of corroding steel and time to fill the porous zone around SCI before exerting
the expansive pressure were considered. For predicting the remaining service life of
structures, a constant value of PZT was being assumed without any experimental
investigation. Liu and Weyers [24] assumed the occurrence of 12.5-μm-thick porous
zone and Petre-Lazar et al. [25] assumed 40-μm-thick porous zone around steel bar
for modelling and testing purpose. It is also observed that a thickness of 40 μm has
been adopted by many others too [15, 16, 22, 24–26] without any further experimental
verification. It was also observed that a uniform distribution of PZT around the
steel bar was assumed by all the previous researchers for assessing the service life
prediction models [15, 16]. The recent developments in the microstructure study of
SCI reveal that PZT varies from point to point along the length of reinforcing steel
[8, 9, 11, 14]. Thus, assuming a steady value of PZT and uniform distribution of PZT
for all kinds of concretes in modelling seems to be an oversimplification. Also, the
physical condition of the Steel-Concrete interface is considered as an important factor
while dealing with the chloride threshold, which in turn influences the prediction of
the service life of RC structures [27].
Hence, systematic characterization and understanding about the porosity or PZT at
the SCI is one of the crucial phenomena in assessing the service life of existing struc-
tures in chloride-laden environment. A slight variation in considering the porous zone
thickness in service life prediction models leads to misinterpretation of the actual

service life of RC structures. Thus, characterizing the SCI has gained the attention
among the research fraternity in assessing the primary reason for the corrosion initi-
ation, reduction in bond strength, assessing chloride threshold and modelling the
remaining service life of RC structures in the chloride-laden environment.
3 Nomenclature of Steel-Concrete Interface
The SCI can be classified into two main parts, one part being associated with steel
and the other part being concrete. The steel part of SCI includes bulk core steel in
the inner surface and towards the periphery of steel, passive film, mill scale and
pre-existing native rust layers are developed on the surface of reinforcement bar. The
steel part of SCI is not been discussed in the present paper as it has been discussed
in previous research articles [8, 12, 13, 28–31].
The main focus of this review paper is on the concrete part of SCI, which plays an
important role in service life prediction of reinforced concrete structures [5, 12, 15,
16, 24–26, 32]. The concrete part of SCI can be further divided into two zones. The
zone adjacent to steel is porous concrete due to the voids in the interface and this zone
is being named as porous zone [6–9, 12, 14, 33]. The area which occurs next to the
porous zone after several micrometre distances from steel surface is known as bulk
denser concrete region [7–9, 34, 35]. Due to the induced stresses, there is a chance
of separation of concrete from the steel surface called as slip or separation. Some
amount of cracks may occur in the concrete part of SCI, which helps in the ingression
of harmful ions towards the surface of the steel. Red dashed lines as presented in
Fig. 4 indicate preferential pathways for chloride ingress and blue dots represent
adsorbed water (only shown for large pores). In between steel part and concrete part
of SCI, there exist larger voids which may contain bleed water zone, larger pores,
etc. Sometimes, a small amount of concrete gets attached to the steel surface called
by the term concrete splatter.
4 Why the SCI Is Porous?
It is now well understood that the SCI is porous and few researchers explained
the occurrence of porous ITZ between steel and concrete. When the cement paste
comes in contact with stationary reinforcement bar, the cement particles tends to
separate from the cement paste because of the shearing forces and this phenomenon
is widely recognized as the ‘wall effect’. This action forms a narrow region around
the reinforcement bar with fewer cement particles and more water. Thus, water to
cement ratio at the SCI was higher compared to the bulk concrete. The higher water
to cement ratio and fewer cement particles at the SCI creates the porous zone [8].
Scrivener et al. [36] reported the phenomenon of wall effect on the basis of particle
Fig. 4 Schematic illustration of steel-concrete interface (SCI) [31]
size distribution and packing of various components of concrete against the larger
solid surface as shown in Fig. 5. According to this mechanism, the concrete grains
or aggregates were having their own size and shape. When the aggregates come in
contact with large solid surface (such as reinforcement bars), the aggregates would
not cut their surface against the stationary and solid surface. During compaction, the
large aggregates move away from the solid surface because of the shearing forces.
Only smaller grains or aggregates remain near the interface. In a normal concrete,
around 20–30% of the cement paste accumulates in the ITZ adjacent to the reinforcing
steel bars. The cement particles in cement paste move away from the interface during
compaction, due to which a large amount of water accumulates at the interface. The
w/c ratio was significantly higher in the interface compared to that of bulk denser
concrete. The high water content causes the porous nature of the SCI.
Also, the grading of cement particles plays an important role in the process of
hydration at the interface. At any given time of hydration, the reacted thickness of
any cement grain is approximately the same. During the early ages of hydration,
the smaller cement grains as well as the outer surface of the larger cement grains
Fig. 5 Illustration of the wall effect [36]
react first. Thus, the inner core of the larger cement grains remains unreacted and
coarser. As a result of all these, the hydration products and smaller cement grains are
accumulated near the steel surface and the larger anhydrous material moves away
from the interface due to the wall effect. Wall effect can be reduced by varying
the gradation of concrete ingredients. The addition of finer materials such as mineral
admixtures/fillers can make the ITZ denser, provided the particle size of fillers should
be smaller than the cement particles [9]. Some of the researchers reported that the
casting direction also has an impact on the porosity of SCI. For example, in horizon-
tally placed reinforcement bars (such as beams), the casting was done from the top
side or in other words perpendicular to the horizontal reinforcement [8, 11].
In such cases, bleeding occurs beneath the horizontal bars. The heavier solid
particle settles downwards and the free water rises upwards during compaction. This
free water moves upwards until it gets trapped below the horizontal reinforcement,
which ultimately becomes a void once the water evaporates [5, 8, 9]. As a result of
increased w/c ratio, the plastic viscosity increases which enhance the bleeding and
reduce the concrete quality around the bottom area of horizontal reinforcement. Some
of the researchers reported that the voids or gaps were in the order of millimetres. The
voids under the horizontal bars can be seen in Fig. 6. The accumulation of bleeded
Fig. 6 Void formation below the horizontal bars [11]

Fig. 7 Water accumulation pattern beneath the horizontal bar [9]
water on the underside of the horizontal cast reinforcement bar can be described by a
mechanism proposed by Kenny and Katz [9]. According to this mechanism, the bleed
water continues to rise upwards and accumulates under the horizontal reinforcement
bar up to some extent. Then this accumulated bleed water finds a way up along the
sides of the reinforcement bar by breaking the water-filled zone under the steel bar
as shown in Fig. 7. This upward movement of bleed water empties the water-filled
void below the horizontal bar and reduces its thickness. This upward movement of
bleed water continues to rise until the hydration products prevent this movement.
Once the hydration products terminate the upward movement of bleed water, the
final size of the void is determined, and remains unchanged after this. According to
this mechanism, the void size is independent of the volume of bleed water and the
rheological properties of the mix like viscosity determine the void size before and
after rising of water.
The bleeding induced voids have a crescent shape or more elongated nature, which
helps them to gain a better contact area with the reinforcing bars compared to air
voids [31]. Water filled in bleeding induced voids were gets emptied on drying and
chemical shrinkage. Emptied bleeding induced voids can be refilled by water on
wetting. Accumulation of bleed water not only exists below horizontal casted bars
but also takes place in between indentation on steel bars, under cover blocks, tie
wires, reinforcement bar intersection junction in the reinforced concrete [31].
5 Properties of SCI
As the steel-concrete interface is referred to as the weakest zone in the reinforced

concrete structure, their properties are ones which decide mechanical and durability
properties of reinforced concrete structures. With limited information, it is often
assumed that the steel-concrete interface has a similar property as the interfacial tran-
sition zone, which is the interface between cement paste and aggregates. However,
recent developments showed that the properties of SCI and ITZ of aggregate-cement
paste interface are different from each other [5, 8, 9]. The properties of SCI that are
being referred are porosity or PZT, hydration products such as calcium hydroxide,
CSH, and unhydrated cement particles. The variation in porosity or PZT reported by
a few previous researchers were reported systematically. Also, the hydration products
formed at the SCI are discussed.
5.1 Porosity
Porosity is the quality of the material being porous, or completely filled with tiny
holes. It is the open empty spaces between grains or trapped in grains in a microstruc-
ture. The occurrence of small tiny openings or spaces within a material is known as
porosity. Porosity has a much higher importance in the case of SCI as it is regarded
as the weakest zone in the reinforced concrete structure.
Porosity in the SCI arises due to the bleeding-induced defects, shrinkage and
poor packing of cement grains against the reinforcing steel bars [8, 11, 13]. The
packing of cement grains during the early ages of cement hydration leaves more
porous zone around the reinforcing steel. Hydration products that precipitate within
the porous zone is mostly the calcium hydroxide which tends to fill the voids in the
porous zone and reduces porosity [11, 37]. But even in later stages of hydration, the
porosity in the ITZ is still significantly more than bulk denser concrete [38], which
is mainly due to the wall effect and bleeding induced defects [8]. Due to wall effect,
smaller grains are accumulated at SCI. During the first day of hydration, porosity
at the SCI is about 85% more than that of bulk denser concrete. It was reduced as
hydration proceeds and during later ages, the percentage reduction in porosity is the
same in both SCI and bulk denser concrete due to preferential precipitation [37].
Around the vertically cast reinforcement bars and the top side of the horizontally
cast reinforcement bar, the precipitation of Ca(OH)2 was found to be 5 μm distant
from steel surface, whereas 40 μm distant porous zone was found in the underside of
the horizontal reinforcement bar [8]. Thus, the voids which remain unfilled became
a permanently porous region which contributes to corrosion initiation and reducing
mechanical and durability properties of concrete [8].
The porosity of the reinforced concrete also reduces after corrosion initiation
due to the filling of corrosion products within the pores [12, 32]. These corrosion
products initially fill the porous zone at SCI. Once these porous zones are completely
filled, corrosion products start inducing expansive pressure on concrete which leads
to the formation of cracks. Some of the corrosion products also tend to migrate
outside through the radial cracks and exerts spalling pressure by filing the cracks
[14]. Carbonation in the concrete also reduces the porosity at SCI slightly by filling
the pores with carbonation product (CaCO3 ) [39]. But still, the porosity of ITZ was
more than the bulk denser concrete zone. This is due to the higher initial porosity
of SCI and the carbonation products largely precipitates in the cracks, pores and
aggregate-cement paste ITZ when compared to that in SCI [39]. The bar geometry
like ribs shape, size and indentations on the ribs have a certain influence on the
properties of SCI by imparting bleeding-induced voids below the horizontally cast
bars which affect the overall porosity [8, 9, 31].
The orientation of reinforcement of bars such as vertically cast (columns) and

horizontally cast (beams) members also has an influence on porosity of SCI. The ITZ
properties around horizontally cast members and vertically cast members are not the
same [8, 9]. A uniform and dense concrete (less porous) is usually found around
the vertically cast members. Whereas in the case of horizontally cast members, two
different zones, namely, upper and lower zones exist. The upper zone occurs above
the reinforcement bar which is quite denser and similar to the ITZ properties around
the vertically cast reinforcement bar. The lower zone occurs on the underside of the
reinforcement bar which is more porous and has very low density [8, 9, 31]. Usually, a
circumferential void is formed underneath the bottom half of the steel reinforcement
bar that largely affects the durability properties of SCI. This void separates the steel
and concrete along the bottom side of the reinforcement bar [7].
The w/c ratio of the mix also determines the extent of porosity at the SCI. The
porosity of SCI increases with an increase in w/c ratio [5, 8, 13]. For a concrete of
0.49 w/c ratio, the porosity at the SCI was approximately 30%, whereas, in case of
bulk concrete, approximately 8% porosity was found after the first day of hydration.
Even after 7 days of hydration, the porosity adjacent to steel was more than the bulk
concrete [8]. For a concrete of 0.7 w/c ratio, the porosity at the SCI was approxi-
mately 50% and at the same time porosity of bulk concrete was 12%. Similar kind
of observations on the effect of w/c ratio was reported by several researchers [5, 9].
The porosity of the SCI is usually about twice or thrice the porosity of bulk denser
concrete [38].
Few researchers have experimentally determined the percentage porosity at the
SCI and are presented in Table 1. The effect of w/c ratio and effect of supplementary
cementitious material (SCM) on the porosity of SCI can be understood from Table 1.
The percentage porosity at the SCI and w/c ratio is directly proportional, as the w/c
ratio increases porosity at the SCI also increases. It can be observed that the top
side of horizontally cast reinforcement bars and vertically cast reinforcement shows
similar porosity values at the SCI. Significant variation of percentage porosity was
noticed for the bottom side of horizontally cast reinforcement bars. Kenny and Katz
[9] reported that the porosity found beneath all horizontal reinforcement bar was
1.0 or very close to this value only mixes with a w/c of 0.52 and higher powder
contents had a somewhat lower porosity of 0.8–0.9. The porosity above horizontal
reinforcement bars and around vertical reinforcement bars ranged from 0.15 to 0.52
and from 0.24 to 0.46, respectively. The SEM images showed 0.5–2 mm voids below
the horizontally cast reinforcement bars.
Few researchers reported the effect of the addition of SEM’s on the percentage
porosity of SCI. These reported values of SEM’s on the porosity of SCI may not be
conclusive, as very few reported findings were available. A systematic approach to
the effect of SEM’s on the properties of SCI is missing in the literature. Due to the
addition of SCM’s, a significant reduction in percentage porosity was noticed at the
SCI [7, 11]. The pozzolanic reaction due to the addition of SEM’s was predicted to
be the reason for the reduced percentage porosity at the SCI [7].
Table 1 Reported data on percentage porosity at the steel-concrete interface

References w/c Filler/SCM Filler/SCM Porosity at SCI (%)
ratio (%) Horizontal Vertical
Zayed [7] 0.45 – – 30 22
0.45 Silica fume 10% 19 08
Soylev and 0.75 – – 19
Francois [11] 0.53 – – 16
0.6 Limestone 140 16.5
filler
0.39 – – 15
0.39 Silica Fume 30 10
Horizontal Horizontal Vertical
(Top) (Bottom)
Horne et al. [8] 0.49 – – 5 45 7
0.7 – – 9 85 23
Kenny and 0.4 Powdered 0 0.48 1 0.34
Katz [9] 0.44 CaCO3 0 0.16 0.96 0.46
0.45 4 0.52 0.96 0.4
0.45 8 0.39 1 0.41
0.45 12 0.23 1 0.24
0.45 16 0.29 0.99 0.31
0.45 20 0.49 1 0.28
0.47 0 0.15 1 0.35
0.52 8 0.21 0.97 0.46
0.52 12 0.22 0.8 0.35
0.52 17 0.2 0.92 0.36
0.55 0 0.21 0.99 0.3
0.6 0 – – 0.33
0.65 0 0.15 0.9 0.3
SCM supplementary cementitious material, w/c water to cement ratio
5.2 Porous Zone Thickness at Steel-Concrete Interface
Some of the researchers reported the porosity at SCI in terms of porous zone thick-
ness (PZT). The PZT was considered as an influencing and important parameter in
service life prediction models [15, 24, 26, 32, 40]. Few researchers assumed the
PZT while predicting the service life of structures in service life prediction models
without any experimental investigations [24, 25]. Thoft-Christensen [26] suggested
that the thickness of the porous zone was in the range of 10–20 μm and assumed
12.5 μm porous zone thickness for the service life prediction modelling. Liu and
Weyers [24] also developed a mathematical model for the service life prediction
of a structure by assuming 12.5 μm of porous zone thickness. Assuming the PZT
without experimental investigation may lead to the misinterpretation of the service
life of structures. Due to the developments in the microstructure study of SCI, several
researchers experimentally measured the PZT at SCI by image analysis. Horne et al.
[8] measured the PZT at the SCI by doing image analysis of BSE images. Only two
locations, the top and bottom sides of the steel, are quantitatively analysed in their
study. One or two locations around the SCI were measured by other researchers also
[7, 11, 41]. This appears to be inadequate to represent the whole steel-concrete inter-
face around the steel bar. A thorough quantitative measurement should be conducted
for the entire interface area around the steel. Only two researchers Chen et al. [5]
and Kenny and Katz [9] measured the PZT all around the SCI which helps to under-
stand the variation in PZT around the entire interface. This kind of measurement of
PZT all around the SCI is the need of the hour. In this regard, few researchers have
experimentally determined the PZT at SCI and are presented in Table 2. The effect
of w/c ratio and effect of supplementary cementitious material (SCM) on the PZT
of SCI can be understood.
5.2.1 Influence of w/c Ratio on the Porous Zone Thickness (PZT)
The reinforcement bar orientation plays an important role. The PZT of vertically cast
members and horizontally cast members varies significantly. There are two distinct
zones for horizontally cast members, namely, horizontal top (H-Top) and horizontal
bottom (H-Bottom). The variation in PZT with respect to w/c ratio of horizontal
top and horizontal bottom as reported by research fraternity is presented in Fig. 8
and Fig. 9, respectively. The variation in PZT with respect to w/c ratio of vertically
cast members is presented in Fig. 10. The data of PZT and w/c ratio in Figs. 8, 9
and 10 were extracted from Table 2. It is difficult to come to a common conclusion
as different researchers reported different values of PZT for a similar w/c ratio.
Leaving some extreme values, it can be noticed that w/c ratio and PZT are directly
correlated. PZT at SCI increases as w/c ratio increases. In most of the observations,
the PZT around the vertically cast reinforcement bar and above the horizontally cast
reinforcement bar shows almost similar values. The bottom side of the horizontally
cast reinforcement bar has PZT in the order of several hundred micrometres to a few
millimetres range.
5.2.2 Influence of Adding Supplementary Cementitious Materials

(SCM) or Fillers on Porous Zone Thickness
The beneficial effects of adding supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) or

fillers on the microstructure properties of bulk concrete were known to us. The
SCM’s also displayed a reduction in porosity of ITZ between aggregate-cement
paste interfaces [36]. However, very few articles were reported the effect of SCM’s
Table 2 Reported data on porous zone thickness at steel-concrete interface

References w/c ratio Filler/SCM Filler/SCM PZT (μm)
(%) Horizontal Horizontal Vertical
top bottom
(H-Top) H-Bottom)
Zayed [7] 0.45 – – 50 50 50
0.45 Silica fume 10 35 35 40
Zhu et al. 0.35 – – 10 50 15
[42]
Liu and 0.35 – – 12.5 12.5 12.5
Weyers [24]
Christensen 0.35 – – 10 10 10
[26] 0.4 – – 20 20 20
Zhu et al. 0.43 – – 35 60 –
[43] 0.36 GGBS 60 30 50 –
Zhu et al. 0.36 GGBS 60 30 50 –
[44] 0.68 – – 40 70 –
Horne et al. 0.49 – – 15 65 20
[8] 0.7 – – 25 165 35
Mondal and 0.35 – – 20 20 20
Shah [45] 0.5 – – 100 100 100
Wang et al. 0.3 Silica fume 10 80 95 87
[17] 0.3 – 0 90 105 98
0.5 – 0 107 125 114
Yuan and Ji 0.6 – – 87 104 95
[41]
Angst et al. 0.55 – – – 140 –
[31] 0.6 – – – 150 –
Biniam [46] 0.4 – – 17 44 18
0.5 – – 20 69 21
Zhao et al. 0.44 – – 65 118 –
[47]
Kenny and 0.40 Powdered 0 30 268 112
Katz [9] 0.44 CaCO3 0 45 280 79
0.45 4 88 245 89
0.45 8 129 299 113
0.45 12 114 311 136
0.45 16 74 287 84
0.45 20 87 304 76
0.47 0 94 320 109
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
References w/c ratio Filler/SCM Filler/SCM PZT (μm)
(%) Horizontal Horizontal Vertical
top bottom
(H-Top) H-Bottom)
0.52 8 81 288 135
0.52 12 77 226 118
0.52 17 85 186 85
0.55 0 104 264 117
0.6 0 88
0.65 0 54 296 110
Chen et al. 0.5 – – 21.5 37 –
[5] 0.45 – – 10 19 –
0.4 – – 9.5 15 –
Zacharda 0.4 – – 40 40 40
et al. [34]
SCM supplementary cementitious material, w/c water to cement ratio
130
120 Kenny and Katz 2015

110 Horne et al. 2007
Chen et al. 2018
100 Zhu et al. 2004
Porous zone thickness (um)
Zhu et al. 2000

90 Zhao et al. 2013
80 Yuan and Ji 2009
Biniam 2011
70 Christensen T. P. 2000
Mondal and Shah 2008
60
Liu and Weyers 1998
50 Wang et al. 2009
Zhu et al. 1997
40
30
20
10
0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
w/c ratio
Fig. 8 Variation in the porous zone thickness and w/c ratio of the top side of horizontally cast
reinforcement bar (H-Top)
340
Kenny and Katz 2015
320
Horne et al. 2007
300 Chen et al. 2018
280 Zhu et al. 2004
Zhu et al. 2000
260 Angst U 2011
240 Zayed 1991
Zhao et al.2013
220
Yuan and Ji 2009
200 Biniam 2011
180 Christensen. T.P. 2000
Mondal and Shah 2008
160 Liu and Weyers 1998
140 Wang et al. 2009
Zhu et al. 1997
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
w/c ratio
Fig. 9 Variation in the porous zone thickness and w/c ratio of the bottom side of horizontally cast
reinforcement bar (H-Bottom)
130
120 Kenny and Katz 2015
110 Horne et al. 2007

Zayed 1991
100
Yuan and Ji 2009
90
Biniam 2011
80 Christensen T. P 2000
70 Mondal and Shah 2008
Liu and Weyers 1998
60
Wang et al. 2009
50
Zhu et al. 1997
40
30
20
10
0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
w/c ratio
Fig. 10 Variation in the porous zone thickness and w/c ratio of vertically cast reinforcement bar
on the properties of SCI especially the PZT. It can be observed from Table 2 that
the addition of SCM does reduce the PZT at SCI, irrespective of reinforcement bar
orientation in the reinforced concrete. However, the bottom side of horizontally cast
reinforcement bars showed the least reduction in PZT due to the addition of SCM’s.
It was also noticed that a higher dosage of SCM’s/filler has a better effect towards
the reduction in PZT of SCI. As only a few countable reported findings were found
on the effect of SEM’s on PZT, a systematic investigation is need of the hour.
5.2.3 Effect of Surface Texture of Reinforcement Bar on the Porous

Zone Thickness
The surface of the reinforcing steel bar has ribs all over its length. The presence of
indentations on the steel bars, reinforcement bar intersection junction, usage of cover
blocks, tie wires causes the bleed water to store below them which in later stages
forms the empty voids [31]. The ribs on the steel surface also have the same impact
on the porous zone thickness. Along the ribs of the steel reinforcement bars at SCI,
the presence of the porous zone is comparatively more with larger thickness. It was
also observed that the thickness of the porous zone is larger in the zone adjacent to
the curved face of the ribs (59.8 μm) when compared to that of two parallel sides of
the ribs (17.1 μm) [5]. The PZT or voids at the ribs can also be influenced by the
sample preparation methods such as, speed of cutter and polishing standards. Chen
et al. [5] was the only author who reported the variation in PZT at the ribs. Figure 11
shows the voids or porous band at the rib of SCI.
5.3 Hydration Products at SCI
5.3.1 Calcium Hydroxide
During the hydration of cement, the bulk concrete undergoes microstructural devel-
opment by hydration products. Calcium silicate hydrate gel (C–S–H gel) and calcium
hydroxide denoted by Ca(OH)2 or CH are the two major products that are formed
[8, 36]. These two hydration products strongly determine the physical, mechanical
and durability properties of concrete. The ITZ properties around the aggregates-
cement paste interface, ITZ properties at steel-concrete interface and bulk cement
paste differ significantly due to the variation in the formation of hydration products
[7, 8]. Very few research articles report the variation in hydration products around
the SCI. Baumel [48] in 1959 and Page in 1975 [6] and 2009 [19] confirmed the
existence of a lime-rich and dense layer of calcium hydroxide at the SCI. Horne et al.
[8] proposed an explanation for the enriched quantity of calcium hydroxide at the
SCI. When the cement paste comes in contact with the stationary reinforcement bar,
the cement particles tend to separate from the cement paste because of the shearing
forces, forming a narrow region around the reinforcement bar with fewer cement
Fig. 11 Porous band around the rib at the SCI [5]
particles and thus more water. The high water content and few cement particles
around the reinforcement bar forms a distinct area into which calcium ions (Ca2+ )
formed by the reaction of anhydrous cement diffuses from outside the interface area
to form regions enriched in calcium hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide at the vicinity
of SCI is helpful in maintaining the pH value at a relatively higher level which acts
as a physical barrier for corrosion initiation [19].
It was observed that the calcium hydroxide was more in the interface region adja-
cent to both vertically cast and horizontally cast reinforcement bars (over 5 μm
distance from the steel surface) when compared to that of bulk denser concrete.
Around 18% more calcium hydroxide was observed around the SCI even after
365 days of hydration when compared to bulk concrete [8]. Microstructural analysis
confirms that there was no continuous or uniform layer of calcium hydroxide at any
distance from the interface [8]. The w/c ratio also pose a significant impact on the
concentration of calcium hydroxide at the SCI. Due to the bleeding-induced defects
under the horizontally cast reinforcement bars, w/c ratio at the interface increases,
which reduces the calcium hydroxide concentration. It was observed that the quantity
of calcium hydroxide at the SCI decreases by about 11% when the w/c ratio increases
from 0.49 to 0.7 [refer Figs. 14 and 15].
The properties of the SCI above the horizontally cast reinforcement bar were
almost the same as that of vertically cast reinforcement bars under the same w/c
ratio. But the degree of reaction on the top side of horizontally cast reinforcement
Fig. 12 The distribution of calcium hydroxide in plain and silica fume admixed concrete at different
distances from the steel surface [7]
Fig. 13 Effects of silica fume on the nature of the transition zone in specimens cast normal to the
reinforcement axis. a porosity profiles b unreacted cement profiles [7]
Fig. 14 Microstructural gradients in the interfacial region between cement paste and the topside
(left) and bottom side (right) of horizontally cast steel at four ages in concrete with a w/c ratio of
0.49: a calcium hydroxide, b porosity, c unreacted clinker phases, and (d) undesignated hydration
products (mainly C–S–H) [8]
Fig. 15 Microstructural gradients in the interfacial region between cement paste and the topside
(left) and bottom side (right) of horizontally cast steel at four ages in concrete with a w/c ratio of
0.70: a calcium hydroxide, b porosity, c unreacted clinker phases, and d undesignated hydration
products (mainly C–S–H) [8]
bar was lesser than that of vertically cast reinforcement bars due to the lesser avail-
ability of water. As a result of this, the calcium hydroxide distribution on the top
side of the horizontally cast reinforcement bar was lesser than the vertically cast
reinforcement bars [8]. The microstructure below horizontally cast reinforcement
bar was significantly different and non-comparable with the top side of horizontally
cast reinforcement bar. It was mainly affected by the bleeding induced defects, where
larger voids (in the range of several hundred micrometres) filled with bleed water
zones were observed [31]. These bleed water zones had a higher degree of reaction
and a large quantity of calcium hydroxide precipitation was noticed [8].
The addition SCM’s showed a better distribution of the cement grains in addition
to filling the available space between the cement grains. The calcium hydroxide
distribution at the SCI was significantly reduced due to the addition of silica fume
[7]. The distribution of calcium hydroxide in plain and silica fume admixed concrete
at different distances from the steel surface can be observed in Fig. 12. For plain and
silica fume concrete, the calcium hydroxide distribution profile at the SCI showed
the same general trends with a reduction in the amount of calcium hydroxide from
15% in plain mixes to about 5% in silica fume admixed concrete (Fig. 13).
5.3.2 Unhydrated Particles Oranhydrous Cement Particles
The origin of ITZ occurs mainly due to the packing of the anhydrous cement grains
[36]. During the hydration of cement particles, the grading of cement particles plays
a vital role in the packing of hydration products. As explained before (in Sect. 4)
the anhydrous cement particles largely occur in the bulk denser concrete and their
degree of reaction is lesser in the early ages of hydration. The width of the zone with
anhydrous cement particles decreases as hydration proceeds and at greater ages,
almost all the anhydrous cement particles hydrate forming a bulk denser concrete
around the ITZ [36].
The amount of anhydrous cement particles reduces as the hydration proceeds
at greater ages throughout the bulk denser concrete. Lesser distribution of anhy-
drous cement particles was observed close to SCI [7, 8]. The anhydrous cement
particle distribution gradually increases with the increase in the distance from the
steel surface. The reinforcing bar orientation and the water-cement ratio also has
some impact on the concentration of anhydrous cement particles. It was observed
that the degree of reactivity of anhydrous cement particles increases with the increase
in the w/c ratio [8, 39]. Hence the accumulation of anhydrous cement particles is
found to be lesser throughout the concrete with higher w/c ratio [refer Figs. 14 and
15]. The concentration of anhydrous cement particles was found to be more on the top
of horizontal cast reinforcing bars due to deficiency of water above the bar. Whereas,
the concentration of anhydrous cement particles was lesser below the horizontally
cast reinforcing bars due to the increased availability of water because of trapped
bleed water under the reinforcement bars [8] (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16 Microstructural
gradients in the interfacial
region between cement paste
and vertically cast steel at
four ages in concrete with a
w/c ratio of 0.49: a calcium
hydroxide, b porosity,
c unreacted clinker phases,
and d undesignated
hydration products (mainly
C–S–H) [8]
6 Characterization Methods of SCI
6.1 Greyscale Thresholding Method
When the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images were taken in back-scattered
electron (BSE) mode, greyscale thresholding technique can be used as an image
analysis technique to characterize the SCI. This is possible when the greyscale inten-
sity of a pixel in the SEM image corresponds to the density of the volume of matter
interacting with the electron beam [49]. Reinforced concrete is having various phases
and each phase is having its own unique density. Each phase that interacts with the
electron beam forms its own unique grey-level intensities. This leads to a difference
in the contrast level for different components as steel, aggregates, hydrates and pores
or voids in BSE images of SCI [1, 5, 50]. Then the range of grey-level distribution
of different components at SCI is manually assumed [5, 50]. Figure 17a shows a
typical BSE image at SCI and their greyscale histograms of individual components
were taken as represented in Fig. 17b.
Since the steel has a higher atomic number, it appears brighter white in Fig. 17a
with higher greyscale value in Fig. 17b. Pores or voids appear darker in the BSE
images due to lower atomic number. Thus, the steel and pores do not overlap and
hence the phase borderline between them was easy to distinguish. But the grayscale
values of cement hydration products with pores and aggregates which appears in
between the end phases overlap each other up to some grey-level intensities [5].
However, in the case of reinforced concrete, the porous band at the interface needs
to be separated from both steel and cement hydration products.
Several researchers came up with different techniques to distinguish the phase
borderline between hydrates in the cement paste/concrete and pores by setting an
appropriate grayscale threshold value [5, 49–52]. Yang and Buenfeld [52] produced
an algorithm for bifurcating aggregate particles by a combination of greyscale thresh-
olding. Scrivener et al. [51] suggested a tangent-slope thresholding technique to
differentiate pores and hydration products. Wong et al. [50] presented an efficient
method to separate pores from hydration products. Kenny and Katz [49] used the
point of intersection between two Gaussians produced by greyscale levels of cement
paste hydrates and pores as the threshold level that bifurcates between these phases
(Fig. 18). At the point of intersection, the probabilities of components (pores and
hydration products) belonging to each phase are equal.
The effective and reliable method was proposed by Chen et al. [5]. He considered a
greyscale value of 42, which was the tangent’s midpoint of phase changing boundary
between cement paste and porous band (as shown in Fig. 19) by analysing greyscale-
level distribution at SCI. Thus, the components having pixel grey value of less than
or equal to 42 were taken as pores/voids and the rest were considered as hydration
products and aggregates. Then the porous zone at the SCI was well distinguished
and its thickness can be measured by greyscale thresholding.
Considering the BSE image in Fig. 17a, after thresholding with a grayscale value of
42, a clear image showing well-distinguished steel, porous band and cement hydration
products (with small voids) was obtained as shown in Fig. 20a. This post thresholding
image was rotated to align vertically and the pores were measured at various spots. By
taking the mean value of all these measured values, the actual porous zone thickness
of this BSE image can be quantified.
(a) BSE image showing a typical SCI
(b) Histogram of each phase showing grayscale range from 0-255
Fig. 17 BSE image of a typical SCI and their corresponding grayscale histograms of each phase
6.2 Nanoindentation
Nanoindentation (NI) is an extensively used technique which has got significance

in measuring the material properties at the micron and nano levels to attain the
Fig. 18 Selection of greyscale threshold between two Gaussians [49]
microstructure and nanostructure of materials. It allows the user to execute mechan-

ical tests on the micro and nanoscale structure of the material. In the case of cement-
based materials, their mechanical properties are mainly depending on properties and
structure at microscale and nanoscales. In order to understand and improve macro-
scopic mechanical performances of cement-based materials, it is crucial to inspect
their mechanical properties at this micro- and nanostructural level [54, 55]. This is
an effectual and dominant tool to discover the material’s microstructural and nanos-
tructural elastic properties, hardness and creep properties [34]. This technique works
on a basic theme that a very tip indenter with known properties and geometry is
allowed to indent on the face material and examining the mechanical performance
of the material from the reaction of the tip [54, 55]. It is important that the intender
which was used should be much rigid than the testing specimen. The indenter used
for the cement-based materials was Berkovich tip, which has three-sided pyramid
that seems much trouble-free to grind [54].
To characterize the SCI, a series of indents were made in the ITZ between steel and
bulk denser concrete to attain its nanomechanical properties [34]. The samples used
for performing this test should have a smooth flat surface without any undulations
[54]. The load acting on the indenter was a controllable parameter and the resultant
depth of penetration was noted. Normally a trapezoidal loading program with loading,
holding, and unloading phase was used as shown in Fig. 22. Local Elastic properties
like indentation modulus (or reduced modulus) and hardness of the SCI can be
estimated by the Oliver–Pharr method [56] using the unloading division of load
penetration curve (Fig. 21) [54, 55]. The indentation modulus (or reduced modulus)
Fig. 19 Selection of greyscale threshold by the tangents midpoint of phase changing boundary
between cement paste and porous band [5]
was related to Young’s modulus ‘E’ and Poisson’s ratio ‘ν’ of the specimen and was
obtained by Eq. 1.

M = E/ 1 − ν 2 (1)
From the indentation statistics, another factor called hardness and was obtained
by Eq. 2.
H = Pmax /Ac (2)
where
Pmax is the maximum load and Ac is the contact area.
Time-dependent parameters, like creep indentation parameter (CIT) and creep
compliance functions can be also extracted from the load–displacement curves
(a) After thresholding
(b) Upright rotation and porous zone thickness measurements
Fig. 20 BSE image after thresholding with grey value of 42 [53]

Fig. 21 A typical load–depth curve of the nanoindentation tests [54]
Fig. 22 Trapezoidal loading program used in a nanoindentation experiment [55]
obtained by the indentation [34]. Creep indentation parameter depends on the contact
force and holding period (time), which can be obtained by Eq. 3. The relative change
between the depth of indentation h1 that come across at the time t1 and depth of inden-
tation h2 that come across time t2 . Creep compliance relates the time-dependent strain
with the nominal stress. From indentation data creep compliance can be obtained by
the Eq. 4.
CIT = 100(h2 − h1 )/h1 (3)
Cc = 2h2 (t)/ [π(1 − VS2 ) P0 tan α] (4)
where h(t) is the indentation depth corresponding to time t, P0 is the applied

force/load, VS is the Poisson’s ratio of specimen and α is the angle between edge of
tip and surface (In Berkovich diamond tip α = 19.7°).
Based on the suitability for conducting the test and the type of specimen, nanoin-
dentation has got some types. Grid nanoindentation was one among them conducted
to achieve more number of indents on the specimen [57]. It was used to assemble the
data like mechanical properties for conducting statistical analysis [58, 59]. The grid
size, shape of the grid and loading history should be predefined for this technique.
Grid spacing should be large enough to keep the indent away without disturbing the
surrounding indentations. Generally, this type of nanoindentation was preferred to
assemble and evaluate the microstructural mechanical properties of ITZ [60, 61].
This method was more suitable for homogeneous materials. To carry out nanoinden-
tation on heterogeneous materials, statistical nanoindentation technique has been
introduced. This technique involves taking plenty of arbitrary indents on a definite
area of the specimen and then analyse the indentation data statistically [54, 55]. A
novel method called manual indentation technique has been introduced to advance
the accuracy of grid indentation method. In this approach, the indentation points
should be manually selected prior to a required particular phase, so that the indenter
will impact on a required phase which enhances the accuracy of the result. Since the
indentation points are to be selected in advance, by the operator manually, it has got
the name manual indentation technique [55]. Apart from these, there is one more
technique of nanoindentation coupled with other techniques like SEM, atomic force
microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) [54].
From the nanoindentation study on the SCI, it is possible to approximate the ITZ
thickness due to the variation in the values of indentation modulus from the rein-
forced steel bar surface [57]. The main distinction between ITZ and the bulk denser
concrete is the porosity, which is inversely proportional to the modulus of elas-
ticity of ITZ. The indentation modulus shows an increasing trend with the increasing
distance from the steel surface. From the past research on nanoindentation, the mean
modulus of elasticity for clinker is about ~120 GPa, low-density C–S–H gel ~20 GPa,
high-density C–S–H gel ~31 GPa and calcium hydroxide ~40 GPa [62]. In SCI, it
was found that the calcium hydroxide was largely concentrated in the porous zone
and C–S–H gel was largely concentrated in the bulk denser concrete [7, 8]. As per
this distribution profile of CH and C–S–H gel, the modulus of elasticity should be
more in ITZ than that in bulk denser concrete. But the actual results show the oppo-
site trend because of the fact that the percentage of pores/voids was higher in the
ITZ which was more dominant than the increased modulus of elasticity of calcium
hydroxide. Similarly, the other parameter called hardness also shows the same trend
(increases with the increase in distance measured away from the surface of steel).
Time-dependent parameters, specifically the creep indentation parameter CIT and
creep compliance functions, show increased values at the ITZ than that in bulk denser
concrete. The mean value of creep compliance in the ITZ was two times superior to
the corresponding values in bulk denser concrete [34].
6.3 Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was an analytical technique used for

the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a specimen. EDS systems are
normally incorporated into the SEM instrument. SEM provides clear high-resolution
images of the specimen by focusing an electron beam throughout the surface and
perceives a secondary or backscattered electron signal which is displayed as an image.
By taking these kinds of SEM images of SCI, it was possible to find the composition
of hydration products at the SCI. EDS analysis of the obtained SEM images can be
done on a particular spot or an area or a line profile or a 2D map.
From the past studies on elemental compositions of SCI [7, 8], it was clear that the
major composition of the porous zone is being calcium hydroxide crystals and C–S–
H gel was the principal composition in bulk denser concrete. Hence, the distribution
profiles of these two compounds will help in determining the extent of the porous
zone from the face of reinforcing steel.
In general, the EDS composition results of cement-based samples show calcium
(Ca) and silica (Si) compositions using which Ca/Si ratio or C/S ratio can be extracted.
Several researchers confirmed the existence of calcium hydroxide and C–S–H gel
on the basis of calcium to silica ratio (Ca/Si ratio) [7, 8, 63–65]. Table 3 shows the
Table 3 Ca/Si ratios for C–S–H gel and Ca/Si ratio quoted by previous researchers
Composition Technique used Ca/Si ratio Author
Range Average
C–S–H gel – 1.7 Bentz et al. [66]
– 1.2–2.3 1.75 Pellenq et al. [67]
SANS/SAXS 1.7 Allen et al. [68]
– 1.6–2 Garcia et al. [69]
TEM 1.65–1.9 Richardson and Groves [70]
SEM 1.65 Rodger and Groves [71]
SEM 1.89–2 Harrisson et al. [72]
– 1.74 Gutteridge and Dalziel [73]
Calcium hydroxide TGA 1.95–2 Garcia et al. [69]
SEM scanning electron microscope, TGA thermogravimetric analysis, SANS small-angle neutron
scattering, SAXS small-angle X-ray scattering, C–S–H calcium silicate hydrate
values of the Ca/Si ratio, from which the occurrence of calcium hydroxide and C–S–
H gel can be identified. From the past researcher’s data about Ca/Si ratio, it may be
concluded that Ca/Si ratio values for C–S–H gel falls in the range of 0.8–1.75 and
for calcium hydroxide falls in the range of 1.75–3.5. On this basis of Ca/Si ratio, the
compositions of ITZ and bulk concrete as well as PZT can be determined.
7 Conclusions
The present review paper gives an idea of general properties of steel-concrete inter-
face, which were reported by the researcher fraternities. The characterization methods
of steel-concrete interface were systematically discussed. The following are the key
conclusions from the present study.
• The properties of steel-concrete interface differ from the properties of aggregate
cement paste interface and bulk denser concrete.
• The deviation of properties of steel-concrete interface when compared to bulk
denser concrete was due to the ‘wall effect’.
• The properties of steel-concrete interface were found to be quite influenced by
the water to cement ratio, curing period, compaction time and addition of mineral
admixtures.
• The porous zone thickness at the steel-concrete interface plays an important role
in service life prediction models.
• The porous zone thickness at the steel-concrete interface increases as water to
cement ratio increases.
• The addition of mineral admixtures or fine fillers reduces the porous zone thickness
at the steel-concrete interface.
• There is the preferential formation of calcium hydroxide at the steel-concrete
interface, which acts as a physical barrier for corrosion initiation until the ingress
of harmful ions at the level of steel-concrete interface.
• The grey-level thresholding method of characterization may be considered the reli-
able and reproducible method for measuring the porosity or porous zone thickness
at the steel-concrete interface.
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Prediction of Compressive Strength
and Electrical Resistivity of Mortar
Mixes Containing Industrial Waste
Products
Abstract In the present paper, non-linear soft computing technique (neural network)
has been used to predict the compressive strength and electrical resistivity of cement
mortar at 7 and 28 days. Thirteen mixes of cement mortar consisting of silica fume
and alccofine as subrogation of cement were selected. The training and testing data
used in ANN predictive model were based on experimental results in the labora-
tory. Cement, silica fume, alccofine, sand and water were used as input parame-
ters. The predicted results obtained from ANN using multilayer feedforward neural
network were compared with the experimental results. Results showed that ANN
technique is effective for the prediction of strength in compression and electrical
resistivity of various cement mortar mixes and correlation coefficients were also
high. The values of correlation coefficient (R) and R2 were higher at 28 days than
7 days results for both compressive strength and electrical resistivity.
Keyword Alccofine–silica fume · Electrical resistivity · Artificial neural network ·

Predictive model
1 Introduction
Nowadays, the environmental protection is the prime concern for the eco-friendly
nature. To protect the environment, different type of efforts have been adopted, and
the utilization of waste is one of those. On the earth, different type of wastes are being
generated (solid, liquid, gases); the utilization of these wastes in huge quantities is
M. Singh (B) · B. Saini · H. D. Chalak

Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra
136119, Haryana, India
e-mail: hundalmanindersingh@gmail.com
B. Saini
H. D. Chalak
e-mail: chalakhd@yahoo.co.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_16
206 M. Singh et al.
necessary for making the environment eco-friendly. As we know, the construction

industry is the major field that consumes solid materials, which results in the depletion
of natural resources in huge quantities. Cement is the basic need of construction
industry that consumes a lot of energy during production and approximately releases 1
kg of carbon dioxide for 1 kg of the manufacturing process [1, 2]. In India, the quantity
of generated industrial waste such as rice husk ash, slag, metakaolin, alccofine (AF),
fly ash, marble waste and silica fume (SF), etc., is very high, so the utilization of
these waste materials is the basic need for protecting environment.
Electrical resistivity (ER) is a non-destructive technique, used for measuring the
capability of current flow. Current flow performance of any material depends on the
microstructure of the matrix. ER is directly related to the chloride penetration, corro-
sion risk and porosity of the matrix [2, 3]. Therefore, it is a good indicator of material
durability. Numerous research investigations reported that the inclusion of fine parti-
cles size materials in concrete improved the strength and durability performance
[4, 5].
In the present paper, two types of industrial wastes, i.e. AF and SF as subrogation
of cement have been used. AF and SF are solid waste products in the form of ultra-fine
materials. AF, a low-calcium silicate material, is an iron industry waste. In [6–9],
authors have reported that the use of AF as subrogation of cement improves the
workability and strength properties of mortar mix. SF is a silicon metal or alloy
waste and is also known as microsilica (MS). In [10–12]. Authors reported that the
use of SF as subrogation of cement improved the performance of concrete.
Concrete is the third most used resource after air and water because of its strength
and durability characteristics. Many developments are taking place in the construc-
tion industry based on the requirements and new evolving techniques. Therefore,
modelling of properties of concrete is becoming a necessity day by day. New
modelling techniques by using artificial neural networks (ANN) help in assessing the
change in different properties of concrete when other materials replaced its standard
ingredients. Modelling also aids in knowing the dependency of concrete properties
on other factors like curing period, curing temperature, type of curing, etc.
The relationships between components and concrete properties are highly non-
linear; therefore, traditional models having various properties of concrete are inad-
equate [13]. In early studies, linear and multivariable regression analyses were used
for the modelling and statistical analysis of concrete behaviour. But, now regres-
sion analysis is considered insufficient as compared to modelling by ANN. Many
researchers have used various algorithm-based models like ANN, adaptive neuro-
fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) and multiple linear regression (MLR) for computing
the strengths of concrete mixes consisting of recycled aggregates [14, 15].
Properties of concrete depend upon many factors like water–cement ratio, type
of cement used, cement content, mineral admixture, etc. Nowadays all the concrete
firms have a very limited budget to spend on trial mixes and mix design. Further,
testing of trial mixes before and during construction consumes a lot of time that
increases the cost of project, as a large amount of materials is wasted. Therefore, the
application of ANN for prediction of early strength and other properties is a boon to
the construction industry [16].
Prediction of Compressive Strength and Electrical Resistivity … 207
Prediction of strength of high-performance concrete using neural network by

several researchers is a new development in the construction field. The performance of
various machine techniques was analysed and the construction of individual enacting
model was done to assess the strength of high-performance concrete (HPC) [17]. In
[18], the authors proposed feasibility of machine learning to study the long-term
assessments of reinforced concrete (RC). Authors have also discussed the benefits of
machine learning and modelling for life span assessment of RC structures in detail. In
[19], the authors tried to predict the strength of HPC consisting of additives as a partial
replacement. For this purpose, MRA (multiple regression analysis) and ANN models
were used, and ANN results found to be more accurate with a higher correlation
coefficient. Further use of regression analysis and ANN in damage prediction of
concrete structures is also important for seismic risk mitigation plans. In [20], the
authors used decision tree algorithms for the modelling of single-degree-of-freedom
RC buildings, and numerous time history non-linear analyses were performed.
1.1 Research Significance
The present study emphasizes the prediction of compressive strength (CS) and ER
of cement mortar mixes consisting SF and AF as a subrogation of cement at different
proportions. ANN model was trained and the results were compared with the exper-
imental results. The least value of RMSE (root mean square error) and high value
of R (correlation coefficient) and R2 were the main criteria in the assessment of the
predicted model. The purpose was to establish the correlation between input and
output parameters. In this study, multilayer perception to predict the CS and ER
of cement mortar mixes after 7 and 28 days was used and predicted results were
compared with experimental results. Cement, AF, SF, sand and water were taken as
input parameters and CS and ER at 7 and 28 days were achieved as output or target.
2 Methodology
In the present study, Weka 3.8.3 tool with multilayer perception (ANN model) as a
soft computing technique to predict the cement mortar properties was used. ANN
is a computational model-based non-linear statistical data modelling tool where the
relationships between input and output parameters are modelled [21, 22]. For a
multilayer perception feedforward, error backpropagation algorithm was used in
this study.
A total of 13 mix proportions of cement mortar containing AF and SF were used
to predict the CS and ER of mortar mixes at 7 and 28 days [23]. The predicted model
comprises input layer, i.e. five input parameters, one hidden layer with four neurons
for compressive strength and six neurons for ER parameters and output parameters.
208 M. Singh et al.
In this study, to analyse the performance of ANN, the values of correlation coefficient
(R), mean absolute error (MEA), R2 and RMSE values have been used.
3 Statistical Data
The statistical data used in the ANN prediction model are presented in Table 1. The
architectural representation of the used ANN prediction model is shown in Fig. 1a,
b. The value of R was the highest and RMSE was the least for better performance of
the predicted model.
Table 1 Range of Input parameters for ANN model

Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation
Cement (kg/m3 ) 345 375 486.538 62.617
Sand (kg/m3 ) 1725 1725 1725 0
Alccofine (kg/m3 ) 0 115 44.231 44.871
Silica fume (kg/m3 ) 0 115 44.231 44.871
Water (kg/m3 ) 316.25 316.25 316.25 0
7 days compressive 20.17 36.07 27.298 5.865
strength (MPa)
28 days compressive 24.52 39.11 32.294 5.07
strength (MPa)
7 days electrical 17.51 28.24 23.013 3.563
resistivity (k cm)
28 days electrical 21.57 33.48 28.134 3.224
resistivity (k cm)
Fig. 1 a Predicted ANN model for compressive strength, b predicted ANN model for electrical
resistivity
4 Predicted Model Analysis
The predicted results of ANN model consist of the relationship between the input
and output parameters. The performance of ANN model was evaluated in the form of
correlation coefficient (R), R2 , RMSE and MAE. The relationship between predicted
and experimental results of output parameters is shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5. Figures 2
and 3 show the relation between predicted and experimental CS at 7 and 28 days,
respectively. Similarly, Figs. 4 and 5 show the relation between predicted and exper-
imental ER at 7 and 28 days, respectively. The values of correlation coefficient were
found near to unity for all the output parameters, whereas RMSE was low in the
range of 1–2. The respective values of performance parameters R, R2 , RMSE and
MAE for all targeted results are given in Table 2. The values of R and R2 were higher
at 28 days results for CS and ER than 7 days.
The linear equations were derived from the corelation between experimental
results and predicted results (ANN prediction model) of CS and ER of cement mortar
consisting of AF and SF at 7 and 28 days of water curing. These equations can be
used continually to predict the CS and ER of mortar of similar quality for a limited
range of industrial wastes, which are used in the present study. The prediction of
these properties aid in saving time as well as money and labour. A standard equation
may also be derived for the estimation of CS and ER of mortar containing AF and
SF of any proportions using ANN model.
Fig. 2 Predicted versus 7 days Compressive strength

experimental 7d CS
41
36
31
26
y = 0.9287x + 2.6433
21
R² = 0.8882
16
16 26 36 46
Experimental Compressive strength (MPa)
210 M. Singh et al.
Fig. 3 Predicted versus 28 days Compressive strength

experimental 28 d CS
44
39
34
29
y = 0.901x + 3.1659
24
R² = 0.8981
19
19 24 29 34 39 44
Experimental Compressive strength (MPa)
Fig. 4 Predicted versus 7 days Electrical resistivity

experimental 7d ER 33
31
29
27
25
23
21
y = 1.141x - 2.6052
19 R² = 0.7704
17
15
15 20 25 30
Experimental electrical resis vity (kΩ-cm)
5 Conclusions
The present study checks the feasibility of neural-based models for the prediction
and comparison of different properties of cement mortar. The output parameters
were obtained from the experimental results in the laboratory. Thirteen different mix
proportions of cement mortar containing SF and AF as a subrogation of cement were
taken for the modelling. The use of both finer size waste materials (SF and AF) as a
replacement of cement increased the compressive strength; whereas, the filling effect
of these materials enhanced the electrical resistivity of cement mortar mixes. The
trained ANN model was tested and the predicted results of mix proportions were
Fig. 5 Predicted versus 28 days Electrical resistivity

experimental 28d ER 35
33
31
29
27
25
y = 0.8085x + 5.2167
23 R² = 0.7742
21
21 26 31 36
Experimental electrical resis vity (kΩ-cm)
Table 2 Values of performance parameters

Target R R2 RMSE MAE Equation
7 days electrical resistivity 0.8778 0.7704 2.2774 1.8376 y = 1.141x − 2.6052
28 days electrical resistivity 0.8799 0.7742 1.4868 1.1749 y = 0.8085x + 5.2167
compared with experimentally obtained results. The neural network model showed
the least mean absolute error and RMSE for the predictive models. Linear relation-
ships were derived between the predicted and experimental values of ER and CS.
These equations can be used to predict the ER and CS values of mortar consisting
of waste. ER is a durability property of cementitious materials that can be used to
determine the porosity, corrosion resistance, etc., directly or indirectly. The correla-
tion coefficient (R) for output parameters were found near to unity. Therefore, ANN
predictive model results suggest that high precision and accuracy can be acquired by
using properties parameters along with input variables.
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new approach for application of silica fume in concrete: wet granulation. Constr Build Mater
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An Overview on Waste Materials Used
in Engineered Cementitious Composite
Abstract This paper presents the overview on waste materials used for making
engineered cementitious composite (ECC). Micromechanics-based ECC is a superb
class of high-performance fibre-reinforced cementitious products. It is a mortar-based
fibre-reinforced cementitious matrix and shows ductile nature due to excessive strain
hardening under tensile loading. With the growth in industry the quantity of indus-
trial waste product on land is increasing, thus resulting in environment pollution in
different ways. In the ECC mix design, huge quantity of industrial waste products
have been used such as silica fume, iron ore tailings powder, blast furnace slag,
crumb rubber, recycled concrete fines, fly ash, palm oil fuel ash and so on. This
study reported the effect of these industrial by-products on fresh, mechanical and
durability properties of ECC. The present overview signifies that the subrogation
of cementitious materials and fine aggregates with the industrial waste products in
ECC improves deflection capacity, strain hardening behaviour, flexural and tough-
ness properties, drying shrinkage tensile strain and width of cracks resistance of
cementitious composite. The outcome of overview depicts that the properties of ECC
enhanced with the use of waste products up to some replacement level, whereas the
carbon dioxide emissions decreased, which made the ECC green in nature.
Keywords Engineered cementitious composite · Recycled concrete fines · Tensile

strain · Fly ash · Crack width
M. Singh (B) · B. Saini · H. D. Chalak

Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra
136119, Haryana, India
e-mail: hundalmanindersingh@gmail.com
B. Saini
H. D. Chalak
e-mail: chalakhd@yahoo.co.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_17
214 M. Singh et al.
Fig. 1 Behaviour of normal concrete, fibre-reinforced concrete and ECC under tensile loading [8]
1 Introduction
Engineered cementitious composite (ECC) is a mortar-based highly ductile nature

cement matrix, which shows pseudo strain hardening behaviour in tension regime.
The design model of fibre-reinforced ECC relies on fracture mechanics or microme-
chanics [1, 2]. ECC mainly consists of cementitious matrix and fibres. To reinforce
ECC, different types of polymeric fibres have been used. Fibres across the cracks
transfer the stresses and act as a bridge. ECC generally consists of 2% or less than
that randomly distributed short-length fibres. The role of the cementitious composite
depends on the mechanical interactions between fibre, matrix and chemical bonding
[3–5]. ECC generally consists of microconstituents, because the bigger size particles
affect the ductile behaviour [6]. Compressive strength and elastic modulus of ECC
ranges from 20 to 95 MPa and 18 to 34 GPa, respectively. The compressive strength
of ECC shows normal to high strength concrete nature, whereas the elastic modulus
is less than ordinary concrete, that is, due to non-appearance of coarse aggregates.
The tensile strain and width of cracks in engineered cementitious matrix range from
1 to 8% and 60 to 100 μm, respectively [7]. The high tensile strain capacity with
multiple microcracks makes ECC performance superior than regular concrete. The
stress–strain curves under tensile loading in Fig. 1 depicts that regular concrete
fails suddenly and high-performance fibre-reinforced cementitious concrete (FRC)
shows tension softening failure after first cracking, whereas ECC shows pseudo-strain
hardening behaviour [8].
2 Design Theory of ECC
Mechanism behind micromechanics of ECC is the mechanical interactions between

fibre and mortar matrix. Under tensile loading steady state and number of cracks
phenomenon promotes pseudo tensile strain hardening in ECC. To achieve pseudo
An Overview on Waste Materials Used in Engineered … 215
Fig. 2 Matrix bridging

stress versus crack opening
[9]
strain hardening with number of microcracks, two conditions, strength-based and

energy-based, need to be satisfied [7, 9–11].
The strength condition that maximum fibre bridging stress (σpeak ) must be more
than the first crack strength (σfc ), on each crack plane that is articulated by Eq. 1,
must be satisfied.
σ peak > σ fc (1)
As per the energy condition, the propagation of matrix crack should occur in a
constant ambient stress (σss ), and flat crack opening (δss ) in a flat crack configuration.
This condition leads to an energy balance between externally supplied work and the
required energy for fibre bridging to generate the microcracks in matrix. The energy
dissipated along the bridging of fibres is articulated by Eq. 2.
δss
σss δss = Jtip + ∫ σ (δ)dδ (2)
0
As per the above-mentioned conditions, upper limit for crack tip toughness of
matrix (Jtip ) can be fixed as (Fig. 2),
Jtip ≤ Jb (3)
δss
Jb = σpeak δpeak − ∫ σ (δ)dδ
0
where δpeak = maximum crack width at peak stress

As per these conditions, the performance index of stress σpeak/ σfc and energy Jb /Jtip
can be calculated to observe the pseudo strain hardening [9].
where Jb = Complementary bridging energy
216 M. Singh et al.
These indices must need to exceed unity in polymer fibre-reinforced cement

matrix to show pseudo strain hardening [9]. Higher the indices margin, higher are
the saturated multiple cracks and pseudo strain hardening. Fibre bridging realizes the
steady state and number of cracks behaviour. To evaluate the behaviour of crack with
bridging effect, various studies with polymeric fibres have been explored [9–11].
3 Role of Waste Materials in ECC
Quantity and types of debris are increasing day-by-day. Among these, some of the
wastes are such that their fully decomposition may take many years. These non-
biodegradable or trash materials create nuisance in earth environment. Raging of
waste accumulation is worldwide, particularly in congested areas.
Numbers of investigations have been reported on the performance of ECC, using
variety of wastes to replace solid constituents. Mineral admixtures are the powdered
ground solid materials, that is fly ash (FA), rice husk ash (RHA), recycled concrete
fines (RCF), crumb rubber (CR), BFS (blast furnace slag), iron ore tailings (IOTs)
powder, fly ash cenosphere (FAC), palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and silica fume (FA).
These are added to the engineered cementitious composite in larger amount than
any other materials. Because the use of mineral admixtures has an ability to enhance
fresh, mechanical and durability properties of ECC, mineral admixtures can be a
good alternative of cement. Cement is dearer than other constitutes in concrete. So,
wise use of cement alternative is needed as their use may reduce CO2 emissions.
Cost efficiency may also improve using cement alternatives.
(a) Fly ash (FA)
Thermal power plants produce fly ash (FA) by combustion of coal. Electrostatic
precipitators collect fly ash from exhaust gases during burning. Chemical composi-
tion of fly ash (FA) is different from various cements, but it resembles in portland
cement. The hardening time of FA is lower than cement, due to the chemical reaction
between calcium hydroxide and FA. The FA is of two types: (a) Class C and (b) Class
F.
A huge quantity of FA is used as subrogation of cement in ECC. Most of the
researchers used Class F-type FA as cementitious material in ECC [12–22]. In ECC
the use of fly ash (FA) as subrogation of cement improves the ductile behaviour.
The use of FA in high volume (more than 50%) improves the tensile strain capacity,
multiple cracking and fire resistance, whereas decreases the strength properties, that
is, compressive, flexural and tensile. Chemical bonding between the fibre and the
matrix reduced with the use of FA, which is in favour of achieving pseudo strain
hardening. The width of cracks and drying shrinkage decreased with the use of FA,
which promotes the durability of ECC [12–22].
(b) Rice husk ash (RHA)
Rice husk is generated from rice mills during processing of rice. Rice husk ash
(RHA) can be produced from burning of rice husk. The RHA mainly consists of
silica with small amount of carbon. The surface area of RHA depends on the burning
temperature [23–27].
Righi et al. [23, 24] investigated the tensile performance of ECC by using RHA
as subrogation of cement by 10, 20 and 30%. It was examined that the use of RHA
with replacement of 30% cement enhanced the performance of ECC, that is, ductility,
resistance to crack generation and decrease in the voids, water absorption and heat of
hydration in ECC. The durability properties of ECC by using 30% RHA as replace-
ment of cement were studied by Costa et al. [25]. It was examined that the absorption
rate and void content of ECC-RHA is higher than ECC-reference.
(c) Recycled concrete fines (RCF)
Recycling is the process of changing useful waste material into new products. The
usage of generated new products by recycling reduced the pollution of environment
and the consumption of fresh materials also. From this process the use of these
materials makes the environment eco-friendly. During this process various size of
particles are generated, from fine to coarse. The fine aggregates are known as recycled
concrete fines (RCF) [28, 29].
In ECC, recycled concrete fines (RCF) with size of 300, 600, 1180 and 2360 μm
have been used as replacement of silica sand (SS) by Li et al. [29]. It has been reported
that 600 μm size was optimum for flexural strength and tensile strain capacity. It has
been also reported that 300 μm size was optimum for compressive strength. And
matrix toughness decreased, when size of RCF increased from 300 to 600 μm, and
afterwards it increased.
(d) Tire rubber
Tire rubber is derived by cutting scrap tires or other types of rubber materials in the
form of granules or short pieces [30–32].
Crumb rubber has been used as silica sand replacement with 0, 15 and 25% by
Zhang et al. [31]. It was examined that compressive strength decreased up to 35%
and no change is observed between 15 and 25, whereas deformability increased with
the increase of crumb rubber percentages. First cracking strength, toughness, crack
width and bonding strength between matrix and rubber powder was much weaker
than silica sand.
Recycled tire rubber was used as replacement of iron ore tailings (IOTs) powder
with 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% by Huang et al. [32]. It has been observed that compressive
strength and elastic modulus decreased up to 63% and 50%, respectively at 10%
replacement. Width of cracks, tensile strength and first crack strength decreased,
whereas tensile strain capacity, free drying shrinkage increased with the increment
of recycled tire rubber as replacement of IOTs.
218 M. Singh et al.
(e) Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is a by-product of iron and steel
industries. Water-quenched molten iron slag turns into a granular product that is
grounded to fine powder. It mainly consists of CaO and SiO2 [33–35].
The GGBFS or slag was used in ECC as replacement of cementitious materials.
Khan et al. [33] used GGBFS and fly ash (FA) separately as substitute of cement
in ECC. It was reported that the use of GGBFS improved the ductility of ECC and
lengthens the curing period. At 28 days ECC with 62% GGBFS showed better fresh
and hardened properties with strain capacity of 4.2%.
Lim et al. [34] used GGBFS as subrogation of cement at different levels. It has been
observed that the use of GGBFS enhanced the strength and fibre bridging property,
which promoted the ductile nature of ECC.
Zhu et al. [35] used the blast furnace slag with combinations of fly ash at different
levels as cementitious materials. It has been observed that the combinations of 40%
FA and 30% slag (SL) enhanced the tensile strength, tensile strain, compressive
strength and flexural strength by 14.37, 5, 30 and 26%, respectively, after 28 days of
water curing. And combination of FA and SL also improved the durability properties
of ECC. Finally, the combination of these two materials at this level delivered better
results than other mixes.
(f) Iron ore tailings (IOTs) powder
Iron ore tailings powder is produced from beneficiation processes of iron ore as solid
waste product. This solid waste product grows faster due to increase in the demand
of steel and iron. It mainly consists of SiO2 and Fe2 O3 [36–38]. Iron ore tailings
(IOTs) powder was used as silica sand substitution by Huang et al. [37]. It has been
observed that strength properties (compressive, first crack and tensile) and width of
crack decreased, whereas tensile strain capacity and matrix toughness increased with
the use of IOTs [37].
Iron ore tailings powder was used as subrogation of cement by 40 and 80% by
Huang et al. [38]. It was reported that compressive strength decreased and tensile
strain increased ranging from 46 to 57 MPa and 2.3–3.3%, respectively. Moreover,
the use of iron ore tailings powder reduced energy consumption and CO2 emissions
from 10 to 32% and 29 to 63%, respectively.
(g) Fly ash cenosphere (FAC)
Fly ash cenosphere is a light-weight hollow sphere, produced from coal combustion
at power plants with fly ash waste. It largely consists of silica and alumina. The
density of cenosphere varies from 200 to 800 kg/m3 .
Fly ash cenosphere (FAC) is used in ECC as substitution of iron ore tailings
powder. It was reported that the use of FAC decreased the density, thermal conduc-
tivity, matrix fracture toughness and strength properties, whereas improved the tensile
strain capacity [39].
(h) POFA (Palm oil fuel ash)
In palm oil boilers, fibres, fruit bunches and shells are used as fuel, by which POFA
(Palm oil fuel ash) is produced.
POFA was used as subrogation of cement with 0.4, 0.8 and 1.2 from the mass
of cement by Altwair et al. [40]. It has been examined that compressive strength
and number of cracks increased, whereas first crack strength, defection capacity and
crack width decreased with the use of POFA. It has been reported that 0.4% of POFA
was optimum replacement for flexural strength.
(i) Silica fume (SF)
Silica fume is produced from silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys as solid waste
product. It is used in concrete as additive, and very reactive with pozzolanic materials.
Size of silica fume particle is 0.1μ. It mainly consists of silica. Number of researchers
have used silica fume in ECC as a good additive [41–45].
Liu et al. [41] had used 65% fly ash and 5% silica fume as replacement of cement.
It has been reported that the use of silica fume improves the mechanical and durability
properties of ECC.
Zhou et al. had used 0.1 silica fume by mass of cementitious materials in ECC
[42]. It has been observed that silica fume improved the fresh and hardened strength
properties of ECC.
4 Conclusions
The current paper presents a brief summary on used waste materials in ECC as
replacement of cementitious materials and fine aggregates. Various types of industrial
waste products, such as RHA, tire rubber, silica fume, GGBFS, FA, iron ore tailings
powder, palm oil fuel ash and recycled concrete fines and so on, have been used
for replacement in ECC at different levels. Appraisal on different properties such as
fresh, mechanical and durability has been reported in the literature. The major key
findings from the available literature are mentioned in the following:
• The work signifies that the use of FA as replacement of cementitious materials
improved the strain capacity under tension and resistance against width of cracks
in ECC.
• The literature reported that the substitution by waste materials in ECC up to some
percentages enhanced the ductility and durability of matrix.
• The past studies reported that chemical bonding decreased between fibre matrix
interactions, which promote the pseudo strain hardening with multiple cracking.
220 M. Singh et al.
• The outcome from the past studies showed that the use of industrial by products in
ECC reduced the carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption decreased,
which promotes the greenness of environment.
Acknowledgements The authors obliged to the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for the
financial assistance for research work.
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Studies on Modeling and Control of RCC
Frame with MR Damper
R. Rakshita , C. Daniel , G. Hemalatha, L. Sarala, D. Tensing,

and S. Sundar Manoharan
Abstract Magnetorheological Dampers (MR) have the ability to mitigate seismic

hazards caused to a structure by reducing its potential to undergo large displacements.
The objective of the paper is to formulate an analytical modeling technique to perform
the hybrid simulation. The seismic response of a single-story frame employed with
an MR damper is analyzed for hybrid simulation. The paper compares the results
of several parameters subjected to specific earthquake ground accelerations using
an object-oriented programming software called OpenSees. A program source code
developed by OpenSees is run with Active Tcl script and changes are made for
specific models to validate the simulations for each model. The time-series data for
ground accelerations of the earthquakes considered in the models (El Centro, Kobe,
and Northridge earthquakes) is taken as an input to perform a simulation. OpenSees
software is present as an executable file that runs this source code of the program,
performs the simulation for each of the models, and saves the output. The simulated
models give us several outputs like acceleration, displacement, damper force, etc.,
simultaneously after the program is run. The results of the output are deliberated in
the form of graphs.
Keywords Magnetorheological damper · Hybrid simulation · Time history

analysis · OpenSees
1 Introduction
The significance of modeling and control of building for seismic hazards is necessary
to eliminate the possibility of failure and associated damage that may be caused due
to the occurrence of earthquakes [1, 2]. As earthquake is a natural phenomenon, it is
R. Rakshita · C. Daniel (B) · G. Hemalatha · L. Sarala · D. Tensing

Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, India
e-mail: danielckarunya@gmail.com
S. Sundar Manoharan
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Gujarat, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_18
224 R. Rakshita et al.
physically impossible to completely cease its potential. However, its effects can be
outlasted by suitable modeling techniques using an analytical approach [3, 4]. Risk
reduction of earthquakes is a complex task that involves many crucial decisions, and
hence, it is important to understand the probability of its occurrence to formulate
rational solutions. An MR damper forms a part of a semi-active control system that
helps to reduce the structural vibration [5, 6]. The hybrid simulation frameworks are
built using different hardware and software, by using different numerical integration
and delay compensation techniques that lead to different system behavior for setups
designed to test the same structure. The standardized framework is to help authenti-
cate hybrid simulation and to develop damper models using strategies for semi-active
control systems [7].
The control algorithms used in semi-active control affects the performance of
the controlled system and the requirements. The Tcl script devised accurate analyt-
ical techniques like the implementation of the Blockpulse functions to reach less
computational expenses [8]. An accurate model for MR damper, which can consti-
tute the hysteresis and make identification of parameters simple, should be devel-
oped. A new simple non-linear model to show the hysteretic behavior of the exper-
imental investigation is incorporated with the analytical studies. The difficulty that
is encountered when substantiating the efficacy of the control of semi-active system
through numerical analysis [9]. The hybrid simulation technique to verify the validity
of the method by performing experimental and analytical studies [10]. The hybrid
simulation studies conducted by many researchers are generally performed using a
standardized damper of 200-kN capacity [11, 12]. So, there is a necessity to indige-
nously fabricating a damper at the laboratory to test the response of the structure
during ground motion.
The main objective of this paper is to formulate a suitable analytical modeling
technique using OpenSees and to analytically derive solutions for the displacement
of SDOF from the experimental data of MR Damper.
2 Proposed Methodology
2.1 Hybrid Simulation
Hybrid simulation integrates the physical testing and analytical modeling using
computing software, offering a more coherent and reasonable way to investigate how
large structures retaliate to seismic loading. The evaluation of a structure’s response
under the ground motion of both components into one simulation. This helps the
structural components with a complex response to be modeled experimentally and
more renowned components can be represented within this analytical model. The
necessity of hybrid simulation is that it helps to analyze the seismic response of large
civil structures using a similar methodology adopted for a smaller structure.
Studies on Modeling and Control of RCC Frame with MR Damper 225
In this research, we are typically going to perform hybrid simulation by formu-

lating an analytical model using OpenSees application software by taking into
account the details of experimental investigation. The experimental investigation is
conducted in the laboratory using specific testing procedures. The analytical investi-
gation includes the formulation of an analytical model using OpenSees software by
writing specific program codes for the simulation of the model.
2.2 MR Damper
A magnetorheological damper comprises of magnetorheological fluid, controlled by

an external magnetic field, using an electromagnet. In the present study, the fluid
composition was mixed in the 60:40 ratio. The smart material Fe3 O4 was fixed as
60% by weight and the carrier oil was 40% by weight currently, magnatec oil in this
case. The shear mode of the magnetorheological damper is represented in Fig. 1.
The payload of the suggested damper is 2.28 kg. The fabricated MR damper is
depicted in Fig. 2. This MR damper is assessed by exciting the damper with the
amplitude ±5 mm, current range from 0 to 3 A, and frequency 0.5 Hz using MTS
Universal Testing machine, cyclic loading test was done, as shown in Fig. 3. This
vibration obtained is similar to that of a cyclic load test. The resulted damping force
is measured by a DAS (Data Acquisition System) and the accelerometer helps to
measure the motion of the damper. The measured damping force with respect to the
displacement is represented in Fig. 4. The damping force value for 0 A is 2 kN and
Fig. 1 Schematic shear

mode magnetorheological
damper
Fig. 2 Fabricated magnetorheological damper
Fig. 3 MTS universal testing machine
the maximum damping force at 3 A is 3.52 kN. The damping force obtained in the
test is appropriate for vibration control.
Fig. 4 Damping force MRF 60
2.3 Analytical Model
In order to develop the program code to run the MR damper model in OpenSees, it
is essential to understand the basic working principle of the software. OpenSees is
an exclusive software used for the simulation of earthquake engineering structures.
The results obtained in the proposed model using OpenSees are damper displace-
ment, damper force, frame displacement, frame force, and acceleration. An idealized
schematic model developed based on existing damper models is represented in the
Fig. 5.
Basic Geometry
The single-story frame adopted in the present work shown in Fig. 6 has 1000-mm
bay width and 1000-mm story height. The period of the system is 0.7 s. Columns
and beams of the frame are modeled with elastic beam–column elements.
Damper Links
A two-node link element is used to link the two nodes that define the geometry of
the MR damper.
Constraints
The nodes at the base of the frame are fixed. The beam is considered to be rigid.
Fig. 5 Model description
Fig. 6 Ground acceleration

versus time
Damper Material
To model the MR damper material, the input parameters that are selected for the
damper example are as follows: Axial Stiffness K in kN/mm, Damping Coefficient
C d in kN (s/mm), and a constant a = 0.35.
Loading
The single-story frame with MR damper is subjected to three earthquake time history
data and the simulation models with each data is developed. In this model, the time
history data of the 1940 El Centro Earthquake, 50% JR Takatori record from the
Kobe 1995 earthquake, and 1994 Northridge Earthquake are considered.
2.4 Modeling Using OpenSees
Initially, we develop a program code depending upon our requirements. The G +

3 RCC frame was analyzed using Staad pro, the critical section details are scaled
down from 1:3 scale factor. For example, the prototype size is 230–77 mm using
scale factor, the specifications implemented in the current program are as follows.
Size of the Frame 1 × 1 sq m
Thickness of the column and 0.77 m
beam
Weight of the Frame 10 kN
Reinforcing Steel 8 mm dia, 4 rods
Stirrups 3 mm dia, 50 mm spacing.
The fundamental parameters that define the behavior of an MR damper are
axial stiffness, damping coefficient, and alpha value (0.35). Three different cases
considered in the studies are,
• A frame without an MR Damper
• A frame with an MR Damper of current 0 Amperes passing through (off state)
• A frame with an MR Damper of current 3 Amperes passing through (on state).
In each of these cases, the MR Fluid composed of Nano Fe3 O4 particles is
responsible for magnetization which indirectly relates to the damping force.
The most important factor noticed are the internal damper stiffness K d and the
damping coefficient C d . Table 1 depicts the input parameters for the proposed model
in the two different states.
Table 1 MR damper states

Off-state On-state
For a frame with MR damper of current 0 For a frame with MR damper of current 3 A
Amperes passing through it, the following passing through it, the following values of K d ,
values of K d , C d are obtained C d are obtained
Time = 4 s (Frequency: 0.25 Hz) Time = 4 s (Frequency: 0.25 Hz)
K d = 0.08 K d = 0.14
C d = 0.32 C d = 0.56
Table 2 Peak ground

Earthquake Recorded time Maximum value of g
acceleration
El Centro 0.02–31.81 0.31
Kobe 0.01–40.96 0.61
Northridge 0.02–60.00 0.88
3.1 Ground Acceleration Versus Time
The peak ground acceleration and time in seconds of the three earthquakes considered
for this study are plotted in a graph, as shown in Fig. 6, by using the software
Originpro8. Peak ground acceleration is denoted by g (the acceleration due to earth’s
gravity, in m/s2 (1 g = 9.81 m/s2 ) (Table 2).
3.2 Accelerations for Frame Without Damper
When the case, where an RCC frame without a damper is considered, upon ground
accelerations, the frame fails instantaneously within a time span of few seconds.
For El Centro ground accelerations, the RCC frame fails typically at 0.84 s from
the start. For Kobe and Northridge ground accelerations, the RCC frame fails at
1.18 s and 2.96 s, respectively. Further, the percentage reduction in frame acceleration
between MR Damper 0 A and MR Damper 3 As for the different earthquakes are also
calculated. Figure 7 shows frame acceleration versus time without damper (Tables 3
and 4).
Fig. 7 Frame acceleration

versus time without a damper
Table 3 Acceleration of the

Earthquake Min Max
frame without damper
El Centro 92.08 52.95
Kobe 50.75 180.81
Northridge 112.03 115.78
Table 4 Percentage
Earthquake Percentage reduction
reduction in acceleration
between 0 and 3 A MRD El Centro 92.08
Kobe 50.75
Northridge 112.03
3.3 Frame Displacement Versus Time
The frame displacement is obtained from the output. When the force is applied, the
frame undergoes a sway and there occurs a displacement from its original config-
uration. The percentage reduction in the displacement of the frame upon 0 and 3
A MRD is tabulated and it is found to be similar to that of damper displacement.
Figure 8 shows frame displacement versus time for different earthquakes (Table 5).
Fig. 8 Frame displacement versus time for different earthquake
Table 5 Percentage
Earthquake Percentage reduction (%)
reduction in frame
displacement El Centro 37.456
Kobe 24.956
Northridge 25.074
3.4 Damper Force Versus Damper Displacement
The damper force versus damper displacement is obtained for the MR Damper with
3 A current and MR Damper with 0 A current. It is observed that the damper with 3 A
current has more reduction in the displacement than that of the 0 A current damper.
Figure 9 shows damper force versus displacement for different earthquake response
(Table 6).
4 Conclusion
In this work, the energy created due to earthquake is imparted to the structure and
it increases the susceptibility of the collapse was found. The effects of such events
are resisted by using external devices such as damper which helps to dissipate this
energy that is transferred to the structure. Hybrid simulation has been particularly
useful to formulate analytical models and to derive solutions for the displacement
of the SDOF system using experimental data of MR damper. It is inferred upon
corroborating the three earthquake results that an MR Damper with 3 A current has
a maximum percentage reduction of 32.215% in displacement for Kobe Earthquake.
Fig. 9 Damper force versus displacement for different earthquake response
Table 6 Percentage
Earthquake Percentage reduction (%)
reduction in damper force
versus displacement El Centro 19.692
Kobe 32.215
Northridge 31.897
To conclude, a semi-active control damper at ON state that operates with a minimum

current is able to improve the performance of the system by a reduction in the
displacement of the structure.
Acknowledgements The authors thank Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coim-
batore, Tamil Nadu, India, for their constant support. We also extend our acknowledgment to the
Department of Science and Technology (Grant No: DST/TSG/STS/2015/30-G).
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10.006
Detection of Defects in Concrete
Structures by Using Infrared
Thermography
Madhuraj Naik , Varadmurti Gaonkar, Ganesh Hegde,

and Lalat Indu Giri
Abstract This paper presents a report on the use of active infrared thermography
in detecting and evaluating the extent of damage in concrete structures. Detection of
sub-surface damages in concrete structures by the use of infrared thermography is
becoming popular. This is because of advantages like non-contact testing and rapid
scanning of any surface for damages. In this study active infrared thermography
was conducted on laboratory casted concrete slabs with in-built defects of known
sizes. It was found that the defects could be successfully identified by using infrared
camera which outputs thermal images of the slab. Further, the images obtained were
processed using a program to obtain area of defects. It was found that the defect
area estimated had an error of about 32.5% with respect to the actual area. It was
concluded that difference between area estimated and the actual area of defects can
be minimized by employing adequate amount of thermal excitation.
Keywords Infrared thermography · Sub-surface damages · Infrared camera ·

Thermal images · Thermal excitation
1 Introduction
All structures including life line infrastructure works like bridges degrade and
develop damage with time due to various reasons like fatigue, environmental factors,
M. Naik (B) · V. Gaonkar · G. Hegde

Goa College of Engineering, Farmagudi, Ponda, Goa, India
e-mail: naikmadhuraj@rediffmail.com
V. Gaonkar
e-mail: varad8872@gmail.com
G. Hegde
e-mail: gh@gec.ac.in
L. I. Giri
National Institute of Technology, Farmagudi, Ponda, Goa, India
e-mail: lig@nitgoa.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_19
236 M. Naik et al.
unforeseen loads, aftermath of natural calamities, corrosion, and so on. If these

damages are not detected in time and repaired it can affect the integrity of the struc-
ture and might lead to loss of life and property. Thus, predicting accurately the current
health condition of existing structures is a must. This has led to numerous studies
and development of new and advanced methods for damage detection in structures.
Infrared (IR) thermography has proven to be an effective NDT method to detect
defects in objects, both at surface as well as below the surface. Non-destructive testing
using IR thermography is known as thermal non-destructive testing (TNDT). TNDT
is commonly used in industry to do quality testing of metals, ceramics, machineries,
and so on, only until recently it has been used in concrete structures to detect sub-
surface damages. It generally consists of thermal excitation of the object under exami-
nation and monitoring of its surface temperature variation during the transient heating
or cooling phase. The existence of defects in the object interrupts heat flow causing
localized changes in temperature distribution on the surface. This can be recorded
using an infrared camera.
The two types of infrared thermography which are broadly used are passive ther-
mography and active thermography. In passive thermography the IR images of the
material under test are captured under natural ambient conditions providing infor-
mation based on radiation of heat absorbed from the environment. In active ther-
mography the object under test is subjected to external excitation/heating so that the
hidden defects reveal themselves by causing surface hot spots under thermal non-
equilibrium condition. Depending on nature of the heating used, active thermog-
raphy is divided into stepped thermography, lock-in thermography, pulsed thermog-
raphy, pulsed phase thermography and frequency modulated thermal wave imaging
(FMTWI) [1].
TNDT is a whole field technique compared to the traditional point-by-point ultra-
sonic inspection. It is also relatively cheaper than X-ray imaging [2]. There has been a
steady growth in the use of infrared thermography (IRT) as a health monitoring tech-
nique in civil structures, electrical installations, machineries and equipment, mate-
rial deformation under various loading conditions, corrosion damages and welding
processes. IRT has also found its application in nuclear, aerospace, food, paper, wood
and plastic industries [3]. In addition to the low hazard associated with IR thermog-
raphy, a further attraction is that inspections can be performed relatively quickly.
Concrete is thermally inert and has low thermal conductivity which means more
thermal excitation is required to induce heat flow in concrete structures to detect
all defects. This makes proper imaging of concrete structures difficult. Despite these
limitations, there has been progress in the development of IRT for concrete structures
and more research is still going on. The purpose of this study is to detect all defects
present in concrete structures by using active infrared thermography (stepped ther-
mography) and quantify the extent of damage. A MATLAB program incorporating
image processing technique has been used to calculate area of defects.
Detection of Defects in Concrete Structures … 237
2 Infrared Thermography for Health Monitoring

of Concrete Structures and Challenges
Passive thermography is popularly used for testing of large structures like bridges
and retaining walls because the size of these structures is large and it takes a large
amount of time to heat every part of the surface. Omar et al. [4] developed a stitching
algorithm to create a mosaicked thermogram of an entire bridge deck from individual
enhanced images for the purpose of identifying objective thresholds using K-means
clustering technique. Hiasa et al. [5] explored favorable time windows for concrete
bridge deck inspections by IRT through field experiment and finite-element model
simulations [6]. In a previous study [7] the same authors worked toward developing
an automated IRT system to determine optimal temperature contrast at which all
defects are identified in a concrete bridge deck by using FEA simulations. Sultan
Ali et al. [8] used receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis with image
processing methods to characterize the reliability of IRT images from fabricated and
in-service bridge decks. They analyzed the obtained thermal images pixel by pixel and
compared them with ground truth. Curry [9] identified many problems with infrared
thermography when used on concrete and masonry bridges in Europe. Zhao et al.
[10] adopted spatial processing of thermal image with various image enhancement
techniques to calculate area of defects in concrete retaining wall. Lourenco et al.
[11] conducted a study on infrared thermography’s capacity in detection of lack of
adhesion in tilling systems. From these works it was found that passive infrared
thermography was able to identify defect location accurately. However, when it
came to determining extent of damages, infrared thermography was found to give
errors. The passive infrared thermography technique suffers from various limitations
like edge effects, boundary conditions, time of heating during the day, time of data
collection, non-uniform heating and varying emissivity of objects. Also, to obtain
additional information like depth and area of defect the thermal images obtained
have to be subjected to different post-processing methods (Van Leeuwen et al. [12],
Maldague et al. [13]) which have their own limitations.
Różański et al. [14] conducted experimental studies on laboratory casted concrete
slab with reinforcement and four structure discontinuities imitating damages. Using
various thermal excitation sources, the sensitivity of the slab response using infrared
cameras was investigated along with numerical simulations. Similar work was done
by Milovanović et al. [15] to detect pre-embedded defects in concrete slabs in which
the authors did thermal excitation for 60 min using a 1000 W halogen lamp. Surface
temperature was monitored during this excitation along with 60 min cooling period
at different distances. The authors used pulsed phase thermography (Maldague et al.
[16]) to process the images. The authors concluded about favorable conditions for
defect detection. Importance of cooling time and quantification of defects was estab-
lished by Huh et al. [17] through experimental studies with defects at varying depths.
Lock-in and stepped thermography were compared by Brown et al. [18] in which they
performed trial inspections on two out of service FRP composite strengthened RCC
bridge girders. Maierhofer et al. [19] applied impulse thermography successfully to
238 M. Naik et al.
locate voids in concrete, location of delaminations of CFRP laminates in concrete

and detection of voids inside tendon ducts in laboratory conditions. The authors also
demonstrated success of impulse thermography in location of asphalt delaminations
in concrete bridge and detection of voids below granite floor on site. Cotič et al. [20]
based on a three-dimensional numerical simulation of the thermal transfer occurring
in concrete specimens containing a void and the experimental results established
relationship between the depth of the defect and t max or f max . To improve defect
detection of IRT, it was combined with other methods like elastic wave techniques
(Cheng et al. [21]). Maierhofer et al. [22] combined IRT with radar and concluded
that both IRT and radar are well suited for detection of voids in concrete. Keo et al.
[23] used microwave excitation source to detect the presence and spacing of steel
bars in RCC slab using a contrast algorithm. From these works it was found that
the ability to detect defects strongly depends on the heating time. A trial and error
approach is adopted by all the above-mentioned authors for different heating times
and amount of heating. This needs to be optimized. Apart from heating, detection
of defect also depends upon the material properties of the object and experimental
setup. Also, different methods of active infrared thermography have their own limi-
tations and hence can be combined with other NDT methods for testing on concrete
structures. Success of infrared thermography by combining it with other techniques
also needs to be demonstrated.
The existing methods should be revised to take into effect change in thermal
properties of concrete, atmospheric conditions and noise due to emissivity changes
and reflection from other sources. Defects of different sizes and at different depths and
concrete with varying parameters will require different amounts of excitation energy.
Using heat equation or FEM simulation, a mathematical formula can be developed
to calculate exact amount of heat required for a concrete structure to identify all
defects. This will optimize the process and make it more methodological rather than
the current practice of experimenting with different heating times and energy fluxes.
A thermogram gives the transient temperature versus time data for each pixel. These
images are processed using various techniques to extract important parameters to
calculate area of defects and depth. Different researchers have adopted different
techniques to calculate extent of damage, and these methods can be improved to
determine the extent of damage accurately.
3 Experimental Studies Conducted on Concrete
3.1 Preparation of Concrete Specimen
Two concrete slabs were casted to include simulated defects made of thermocol
having different sizes at the same depth. The out-to-out dimension of both slabs was
50 cm × 50 cm × 10 cm and they had four bars of 8 mm dia. at same spacing in
both the directions. Placement and location of defects and reinforcement is shown
in Fig. 1. Slab 1 (S1) had one thermocol defect D1 located 12 cm from left corner of
slab while Slab 2 (S2) had three defects all named D2.
Thermocol has thermal conductivity similar to air and was used to simulate air
void in concrete. Figure 2 shows the slabs S1 and S2 before concreting and location
of defects. Defect D1 is having size 12.5 × 6.0 × 3.5 cm while Defect D2 is having
size 5.0 × 3.7 × 2.0 cm. S1 had clear cover of 20 mm and S2 had clear cover of
25 mm.
The grade of both the slabs was M25. Type of cement used is OPC 43 grade (JK
cement) and steel rebars of diameter 8 mm (JSW) were provided at equal spacing.
Both 20 and 10 mm aggregates were used in the ratio 60:40. Type of sand used
was natural sand. Properties of all these materials will be taken into consideration
for future experimentation. Both slabs were not tested for their respective compres-
sive strengths. The slabs were demolded 24 h after casting. Curing was done by
submerging them in curing tank for 3 days. After curing period got over both slabs
were tested using thermal non-destructive testing. Slab S1 was again tested after a
period of 3 months from the first experiment.
Fig. 1 Placement of defects in a S1; b S2
Fig. 2 Showing reinforcement and defect location for slabs a S1; b S2

240 M. Naik et al.
3.2 Procedure
Rough experiments were conducted to evaluate capabilities of infrared camera to

detect defects in concrete. The aim of the experiments was to explore possibility
of calculating defect area with significant accuracy from the images. The experi-
ments were carried out in concrete laboratory of civil engineering department of
Goa College of Engineering, Farmagudi, Ponda-Goa. The ambient temperature and
humidity in the beginning of the experiment were not measured.
In experiment 1, testing of both slabs commenced after 3 days of curing. Two
500 W halogen lamps were used as photothermal excitation source for the slab. The
lamps were placed at a distance of 24 cm above the slabs, as shown in Fig. 3.
The slabs were subjected to thermal excitation of 45 min each. Stepped thermog-
raphy was adopted. Thermal images of the slab were captured randomly at different
times and at different distances. The thermal camera used was FLUKE Ti-10 hand-
held camera. The camera was able to adjust to emissivity of any material and could
measure the temperature at any region of interest. It had temperature measurement
range of −20 to +250 °C with measurement accuracy ±2 °C or 2% (at 25 °C nominal,
whichever is greater). The camera had field of view (FOV) 23° × 17° with 160 ×
120 resolution. It had different modes of capturing images like full infrared image,
full visual image and infrared image in visual image.
Fig. 3 Experimental setup a S1; b S2
Fig. 4 Series of images taken with FLUKE Ti-10 camera at random times
Fig. 5 Series of images taken after a 5 min, b 20 min, c 30 min, d 60 min and e 7 min of cooling
The images taken using FLUKE Ti-10 camera are shown in Fig. 4. At different
distances camera gave images with different temperatures. Also, the presence of the
rod with halogen lamps restricted getting clearer images, as seen in Fig. 4d.
In experiment 2, slab S1 was subjected to stepped active thermography using one
500 W Halogen lamp. The horizontal distance between S1 and Halogen lamp was
kept constant at 1 m. Height of Halogen lamp above the floor was 45 cm. The slab was
subjected to thermal excitation for 60 min. The first image was taken five minutes
after the heating started. Next image was taken 20 min after the excitation started;
third image after 30 min, fourth image after 60 min and last image 7 min after the
lamp was turned off. The sequence of images taken is shown in Fig. 5.
The thermal camera used was FLIR E6 hand-held camera. This camera like
FLUKE Ti-10 was able to adjust to emissivity of any material and could measure
the temperature at any region of interest. It had temperature measurement range −
20 to +250 °C with measurement accuracy ± 2 °C or 2%. The camera had field
of view (FOV) 45° × 34° with 160 × 120 resolution. It too had different modes of
capturing images, like full infrared image, full visual image and infrared image in
visual image.
3.3 Observations
The images in Fig. 4 show the temperature at different points of both the slabs for
experiment 1. The thermal excitation in experiment 1 was done for 45 min using
two 500 W Halogen lamps at 24 cm above the slabs, as shown in Fig. 3. Clearly
the heating was non-uniform over the surface as observed from the images. Also,
242 M. Naik et al.
the camera displayed different temperatures at different distances from the surface,
indicating that distance between surface and camera needs to be standardized.
Images in Fig. 5 show the temperature at different times for experiment 2. The
red mark indicates the defect D1 which was inserted in S1 at the time of concreting.
As seen from sequence of images the defect D1 was visible after just 5 min of
heating. As the heating time increased, the temperature over defect area increased
non-uniformly. After 7 min of cooling time when image was captured, it was found
that temperature over defect had decreased. However, it was found that defect was
not formed fully on the image even after 60 min of heating, indicating that excitation
done was inadequate.
Evaluation of defect area from thermal image was done using a program and
compared with the actual area. The images from the camera were exported to the
computer using USB cable in RGB format. These images were spatially calibrated
with actual dimensions in the program and the area was calculated. Before the
program was used for calculating areas, it was necessary to test it to find out its
accuracy. Testing of the program is covered in next section.
3.4 Testing of Program
The program was tested by first taking a standard A4 size paper and drawing figures
of known area on it. A photograph of the A4-sized paper was taken using Moto G4
plus mobile primary camera. The photograph is shown in Fig. 6.
The program allows the user to select any one image of choice and display it in
the window. The photograph was taken in such a way that the entire paper was in it.
The figures drawn on it were a rectangle of area 15 cm2 , one circle of area 28.28 cm2
and one polygon of area 22.47 cm2 . The length of standard A4 size paper is 29.7 cm
and width is 21.2 cm making the area of the paper as 629.64 cm2 . The first step in the
Fig. 6 Photograph of the A4

size paper with various
figures of known area on it
Table 1 Results of testing of program

Figure Obtained area using program (cm2 ) Actual area (cm2 ) Error (%)
Rectangular 15.20 15.00 +1.33*
Circle 27.70 28.28 −2.05*
Polygon 21.90 22.47 −2.54*
A4 paper 627.00 629.64 −0.42*
* ‘+’in error indicates obtained area from image is higher than actual area. ‘−’ indicates obtained
area is lower than actual area
program is calibration in which the user converts any plan dimension of the image
in pixels into centimeters. Taking this into consideration both end points of one long
edge of the A4-sized paper were selected and distance entered was 29.7 cm. To check
if the calibration was done properly, the width of the paper was checked by using
measure distance option which turned out to be correct. To be sure another check was
performed to measure length of the diagonal of the paper, which also was accurate.
Using measure area option in the program, area of the figures was calculated. The
accuracy of area obtained from the program depends on how accurately a user selects
an area. Similarly, area of other figures was measured and results were tabulated in
Table 1.
From Table 1 it is observed that the program is fairly accurate in determining
dimensions of any figure in the image including the image itself. However, accuracy
depends on how close to actual figure a user is selecting the region of interest. Also,
this program can be used for spatial calibration of only RGB and it does not eliminate
any noise or unwanted objects in the images. Future work can focus on improvement
of this program.
3.5 Results of Experiment 2
For Experiment No. 2, areas of defect D1 obtained using MATLAB program for
different heating times are presented in Table 2. The obtained area is compared with
the actual area of D1.
4 Discussions
The general problem addressed in this paper is the application of infrared thermog-
raphy in civil engineering. The active infrared thermography technique is used for
detection of defects in a laboratory casted concrete slab. The aim of the present study
is to investigate the application of these techniques to civil engineering structures.
244 M. Naik et al.
Table 2 Results of detecting defective area for experiment 2 (S1)

Defect Dimension Heating Depth at Actual area Estimated Error (%)
(cm × cm) time/cooling which D1 is (cm2 ) area (cm2 )
time (min) located (cm)
D1 12.5 × 6.0 5 2.0 75.00 35.2 −53.1
D1 12.5 × 6.0 20 2.0 75.00 43.7 −41.7
D1 12.5 × 6.0 30 2.0 75.00 44.8 −40.3
D1 12.5 × 6.0 60 2.0 75.00 50.6 −32.5
D1 12.5 × 6.0 7 (Cooling) 2.0 75.00 47.7 −36.4
* ‘−’ indicates obtained area is lower than actual area
The interest is in calculating area of defects in physical units from the thermograms
and comparing this area with the actual area of defects.
As seen from the thermal images, defects are visible, that is, the point where red
color appears. In experiment 1 it was observed that the images were giving different
temperatures of the surface for different distances. Therefore, standardization of
distance between camera and surface is very important to get the most accurate
temperature representation of the surface. Also, since the heating was focused on
very small area and field of view (FOV) of the camera was small, it was observed
that temperature at one point was very high. This indicates that heating needs to be
uniform. Effect of debris and interference of unwanted objects on the surface also
needs to be considered.
In experiment 2, defect D1 was visible only after 5 min of heating; however, it
was not fully formed on the thermogram even after 60 min of heating, indicating that
thermal excitation done was inadequate. The program formulated was tested on a
surface of known area and was found to be giving fairly accurate results as seen from
Table 1. It was observed that the error (%) between defect actual area and defect area
obtained using program reduced with increase in heating time and again increased
after cooling (‘−’ indicates that obtained area is lesser than actual area).
This method can be used for NDT of concrete structures and can give faster data
acquisition rate without having to touch the surface. However, improvements are still
needed to be able to adopt it for structural health monitoring of concrete structures.
This preliminary experimentation conducted shows the successful application of
infrared thermography for NDT of concrete structures.
5 Conclusions
The aim of these two experiments was to demonstrate potential of infrared ther-
mography in detecting defects in concrete and to quantify them. The ability of
infrared cameras to successfully capture defect areas was also demonstrated. It can
be concluded that:
• Defect detection using infrared thermography depends on the duration and

uniformity of thermal excitation used.
• Thermal image quality as well as the temperature readings obtained from it is
dependent upon the distance from which it is taken and field of view of the
camera.
• Processing of thermal images is required to obtain results like area and depth of
defect as thermal images by themselves give only location of defect.
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2013.12.002
DSP-Based Implementation of MPPT
Tracking and Sliding Mode Control
for Photo-Voltaic Systems
Subramanya Bhat and H. N. Nagaraja
Abstract The conventional energy sources such as thermal and hydro are decreasing
and at the same time global demand for energy is increasing almost at an exponential
rate. The conversion of renewable or nonconventional energy sources such as solar,
wind, and biogas plays an important role. Out of wind, solar, and biogas, the solar
energy is easily and more available in nature. In the developed work, solar energy is
used as an energy source. Moreover, many rural areas are not electrified even today
with the conventional electricity. The efficiency of solar panels is less and their cost is
also more. Hence to increase the efficiency, maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
techniques are implemented using DSP TMS320F28377s. The load voltage of the
converter will be maintained constant using sliding mode control (SMC) algorithm.
A single DSP is used for the implementation of MPPT and SMC. The developed
work is good in terms of efficiency, regulation, speed, and accuracy and works in
real-time scenarios. The developed work can be used as a standalone system in rural
areas for their daily electricity needs.
Keywords Maximum power point tracking · Converter · Sliding mode control ·

Renewable energy
1 Introduction
Nonconventional energy sources and renewable energy sources are gaining impor-
tance as the global demand for energy is rising. Many rural areas are not provided
with the conventional electricity even today. These rural areas can be electrified
using nonconventional and renewable energy sources easily. Out of nonconventional
energy sources, solar energy is abundantly available in nature and can be used as a
S. Bhat (B)
Department of E & C Engineering, N.M.A.M Institute of Technology, Nitte, India
e-mail: sbhat22@nitte.edu.in
H. N. Nagaraja
Department of E & E Engineering, Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun, India
e-mail: nagraj_hp@yahoo.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_20
248 S. Bhat and H. N. Nagaraja
primary source of electrical energy in rural areas. The solar cells efficiency is less and
hence we need to implement maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for extracting
maximum power from our sun. The output voltage from solar cell should be main-
tained at a constant voltage which we achieved by implementing sliding mode control
(SMC). The implementation of SMC requires more computation compared to other
control algorithms like voltage mode control, current mode control, proportional
integral (PI) control, and so on. In the literature, these control algorithms are imple-
mented using hardware components or microcontroller. However, SMC cannot be
implemented using hardware components or microcontrollers. But the advantages of
SMC are reduced steady-state error and increased stability. In the developed work,
MPPT using perturb and observe method and SMC for converter control are imple-
mented using DSP TMS320F28377s. In the literature, simulation studies on SMC for
converters are available but hardware implementation of SMC using DSP is unavail-
able. The developed work also implements MPPT using light sensors and wiper
motor and this type of MPPT is also known as hard tracking. A single DSP is used
for the implementation of MPPT for solar panel and SMC for converter control. Block
diagram of the proposed work is shown in Fig. 1. The input voltage for the converter
is derived from the solar panel. The current and voltages from the solar panel are
sensed using current and voltage sensor and it is given to DSP TMS320F28377s to
generate PWM waves, and these PWM waves in turn are used to ON the switch in
the converter. This type of control is also called feed forward control and the tracking
is known as soft tracking. The load voltage or battery voltage should be maintained
at a constant value of 12 V. To maintain the same, SMC is employed using the same
DSP. This type of control is also called feedback control. The load current and the
load voltages are sensed and compared, and the difference signal is taken as input to
DSP for generating PWM waves.
DC Lamp, DC
Input Buck-Boost Fan
voltage: Converter
Solar panel
Current Voltage
Sensor Sensor Current
Sensor Battery
MPPT Control
AlgorithmImpleme
ntation :DSP:
PWM generation :
SMC algorithm 12V Voltage
TMS320F28377s
implementation Source
PWM generation :
TMS320F28377s Comparator Error
Amplifier
Fig. 1 Implementation of MPPT and SMC algorithms for PV system

DSP-Based Implementation of MPPT Tracking and Sliding Mode … 249
Survey details of various MPPT techniques are discussed in Sect. 2. Implemen-

tation of P&O method using DSP is discussed in Sect. 3. The SMC is implemented
for buck–boost converter control and the same is discussed in Sect. 4. The developed
work is tested and the results are presented in Sect. 5.
2 Implementation of MPPT Techniques
The MPPT technique should be applied to PV system to increase the efficiency of

conversion for the PV cells and to increase the output power from PV cells. In future,
PV system will be used in all residential, commercial, and industrial applications.
Different methods are available in the literature for MPPT [1–8]. However, the most
popular MPPT is the perturbation and observation (P&O) method. In this method,
the operating point is moved toward the maximum power point. The disadvantage
of this method is that it cannot track quickly the maximum power points. Also the
algorithm does not work well for rapidly changing irradiance level.
Another method used for MPPT is the incremental conductance method. In this
method maximum power point is tracked by comparing the instantaneous and incre-
mental conductance of solar cells. This method can track the maximum power points
quickly but the harmonics of solar cell voltage and current should be measured and
considered.
Estimate perturb-perturb is developed in [9] to improve the speed of P&O method.
In this method, there will be one estimate mode in addition to perturb mode which
improves the speed of MPPT. Constant voltage method is mentioned in [10]. Here
temperature and solar irradiance effects are neglected. Short current pulse method is
mentioned in [10]. In this method maximum power point current is proportional to
the short circuit current under specified temperature and irradiance conditions. The
short circuit current is measured just before connecting solar panel to the PV system.
Microprocessor-based PV system is discussed in [11]. In this work, microcom-
puter is used for solar cell current feedback, phase locked loop, diagnosis of other
parameters, and MPPT. Microcontroller-based PV system is discussed in [12]. In
this work, a buck–boost converter is used for charging of batteries. The buck–boost
converter makes optimum use of solar energy for any application. To run AC appli-
cations, the output of the battery must be converted to AC and this was achieved
using an inverter. In this work, cost-effective microcontrollers are used to implement
control algorithms. A microcontroller PIC16F873 is used as charge controller and
generates rectangular wave to turn ON the MOSFET in the DC–DC converter. But
the disadvantage is the presence of harmonics. MPPT is not used in this paper to
extract the maximum power.
The RBF neural network realized on system on a programmable chip (SOPC) for
MPPT is discussed in [13]. In this work, voltage, current, and temperature of solar
panel are sensed and taken as input for RBF neural network. The PWM is generated
depending on Vref generated from RBF neural network. In this work, the control
system consists of RBF neural network, PWM, and PID control algorithm. The PWM
Begin
Measure V (k),I(k)
P (k) =V(k)*I(k)
ȴP = P(k)-P(k-1)
NO YES
ȴP>0
YES
NO YES V(k)-V(k-1)>0 NO
V(K)-V(k-
1)>0
D=D+ȴD D=D-ȴD D=D-ȴD D=D+ȴD
V (k-1) = V(k)
P (k-1) = P(k)
Fig. 2 Implementation diagram of P&O algorithm
and PID control algorithm are used to generate PWM signal. The ON period of the
PWM wave changes according to input from the solar cell. The advantages of SOPC
technology are low cost, stability, and integrity. The implementation diagram of the
developed P&O method is shown in Fig. 2.
3 Implementation of Sliding Mode Control
In literature, various control algorithms like current mode control, voltage mode
control, power control, adaptive control, hysteresis control, PI, and PID control are
discussed. The implementation of control algorithm for DC–DC converter using
FPGA is discussed in [14]. In this work, the charging and discharging of the converter
was controlled using FPGA controller by controlling the operation of switches. In

this study, FPGAs are used to implement the control algorithm. The voltage mode
control was implemented and PWM wave generated from FPGA was used to turn
ON the switch in the converter. The converter designed charged the battery when PV
power was available, and fed the power from the battery to the DC bus in the absence
of sun. The real-time implementation and comparison of PI and modified incremental
conductance control algorithms are discussed in [15]. This work mentions that the
incremental conduction algorithm is tracking 7.4% more power. The real-time digital
simulator is used to verify the results and this can be used to develop the real-time
hardware for the developed Simulink models.
A very few works have been reported on the implementation of control algorithms
for converters using DSP. A digital control algorithm for buck and boost converters
can be designed with the use of root-locus theory [16]. In this work, closed-loop poles
are placed properly to ensure system stability, good steady-state, and transient-state
response. The controller is implemented on a TMS320F2404 DSP and small signal
behavior of the converters is analyzed. The drawback of this work is that for the buck
converter theoretical values match the practical values, but for the boost converter
they do not match. This is due to nonlinearity of boost converter dynamics. Further, a
digital control method having the ability to specify the desired voltage and transient
behavior of a synchronous buck converter was discussed in [17] and developed for
voltage mode. In this work, a control signal is overlapped with a reference voltage.
The steady-state error in the load voltage is minimized using an additional dynamics
for the control algorithm. The design requirements are obtained by pole placement
technique and algorithm was executed using DSP TMS320F240. The implementation
of this control algorithm resulted in zero steady-state error. This work discusses the
implementation of FPGA-based design using the same controller. The drawback of
the system is low switching speed. In this work, analog version of the system was
implemented on a chip to make it cost-effective, but the size of the converter was
large.
A digital control method for DC–DC converter using DSP was discussed in [16,
18], where the control method implemented was PID controller. The drawbacks of
these works are that only first few samples of the compensator are considered and
the evaluation board of DSP is used. The converters are operated in discontinuous
conduction mode. Comparison of PID and fuzzy control methods using DSP is
proposed in [19]. In this work, the above control algorithms were evaluated for
DC–DC converters such as buck and boost. While comparing the parameters like
design methodology, realization problems and performances are considered. Imple-
mentation of a linear control method like PID on a DSP is easy, but implementation
of nonlinear control method like fuzzy logic is difficult on a DSP. The nonlinear
control method requires more memory and computation. The fuzzy controller
was superior when compared to PID for the boost converter control. Further, it
was found to be more stable and robust for the boost converter control. However,
the PID controller was superior compared to fuzzy controller for buck converter
control. The DSPs are configured for implementing filters. For the implementation
of fuzzy controller, memory required is larger and computational speed required is
higher when compared to linear controllers. Even for real-time implementation of

controllers used in converters, DSP is preferable as compared to microcontrollers.
The SMC is obtained from VSCS and is used to control regulators, tracking
systems, state observers, and fault detection schemes. The variable structure control
system is to analyze and synthesize the system, which intentionally changes its
structure with preset control law during transient period to achieve control objectives
[20]. VSCS was implemented successfully for the control of electric motors, space
systems, and robots. For a double integrator with input x(t), we can write
X .. (t) = u(t) (1)
where u(t) is the control signal. Consider the effect of using feedback control law
[21].
u(t) = −K X (t) (2)
where K is a positive scalar. The resulting closed-loop motion can be analyzed using
a phase description. This phase description is a plot of velocity versus position. For
the control action from Eq. (1) and multiplying the resulting equation throughout by
y yields:
X . X .. = −K X X . (3)
Integrating this equation we get the following expression between velocity and
position
X .2 + K X 2 = C (4)
where C denotes a constant of integration√ which is strictly positive. When K = 1,

Eq. (4) represents a circle with radius C and center at the origin. A plot of X versus
X . is an ellipse and the control law in Eq. (2) is incorrect. The X and X . variables do
not travel toward the origin.
For any controller, system state should be reached and it should stay on predefined
switching surface within the state space. The dynamic behavior of the surface when
confined to the surface is called as an ideal sliding motion. The benefits of sliding
motion are: order of the system is reduced and insensitivity to parameter variations.
The sliding motion control has many merits over the other control methods and
they are: simple realization, stability, good transient response, robustness, and less
magnetic interference. In SMC, switches are operated as a function of the state
variables in such a way that forces the system phase curved paths to remain on the
mentioned surface in the state space, known as sliding surface. The main advantage
of SMC is robustness achieved by insensitivity to parameter variations [22].
The MPPT technique based on SMC is proposed in [23]. The power output of the
PV system is DC and the power output of inverter is AC. This causes oscillations
between converter and inverter operations. If these oscillations are not stabilized then
PV power delivered to the load will be affected. SMC provides a good performance
in the control of bulk voltage oscillations and also it gives good performance over the
entire range without affecting the system bandwidth. In this work, MPPT is based
on SMC for which the reference is given by an external algorithm, and as a result,
oscillations are avoided in the bulk voltage.
The VSCS law can be modified and it is given in paper [22] as

−1 if S(X, X . ) > 0
u(t) = (5)
1 if S(X, X . ) < 0
where the switching is defined by
S(X, X . ) = K X + X (6)
Eq. (5) can be written as
u(t) = −sgn(S(t)) (7)
where sgn is the signum function. The dotted line in Fig. 3 denotes the group of
points for which S(X, X . ) = 0. This is a straight line of slope—K passing through
the origin. But for y values satisfying the K |X . | < 1, then

lim s 0+ S . < 0
(8)
lim s 0− S . < 0
X'
Fig. 3 Different curved paths travel toward the sliding line from many starting conditions
When K |X . | < 1, system curved path on either sides of the line point, nearer to
the line is expressed by
S = {(X, X . ) : S(X, X . ) = 0} (9)
Figure 3 shows the phase description of the system for high X . . The dashed line
denotes the sliding line and a curved path travels toward the sliding line.
For the infinite switching frequency the sliding motion will be on the line S. When
the motion is on the line S then it satisfies the equation, which we get from rearranging
S(X, X . ) = 0, namely,
X . (t) = −K X (t) (10)
This indicates first order decrease and the phase curved path will move along the
line S to the origin, as depicted in Fig. 3. This dynamic behavior is described as an
ideal sliding mode and the line S is known as the sliding surface. The control law
assures that the curved path moves toward the sliding surface as shown in Fig. 4.
There are two kinds of SMC design and they are [21]:
(i) The realization of a switching that satisfies the sliding motion
(ii) The selection of control law according to the system state design.
X'
Trajectory
S
Sliding Surface
Fig. 4 Trajectory moving toward the sliding surface

The scalar control system is given by
x . = f (x, t, u) (11)
where x = the column vector,

f = function vector that is discontinuous on the surface S = (x, t) = 0,
u = element that can affect the system motion.

f + x, t, u + for S → 0+
f (x, t, u) = (12)
f − x, t, u − for S → 0−
Then the system will be in sliding mode [24]; its corresponding point travels on the
surface which is sliding S = (X, t) = 0.
The existence and reaching conditions in SMC are explained as follows. The
sliding mode will be present when phase curved paths of the two subregions related
to the two dissimilar values of the function f should travel toward sliding surface S =
(X, t) = 0. When the sliding manifold from the points that satisfy S < 0, the velocity
vector f − should travel toward the sliding manifold, and for the same reasons for the
points above the sliding surface S > 0, the state velocity vector is f + . These velocity
vectors are orthogonal to the sliding surface.
Consider the system x = f (x, t, u). The scalar discontinuous input for this system
u is expressed by

u + for S(x) > 0
u= (13)
u − for S(x) < 0

Let X + X − be the state representative point corresponding to the u + and u − ,
where x is a column vector. Then a necessary condition for the system to meet the
sliding surface is expressed by

x + ∈ S(x) < 0

x − ∈ S(x) < 0 (14)
These equations are implemented in DSP TMS320F28377s. Before implementing

these equations ADC of DSP is configured. Code Composer Studio Version 6 is used
to implement algorithms on a DSP.
The DSP TMS320F28377s board overview is shown in Fig. 5. This is a low-cost board
developed by Texas Instruments. The control algorithms can be easily implemented
using this processor compared to conventional DSP. The P&O is implemented using
Fig. 5 DSP TMS320F28377s board overview
DSP TMS320F28377s and the PWM wave obtained using the same is as shown in
Fig. 6. The experimental setup for the implementation of MPPT is shown in Fig. 7.
The charging of battery from the solar panel is as shown in Fig. 8. During day time the
Fig. 6 PWM waves obtained from DSP TMS320F28377s

for the implementation of
MPPT
Fig. 8 Charging of battery

from the solar panel
battery is charged using MPPT and SMC and during night the loads are driven from
the battery. Electrical characteristics of the solar panel used are tabulated in Table 1.
Battery specifications are tabulated in Table 2. For hard tracking wiper motor and
light sensors are used and the specifications of the wiper motor are tabulated in
Table 3. The developed work is good in terms of efficiency, regulation, speed, and
accuracy and works in real-time scenarios. The developed work is tested against 100
different cases during the different timings of different days. The experiment is also
carried out during cloudy days. The efficiency of the developed system is 99% and
accuracy is 98%. The cost of overall system is Rs. 10,000/-, the speed of operation is
95 µs, and regulation achieved is 2%. The developed system is novel as it is good in
terms of efficiency, regulation, speed, and accuracy and works in real-time scenarios.
Table 1 Electrical
PASAN tester version module ID code 2.4.4
characteristics of solar panel
Pmax 50 W
Voc 21.6 V
Isc 2.99 A
Current at maximum power (Ipm) 2.84 A
Voltage at maximum power (Vpm) 17.82 V
Permissible system voltage 600 V DC
Maximum reverse current 5A
Table 2 Battery
Manufacturer SELCO
specifications
Type Tubular, lead acid battery, solar
Capacity 15AH
Nominal voltage 12 V
Table 3 Specifications of
Standard 30 W 12 V/24 V
wiper motor
Application 32/ZD2332 Lifting motor
Material Stainless steel
Wiring 2/4 wires
Gear box Right hand side
Gear material Aluminum
HS code 8501310000
Body diameter 55 mm
5 Conclusion
In the developed work, soft tracking, hard tracking, and SMC are all implemented
to maximize the efficiency of PV system. The developed work can be used as a
standalone system for electrical energy in rural areas. As a future work, the battery
charging can be regulated using the same DSP processor. The developed work can
be used for other nonconventional energy resources such as wind and biogas. The
conventional energy sources such as thermal and hydro can also be controlled using
SMC. The developed algorithms can be implemented as a system on chip (SOC)
which can be easily portable from one place to another place and can be easily used
in fields. In the developed work DSPs are configured for implementing control algo-
rithms. This configuration helps for implementing more sophisticated new control
algorithms for converters. The control algorithms simulated and implemented for
PV system can be used for other electricity generation systems such as wind power
plants and biogas power plants.
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Analysis of Resilience Performance
of Water Distribution Network
A. Ariffa Parakath and T. R. Neelakantan
Abstract Emerging economic focuses on the reliable infrastructure setups for

growth. Developed countries also work in more realistic performance indicators
for risk assessment of infrastructure. Thus, the reliability of water supply through
the water distribution network is improving. Among the risk indicators, resilience is
one of the important factors. Resilience of water distribution through pipe network
is getting focus in the recent years. Hence, in this paper three important resilience
indicators, namely ‘resilience index’, ‘network resilience index’ and ‘total surplus
head index’ reported in the literature, are analyzed and the merits and demerits are
highlighted. This analysis will be helpful for future research.
Keywords Water distribution network · Risk · Resilience · Performance indicators
1 Introduction
Water distribution by pipe networks is popular for the past one century. Research
on improving the performance of water supply has grown significantly during this
period. One of the recent researches in water supply field is using resilience indi-
cators in the design and operation. Though performance indicators like reliability,
connectivity, and so on were used for nearly 50 years, the usage of resilience was
seen since the year 2000. Resiliency can be defined in so many ways. Two major clas-
sifications of resiliency can be (1) based on the recovery time from once the system
falls into failure mode; and (2) based on the capacity of the system to absorb a shock
and function without much change in performance. The second one is considered
in majority of the researches in this field. The objective of this paper is to critically
A. Ariffa Parakath (B) · T. R. Neelakantan

Department of Civil Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education,
Krishnankoil, 626126, Tamil Nadu Srivilliputhur, India
e-mail: ariffaparakath24@gmail.com
T. R. Neelakantan
e-mail: neelakantan@klu.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_21
262 A. Ariffa Parakath and T. R. Neelakantan
analyze three of the resilience indicators so that the outcomes will be useful for future
research.
2 Resilience Index
One of the important turning points in water distribution network analysis, especially
with resilience focus, was due to the introduction of an indicator called Resilience
Index by Todini [8] as follows.

N
q •j (h j − h •j )
j=1 excess power available
RI = = (1)

R
N excess power supplied
Q i Hi − q •j h •j
i=1 j=1
where N is number of demand junction, q •j is the demand and h j is the actual head
at junction j, h •j is the minimum required head for supplying the demand, R is the
number of reservoirs or overhead tanks, Q i is the flow rate from reservoir i and Hi is
the head from which the water is from the reservoir junction. Attempts to verify the
results of Todini [8] revealed that the numerical values reported by Todini [8] are not
perfect for the network shown in Fig. 1. For example, in Table 3 of his work, Todini
[8] reported that the resilience index of optimum cost case and set A as 0.22 and 0.41,
respectively. However, they are worked to be 0.210 and 0.396, respectively. This is
reported here as the new researchers can avoid wasting time in the verification. The
details of calculations are presented in Tables 1a, 1b, 2a and 2b.
Fig. 1 Two-loop network

Analysis of Resilience Performance of Water Distribution Network 263
Table 1a Diameters for two-loop network (Todini, 2004) for optimal cost (0.419 × 106 )
Pipe No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Diameter (in) 18 10 16 4 16 10 10 1
Diameter (mm) 457.2 254.0 406.4 101.6 406.4 254.0 254.0 25.4
Table 1b Recalculation of Todini (2004) results for optimal cost (0.419 × 106 )
Node No. q• h• h (h-h • ) q • (h-h • ) q •h•
2 100 180 203.25 23.25 2325.0 18000
3 100 190 190.46 0.46 46.0 19000
4 120 185 198.45 13.45 1614.0 22200
5 270 180 183.81 3.81 1028.7 48600
6 330 195 195.44 0.44 145.2 64350
7 200 190 190.55 0.55 110.0 38000
Total 1120 – – – 5268.9 210150
1 (Reservoir) Q = 1120 H = 210 QH = 235200
Table 2a Diameters for two-loop network (Todini, 2004) for Sol A. Cost (0.450 × 106 )
Pipe No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Diameter (in) 18 16 14 6 14 1 14 10
Diameter (mm) 457.2 406.4 355.6 152.4 355.6 25.4 355.6 254
Table 2b Recalculation of Todini [8] resultsâe”Table 3âe”column 3 (Sol A. Cost = 0.450 × 106 )
Node No. q• h• h (h-h • ) q • (h-h • ) q •h•
2 100 180 203.25 23.25 2325.0 18000
3 100 190 200.19 10.19 1019 19000
4 120 185 198.38 13.38 1605.6 22200
5 270 180 196.19 16.19 4371.3 48600
6 330 195 195.99 0.99 326.7 64350
7 200 190 191.35 1.35 270 38000
Total 1120 – – – 9917.6 210150
1 (Reservoir) Q = 1120 H = 210 QH = 235200
The data shown in Table 1b used in Eq. 1 results in a resilience index of 0.21
instead of 0.22 as reported by Todini [8].
From the above data, resilience index works to be 0.396 instead of the reported
value of 0.41.
3 Network Resilience Index
Prasad and Park [5] proposed Network Resilience Index by introducing an additional
factor in the original resilience index as follows.

N
C j q •j (h j − h •j )
j=1
N RI = (2)

R
N
Q i Hi − q •j h •j
i=1 j=1
in which

npj
Di
i=1
Cj = (3)
(npj × max{Di })
and npj is the number of pipes connected to a junction. The logic of using C j is
justified by stating that reliable loops can be ensured by uniformity of diameters of
the pipes connected to junction.
The Network Resilience Index of Prasad and Park [5] lacks physical meaning
compared to Todini’s Resilience Index as C j is an arbitrary weight. In this context,
Atkinson [1] mentioned that apart from diameter, pipe length, roughness and
upstream and downstream pressure heads can also be representative for the network
operation. Gheisi et al. [3] also specified this in their review paper. Todini criti-
cized that NRI corrupts the original physical meaning of the resilience index [2].
Extending Atkinson [1], it can also be defined in terms of area of cross-section or
length weighted diameter instead of diameter as described below.

npj
npj
Ai L i Di
i=1 i=1
Cj = or C j = (4)
(npj × max{Ai }) (npj × max{L i Di })
The proposers of Network Resilience Index neither explored nor explained why
they have not considered the other forms as above. If a network has a (main source)
pipe from reservoir splitting into three branches at a node, the pipes need not be of
uniform diameter. Since there is only one inflow pipe and three outflow pipes at the
junction node, the main source pipe can be of larger diameter, while the branching
pipes may be of smaller size. In the two-loop network at node two, there are three
pipes (1, 2 and 3) connected to it. Among these three, pipe1 is from the reservoir
and the other two are the branching pipes. During non-failure scenario, pipes 2 and
3 share the flow from pipe1. However, if pipe2 fails, the supply can follow through
pipe3 and vice versa. Hence, generally maintaining uniformity of pipe diameters is
not essential or required.
4 Total Surplus Head Index
Prasad and Park [5] proposed a resilience index called ‘Total Surplus Head Index’
(I t ) which is the summation of surplus head at demand nodes, and is presented below
in the mathematical form.

N

It = Hi − Hil f or all i = 1, 2, . . . N (5)
i=1
In the above equation, N is the number of demand junction, Hi is the actual

head at junction i and Hil is the minimum required head for supplying the demand.
They claimed that maximization of this index improves the ability of the distribu-
tion network. However, it has an issue which is discussed here. The surplus head
indicates available power or energy for dissipation during a failure event. Water
distribution networks, many a times, have different zones like low-pressure zone
and high-pressure zone. If we have more number of nodes in a high-pressure zone
where the surplus heads are more, then the algebraic sum of all the surplus heads
will provide a large total (large I t ). However, if we have more nodes in low-pressure
zones, the algebraic sum of all the surplus heads will provide a small total (small
I t ). However, during a pipe failure or large demand variation, if the high-pressure
zone is going to get affected, the value of I t will fall drastically. Thus, the value of
I t depends on the density of demand nodes in different zones and it will not reflect
the resilience properly when the nodes are not distributed evenly.
Suppose if a demand node is made into two nodes each with 50% of original
demand (total demand is same) and the distance between the nodes is very small, the
head at these two nodes will be equal to the head obtained with one node with 100%
demand. Thus, when a node is split into two nodes the Total Surplus Head Index
will also increase. When nodes are increased, the Total Surplus Head Index will
also increase. This index is good only to compare a network with different diameter
sets. However, a network cannot be compared with another network based on this
index. The value for this depends on the density of demand nodes in the network.
Nodes placed densely provide higher value for Total Surplus Head Index. To avoid
this, weights may be attached to the nodes. For example, if a node is split into two
as explained above, each divided node cannot have a weight equal to the original
combined node. The natural weight for nodes can be the supply (or demand) from
the node. When a node is split into two nodes as explained above, since the demands
are also divided into 50%, a weight of 0.5 to each can be considered. For the whole
network, this can be expanded such that each demand node can be given a weight
value equal to demand or demand ratio to the total demand. When demand is given
as weight, it leads to the power concept. Weighted summation provides a function of
total power coming out of the network or the weighted summation multiplied with
weight density of water provides the total power coming out of the network. The ratio
of total power coming out of the network and total power imparted to the network
(flow from reservoir or OHT multiplied by the head multiplied by weight density of
water + pump power if any) provides dimensionless number indicating resilience.

A higher ratio indicates higher resilience. Though not explained as above relating
to Total Surplus Head Index of Prasad and Park [5], this ratio was used as power
efficiency by Suribabu and Neelakantan [6], Suribabu et al. [7] and as Available
Power Index by Liu et al. [4]. Though Liu et al. [4] claim that their Available Power
Index (API) is a new index developed by them, the same index is reported in the
literature earlier [6, 7].
5 Conclusion
In this work, three important resilience indicators popularly used in the water distri-
bution network analysis in the last two decades are critically analyzed analytically
and issues identified are discussed. From the analyses, it has been identified that
resilience index proposed originally by Todini [8] is better and robust than the other
two popular indicators developed later.
Notation
C Based on uniformity in diameter of pipes connected to junction

h Available pressure head at junction
h• Minimum pressure head at junction
H Sum of elevation and water level of reservoir
N Number of junctions
NRI Network Resilience Index
p Surplus head
q• Demand at junction
Q Flow from reservoir
RI Resilience Index
R Number of Reservoirs
Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the Civil Department, Kalasalingam Academy of
Research and Education, India, for providing support for the research work. The authors are also
grateful to thank all teaching members of our department for the suggestion during this project work
and for their assistances during the research period.
References
1. Atkinson S (2013) A futures approach to water distribution and sewer network (re) design. Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Exeter, U.K
2. Creaco E, Franchini M, Todini E (2014) Generalized resilience and failure indices for use with
pressure-driven modeling and leakage. J Water Resour Plann Manage 142(8). https://doi.org/
10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0000656
3. Gheisi A, Forsyth M, Naser G (2016) Water distribution systems reliability: a review of research
literature. J Water Resour Plan Manag 142:04016047
4. Liu H, Savic DA, Kapelan Z, Creaco E, Yuan Y (2017) Reliability surrogate measures for water
distribution system design: comparative analysis. ASCE J Water Resour Plan Manag 143(2).
https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0000728
5. Prasad TD, Park NS (2004) Multiobjective genetic algorithms for design of water distri-
bution networks. J Water Resour Plann Manage https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9496,
(2004)130:1(73)
6. Suribabu CR, Neelakantan TR (2012) Sizing of water distribution pipes based on performance
measure and break-repair-replacement economics. ISH J Hydraul Eng 18(3):241–251
7. Suribabu CR, Prashanth K, Vignesh Kumar S, Sai Ganesh N (2016) Resilience enhancement
methods for water distribution networks. Jordon J Civ Eng 10(2):216–231
8. Todini E (2000) Looped water distribution networks design using a resilience index based
heuristic approach. Urban Water 2(2):115–122
Influence of Steel Fibers on Enhancing
the Toughness Property on Concrete:
A Simplified Approach
Meyyappan Palaniappan , Jemimah Carmichael Milton ,

Sathya Soroopan Ramasubramaniam , Hariharan Palvannan ,
and Hariharasudan Sundararaj
Abstract The limitations of plain conventional concrete on the strength and dura-
bility aspects are effectively addressed by incorporating steel fibers into concrete.
Many studies proved that there is a drastic improvement in various engineering prop-
erties, especially the impact and abrasion resistance. The estimation of impact and
toughness is carried out through the areas under stress–strain curves; moreover, it is
a time-consuming process. In this investigation, enhancement of toughness property
because of the influence of steel fibers in the range of 1–4% is arrived through a
simplified approach based on the past researches outcomes and through the exper-
imental study of impact test results. The toughness property drastically improved
around 1.81% of the plain concrete in the addition to 2% of volume fraction of steel
fibers.
Keywords Steel fibers · Impact · Toughness abrasion resistance
M. Palaniappan (B) · S. S. Ramasubramaniam · H. Palvannan · H. Sundararaj

Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil 626126, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: meyyappan@klu.ac.in
S. S. Ramasubramaniam
e-mail: haisathya44@gmail.com
H. Palvannan
e-mail: hari81444haran@gmail.com
H. Sundararaj
e-mail: hari9600824828@gmail.com
J. C. Milton
Vignan’s Lara Institute of Technology and Sciences, Guntur 522213, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: jemimahcarmichael@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_22
270 M. Palaniappan et al.
1 Introduction
Earlier research studies indicate that utilization of steel fibers in conventional concrete
gained much more advantages [1, 3]. It is well dominated in order to overcome
the practical challenges in the strength and durability aspects of the plain concrete.
Many studies are conducted on the different aspects of steel fiber-reinforced concrete,
especially on compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, impact
strength, permeability, porosity and so on, with different range of addition of steel
fibers in various aspect ratios [2, 4–7]. Especially, steel fiber-reinforced concrete is
well known for its better energy absorption capacities and it is measured in terms of
impact energy and compression toughness energy [1, 5]. This property is estimated by
using the area under the stress–strain curves plotted during the testing of mechanical
properties, and the way of estimation involved more complexity in time and work
engaged [1, 8, 9]. Hence an attempt is made to investigate the effect of steel fibers
with the volume of fraction of 1, 2, 3 and 4% on the plain concrete to improve
toughness property, such as impact energy and compression toughness energy in a
simplified approach based on the graphical representations and findings through the
experimental study of impact drop hammer testing.
2 Material Used and Mix Design
As per the standards of IS: 8112-2013, ordinary portland cement (OPC) of 43 grade
is used and its specific gravity is 3.15. River sand is used as fine aggregate with
the specific gravity and fineness modulus found to be 2.68 and 2.77, respectively. It
is confirming to zone II as per the standards of IS: 382-2016. Crushed granites are
used as coarse aggregate of size 20 mm with a specific gravity of 2.64 and fineness
modulus of 4.67. Crimped circular type of steel fibers is used in this study. Its size is
0.6 mm diameter and 36 mm long with an aspect ratio 60. Potable drinking water is
used for mixing and curing purpose. In this investigation, IS: 10262-2009 is used for
the design of M40 grade concrete. The mix is designed corresponding to the degree
of quality control specified as “very good”. The mix proportions are in the ratio of 1
(C):1.60 (FA):2.30 (CA):0.45 (W/c).
The experimental study involves evaluating the impact strength of concrete with and
without steel fibers. The percentage of volume fraction of steel fibers in the range
of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4% are mixed with the conventional plain concrete of the above
arrived mix ratio for curing age of 7, 14 and 28 days. Steel cylindrical molds are
used for casting the impact test specimens. The size of the impact specimens is
Influence of Steel Fibers on Enhancing the Toughness … 271
150 mm (diameter) × 64 mm (height) as recommended by the ACI committee 544.

The casted specimens are kept in the mold for a period of 24 h. After demolding,
the specimens are allowed to water curing until the day of testing. The testing is
done using ACI drop weight impact testing equipment which consists of a standard
manually operated 4.5 kg compaction hammer with a drop height of 45 cm. The
hammer is dropped repeatedly and the number of blows required for the first visible
crack failure on the top surface of the specimen is recorded based on the visual
observation. For the ultimate failure, the hammer is dropped again repeatedly until it
opens the cracks in the specimen into multiple pieces and the corresponding number
of blows is recorded. Based on the experimental test results, the impact energy and
compression toughness energies are calculated based on the references with earlier
researches [8, 9].
Table 1 shows the test results of the impact resistance, impact energy and compression
toughness energy. Brief discussions on the test results are as follows:
Table 1 Test results of impact resistance, impact energy and compression toughness energy
Volume of Age of Impact resistance (No. Impact energy (N/m) Minimum compression
steel fibers curing of blows) toughness energy
(%) days (N/m)
First crack Ultimate Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
failure
0 7 21 28 106.31 141.75 1200 1200
14 33 48 167.06 243.00 1200 1200
28 43 61 217.69 374.63 1200 1200
1 7 32 49 162.00 248.06 1771 1936
14 51 82 258.19 415.13 1785 1948
28 70 112 354.38 567.00 1837 1973
2 7 56 98 283.50 496.13 2487 2877
14 95 175 480.94 885.94 2663 2931
28 132 251 668.25 1270.69 2738 2945
3 7 84 151 425.25 764.44 3148 3573
14 141 259 713.81 1311.19 3202 3586
28 198 375 1002.38 1898.44 3287 3592
4 7 113 203 572.06 1027.69 3516 3911
14 201 352 1017.56 1782.00 3642 3938
28 276 519 1397.25 2622.38 3789 3946
Impact resistance (No. of blows)

Fig. 1 Impact resistance 600
versus volume of steel fibers
at 28 days 500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5
Volume of steel fibers (%)
First crack Complete failure
4.1 Impact Resistance
In the conventional concrete (without any steel fibers), the first crack and ultimate
failure is occurred at the 21st blow and 74th blow, respectively, for the curing age
of 7 days. Similarly, for 14 days and 28 days the first crack occurred at 33rd blow
and 43rd blow. The ultimate failure occurred in 43rd blow and 74th blow for 14 days
and 28 days, respectively. It seems that as age of curing days increased, the impact
resistance also increased for concrete with and without steel fibers content. Due to the
effective formation of C-S-H gel, the 28 days impact resistance is increased by 2 times
and 2.6 times for the first crack failure and ultimate failure in comparison with 7 days
resistance. When 1% volume of steel fibers is added on the conventional concrete,
the ultimate failure occurred at the 112th blow, in which the impact resistance is
1.6 times higher for the 28 days strength. If the percentage of steel fibers to 2, 3
and 4% of its volume fraction, the ultimate failure occurred at 251st blow, 375th
blow and 518th blow, respectively, and its impact resistance significantly increased
to 3.39 times, 5.06 times and 7.01 times, respectively. It is observed that as volume
of steel fibers increased, the impact resistance also increased, as shown in Fig. 1.
Hence, this volume of steel fibers is strongly showing directly proportional character
toward impact resistance property. The energy absorption capacity is increased by
the influence of steel fibers content. Due to the presence of steel fibers content, the
brittle character of the conventional concrete is modified to the ductile character due
to high yielding capacity.
4.2 Calculation of Impact Energy
In reference with the past researches [8, 9], the minimum and maximum impact
energy of the concrete with and without steel fibers content is calculated by using
the principles of kinetic energy as mentioned in Eqs. 1 and 2, respectively.
Fig. 2 Impact energy versus 3000

Minimum impact
volume of steel fibers at
energy
Impact energy (N/m)

28 days 2500
Maximum impact
2000 energy
1500
1000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume of steel fibers (%)
1
(EI )min = MV2 Ni (1)
2
1
(EI )max = MV2 Nu (2)
2
where M is the mass of the drop hammer (4.5 kg), V is the drop speed of the hammer
during impact (1.5 m/s) which is arrived from the height of drop hammer (45 cm),
Ni is the number of blows required for first crack failure and Nu is the number of
blows required for ultimate failure of the specimen. Ei min and Ei max are the minimum
and maximum impact energy in N/m. For the calculation of impact energy, ‘Ni ’ and
‘Nu ’ values are taken from the experimental impact testing study. The minimum
impact energy and maximum impact energy for the conventional concrete at the age
of 28 days is calculated as 217.69 and 374.63 N/m, respectively.
For 4% of steel fibers, the minimum and maximum impact energy is at the peak
of 1397.25 and 2622.38 N/m. For each percentage of volume fractions of steel fibers,
the impact energy has much improved; however, the drastic enhancement is appar-
ently seen up to 2% volume fraction of steel fibers. The increment is around 2.3
times. When the volume of steel fibers is increased further to 3 and 4%, the impact
energy is increased, but the boosting factor is only around 1.49 times and 1.38 times,
respectively. It is clearly distinct that the beyond the increase of 1% steel fibers, the
rate of increment is drastic due to the presence of more amounts of steel fibers (as
reflected in Fig. 2) and its blending with binding materials; hence energy absorbance
undergoes yielding behavior until it completely failed.
4.3 Calculation of Compression Toughness Energy
The compression toughness energy is estimated based on the graphical represen-

tation as indicated by the past few researches [8, 9]. In reference to that relation-
ship between compression toughness energy and impact energy for different aspect
ratio of the steel fibers, the minimum and maximum compression toughness values
Fig. 3 Compression 4500
Compression toughness energy,

toughness energy versus
4000
volume of steel fibers at
28 days 3500
3000
(N/m)
Minimum Compression
2500 Toughness
2000 Maximum compression

1500 Toughness
1000
0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume of steel fibers, (%)
are correlated. The correlation was made between the natural logarithmic ratios of
corresponding impact energy to the impact energy of the conventional plain concrete
with corresponding aspect ratio of the fibers. Constantly the compression toughness
energy of the conventional plan concrete is 1200 N/m irrespective of the age of curing
days. In addition to 1% of volume fraction of steel fibers, the maximum compres-
sion toughness energy is increased by 1.64 times than plain concrete. Similarly for
2% of volume fraction of steel fibers, the incremental factor is raised to 1.81 times.
Even though the maximum compression toughness energy increased for 3 and 4% of
volume fraction of steel fibers, but the rate of enhancement decreased to 1.21 times
and 0.9 times, respectively, as seen in Fig. 3. It indicates that when the volume of
fibers added more, the ability of the material initiated undergoes plastic deformation.
The result clearly reveals that the conventional plain concrete failed in brittle mode
and due to the presence of steel fibers the failure pattern is modified to elasto-plastic
mode. Even after the initial crack, the fibers are able to sustain and carry further until
complete/collapse failure.
5 Conclusions
The impact resistance is increased with the increase in volume fraction of steel fibers.
In a maximum of 4% of volume fraction of steel fibers, resistance is increased up to
7.01 times of the conventional concrete. Beyond the increase of 1% steel fibers, the
enhancement rate of energy absorbing capacity is drastic and it is around 2.3 times
of conventional, since the material undergoes yielding behavior until it completely
failed. The optimum compression toughness energy is optimum in the range of 2–3%
of volume fraction of steel fibers on the concrete. Based on the simplified approach
of the past researches, the toughness property of steel fiber-reinforced concrete is
arrived through the experimental study of impact test results.
References
1. Sharda S, Singh M, Singh S (2016) A review on properties of fiber reinforced cement-based

materials. IOSR J Mech Civil Eng 13:104–112
2. Mohammadi Y, Singh SP, Kaushik SK (2008) Properties of steel fibrous concrete containing
mixed fibres in fresh and hardened state. Constr Build Mater 22:956–965
3. Atis CD, Karahan O (2009) Properties of steel fiber reinforced fly ash concrete. Constr Build
Mater 23:392–399
4. Shende AM, Pande AM, Pathan MG (2012) Experimental study on steel fiber reinforced concrete
for M-40 grade. Int Ref J Eng Sci 1, 043–048
5. Balendran RV, Zhou FP, Nadeem A, Leung AYT (2002) Influence of steel fibers on strength and
ductility of normal and lightweight high strength concrete. Build Environ 37:1361–1367
6. Katzer J (2006) Steel fibers and steel fiber reinforced concrete in civil engineering. Pac J Sci
Tech 7, 53–58
7. Niu D, Jiang L, Bai M, Miao Y (2013) Study of the performance of steel fiber reinforced concrete
to water and salt freezing condition. Mater Des 44:267–273
8. Dabbagh H, Amoorezaei K, Akbarpour S, Babamuradi K (2017) Compressive toughness of
lightweight aggregate concrete containing different types of steel fiber under monotonic loading.
AUT J Civil Eng 1:15–22
9. Marar K, Eren O, Celik T (2001) Relationship between Impact energy and compression
toughness energy on high-strength fiber-reinforced concrete. Mater Lett 47:297–304
Behavior of Zero-Cement Mortar:
An Experimental Study
Jagan Sivamani and Mohammed Sulaiman
Abstract In this study, an attempt is made to study the performance of the mortar
by complete eradication of cement with the use of alternative pozzolanic materials,
such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), bagasse ash (BA), and rice
husk ash (RHA). This research focuses mainly on evolving a zero-cement mortar
(Z-cem) using supplementary cementitious materials (GGBS, BA, and RHA) with
chemical activators like sodium hydroxide in combination with sodium silicate. Five
different levels of replacement Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, and Z5 were proposed to study the
optimum level of replacement of pozzolanic materials. Chemical activators having
the concentration of 9 M were used in the ratio of 2.5 and 5% by its weight to bind
the pozzolanic materials. Various studies such as workability property by slump cone
test with mechanical properties like compressive strength, split tensile strength, and
durability properties like water absorption and fire resistance tests were performed.
Results show that the blending of pozzolanic materials activated by alkaline activators
as a complete replacement to cement will perform better, both in terms of strength
and durability.
Keywords Z-cem · Pozzolanic materials · Strength · Durability · Ground

granulated blast furnace slag · Bagasse ash and rice husk ash
1 Introduction
Production of cement has increased rapidly due to the urbanization and industrial-
ization [1]. Construction materials such as cement and aggregates play an integral
part in concrete production. Among them, cement holds more integrity as it plays
J. Sivamani (B)
Faculty, School of Environmental and Construction Technology, Kalasalingam Academy of
Research and Education, Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Srivilliputhur 626126, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: kecjagan@gmail.com
M. Sulaiman
Student, School of Environmental and Construction Technology, Kalasalingam Academy of
Research and Education, Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Srivilliputhur 626126, Tamil Nadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_23
278 J. Sivamani and M. Sulaiman
a vital role in the hydration process [2]. During such hydration process, C-S-H gel
is formed which augments the strength of the concrete. But considering the envi-
ronmental aspects, the production of cement affects the global environment because
of the release of harmful carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere [3]. Industries
on the whole are involved in the production of 25 billion tons of carbon dioxide
around the globe. On an average, 1.5 billion tons of cement was produced every
year which may rose up to 2.9 billion tons in the near future [4]. This may lead
to imbalance in the life cycle of the environment. An alternative method of infras-
tructural development without the use of cement could be a cognitive solution. This
has necessitated the use of pozzolanic materials having cementitious properties as
the complete replacement to cement. Utilization of pozzolanic materials as a partial
replacement to cement yields positive results to some extent in previous research
studies [1, 5, 6, 7]. Research on the complete replacement of cement through the
blending of various pozzolanic materials was still a gap which is to be studied. This
research on replacement of cement with two/three pozzolanic materials fills the gap
and could be an added advantage over geopolymer concrete as it initiates the safe
utilization of industrial and agricultural waste. With this as a concern, pozzolanic
materials such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), bagasse ash (BA),
and rice husk ash (RHA) were used as pozzolanic materials for the complete replace-
ment to cement. Pozzolanic materials are finer materials that contain silica and/or
alumina. Such pozzolanic materials do not possess any cementing property but in
reaction with oxides/hydroxides of calcium, they do so. Ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS) is a waste produced by quenching of molten iron [8]. Around
100 million tons of GGBS were produced, out of which 35 million tons were used
properly and rest was disposed of [8]. Similarly, 2.5 million tons of fiber residues were
being produced during the extraction from sugarcane industries [9]. Such waste fibers
are being burnt into ashes and disposed into the land which creates environmental
issues. Also, rice husk ash (RHA) is another waste of 110 million tons produced
from rice-processing mills. Out of which 22 million tons were being disposed of
as waste [10]. Usage of GGBS (40%), FA (30%), and RHA (30%) with activators
Ca (OH)2 , NaOH, and KOH in the range of 2.5–5 M will yield better results [1].
To make the pozzolanic materials reactive, alkaline activators should be added at an
appropriate amount. Also, the type of alkaline activators has a greater influence on
the strength of the concrete. Increase in molarity of alkaline activators will increase
the strength of concrete but care should be taken in the percentage of addition of the
activators [1]. Activation of pozzolanic materials upon addition of 3–5% of alkaline
activators by weight of mix yielded better results. Addition of pozzolanic materials
beyond 5% shows the same strength at a level of 5%. This is mainly because the
excess of alkaline activators beyond 5% remains unreactive. This, in turn, forms
weaker bond which may collapse in a prolonged period of time. Among the various
activators, usage of potassium-based activators will retard the reaction process which
will nullify the development of strength in concrete [1]. Addition of superplasticizers
will also have a greater influence on the role of activators [5]. Some activators do
not possess better flowing property even after the addition of superplasticizers. Also
subjecting the pozzolanic materials initially to heat treatment will have an influence in
Behavior of Zero-Cement Mortar: An Experimental Study 279
improving the activity property of the pozzolanic material [6]. Sugarcane bagasse ash
collected from industry was also subjected to post-treatment to improve the amount
of silica content, as silica is a major constituent of a pozzolanic material [1]. Usage of
pozzolanic materials with high porous nature will make the concrete highly perme-
able forming loosely packed structure when investigated under SEM [1]. Addition of
various mineral admixtures like metakolin and silica fume can overcome the effect of
porosity and eventually improve the strength of the concrete [8, 11]. Considering all
such parameters, our current study examines the performance of zero-cement mortar
cubes prepared using GGBS, BA, and RHA with sodium hydroxide in combination
with sodium silicate as an activator. In our study, GGBS, BA, and RHA were replaced
completely to cement under five different mix combinations. Workability, strength,
and durability properties of mortar under such five replacements were studied to
analyze the optimum level of replacement of pozzolanic materials.
2 Materials and Methodology
Preparation of Materials
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), rice husk ash (RHA), and bagasse
ash (BA) were chosen as pozzolanic materials for this study. GGBS was collected
from the iron industry which remains as a residue [8] and preheated to 350 °C
to improve its activity [6]. Bagasse ash was collected from the sugarcane industry
located at Thoothukudi and post-treated to improve the silica content to make it
behave as a pozzolanic material. Rice husk ash was collected from the agricultural
land in the nearby village of Melur, Madurai, India. M sand passing through 2.36 mm
with fineness modulus 2.76 was used as fine aggregates in this study. Sodium silicate
solution in combination with sodium hydroxide prepared at 9 M was used as activators
to activate the pozzolanic materials and water confirming to IS 456:2000 was used
in this study. Various properties of ingredients of Z-cem mortar used in this study
was tested and presented in Table 1 (Fig. 1).
Preparation of Alkaline Activators
Alkaline activators are prepared by adding sodium hydroxide solution in combination
with the sodium silicate solution. Alkaline activator at 9 M was prepared by dissolving
Table 1 Properties of
S. No Properties Values
ingredients of Z-cem mortar
1 Specific gravity of GGBS 2.85
2 Specific gravity of BA 2.68
3 Specific gravity of RHA 2.14
4 Specific gravity of M sand 2.65
5 Fineness modulus of M sand 2.76
GGBS BagasseAsh Rice HuskAsh
Fig. 1 Pretreated pozzolanic materials
360 g of sodium hydroxide in 1000 ml of water and adding the same in sodium silicate
solution. It is then properly stirred and the solution is prepared one day prior to mixing
in concrete. Prepared alkaline activators were used at 2.5 and 5% by weight of the
mix in the mortar (Fig. 2).
Mix Proportions
Mortar mix proportions as presented in Table 2 were prepared to study the properties
of mortar. Mortar mix of 1:3 with w/b ratio of 0.45 was adopted for this study. A total
of 75 specimens were prepared based on mix combinations from Z1 to Z5 to study
its strength and durability properties. Various combinations of mix design used in
this study are presented in Table 2.
Preparation of Mortar Specimens
Mortar cube specimens of size 75 mm × 75 mm × 75 mm and mortar cylindrical
specimens of size 100 mm × 200 mm were prepared to study the properties of Z-cem
mortar. Pozzolanic materials and fine aggregates were quantified based on the mix
Fig. 2 Preparation of alkaline activators

Table 2 Proportions of raw materials

S. no. Combinations GGBS RHA BA OPC
1 Z1 60 30 10 0
2 Z2 55 35 10 0
3 Z3 50 30 20 0
4 Z4 40 30 30 0
5 Z5 70 20 10 0
combinations. Quantified materials were then hand mixed thoroughly with alkaline
activators for about 3–5 min. After mixing, specimens were filled with the mortar mix
compacted under three layers using the tamping rod at each level to ensure proper
compaction. The top surface of the specimens is leveled using the trowel to achieve
smooth finishing. It is then kept in a hot air oven at 100 °C for about 24 h. Once the
specimens set, it is then cured at room temperature for about 7 and 28 days (Fig. 3).
Testing of Mortar Specimens
Fresh property study such as slump cone test was conducted as per IS 7320 [12].
Various tests conducted on mortar specimens include compressive strength on cubes,
split tensile strength on cylinders, water absorption, and fire resistance test. Flow
property of concrete was performed as per the IS7320 [12] testing procedure. Strength
of mortar specimens was performed to study the hardened property as per IS4031
[13]. Water absorption test to check the permeability property was performed to
study the permeable nature of mortar as per IS1124 [14] . Fire attack test to check
the resistance of concrete against fire was performed in accordance with IS3809 [15].
Fig. 3 Casting of mortar

specimens
3 Experimental Procedure
Workability
Workability of the concrete was performed using the slump cone test. Slump cone test
was performed using slump cone of 100 mm top diameter, 200 mm bottom diameter,
and 300 mm height as per IS standards. Spread of the mix upon lifting of slump
cone filled with mix under standard procedures was determined which reveals the
cohesive and fresh property state upon addition of pozzolanic materials. Based on
the height of the slump retained, the slump can be categorized as a true slump, shear
slump, and collapse. Mix with higher slump value will produce higher workability.
Compressive Strength Test
Compressive strength test was carried out on standard 75 mm × 75 mm × 75 mm
cube specimens [13] at the age of 7 days and 28 days under five different levels of
replacement having alkaline activators at 2.5 and 5% by weight of the mix. For each
mix combination, three cubes were tested at the curing age of 7 and 28 days using a
compression testing machine. Average of three specimens was taken as final reading
to check if there is an increase in +5% or −5% in the variation of test results as per
IS456:2000. The ultimate load divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen
will give the compressive strength.
Split Tensile Strength Test
Split tensile strength test was carried out on standard 100 mm × 200 mm cylindrical
specimens [13] at the curing age of 7 and 28 days under five different levels of
replacement having alkaline activators at 2.5 and 5% by weight of the mix. For each
mix combination, three cylinders were tested at the curing age of 7 and 28 days under
universal testing machine. Average of three specimens was taken as final reading to
check if there is an increase in +5% or −5% in the variation of test results as per
IS456:2000. Maximum load at which the specimen fails was noted down.
Water Absorption Test
Water absorption test was conducted on cube specimens of size 75 mm × 75 mm
× 75 mm as per IS1124 [14]. Specimens were initially weighed and measured as
M1 and immersed in distilled water for 28 days at room temperature without any
external disturbances. After curing period, specimens were taken out, dried at room
temperature, and weighed again as M2. The difference in weight measured provided
the rate of permeability of water through it.
Fire Resistance Test
Fire resistance test was conducted on cube specimens of size 75 mm × 75 mm ×
75 mm to study the resistance of pozzolanic materials against fire attack in accordance
with IS3809 [15]. Mortar specimens casted under five different combinations were
burnt at a temperature of 300 °C for 2 h. Burnt specimens are then allowed to cool
down and tested against compression. Percentage of reduction in the strength is the
measure of resistance against fire attack.
Workability
Workability of concrete under five different levels of replacement of pozzolanic mate-
rials was performed using a slump cone test. Slump value for the mix combinations
is presented in Fig. 4. From the results, it is evident that the Z5 combination mix
exhibits improved workability compared to all other combinations. This is because of
the higher percentage of GGBS content in the mix. Among the pozzolanic materials,
GGBS is finer having more surface area compared to other pozzolanic materials.
As the surface area increases, the rate of absorption increases, making the concrete
mix stiffer [16, 17]. Also with respect to other mix combinations, it could also be
confirmed that mix with higher GGBS content will provide better workability to the
mix.
Compressive Strength Test
Compressive strength test for five different mix combinations of mortar at the curing
age of 7 and 28 days is presented in Fig. 5. In this study, the compressive strength test
was conducted on all five different mix combinations by varying the alkaline activa-
tors at 2.5 and 5% by weight of the mix. Results indicate that Z5 mix combination
shows higher compressive strength of around 39.63 MPa for the mix 5% weight of
alkaline activators and 38.17 MPa for the mix 2.5% weight of alkaline activators at
the curing age of 28 days. Compressive strength of the mortar at the age of 28 days
was found to be 18% more compared to conventional 33 grade mortar specimens.
This attribute is due to the presence of finer pozzolanic material like GGBS at higher
percentages. Also, it can be found that increase in the percentage of alkaline activators
added at 9 M increased the compressive strength of mortar cubes.
Fig. 4 Slump cone test

Fig. 5 Compressive strength

at the age of 7 and 28 days
Split Tensile Strength Test

Split tensile strength test for five different mix combinations of mortar at the curing
age of 7 and 28 days is presented in Fig. 6. In this study, split tensile strength test was
conducted on all five different mix combinations by varying the alkaline activators
at 2.5 and 5% by weight of the mix. Results indicate that Z5 mix combination shows
higher split tensile strength of around 2.70 MPa for the mix 5% weight of alkaline
activators and 2.63 MPa for the mix 2.5% weight of alkaline activators at the age of
28 days. This attribute is due to the presence of finer pozzolanic material like GGBS
at higher percentages. Also it can be found that increase in the percentage of alkaline
activators added at 9 M increased the compressive strength of mortar cubes.
Water Absorption Test
With respect to the test results from the hardened property, it is clear that the Z5
combination exhibits higher strength property compared to other mix combinations.
Also, it could be found at unique that as the percentage of alkaline activator increases,
strength increases irrespective of percentage of replacement of pozzolanic materials.
Among the mix combinations, Z5 shows a reduced rate of water absorption compared
to other mix combinations. This is due to the fineness of GGBS added in the mix
combination. As a result of it, voids gets filled up which reduces the porosity of
Fig. 6 Split tensile strength 3

Split tensile strength (MPa)
at the age of 7 and 28 days 2.5

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Combinations with Activators

7 days 28days
Fig. 7 Water absorption at

the age of 28 days
the mix. As a result of reduced porosity, the rate of water absorption by the Z5
combination mix get reduced. Also, it could be observed that the rate of absorption
of water is higher for Z4 combination mix. In Z4 combination, the percentage of rice
husk ash and bagasse ash replaced is more. Naturally, these two pozzolanic materials
have higher water absorption capacity, as a result of which interconnected pore
networks are formed in the mix. This attributes to the higher rate of water absorption
of Z4 mix combination. Water absorption of five different mix combinations at the
curing age of 28 days is presented in Fig. 7.
Fire Resistant Test
Fire resistance test was performed in accordance with IS3809: 1979 and resistance
of zero-cement mortar against fire at the age of 28 days was presented in Fig. 8.
Results reveal that the rate of resistance against fire for Z5 mix combination is more
compared to other mix combinations. Reduction in compressive strength is around
9% for Z5 combination mix. This is due to the higher fire resistance capacity of
GGBS. As a result of which, the percentage reduction in compressive strength is
more in Z5 mix combination.
Fig. 8 Fire resistant at the

age of 28 days
5 Conclusion
From the experimental investigations the following conclusions were derived as

follows:
1. GGBS and BA contains a moderate amount of silica, whereas RHA has a higher
percentage of silica. Silica content in GGBS, BA, and RHA was activated by
pretreatment, which enhances the strength property of Z-cem mortar.
2. Workability is achieved more while preparing the mortar mixture comprising
higher values of GGBS and RHA compared to other mortar mixes. This is mainly
due to the increase in the fineness of GGBS and RHA. Increase in the fineness
will preferably increase the workability of mortar specimens.
3. Compressive strength value for the mortar containing 70% of GGBS ranges
from 38 to 40 MPa which is around 18% greater than the strength of the mortar
prepared from OPC 33 grade cement at 9 M. This clearly shows that the higher
percentage of addition of GGBS improves the strength of the mortar [1, 5, 6].
4. It also could be inferred that pozzolanic materials which are being activated by
a higher percentage of chemical activators show higher strength compared to
conventional mortar mix of 33 grades. This clearly demonstrates the role of the
sodium silicate solution in activating the pozzolanic materials. Strength increase
of zero-cement mortar at 70% GGBS by adding sodium silicate of 5% at 9 M is
18% greater than conventional mortar [5].
5. Also, strength increase of zero-cement mortar at 70% GGBS by adding sodium
silicate of 2.5% at 9 M is 13.5% greater than conventional mortar. From these two
results, it could be clear that higher strength could be achieved by increasing the
alkali activator and GGBS at 9 M level. Addition of alkaline activators beyond
5% did not show further improvement in the strength of the mortar which was
confirmed with the previous studies done [1, 6].
6. Water absorption results show that the percentage of water absorption by mortar
ranges from 1.93 to 2.0% by adding higher amount of GGBS. This is mainly due
to the less porous structure formed in GGBS mix compared to other mix combi-
nations. This impermeable nature plays a vital role in improving the strength of
mortar and enhancing the durability property of the mortar [10].
7. Fire resistance test results show that there is a reduction in compressive strength
from 10% for Z5 mix combinations. The combination with higher GGBS content
shows lesser resistance against fire compared to other mix combinations.
8. Research on whole summarizes that GGBS could be an effective pozzolanic
material for replacement of cement and also, in addition, rice husk ash and bagasse
ash added can improve the strength and durability property of Z-cem mortar. Also
reduction in CO2 emission could also be achieved with complete eradication of
cement as it is the major contributor toward CO2 emission. This, in turn, improves
the sustainability in construction.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the management
of Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education who consistently encouraged the faculty
members for the promotion of research.
References
1. Karim MR, Zain MF, Jamil M, Lai FC (2015) Development of a zero-cement binder using
slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash with chemical activator. Adv Mater Sci Eng 1
2. Mehta PK (1999) Concrete technology for sustainable development. Concr Int 21
3. Malhotra VM (2006) Reducing CO2 emissions. ACI Concr Int 28
4. Chana P (2011) Low carbon cements: the challenges and opportunities. In: Proceedings of the
Future Cement Conference & Exhibition, pp 1–7
5. Muazam Akthar S, Srinivasan R, Yaswanth B (2016) Zero cement concrete with upgraded
properties. Int J Civ Eng Technol 7
6. Siddique R, Kaur D (2012) Properties of concrete containing GGBS at elevated temperature.
J Adv Res 3
7. Anbarasan S, Sneha V (2015) Eco-friendly zero-portland cement self cured concrete through
geopolymerization of fly ash and blast furnace slag powder. In: Proceedings of the International
Conference on Engineering Trends and Science & Humanities, pp 45–54
8. Oner A, Akyuz S (2007) An experimental study on optimum usage of GGBS for the compressive
strength of concrete. Cem Concr Compos 29
9. Modani PO, Vyawahare MR (2013) Utilization of bagasse ash as a partial replacement of fine
aggregate in concrete. Procedia Eng 51
10. Givi AN, Rashid SA, Aziz FNA, Salleh MAM (2010) Assessment of the effects of rice husk
ash particle size on strength, water permeability and workability of binary blended concrete.
Constr Build Mater 24
11. Rashad AM, Sadek DM (2017) Investigation on Portland cement replaced by high- volume
GGBS pastes modified with micro-sized Metakolin subjected to elevated temperatures. Int J
Sustain Built Environ 6
12. IS 7320 (1974)—Specification for concrete slump test apparatus
13. IS 4031 (1988)—Evaluation of strength of mortar
14. IS 1124 (1974)—Method for determination of water absorption
15. IS 3809 (1979)—Fire resistance for structures
16. Punmia BC, Jain AK, Arun K, Jain AM (2003) Basic civil engineering, 2nd ed. Firewall Media,
India
17. Science of Concrete. http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/index.html
An Efficient Fire Detection System Using
Support Vector Machine and Deep
Neural Network
Archana Venugopal , Febi Justin , Linju Santhosh , Riya Binny ,
and NG Resmi
Abstract Fire is a dangerous disaster. Uncontrollable fire can cause massive destruc-
tion to life and property. Hence fire detection and alarming is a crucial and ever-
demanded topic. A fire alarm must be functionally capable and reliable. This paper
mainly focuses on a real-time system for fire detection. Videos acquired from CCTVs
or webcams are converted to a sequence of images which are then fed to the classi-
fier. Upon detecting fire from the images extracted, an alert is sent to the authorities
concerned. Support vector machine (SVM) and deep neural network are used to
develop the proposed fire detection system. Both the algorithms are employed to
build classification models. Their performances are then compared and the model
which gives better accuracy is selected.
Keywords Machine learning · Image processing · Support vector machine · Deep

neural network · Data mining
1 Introduction
Disasters are highly disruptive events that cause suffering, deprivation, hardship,
injury and even death. They may also lead to the interruption of commerce and
business, the partial or total destruction of critical infrastructure such as homes,
hospitals, and other buildings, roads, bridges, power lines, and so on. There are
many causes for disasters which are both man-made and natural. One such cause of
disaster is fire. Fire can be widespread like a forest fire, or it can be over a small
region like a house caught on fire. In either case, it causes great damage and havoc
to both people and materials. Late knowledge of the impending danger and delay in
making important decisions are major causes of damage during fire disasters.
A. Venugopal (B) · F. Justin · L. Santhosh · R. Binny · N. Resmi

Muthoot Institute of Technology & Science Varikoli, P.O, Puthencruz, Ernakulam, Kerala, India
e-mail: archanavenugopal158@gmail.com
URL: http://www.mgmits.com
R. Binny
e-mail: riyaearaly@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_24
290 A. Venugopal et al.
Figure 1 depicts the rates of fire alerts in different forest density classes across
regions in India. In 2003, the fire detected in very dense forests is below 4000, and
in moderately dense forests and open forests, it is in the range of 12000. In 2009, the
fire in very dense forests is the same as in 2003, and in moderately dense and open
forests, it increases to 16000. In 2016, the fire detected in very dense forests is equal
4000, and in moderately dense forests, it has the range of 16000 and in open forests,
it decreased to 12000.
Figure 2 depicts the rates of deaths due to fire accidents in India. Fire causes
around 24000 death per year and a lot of people lose their houses. In 2003, 22449
people lost their life in fire disasters. In 2016, the human death is reduced to 19513.
In recent years, there is slight decrease in the rate of human death.
Fig. 1 Fire alerts in different forest density classes across regions. Source https://www.downtoearth.
org.in/news/environment/forest-fires-in-india-increased-by-125-per-cent-in-last-two-years-60349
Fig. 2 Number of deaths due to accidental fire in India till 2014. Source https://www.newslaundry.
com/2016/10/19/ndia-has-averaged-59-deaths-per-day-due-to-accidental-fires-in-13-years
An Efficient Fire Detection System Using Support … 291
Taking these factors into account, an emergency alert system is being proposed
as a source of warning for fire detection. The paper proposes a system that is capable
of detecting fire with good classifier accuracy.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 gives the literature survey,
Sect. 3 presents the methodology used by the proposed fire detection system and
Sect. 4 provides the results and discussion.
2 Literature Survey
Since fire detection is a crucial process, many methods exist for the same. Various
papers have been published for detecting fire. This section focuses on the methods
and algorithms that already exist for fire detection. It covers discussion on machine
learning and deep learning methods.
In an earlier fire detection system, heuristic fixed threshold values were used for
fire detection. An image processing-based system which employs statistical color
model and binary background mask is presented in [1]. An RGB video sequence is
taken as input, which is then converted into frames. These frames are passed through
the HSI transforms to get the binary background mask for the frame differences.
Finally, it finds the fire spot without using any heuristic threshold value. This system
claims to figure out the fire spot quickly without any time delay as well as span a
wider region as compared to conventional sensor-based systems.
Another system which uses computer vision and image processing techniques to
detect fire flames based on study of the fire properties besides an alarm notification
system is given in [2]. Live sequences of red, green, blue (RGB) images are acquired
from web cameras. Background subtraction is applied on each of the adjacent pairs of
images to detect movement of fire. Color-based modeling is then used to detect actual
fire. Alarm or SMS/emails are sent to the registered authorities contact number.
Yet, another method uses hue, saturation, value (HSV) model [3]. The method
uses HSV and YCbCr (Luminance; Chroma: Blue; Chroma: Red) color models to
separate orange, yellow, and high brightness light from background and ambient
light. Fire growth is analyzed and calculated based on frame differences. Difference
between the two frames should be positive and large enough to be able to detect fire
growth. To ensure that it is actual fire, five-time fire growth between consecutive
frames has been checked. The system activates the alarm sound and provides image
notification on detecting fire.
A more sophisticated method uses artificial neural networks (ANNs). ANNs are
statistical learning algorithms that are inspired by properties of the biological neural
networks. They are used for a wide variety of tasks, from relatively simple classifica-
tion problems to speech recognition and computer vision. A fire detector using neural
network is presented in [4]. First, the flame color features based on the hue, satura-
tion, intensity (HSI) color model are trained by a back-propagation neural network
for flame recognition. Fire regions are separated from the images. Those regions or
background images which have orange/red color but are not actual fire are removed
using image difference method and the invented color masking technique. Finally,
users are informed with a warning signal.
Machine learning methods are used in [5] for developing a flood protection
system. An artificial intelligence (AI) component has been developed for detec-
tion of abnormal dike behavior. Dike is a stop bank or flood bank which maintains
the water level. The AI module has been integrated into an early warning system
(EWS) platform and validated on real-time measurements from the sensors installed
in a dike.
A more accurate model using support vector machine is discussed in [6]. Support
vector machine (SVM) is an image classification algorithm. Data set images are
divided into training sets and validation sets. Training sets are given as input for
SVM to train the system and build classification model. The trained system is then
tested for its accuracy using the validation set images.
The basic idea is to adopt a red, green, blue (RGB) color model for extracting
fire-pixels, then static and dynamic flame shape characteristics can be calculated, and
the decision function is based on SVM algorithm. Image processing step helps to
extract the features which are used to calculate the fire indicator. The images are fed
into SVM. Based on the fire color and static dynamic shape of the fire, the classifier
separates fire and non-fire images.
Reference [7] uses a method called convolutional neural networks (CNNs). CNNs
are neural networks with more number of layers and a huge amount of input data set
images. Human neural system is the main model for this technology. It generates a
sophisticated representation of data and classification is more correct and accurate.
First, the labels required in the problem are discovered. This can be achieved by
analyzing all the images and removing duplicate images. The images are given as
input and the system is trained to create a model. A new input image without a label
is given to this model and the accuracy is tested. An ideal system would classify the
image correctly.
Reference [8] focuses on object detection. Object detection is the process of
classifying the image and identifying the location where the object is placed. The
location is given by outputting the bounding box. Deep CNN is a great technique
used for object detection. CNN is a type of artificial neural network with more than
three layers. The pooling layers used are max pooling, average pooling, deformation
pooling, spatial pyramid pooling and scale-dependent pooling. Different problems
such as partial/full occlusion, varying illumination conditions, poses and scale pose
a challenge for object detection.
3 Methodology
A CCTV or webcam captures live videos of the surroundings. These videos are
processed and frames are extracted from the video. Images thus extracted from the
video undergo preprocessing steps such as enhancement. The preprocessed images
are given as input to the classifier for detecting any occurrence of fire. SVM and
Fig. 3 Basic architecture of a fire detection system
deep neural network (DNN) are used in this paper for this purpose. Accuracy of
the mentioned algorithms is computed to evaluate their performance. An alert in the
form of message is sent to the concerned authority in case of a fire. Figure 3 shows
the basic architecture of the proposed system.
The first phase is video acquisition where the video can be obtained through either
CCTV cameras, web cameras or any other source. The video is then converted
uniformly into frames of 360 × 480 pixels. These images are fed as input to SVM
and deep neural network for training and testing. The input dataset has a mixture of
labeled fire and non-fire images. SVM uses 70% of the input images for training and
rest 30% are used for testing. DNN network is also trained using the collection of
images obtained from videos. Another set of images, again a mix of fire and non-fire
Fig. 4 Confusion matrix of SVM classifier
images, is given for testing the system using both the algorithms. Accuracy in testing
is measured in either case. The algorithm which gives better accuracy is selected.
4.1 Training and Testing SVM
A total of 1033 images are fed to the SVM. Each image is of JPEG format. The
images so generated from videos are of height 360 pixels and width 480 pixels.
Figure 5 presents the accuracy rate of the classifier when fed with images.
500 images given as input to SVM belong to class Fire and 533 images belong
to class No Fire. 70% of these images are used for training the network and the rest
30% images are used for testing. True class of the tested image, predicted class and
the accuracy of classification is outputted as the final result.
Figure 4 presents the confusion matrix of SVM classifier. From 500 images, 231
fire images were classified correctly and 269 were classified incorrectly as non-fire
images. Similarly, from 533 non-fire images, 454 images were classified correctly
and 79 were classified incorrectly as fire images.
Figure 5 presents the number of images versus accuracy for SVM classifier during
testing. First 200 images were used for training. The number of images was increased
during each training session. The graph first decreased and then increased.
4.2 Training and Testing Using DNN
Images are fed to the DNN, with number of images ranging from 100 to 500. Each
image is of size 360 pixels in height and 480 pixels in width. A set of fire and non-fire
images are given as training set for DNN. Similarly, another set of images is given
as testing set. The test set contains 50 images for fire and 96 images for non-fire
cases. Each set of images undergo 3 epochs, each outputting an accuracy value. For
instance, for 200 images, epoch 1 outputs a value 0.9887, epoch 2 outputs value 1.00
and epoch 3 outputs value 1.00. Similarly, this repeats for a total of sets with 400,
600, 800 and 1000 images. The accuracy obtained in each case is plotted.
Fig. 5 Accuracy versus number of images
Figure 6 shows the accuracy obtained (on testing using DNN) against the total
number of images in the input dataset for 1, 2 and 3 epochs.
Figure 7 shows the confusion matrix for DNN. There are a total of 100 images
of which 50 are fire and 50 are non-fire images in the dataset used for prediction.
Out of these, 46 images were correctly classified as fire, 4 images were classified as
non-fire and 50 images were correctly classified as non-fire.
Fig. 6 Graph showing number of images versus accuracy of deep learning algorithm
Fig. 7 Confusion matrix of DNN
The fire detection system employing SVM and DNN is capable of detecting fire
from videos captured using CCTVs or webcams with good accuracy.
References
1. Cho BH, Bae JW, Jung SH (2009) Image processing-based fire detection system using statistic
color model
2. Bayoumi S, AlSobky E, Almohsin M, Altwaim M, Alkaldi M, Alkahtani M (2014) A real-time
fire detection and notification system based on computer vision
3. Seebamrungsat J, Praising S, Riyamongkol P (2014) Fire detection in the buildings using image
processing
4. Horng WB, Peng JW (2006) Image-based fire detection using neural networks
5. Yang X, Wang J, He S (2012) A SVM approach for vessel fire detection based on image
processing
6. Pyayt AL, Mokhov II, Lang B, Krzhizhanovskaya VV, Meijer RJ (2011) Machine learning
methods for environmental monitoring and flood protection
7. Pan B, Shi Z, Xu X (2012) MugNet: deep learning for hyperspectral image classification using
limited samples
8. Yang W, Liu Q, Wang S, Cui Z, Chen X, Chen L, Zhang N (2018) Down image recognition
based on deep convolutional neural network
Engineering Properties of Heavyweight
Concrete—A Review
B. P. Sharath and Bibhuti Bhusan Das
Abstract Heavyweight concrete which differs from normal weight concrete by

having a higher density and special compositions to improve its attenuation prop-
erties, the density and cost of the material are really important in order to absorb
gamma rays. If the main aim of developing heavyweight concrete is focussed to
attenuate neutrons, then the material with less atomic weight should be embodied in
the concrete mix which can in turn produce hydrogen. It is used in counterweights
of bascule and lift bridges, but its general application includes in radiation shielding
structures, offshore, ballasting of pipelines etc. The evolution of nuclear power into
peaceful applications has given rise to an expanding use of heavy weight concrete
in construction industries nowadays. Heavyweight concrete employs bulky conven-
tional aggregates such as barites or magnetite or artificial aggregates such as Fe ore
or Pb shots. This paper states a review on impact on engineering properties of Heavy-
weight concrete such as compressive, split tensile and flexural strength with different
heavyweight aggregates as per the investigations conducted by researchers.
Keywords Heavyweight · Compressive strength · Split tensile strength · Flexural

strength · Density of concrete
1 Introduction
The most common applications of heavy weight concrete are to safeguard the emitting
radiations, counterweights and in other such areas wherein a high density is needed.
The major factor which differentiates the conventional one from this, is the inclusion
of bulk aggregates in the due course of its production. The basic definition of this
heavyweight concrete itself says that it should have a specific gravity of more than
B. P. Sharath (B)
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, 575 025 Mangalore, India
e-mail: bpsharath1993@gmail.com
B. B. Das
Asst. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, 575 025 Mangalore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_25
298 B. P. Sharath and B. B. Das
2600 kg/m3 and the bulky aggregates, going in it should have more than 3000 kg/m3 .
The esteemed fillers which are commonly employed in yielding bulky concrete are
conventional ones such as barite, magnetite, limonite and artificial ones such as steel
and Fe shots.
The other various types of aggregates which can be utilized as heavyweight
aggregates in concrete as a partial or fully replaceable to conventional concrete are
described in the subsequent section.
Nowadays, the most emerging applications of this heavyweight concrete is in
radiation shielding structures which has become mandatory depending upon the
recent development taking place all around the world and regarding that, the use of
such kind of materials have come into picture.
1.1 Heavyweight Aggregates in Heavyweight Concrete
The materials which are commonly used in this special type of concrete are as
follows which can be bifurcated into two categories depending upon there source of
availability, nature and respective properties. Among these, first category comprises
minerals which have got significantly higher values of specific gravity and atomic
weight as well and also, are synthetic by nature which are referred all in as
‘Heavyweight aggregates.
The Second category comprises minerals boron content which is particularly
capable of absorbing thermal neutrons without producing highly penetrating gamma
rays. [ASTM C638-14]. All these are tabulated below in Table 1.
Table 1 Different minerals with their specific gravity’s

Sl. No. Name of the group to Name of the mineral Specific gravity
which it belongs
1 Iron minerals Hematite (Fe2O3) 5.26
2 Ilmenite (FeTiO3) 4.72 ± 0.04
3 Lepidocrocite (FeO (OH)) 4.09
4 Goethite (HFeO2) 4.28 ± 0.01
5 Limonite 2.7–4.3
6 Magnetite (FeFe2O4) 5.17
7 Barium minerals Witherite (BaCO3) 4.29
8 Barite (BaSO4) 4.50
9 Boron minerals Ferrophosphorus 5.72–6.50
10 Paigeite ((Fe ++Mg) Fe +++BO5) 4.7
11 Tourmaline (Na (Mg, Fe, Mn, Li, 3.03–3.25
Al)3Al6[Si6O18]·(BO3)3(OH,F)4)
Engineering Properties of Heavyweight Concrete—A Review 299
The main objective of this paper is to review the behaviour of these different
heavyweight aggregates in concrete and to understand the impact of the same on
engineering properties of concrete reported by various authors during their findings.
2 Engineering Properties of Heavyweight Concrete
Heavyweight concretes have been investigated for various aspects in accordance to

their necessity and possible application areas in industries in the past, which were
mainly focused on the observation of behaviour of the incorporated ingredients on
mechanical and armouring properties of it [1].
As mentioned previously, native minerals and ‘mechanical ones’ which can be
used as aggregates in high density concrete are hematite, magnetite, limonite, barite
and steel punchings and iron shots.
It is necessary that these bulky aggregates should be apathetic w.r.t alkalis, oil-free,
no adhering of non-native covers which all can be an untoward effect on adherence
of paste to the aggregate particles on cement hydration [2].
All the values for the engineering properties of concrete are taken from the table
(in appendix) and are plotted in the form of graphs as (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Comparison of compressive strength of different authors at 28 days

Comparison of Split Tensile Strength of

Diff erent Aut hors at 28 Days
10
SO CIO
9
AS et al HA50
Split Tensile Strength (MPa)
8
AS et al LA25
7
YE et al 10
6
BSS et al M25 50 H
5
BSS et al M35 50 H
4
VLM et al 100 PC
3 ASO et al M3
2 K Vidhya et al M30 2
1 KS et al M0
0 OG et al PC
28
JK et al S 100
Curing Days
Fig. 2 Comparison of split tensile strength of different authors at 28 days
2.1 Discussion of Compressive, Tensile and Flexural

Strength at 28 Days
From Fig. 3, following interpretations can be drawn for different authors.

Reference [3] developed bulk concrete mixtures with varying water/cement ratio’s
ranging 0.3–0.6 to find out the ultimate appreciable water/cement ratio of bulky
C o m p a ri son of F l e xu ral St r e n gt h of
Dif f erent Aut ho rs at 28 Days
12
10
Flexural Strength (MPa)
SO CIO
8
AS et al HA50
AS et al LA25
6
BSS et al M25 50H 15SF
BSS et al M35 50 H
4
SK AC
2 K Vidhya et al M30 2
YE et al S100
0
28
Curing Days
Fig. 3 Comparison of flexural strength of different authors at 28 days

concrete yielded with barite. Also, there was a utilization of two different types of
cement that is PKC 32.5 and PC 42.5 in the experimental analysis.
Three cylindrical standard specimens with Ø 15 × 30 cm were used for each
water/cement ratio.
Experimental results in the case of slump shows that it has increased with an
increment in the water/cement ratio and also there was nothing such significant
difference in slump for both cement types. In the case of compressive strength, it had
dipped with an increment in the same. The peak values for strength for concretes
obtained from PC was 42.6 MPa at 0.40 w/c ratios.
Another similar study was carried out by [4], wherein he had produced heavy-
weight concrete by incorporating three normal and 2 heavyweight aggregates, using 3
low water/cement of 0.30, 0.35 and 0.40 to obtain different compressive strengths. A
high-performance concrete superplasticiser was employed as chemical admixture in
order to the heavyweight concrete workable. In this study, the slump of all concrete
mixes ranged between 150 and 200 mm. Added to that, standard specimens with
standard dimensions were casted for tensile strength. From experimental results, it
can be seen that strength boosts with low water/cement ratio as anticipated.
Based on hematite aggregates, another inspection was done out by Sagar et al.
[5] on the behaviour of the replacement of conventional coarse aggregates with the
same (in 0–50 at 25% intervals) on the as usual basic properties of concrete. Along
with this percentage replacement of hematite, three levels of additional cementitious
material, that is silica fume was supplemented (in 5, 10 and 15%) by the weight of
cement. The properties of concrete were studied for their 28-days strength using the
same as usual standard specimens casted for the respective tests to be conducted.
By looking at the results obtained for basic properties of concrete, there is not
much significant difference in them compared to that of control one, which gives
a conclusion that hematite coarse aggregates can be used for making heavyweight
concrete without much affecting the above properties.
Reference [2], developed concrete mixes using bulky fine aggregates as an alter-
native for conventional ones at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100%, by weight. Fresh mixtures
were casted into standard specimens for investigating compressive strength. Other
mixtures were casted in the respective as usual standard specimens for tensile strength
test.
Compressive strength at 28 days revealed that there was an increase in it gradually
when the substitution levels were (as mentioned above) respectively, in contrast to the
reference one. It dropped by 15% when the substitution percentage hiked to 100%.
The results showed that the one with 60% of HFA displayed the peak values for
compressive strength among all other ones.
Tensile strength at 28 days indicates an increase in when conventional fine aggre-
gates were replaced with bulky fine aggregates at ratios (as mentioned above) in
contrast to the reference mixture; while it dropped when the substitution percentage
escalated from 80 to 100%. The results indicated that the one with 60% bulky fine
aggregates had peak values for tensile strength among all the other ones.
Reference [6], tried to add barite (powdered) as a replacement for sand to inves-
tigate the impact of this on basic properties of concrete. Five concrete formulations
where performed and were designated accordingly.
Experimental Results showed that compressive strength at the end of 28 days was
high for the mix M5. This can be justified by saying that concrete density had boosted
up with the introduction of a denser compound.
In the case of tensile strength, it had dipped with the varying barite incorporation
and it comes out to be up to 50% for the total substitution for fines.
Reference [7], aimed at investigating the effect of colemanite on properties of
concrete as a replacement to aggregates. Five mixes were designed (PC, CC10,
CC20, CC30, CC40 and CC50) wherein the aggregates were replaced at 10, 20,
30, 40, 50% by colemanite. Cement content and w/c were fixed in the all mixtures.
Standard test specimens were casted for investigating the respective properties. All
the properties were tested for 28 days age.
From the strength results, it can be known that all the ones with colemanite showed
a dip as it’s addition increases. This can be justified by saying that there was a weak
adherence between cement paste & colemanite. From the tensile strength results, it
can be known that the strength with colemanite was lower than that of PC. The values
ranged from 3.7 to 2.2 MPa. The peak one was 3.7 MPa for PC and lowest one was
2.2 MPa for CC50. It also dropped by the increment in colemanite addition ratio.
Reference [8], attempted to design heavyweight concrete using two heavyweight
aggregates such as hematite and laterite and studied the physical and mechanical
properties of concrete. Here, in this experimental work, two concrete mixes were
developed wherein the first mix comprises replacement of conventional coarse aggre-
gates with hematite aggregates (in 0, 25, 50, and 100%) and in another mix, it was
done with laterite aggregates (varied in the same percentage). W/c of 0.4 was adopted
and the specimens for compressive split tensile and flexural strength were prepared
according to the respective dimensions for that particular tests which were 150 ×
150 × 150 mm, Ø 15 × 30 cm and 10 × 10 × 50 cm respectively. All the three
properties of concrete were tested for their 7- and 28-days age.
Firstly, in case of workability, slump test results have revealed that there is a dip
in its values when there is an increase in percentage of heavy weight aggregates.
This may be due to the variation in water absorption values of aggregates. Also, it
can be seen that laterite stones have greater values of absorption compared to that of
hematite stones which was reason for lower slump for laterite concrete.
Split tensile strength was maximum for hematite concrete, 3.70 N/mm2 , for 50%
replacement level and for laterite concrete, it was 2.68 N/mm2 , for 25% replacement
level.
Flexural strength was more for hematite concrete, 7 N/mm2 for 25% replacement
level and that for laterite concrete it was 6.16 N/mm2 for 25% replacement level.
Reference [9] studied the strength development of concrete at various ages,
wherein there was a substitution for conventional cement which was nothing but
conventional pozzolan. Split tensile strength results he had come to know that it was
maximum with portland cement and minimum with natural pozzolan. From this, it
can be concluded from the experimental results obtained by using a part of Portland
cement, it can be encouraged to re-utilize it even though it poses a negative impact

over the environment, but since because it facilitates in bringing down the cost of
construction, helps in improving the engineering properties of concrete (mainly in
the building construction activities), it can be considered as the most feasible material
to look after for such kinds of added advantages especially in construction phases.
Reference [10], had tried to develop the heavyweight concrete using the discarded
products from industries, which were iron fillings, rebar pieces and barites to study
the compressive strength at an age of 7, 28 and 90 days and flexural strength at
28 days age of concrete. Three mixes were set which were designated as OC, BC
and AC depending upon the type of aggregates utilized in that particular mix. Each
end product was prepared using a unvarying w/c ratio. For compressive strength test,
cubic shaped specimens with a dimension of 15 cm and for flexural strength test,
prismatic specimens with dimensions (100 × 100 × 500) mm were casted.
The flexural strengths for ‘AC’ concrete were higher than those for ordinary
concrete (OC) by thirty-five %. Rebars and iron powders have increased the flexural
strength. Reference [11], used Hematite and Laterite as heavyweight aggregates to
study their performance w.r.t the properties of concrete. Two mixes were developed
based upon the type of utilization of aggregates. Standard sized specimens were
casted for studying the desired property.
From tensile and flexural strength results, it can be observed that the concrete’s
with heavyweight aggregates showed more values compared to the control one.
Reference [12], aimed at studying the engineering properties of concrete like
compressive and split tensile strength at 28 days wherein he had developed two
different mixes with the same w/c ratio and cement content by using fine grinded
iron dross and a mix of steel punchings with sizes less than 11.2 mm as aggregates.
The traditional concrete aggregates were replaced by steel treatment waste in the
amount of (in 50% (S50) and 100% (S100)).
From the results, it can be seen that strength of bulky concrete declines with incre-
mental steel treatment waste in it. The final compressive strength of concrete speci-
mens with 50% and 100% steel treatment waste aggregate was 40.7 and 36.6 MPa.
This can be due to the angular shaped fillers and umiform surface of steel punchings,
creating a woozy contact between the cement paste and fillers.
2.2 Discussion of Compressive Strength at the Age of 3, 7, 14,

28 and 90 Days
From Fig. 4, the following interpretations can be done which are, for [11], among
the two mixes, the maximum strength was obtained for the mix M30 2 at 7, 14
and 28 days which concluded that heavyweight concrete had more strength values
compared to normal one.
For [9] The compressive strength with 80% C + 20% PU declines substantially
at 7 and 28 days compared to the conventional one without pozzolan.
Comparison of Compressive Strength of Different Authors at

3, 7, 14, 28 and 90 Days
90 Vidhya et al M30 1
Compressive Strength (MPa) 80 Vidhya et al M30 2
70 VLM et al 100% PC
60 VLM et al 80+20 PU
50 Salah et al D
40 Salah et Hc
30 Salah et al Hf
20 Salah et al ILc
10 Salah et al ILf
0 20 40 60 80 100
Salah et al ACSc
Curing Days
Salah et al ACSf
Fig. 4 Comparison of compressive strength of different authors at 3, 7, 14, 28 and 90 days
Reference [13] investigated the impact of Silica Fume on strength characteristics

of heavyweight concrete containing IOT aggregates such as hematite, ilmenite and
air-cooled slag. By looking at the complied results of split tensile strength, it can be
observed that, it tends to increase for all the ones as the curing duration increases.
The rate of strength development is dependent on the cementing activity of silica
fume as well as the properties of the aggregates incorporated. From the result’s point
of view, mixes containing slag have given peak values for strength values than those
containing conventional aggregates, hematite and ilmenite by about 10, 52 and 20%,
respectively.
From Fig. 5, the following interpretations can be done which are, for [14], the
concrete mix with magnetite have shown distinctive dominating values than those
Comparison of Compressive Strength of Different Authors at

7, 28 and 90 Days
ASO M1
90 ASO M2
ASO M3
80
Compressive Strength (MPa)
ASO M4
70 ASO B1
ASO B2
60 ASO B3
ASO B4
50 ASO G1
40 ASO G2
ASO G3
30 ASO G4
20 ASO S1
ASO S2
10 ASO S3
AS et al HA25
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 AS et al LA25
CB B2
Curing Days CB A3
CB A4
Fig. 5 Comparison of compressive strength of different authors at 7, 14, 28 and 90 days

containing other substitutes at the age of 7 days. For 28 days strength, the magnetite
and barite concretes with 10% Silica Fumes showed ≥600 kg/m3 , than that of same
aggregate mixes but with 20% FA and 30% GGBS. On the other hand, the strength
of concrete containing Br aggregates was almost near to M60 and it had escalated
to 90 days. This increment in strength gives an implication that fumes with its more
outer area and content supplies a padding impact and a cementing reaction, thus
resulting in a advancement by arresting wimpish Ca(OH)2 binder with the setting
up of a sound binder of C-S-H gel, that imparts an added strength compared to FA
and GGBS.
For [8], it is seen that maximum compressive strength for hematite concrete is
47.26 N/mm2 for 25% replacement of coarse aggregate with hematite stone and
that for laterite concrete is 42.03 N/mm2 for 25% replacement of coarse aggregate
with laterite stone. Beyond 25% replacement, value shows a decreasing tendency
for both the types of concrete. This may be because of higher porosity of both the
materials than natural coarse aggregate., which while increasing it, may decrease
the strength of concrete. Reference [15], developed 15 different concretes using
mixing diversified ratios of basic ingredients along with barite. The objective was to
find the ideal water/cement ratio and cement dosage in concrete and to analyse the
compressive strength for the different mixes at 7, 28 and 90 days. The 15 mixes were
produced into 5 varying series each having 3 varied catgories which was done based
on mixing values, that is if the entire volume consists of only normal aggregates,
then that concrete was termed as A. If it had barites, it was termed as B, if it had fines
as normal and coarse as barites, called as AB, if it was vice versa, called as BA, and
the final one, if it had 50% normal and another 50% barite aggregates, called as K.
All these 5 sets of concrete in three different series consists of w/c of 0.65, 0.51 and
0.43 respectively. Samples used for determining the strength were of dimensions Ø
15 × 30 cm.
Experimental results tell that there was no significant variation in unit weight of
concrete for different w/c ratio’s. The maximum value obtained was 3507 kg/m3 ,
for B type’s concrete for a w/c ratio of 0.5. In case of compressive strength, even
though the ratio of 0.43 gave the peak values for strength, the appreciable one was
for 0.51. So therefore, it can be abated that binding ratio of 0.5 was favourable for
bulky concrete.
2.3 Discussion of Density of Concrete
From Fig. 6, the interpretation can be done for various authors with respect to the
density of concrete wherein it has behaved in varying nature depending upon the
type of material utilized in the concrete.
For [2, 4, 7–14, 16, 17], had reported a raise in the mass-by-volume ratio of
concrete with the substitution of extra additives, which were nothing but the heavy-
weight aggregates such as Barites, Hematite, Laterite, Ilmenite, Red Sand, Siderite,
Steel Shots, Colemanite and combinations of Iron Dross and Steel shots.
Comparison of Density of Concrete w ith respect

to different authors and additives
5000 AS O B2 (Barite)
AS et al HA100 (Hematite)
4500
AS et al LA100 (Laterite)
4000
CB B3 (Barite)
3500 YE et al 50 (Barite)
Density (kg/cum m)
3000 BC (Barite)
VLT et al 80+20 PU
2500
ASO M6 Red Sand
2000
K Vidhya et al M30 2
(Hematite)
1500 SAA et al ILf Ilmenite fine
YuE et al S100 (Siderite)

1000
MM et al S0 (Steel Shot)
500
OG et al PC (Colemanite)
0 JK et al S100 (Iron
Author
Dross+Steel Punchings)
Fig. 6 Comparison of density of concrete with respect to different authors and additives
So, it can be summarized that there will be definitely an increase in the both the
densities of concrete (in fresh & hardened states) with the addition of any other new
heavyweight aggregates in concrete.
3 Conclusion
It can be concluded that there was a drastic change in the engineering proper-
ties of concrete irrespective of different heavyweight aggregates admixed with the
conventional ones.
1. From compressive, split tensile and tensile strength point of view (at all ages), it
can be said that it had increased with the increasing percentages of replacements
up to some point, after which, it had decreased. But some have reported it had not
much affected them. All the behaviour depends upon the properties of materials
being added.
2. From density point of view, it can be seen that it had increased for whatever addi-
tive admixed in the concrete with the conventional ones which gives a promising
indication of increase in the density in both the states, but it again depends upon
the varying nature of additive materials [1].
Appendix: Review of Engineering Properties of Concrete

with Respect to Various Authors
308
M - Magnetite 3.M4 had greater strength than B4

B - Barite and G4.
G - Goethite 4.B1, B2 and B3 exhibited highest
S- Serpentine density values in both the conditions.
‘1’ set – 10% SF M1, M2 & M3 had slightly more
Note ‘2’ Set – 20% FA values compared to the normal one.
‘3’ Set – 30% GGBS 5.G1 & G2 met the requirements of
‘4’ Set – Barite Fine aggregate dense concrete; Dipped for all S
series mixes.
32.5 28 Days
0.30 31.8
0.35 31.1
0.40 31.2
0.45 29.2 1.Cement dosage was accepted as
0.50 28.6 constant at 350 kg/m3 because this
0.55 27.6 one was the most common in
0.60 26.0 application for the determination
of components.
3 Ilker Bekir Barite 1. Examined with seven different w/c ratios.
Topçu Note 2. Two different cements PKC 32.5 & PC 2. Concretes at w/c ratio of 0.40 give
42.5 ; w/c ratio 0.3-0.6 the highest strength and the most
42.5 28 Days favourable one
0.30 40.1
0.35 39.4
0.40 42.6
0.45 35.9
0.50 35.6
0.55 33.8
0.60 32.5
7 Days 28 Days 28 Days 28 Days Hardened 1. Water cements ratios of 0.4 were
1.Hematite HA0 29.55 38.01 2.14 6.13 2393 adopted.
2. Laterite HA25 42.23 47.26 3.27 7.00 2652 2. From col (I), HA25 and LA25 had
Athira 3.Replaced HA50 40.35 44.67 3.7 6.16 2790 highest values i.e. 47.26 N/mm2 and
4 Suresh with HA100
42.03 N/mm2. Beyond 25% strength,
25.46 30.59 3.3 3.80 3004
it had dipped.
et al conventional LA0 29.55 38.01 2.14 6.13 2393 3. From (II), (III) and (IV), max. was
aggregates (0, LA25 34.23 42.03 2.68 6.16 2617 for HA50, LA25, HA100 and LA100
25, 50 & LA50 31.41 37.48 2.32 5.14 2630 respectively.
50%) LA100 14.67 26.07 1.75 3.01 2663
B. P. Sharath and B. B. Das
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days Hardened
A2 17.4 24.7 35.1 2406
B2 18.6 27.4 33.1 3414
AB2 18.2 27.0 36.9 3061
BA2 17.8 25.0 37.1 2821
K2 18.1 26.2 38.1 2911 1.w/c ratio of 0.51 is favourable for
A3 30.5 38.6 49.5 2464 heavyweight concrete.
15 different B3 23.9 37.3 46.4 3507
2.Even though, concrete with w/c
concrete; AB3 28.0 38.4 48.1 3124 0.43 gives the highest strength, the
Mixing in BA3 27.4 37.8 48.9 2856 favourable was obtained at w/c ratio
different ratio K3 27.8 38.0 47.4 2988 of 0.51.
5 Basyigit
of cement, A4 43.1 51.9 59.8 2482
aggregates B4 36.9 38.8 47.4 3452 3.From col. (V), it can be seen that
and Barites AB4 38.1 47.1 54.4 3083 there was an increase in the values
BA4 35.0 40.0 52.3 2830 w.r.t the increase in the Barite rates.
K4 37.6 43.3 57.5 2986 The max. value for B3 (3507 kg/m3)
Normal aggregate Concrete: A
Barite aggregate concrete: B
FA Normal + CA Barite: AB
Note CA Barite + FA normal: BA
50% agg normal + 50% barites: K
2,3,4 indices diff. w/c ratio 0.65, 0.51, 0.43
28 Days 28 Days Hardened 1. W/C ratio was taken as 0.60 to
1. Barite CA 0% 56.72 9.03 2231 obtain a slump value of 5 cm.
Engineering Properties of Heavyweight Concrete—A Review
2. Series of 10% 59.58 9.23 2340 Cement dosage: 400 kg/m3

concrete 20% 58.45 8.56 2413 2. From (I), highest was for 10%
Yüksel wherein 30% 55.94 7.64 2521 barites, 59.58 MPa. The same can be
6 seen in the case of (II).
Esen et al conventional 40% 55.22 7.08 2638
CA replaced 3. From (IV), there was an increasing
50% 50.09 5.85 2728
with Barites trend with the increase in the barite
(0, 10, 20, 30, ratio.
40 50%).
1. CA M25; Hematite CA can be used for making
28 Days for M25 Mixes 28 Days 28 Days
B. Sagar replaced by H heavy weight concrete, without
7 Singh et Hematite C 32.57 3.53 4.33 affecting much the compressive, split
al with Natural 25 35.57 3.46 3.54 tensile and flexural strength of
FA 50 34.19 4.35 3.58 concrete.
309
310
2. 3 levels of 25
31.11 3.90 4.12
SF at (5, 10 5SF
and 15% 25
were used by 32.85 3.97 3.65
10SF
wt. 25
of cement. 35.81 3.29 4.44
15SF
3. Design 50
was for M25 33.71 3.27 3.69
5SF
& M35 50
grades of 35.62 3.49 4.52
10SF
concrete 50
H: Hematite 36.67 3.79 4.55
15SF
CA M35;
SF : Silica 28 Days for M35 Mixes 28 Days 28 Days
H
Fume
C 43.97 3.539 3.79
25 44.62 3.468 3.58
50 39.55 4.352 4.96
25
39.26 3.9 3.38
5SF
25
44.21 3.97 3.86
10SF
25
45.63 3.29 3.93
15SF
50
36.44 3.52 3.73
5SF
50
41.63 3.66 4.185
10SF
50
46.44 3.796 4.57
15SF
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days 28 Days Fresh 1.From (I), values for AC were
1. Barite, higher than that of NC by 10% after
Ş. OC 37.3 50.2 56.7 4.21 2443
8 Kılınçarslan normal & 28 and by 7% after 90 days.
BC 33.5 45.8 53.1 4.34 3450
artificial agg.
AC 36.2 47.3 55.6 6.45 3276
2. Iron 2.From (III), values for AC were
Fillings & found to be higher than those of OC
Rebar Pieces OC: Normal Aggregates by 35%.
as artificial Note BC: Barite Aggregates 3. From (IV), BC was the highest.
agg AC: Artifical Aggregates
.
1.Strengths of PU were less than PC
3 Days 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 28 Days Fresh
2.Avg. 28-d strength of concrete for
100 20% PU was 87.7% w.r.t that of
Replacement 24.3 33.6 41.3 43.1 3.34 2335 normal one.
PC
of Portland 3.At 7 & 28-days, strength of PU
Cement with 80
Van Lam PC concrete dipped by 30.1 % at 12.3 %
9 Natural 17.4 23.5 35.2 37.8 2.93 2352 respectively.
Tang et al 20
Pozzolan in 4.Spilt tensile results at all ages of
PU
Vietnam concrete with PC were more than
PU.
PC: Portland Cement
Note 5.But, in the case of Density, its vice
PU: Natural Pozzolan
versa.
7 Days 28 Days
1.Replacing
50 % FA
partially by 1. Replacement of 50% FA by Steel
Dr.V Steel shots 32.53 39.05 shots had attained more than 90%
10
Vasugi 2. Designed 1: 1.9 strength in 7 days itself.
: 3.5
for M35
grade
28 Days 28 Days Hardened

1. Design of 1. From (I), the values for mixes
M0 48.95 3.15 2275
heavyweight increased gradually by about 5, 8.5,
M1 51.30 3.21 2310
concrete with 12.15, and 2.55% when replacement
Ahmed S. Heavyweight M2 53.13 3.41 2353 levels of HFA were 20, 40, 60, and
11 M3 54.96 3.52 2400 80%, respectively, compared to
Ouda et al agg. as a
substitute for M4 50.21 3.12 2454 control. It dipped by 15.23% for
conventional M5 41.52 2.50 2514 100% replacement. Among all, M6
agg. M6 56.67 1.48 2686 had the highest one
M7 40.22 1.21 2457
311
312
2.Additional 2.From (II), the highest among all

mix consists was mix M3
of replacing % replacement (0,20,40,60,80,100) (M1, 3.But, from (IV), the highest density
of CA by M2, M3, M4, M5) by wt. respectively. was for M6 among all.
HFA. Note M6 (50:50) and M7 (40:60)
3.HFA was HFA: Heavyweight Fine Aggregate
Red Sand.
1.Hematite as 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 28 Days 28 Days Hardened 1.Heavyweight concrete had more
HA M30 1 27.76 35.46 39.53 4.37 4.38 2459 compressive, split tensile and
K. Vidhya 2. Design flexural strength compared to that of
12 M30 2 29.80 36.91 42.29 5.00 6.70 3467
et al done for M30 normal one.
grade Note ‘1’ Mix with CA; ‘2’ Mix with HA 2.Density of concrete with hematite
was more than that with normal one.
7 Days 14 Days 90 Days Hardened
1.Two types D 41.59 68.50 71.15 2.35
of Iron ore Hc 24.66 49.54 54.02 2.48 1. ACSf and ACSf had given highest
(Hematite &
Hf 35.88 46.48 51.17 2.83 strength compared to D, Hc, Hf, ILc &
Ilmenite),
ILc 45.46 60.34 62.99 2.72 ILf by 10, 52 and 90% respectively
Silica Fume,
Salah A. ILf 42.61 53.82 57.69 3.21 which was due to enhanced
and Air-
Abo-El- ACSc 53.82 75.84 76.45 2.6 interlocking b/w porous textures of
13 cooled slag
Enein ACSf 69.11 80.12 82.77 3.02 slag & cement paste which leads to
(by-product
et al D: Dolomite the improvement of transition zone
of Iron &
Hc – C Hematite in it.
Steel
Hf – F Hematite 2. From (4), the highest one was for
Production
ILc – C Ilmenite ILf
Plant) Note ILf – F Ilmenite
ACSc – C Air Cooled Slag
ACSf – F Air Cooled Slag
28 Days Hardened
C 1. S80 had highest strength than
1. Siderite 34.60 2230
Yüksel 2. Partially compared to others.
14 Esen et al S20 47.03 2420 2. From (IV), the trend shows an
replaced for S40 56.12 2560 increase with the increase in the
Normal Agg. S60 64.47 2680 siderite ratio.
S80 69.24 2780
(20,40,60,80,
100) S100 66.07 2890
28 Days 28 Days 1. From (I), it was maximum for M5

M0 32.35 3.09 and an increase of 17% compared to
1. Use of the control one. Beyond this, it had
M5 37.97 2.35
Barite in dipped by 10% only in comparison
Khaled M40 32.23 2.69
powdered with M0.
15 Saidani et M70 29.01 1.80
form as
al
replacement
to sand M100 29.61 1.69
14 Days 28 Days Hardened 1. 28-day compressive strength was

M0 49.73 52.59 3682 more than that
M1 52.37 55.13 3480 of 14-day value, but it was not that
M2 55.87 58.77 3454 significant
Electric arc 2. Maximum strength, for both 14-
M3 60.98 64.40 3369
M. furnace slag and 28-days, was noted in M3.
M4 53.61 55.82 3146
16 Maslehud aggregates 3. From (IV), maximum was in M0
din et al and Steel M0 - Shots 100% with 100% steel.
Shots M1 - Shots 80% + EAFSA 20%
M2 - Shots 65% + EAFSA 35%
Note
EAFSA – Electric Arc Furnace Slag Agg.
28 Days 28 Days Hardened 1.From (1), it can be seen that, there

PC 60.02 3.71 2483 was a decrease in the values as the
CC10 64.04 3.86 2449 percentage replacement raised
Osman 2. In the case of (II), the maximum
17 Gencel et Colemanite CC20 55.23 3.20 2382
CC30 52.14 3.16 2332 was for CC10, but beyond this, it
al started dipping.
CC40 45.47 3.06 2332
3.From (IV), it was evident that, the
CC50 39.04 2.77 2265 control one had higher value .
Iron dross 28 Days 28 Days Hardened 1.From (I), it was seen that the
Janis (mainly iron S50 40.7 4.10 3520 values for heavyweight concrete
18 Kazjonos oxides) and declined with increasing iron dross
et al Steel S100 36.60 4.15 4640 content but from (IV), it was vice
Punchings versa.
313
References
1. Özen S, Şengül C, Erenoğlu T, Çolak Ü, Reyhancan IA, Taşdemi̇r MA (2016) Properties of

heavyweight concrete for structural and radiation shielding purposes. Arab J Sci Eng https://
doi.org/10.1007/s13369-015-1868-6
2. Ouda AS, Abdelgader HS Assessing the physical, mechanical properties, and γ-ray attenuation
of heavy density concrete for radiation shielding purposes. Geosystem Eng https://doi.org/10.
1080/12269328.2018.1469434
3. Topcu İB (2003) Properties of heavyweight concrete produced with barite. In: Cem Concr Res
33:815–822
4. Esen Y, Yilmazer B (2010) Investigation of some physical and mechanical properties of concrete
produced with barite aggregate. Sci Res Essays 5(24):3826–3833
5. Singh BS, Ramana KV Mechanical properties of heavy weight concrete using heavy weight
coarse-aggregate as hematite (Fe58 High Grade Iron Ore). IJRET: Int J Res Eng Technol eISSN:
2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
6. Saidani K, Ajam L, Ouezdou MB (2015) Barite powder as sand substitution in concrete: effect
on some mechanical properties. Constr Build Mater 95:287–295
7. Gencel O, Brostow W, Ozel C (2010) An investigation on the concrete properties containing
colemanite. Int J Phys Sci 5(3):216–225
8. Suresh A, Abraham R (2015) Experimental study on heavy weight concrete using hematite
and laterite as coarse aggregate. Int J Eng Trends Technol (IJETT) 28(4)
9. Van Lam T, Nguyen TC, Hung NX, Van Phi D, Bulgakov B, Bazhenova S (2018) Effect of
natural pozzolan on strength and temperature distribution of heavyweight concrete at early
ages. In: MATEC web of conferences 193, 03024. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201819
303024
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gates. In: Special issue of the international conference on computational and experimental
science and engineering (ICCESEN 2014), vol 128, No 2-B
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high densit concrete incorporating hematite. IJIRST–Int J Innov Res Sci & Technol 2(07),
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treatment waste
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mechanical properties of high performance concrete using different aggregates in presence of
silica fume. Hous Build Natl Res Cent, HBRC J
14. Ouda AS Development of high-performance heavy density concrete using heavy density
concrete using different aggregates for gamma-ray shielding. In: Housing and building national
research center (HBRC). Dokki, Giza, Egypt
15. Basyigit C (2006) The physical and mechanical properties of heavyweight concrete used in
radiation shielding. J Appl Sci 6(4):762–766. ISSN 1812-5664
16. Esen Y, Doğan ZM (2017) Evaluation of physical and mechanical characteristics of siderite
concrete to be used as heavy-weight concrete. Cem Concr Compos 82:117e127
17. Maslehuddin M, Naqvi AA, Ibrahim M, Kalakada Z (2013) Radiation shielding properties of
concrete with electric arc furnace slag aggregates and steel shots. Ann Nucl Energy 53:192–196
Experimental Study on Lightweight
Concrete with Copper Slag and Pumice
Stone, Leca as a Partial Replacement
of Aggregates
V. Praveen Jesuraj and V. Sreevidya
Abstract The project presents the usage of copper slag, pumice stone and leca
(light expanded clay aggregate) for partial replacement of fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate. The experimental procedure is conducted for the replacing percentages
of 5, 15 and 25%. For this above-mentioned replacement percentage, M20 grade
concrete is used with a water–cement ratio of 0.48. For 5% replacement of pumice,
the amount of copper slag replaced is 5% with fine aggregate and the amount of
pumice replaced is 5% with coarse aggregate. For 5% replacement of leca, the amount
of copper slag replaced is 5% with fine aggregate and the amount of leca replaced is
5% with coarse aggregate. Similarly, 15 and 25% replacement of fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate is done, respectively. For this purpose, seven sets were prepared to
study the compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength. Each set
comprises of three cubes, three cylinders and three prisms. The compressive strength
test, split tensile strength test, flexure strength test have been done. A comparison
study has been done between leca and pumice to identify the suitable alternate for
ordinary concrete. The main objective of this project is to know the strength of
partially replaced concrete.
Keywords Lightweight concrete · Leca · Pumice · Copper slag
1 Introduction
Lightweight concrete (LWC) has been widely used in different structural applications
and its consumption grows every year on a global basis. These include a reduction in
the dead load of the building, which minimizes the dimensions of structural members
the production of lighter in size of the structural members; a reduction in the risk of
V. Praveen Jesuraj (B)

SSM Institute of Engineering and Technology, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: praveendream@gmail.com
V. Sreevidya
Sri Krishna College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_26
316 V. Praveen Jesuraj and V. Sreevidya
earthquake damage; and increased thermal insulation and fire resistance. LWC can
be produced in a practical range of densities between about 300 and 2000 kg/m3
and smaller pre-cast elements with inexpensive casting, handling and transportation
operations; the provision of more space is due to the reduction. The popular method
is carried out by using lightweight aggregate. This may come from either a natural or
an artificial source. The main objective of this dissertation is to study the properties of
LWC blocks. LWC blocks are cast with 5, 15 and 25% of copper slag replacement of
fine aggregate and 5, 15 and 25% replacement of coarse aggregate. The copper slag
is a common replacement for fine aggregate. Pumice and leca act as a replacement
of coarse aggregate for both concrete blocks.
2 Review of Literature
A brief review of the available studies related to the present strength properties of
cementitious materials is presented.
LWC is not a new technology; its first use was recorded in the early 1920s. Its
applications are limited due to the lack of knowledge about its properties and stability
[1]. Concrete is a composite material composed of water, coarse granular material
(the fine and coarse aggregates or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material
(the cement or binder) that fills the space among the aggregate particles and glues
them together [2]. For the replacement of coarse aggregate by pumice aggregate
with varying percentages, the density decreases with an increase in the percentage of
pumice aggregate. By using 20% of lightweight aggregate as partial replacements to
natural coarse aggregate, the compressive strength is promising [3]. The density of
LWC typically ranges from 1400 to 2000 kg/m3 compared with that of 2400 kg/m3
for normal weight concrete (NWC). The use of high-strength LWC can reduce the
self-weight of structures and cross-sectional areas of structural elements [4]. Tensile
strength of concrete is important when considering cracking. Lightweight aggregate
concrete presents a flexural and tensile splitting strength slightly inferior to that of
NWC of the same compressive strength [5]. Natural lightweight aggregates may be
defined as inherently low-density natural mineral materials. The primary user is the
construction industry where weight reduction equates to cost savings. Principal prod-
ucts in which natural lightweight aggregate is utilized because of its lower density
include lightweight Portland cement concrete and LWC masonry units. In addition,
due to location, some natural lightweight aggregates compete with normal weight
constructions aggregates [6]. Lightweight aggregate concrete was used for structural
purposes since the twentieth century. As per this study, the lightweight aggregate
concrete is a material with low unit weight and often made with spherical aggregates
[7]. LWC application for construction works has been widely used in these recent
years, both for structural and non-structural purposes, due to its advantages over
ordinary concrete [8]. The use of LWC has been widely spread across countries such
as the USA, the United Kingdom and Sweden [9]. The most popular among them are
slag pumice, ash gravel, expanded perlite, volcanic slag, pumice, vermiculite, etc.
Experimental Study on Lightweight Concrete with Copper … 317
All the porous aggregates have their own characteristic properties, which markedly
affect the properties of LWCs. Among the LWCs, pumice concrete was generally
considered as being unsuitable for load-bearing uses. For this reason, it has been
mainly used for the production of partitions and panel walls [10].
3 Materials
3.1 Cement
In this project, for the production of LWC, Ordinary Portland Cement 53 grade is
used.
3.2 Copper Slag
In this project, for the production of LWC, copper slag is used which is collected
from Madurai copper manufacturing factory with a specific gravity of 3.5.
3.3 Leca
In this project, for the production of LWC, leca is used which is collected from
R-Tech consultancy with a density of 800 kg/m3 .
3.4 Pumice
Pumice is used which collected from NM Enterprises, density 1200 kg/m3 with a
specific gravity of 1.3.
3.5 Water
Water should be avoided if it contains large quantities of suspended solids, excessive

amounts of dissolved solids or appreciable amounts of organic materials. Water which
is used in this project is conforming to the specification of IS 456:2000.
4 Mix Proportion
Concrete mix design is the manner of selecting suitable constituents of concrete and
determining the relative amount of the materials to produce the most economical
concrete while holding the specified minimum properties such as strength, consis-
tency, etc. There is no standard method of proportioning the LWC, like conventional
concrete. From the literatures reviewed, it is quite significant that the density is the
prime factor to be considered for manufacturing the LWC. The properties of LWC
are directly or indirectly related to its density, such as the strength of the LWC
decreases exponentially with the reduction in its density. Thermal and sound insula-
tion is increased with the reduction in density. So, density is a prime concern for the
production of LWC rather than target mean strength in conventional concrete. Six
trail mix is cast with a target density of approximately 1500 kg/m3 . The specimens
cast for the proportions are shown in the following Tables 1 and 2.
4.1 Mix Procedure
The manufacturing procedure is thoroughly different from conventional concrete

because mix design is not fit for LWC. It is done by trial and error process. The
manufacturing of LWC finishes in two stages.
• The copper slag and sand are dry mixed partially and mixed with cement.
• The lightweight aggregate is soaked in water for 24 hours.
• Then the concrete is prepared by the conventional method using the lightweight
aggregate.
• SP430-conplast is used to reduce the initial setting time of concrete.
Table 1 Mix proportion of

Mix name Copper slag (fine Pumice (coarse
lightweight concrete
aggregate) (%) aggregate) (%)
M1 5 5
M2 15 15
M3 25 25
Table 2 Mix proportion of

Mix name Copper slag (fine Leca (coarse aggregate)
lightweight concrete
aggregate) (%) (%)
M4 5 5
M5 15 15
M6 25 25
Starting with the first stage, cement and sand are mixed thoroughly for few
minutes. Coarse aggregate is added and mixed well again for few minutes until the
mix attained a homogenous state. The second stage is started with SP430-conplast.
The admixture is diluted with water and made to a solution. Then water was added
step by step and mixed well for few minutes until it attained its workability.
4.2 Casting of Moulds
After mixing concrete, the material should be placed in moulds as soon as possible
to maximize the time availability for mortar to set around the voids before the foam
that results in the breaking down of voids. Concrete is used where a reduction in
density is required. The formation of large voids as a result of entrapped air rather
than entrained air can be prevented by softly tapping the outside of the mould with a
rubber hammer during the filling operation. Moulds are generally filled to compensate
for some subsidence due to overflowing of water through the bottom of the moulds.
For smooth surfaces, moulds are cleaned completely before casting, form oil was
applied to the moulds to make sure concrete will not stick to it. The specimens were
then left to set for 24 hours. The specimens were demoulded after 24 hours with
necessary tools and were transferred for curing to the curing room.
4.3 Curing
The curing of the LWC is usually done by two methods: one is moist curing and other
is steam curing at atmospheric pressure. In the moist curing, the concretes are usually
given a short period of moist curing, generally about 1–7 days and then allowed to
air-dry, prior to the application of a moisture-proofing material. The time required for
satisfactory air-drying is the smallest in the material with the lowest density. Steam
curing at atmospheric pressures at 50–80 °C accelerates the hardening of concretes.
Drying shrinkage and moisture movement of concretes after atmospheric pressure
steam curing of various durations, up to 24 hours, differ little from those properties of
similar concretes after moist curing for 28 days at 21 °C. Steam curing at atmospheric
pressure produces strengths generally near those attained after 3 days of the moist
curing at 21 °C. In this project, moist curing is done for 28 days.
5 Result and Discussion
5.1 Compressive Strength
Result of the compressive strength test of LWC is given in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The
introduction of copper slag in LWC proportion increases the compressive strength of
LWC. Compressive strength increases as copper slag content in proportion increases.
The compressive strength of pumice- and leca-replaced specimens after 28 days of
curing is given in Tables 3 and 4.
35
30 7Days 28Days
25
20
15
10
5
0
M1
M2
M3
CC
Fig. 1 Compressive strength of lightweight concrete with pumice replacement
35
7Days 28 Days
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
CC M4 M5 M6
Fig. 2 Compressive strength of lightweight concrete with leca replacement
35
7Days 28Days
30
25
20
15
10
M1
M3
M2
CC
Fig. 3 Compressive strength of lightweight concrete with pumice replacement (line chart)
Table 3 Compressive
Mix Compressive strength Compressive strength
strength of lightweight
(N/mm2 ) 7 days (N/mm2 ) 28 days
concrete with pumice
replacement CC 13.70 30.20
M1 13.20 28.82
M2 12.75 27.64
M3 12.10 26.21
Table 4 Compressive
Mix Compressive strength Compressive strength
strength of lightweight
concrete with leca
replacement CC 13.70 30.20
M4 13.25 27.5
M5 13.18 26.8
M6 12.9 26.1
40
7Days 28Days
30
20
10
0
CC M4 M5 M6
Fig. 4 Compressive strength of lightweight concrete with leca replacement (line chart)
5.2 Split Tensile Strength
Result of split tensile strength test of LWC is given in Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8. The
introduction of copper slag in LWC proportion increases the split tensile strength of
LWC. Split tensile strength increases as copper slag content in proportion increases.
The split tensile strength of pumice- and leca-replaced specimens after 28 days of
curing is given in Tables 5 and 6.
6
7Days 28Days
4
0
CC M1 M2 M3
Fig. 5 Split tensile strength of lightweight concrete with pumice replacement (bar chart)
6
7Days 28Days
5
4
3
2
1
0
CC M4 M5 M6
Fig. 6 Split tensile strength of lightweight concrete with leca replacement (bar chart)
6
7Days 28Days
4
0
CC M1 M2 M3
Fig. 7 Split tensile strength of lightweight concrete with pumice replacement (line chart)
6
4
2
0
CC M4 M5 M5
7Days 28Days
Fig. 8 Split tensile strength of lightweight concrete with leca replacement (line chart)
Table 5 Split tensile strength

Mix Split tensile strength Split tensile strength
of lightweight concrete with
pumice replacement
CC 2.5 4.9
M1 2.33 4.57
M2 2.24 4.23
M3 1.98 3.84

Mix Split tensile strength Split tensile strength
of lightweight concrete with
leca replacement
CC 2.5 4.9
M4 2.32 4.42
M5 2.20 4.01
M6 1.82 3.78
6
7Days 28Days
4
2
0
CC M1 M2 M3
Fig. 9 Flexural strength of lightweight concrete with pumice replacement (bar chart)
5.3 Flexural Strength Test
Result of flexural strength test of LWC is given in Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12. The
introduction of copper slag in LWC proportion increases the flexural strength of
LWC. Flexural strength increases as copper slag content in proportion increases.
The flexural strength of pumice- and leca-replaced specimens after 28 days of curing
is given in Tables 7 and 8.
6
7Days 28Days
4
0
CC M4 M5 M6
Fig. 10 Flexural strength of lightweight concrete with leca replacement (bar chart)
6
4
2
7Days 28Days
0
CC M1 M2 M3
Fig. 11 Flexural strength of lightweight concrete with pumice replacement (line chart)
7Days 28Days
0
CC M4 M5 M6
Fig. 12 Flexural strength of lightweight concrete with leca replacement (line chart)
Table 7 Flexural strength of

Mix Flexural strength (N/mm2 ) Flexural strength (N/mm2 )
lightweight concrete with
7 days 28 days
pumice replacement
CC 3.32 4.73
M1 3.23 4.62
M2 2.88 4.12
M3 2.73 3.92

Mix Flexural strength (N/mm2 ) Flexural strength (N/mm2 )
lightweight concrete with leca
7 days 28 days
replacement
CC 3.32 4.73
M4 3.18 4.51
M5 2.91 4.023
M6 2.64 3.76
6 Conclusion
The present study contains the study of properties of LWC and also the utilization
of copper slag in the proportion of LWC. Conclusions drawn from the present study
are given below.
Compressive strength of the LWC is increased when copper slag is partially
replaced by fine aggregate content. It is also observed that increasing content of
copper slag in the composition increases the compressive strength of LWC and results
in the replacement of fine aggregate by copper slag up to 25%. But, the presence of
lightweight aggregate reduces the compressive strength.
Comparing leca and pumice concretes, 5% replacement is advisable. It gives a
nearer compressive strength like conventional concrete.
References
1. Hindoriya AK, Jain D, Agarwal SC (2016) Study of light weight cellular block. IJSRD
4(03):1383–1384. ISSN (online):2321-0613
2. Tamil Selvi P, Lakshmi Narayani P, Ramya G (2014) Experimental study on concrete using
copper slag as replacement material of fine aggregate. J Civil Environ Eng
3. Minapu LK, Ratnam M, Rangaraju U (2014) Experimental study on light weight aggregate
concrete with pumice stone, silica fume and fly ash as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate.
Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 3(12)
4. Mahdy M (2016) Structural lightweight concrete using cured LECA. Int J Eng Innov Technol
(IJEIT) 5(9)
5. Clarke JL (1993) Design requirements. Structural light weight aggregate concrete. Chapman
& Hall, London, pp 45–74
6. Bryan DP (1989) Occurrence and uses of natural lightweight aggregate in the Western United
States. Lightweight aggregate in Western United States, pp 89–193
7. Owens PL (1993) Light weight aggregates for structural concrete. Structural light weight
aggregate concrete. Chapman & Hall, London, pp 1–18
8. Widodo S (2014) Experimental study on the potential use of pumice breccia as coarse aggregate
in structural lightweight concrete. Int J Sustain Construct Eng Technol 5(1)
9. Ismail KM et al (2004) Study of light weight concrete behaviour
10. Uğur I (2003) Improving the strength characteristics of the pumice aggregate lightweight
concretes
Influence of Magnetic Water
on Properties of Concrete Paver Blocks
R. Malathy, N. Karuppasamy, V. Adithya, and P. Gokulapriya
Abstract Existing paver blocks are brick-like piece made of concrete (cement, sand
and aggregates). They are commonly used for exterior flooring. Concrete is the most
widely used man-made building material on the planet. Demand of natural sand is
one of the setback to the concrete industry. Serious environmental problems formally
originated from unrestrained sand and gravel taken from rivers. Owing to high cost
of natural sand, there is a need for the construction industry to search for alternate
materials. Industrial waste products such steel slag and M-sand were found to be
replacement for natural sand. Water is a critical and finite resource that plays a
key role in the construction environment. In particular, drinking water quality is
depleting due to increasing population and usage at its peak. Magnetic water seems
to have some potential impact on quality of water used for construction. In this
study, natural sand is completely replaced with M-sand and steel slag and cement
content is reduced to about 5–30% optimizing the strength, and an attempt is made to
investigate the performance of mechanical properties of paver blocks, when mixed
with magnetic water with M30 grade concrete mix. The casted paver blocks are
tested for compression and flexural strength. The manufacturing cost of paver block
is also less compared to natural sand. It is eco-friendly and cost-efficient in real-time
construction industry.
Keywords Magnetic water · Steel slag · M-sand · Compressive strength
R. Malathy (B)
Professor & Dean (R&D), Department of Civil Engineering, Sona College of Technology, Salem,
India
e-mail: malathycivil@sonatech.ac.in
N. Karuppasamy
Research Scholar (PhD full time), Department of Civil Engineering, Sona College of Technology,
Salem, India
V. Adithya · P. Gokulapriya
B.E Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Sona College of Technology, Salem, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_27
328 R. Malathy et al.
1 Introduction
The history of concrete paver block dates back to nineteenth century when paving
stones were used by Europeans for construction of roads serving as footpaths.
Existing paver blocks are brick-like piece made of concrete. A huge amount of
industrial wastes are produced and are dumped in yards in large scales, which create
environmental problems to the society. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) scale deposition
on natural waters often leads to numerous technical and economical problems [1].
Water in concrete plays a vital role in strength parameter. Russia started research on
using magnetic field treated water (MFTW) to mix concrete in 1962 [2]. The passage
of water through the magnetic field of certain strength is called MFTW. MFTW will
improve the concrete characteristics explained by the water molecular structure [3].
Magnetic effect on water breaks the cluster into single molecule or smaller ones,
which improve the activity of water [4]. Cement particles under hydration process
through the MFTW easily penetrate. During hydration of cement particles is in
progress the, magnetic field treated water (MFTW) can penerate into the core region
of the cement particles and enhances the hydration rate. Into the core region more
easily, which implies hydration of cement can be done more efficiently, which in
turn improves the concrete strength. A patent claimed in Japan that when concrete is
cured using magnetic field, its molecular arrangement orients along uniform direc-
tion, which results in increase of strength parameters [5]. Some researchers report
that water usually does not take magnetism easily, and it is only a temporary process
[6, 7]. The rate of increase in strength after 24 h is very less. After magnetization
within certain duration water reclaims its original art of state [8]. The mechanism
still remains to be solved since many phenomena in liquid state have not been satis-
factorily explained yet. Furthermore, studies on the effect of MFTW on concrete
containing granite powder have also been rare. Concrete paver blocks with granite
powder will decrease the waste pollution and enhance the engineering properties.
The objective of this study is to investigate the mechanical properties of concrete
paver blocks mixed with magnetic water at early age, which provides a new way to
improve strength properties of concrete paver blocks. The cost and environmental
pollution are reduced in this way. Moreover, the effect of magnetic water on the
microstructure of paver block is also examined and the mechanism about the effect
of magnetic water on the paver block is discussed.
1.1 Magnetic Water
In a substance like water, constituent molecules of structural element can be aligned

in a definite direction by the influence of an external magnetic field. The molecular
group of magnetic water is different from the molecular group of tap water in terms
of degree of consolidation, and volume of molecules is more uniformly narrated in
Australian fluid energy [9]. Figure 1 shows the arrangement of water molecules in
Influence of Magnetic Water on Properties of Concrete … 329
Fig. 1 Directional
arrangement of water
molecules under effect of
magnetic field
one direction due to the effect of magnetic field. The cluster contains about 100 water
molecules at room temperature. In a magnetic field, magnetic force can break apart
water clusters into single molecule or smaller ones [10], and the activity of water
gets improved. In a liquid or in a gas, this can only happen to molecules that possess
an odd number of electrons. Water (H2 O) contains 10 electrons, so it is not attracted
to or oriented by a magnet [11].
In fact water, like most molecules is diamagnetic, and it is actually repelled by a
magnetic, although so weakly, these sensitive instruments are needed to observe the
effect. The mode of structural arrangements due to uniformity will decrease the bond
angle from 105° to 103.5°, which enlarge the fluidity of water. This change in the
water molecule composite causes a change in permeability pressure, surface tension,
pH and electric conduction, which improves some of the properties of concrete [12].
2 Experimental Design
2.1 Materials
A normal PPC grade was used throughout this study. The coarse aggregate used
was continuous graded crushed stone with a maximum size of 10 mm [16]. The
fine aggregate used was river sand with fineness modulus of 2.74 [17]. The physical
properties of coarse aggregate and river sand are given in Table 1 [18]. The tap water
used in the experiment is taken from Salem, and the quality of it is shown in Table 2
[15]. Granite powder is obtained from an industry in Salem. Its physical and chemical
properties are listed in Table 3. In this study, granite powder is used as a substitute
for cement of equal weight in the mixing process.

Properties Coarse Fine Granite
of coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate aggregate powder
aggregate and granite powder
Bulk density 1766 1693 2562
(kg/m3 )
Fineness 7.17 2.78 2.43
modulus
Shape Angular Round Round
Surface texture Rough Smooth Smooth
Table 2 Quality tests of tap water

Properties Before magnetization After magnetization Regulatory standard for
tap water IS 3025
Total dissolved solids 2050 1350 <2000
(TDS) (mg/L)
pH value 7.1 7.6 6.5–8.5
Turbidity (NTU) 0.9 0.4 ≤1
Residual chloride 143 77.47 <250
(mg/L)
Fe (mg/L) 0.1 0.1 <1
Suspended solid 120 50 <100
(mg/L)
Table 3 Chemical properties

Test item Test result (%)
of granite powder
Silica (SiO2 ) 73
Alumina (Al2 O3 ) 12
Magnesia (MgO) 0.5
Potassium oxide (P2 O5 ) 3.7
Lime 1
Iron 1.9
2.2 Mix Proportions
With water/cement ratio 0.45, properties of paver blocks should be selected to make
the most economical use of available material to produce paver concrete block of
required quality. This present research shows the effect of magnetized water. The
hardened properties are carried out. The concrete mix design was proposed by using
IS 10262-2009 [14]. The grade of concrete used was M30. The mix design of M30
grade concrete is 1:1.9:2.3.
Table 4 Mixture proportioning of paver block sample (W/C = 0.45), unit: kg/m3
Materials Cement substitution by granite powder (%)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cement (kg) 1.2 1.14 1.08 1.02 0.96 0.9 0.84
Mixing water (L) 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
Coarse aggregate (kg) 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76
Fine aggregate (kg) 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28 2.28
Granite powder (kg) 0 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.30 0.36
2.2.1 Concrete Samples
Cement, granite powder, water as well as coarse and fine aggregates are mixed
according to the proportion listed in table to produce concrete paver samples.
Compressive strength of concrete is measured after the samples have been self-cured
at 23 ± 1 °C (Table 4).
2.3 Experimental Variables
Tap water is treated by flowing through the magnetic field of 0.9 T (T) while 0 T
denotes plain tap water for concrete paver block samples. The percentage of cement
substituted by granite powder includes 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, while 0% indicates
no substitution.
2.4 Experimental Setup
The specimens were cast and tested as per IS 15658-2006 [13] testing procedures,
after they were taken from self-curing pond and the surface is wiped off.
2.4.1 Compressive Strength Test
As per IS 15658-2006, concrete paver blocks were casted and specimens were made
to self-cure, and the compressive strength was tested using FTE compression testing
machine of 100 T capacity.
2.4.2 Flexural Strength Test
As per IS 15658-2006, concrete paver blocks were casted and specimens were made
to self-cure. The flexural strength was tested using flexural testing machine of 100
T capacity.
3 Conclusions
3.1 The Effect of Magnetic Field Strength
Figure 2 shows the effect of magnetic field strength of water on the compressive
strength of concrete paver blocks, when w/c = 0.45. It is analyzed that the compres-
sive strength of concrete prepared with normal tap water is lower than that mixed
with MFTW of 0.9 T, and increase in strength is achieved with magnetic water is
12.37% than prepared with normal tap water.
3.2 The Effect of Granite Powder Substitution
Figure 2 shows there is significant increase in compressive strength between paver

samples of 5, 10, 15 and 20% granite powder substitution with normal water and
magnetic water preparation, compared with 0% substitution with respect to ages.
However, the addition of 20 and 30% granite powder substitution will slightly
decrease the compressive strength of paver than 0%. The increase in strength for
concrete with 5, 10, 15 and 20% granite powder substitution are 23.21, 19.82, 15
and 8.51%, respectively. Usage of 5% provides best optimum level of increase in
percentage with normal water and magnetic water. This can be attributed to the
pozzolanic reaction between the granite powder and C-S-H, one of the cement
40
Compressive Strength of 7days
Compressive Strength(N/mm²)
40 Normal water Magnec water
30
30
20 20 Normal
water
10
10
Magnec
0 water
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0
% Substuon of granite power 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Reducon in Cement
Fig. 2 Effect of granite powder on compressive strength of paver

hydration products at long term. It is also the fine packing materials with match-
able composition for cement content. The greatest increase in compressive strength
is achieved at 23.21% granite powder substitution.
3.3 Mechanical Properties of Hardened Concrete
3.3.1 Compressive Strength
For all concrete paver mix, the different substitution with granite powder of compres-
sive strength were recorded in Table 5 and drawn in Fig. 2. The percentage increase of
compressive strength with substitution varies from 5 to 30%, improves strength from
1 to 19.4% for normal water and 1 to 20.2% for magnetic water. When the hydration
reaction is in progress between cement and water, a thin layer of hydration products
is formed on the surface, which hinders further hydration of the cement particles.
However, magnetic water molecules can easily penetrate into the cement particles,
and it provides better flowability of water, which improves hydration reaction and
enhances the mechanical properties, compared with concrete paver prepared with
tap water, and test results show that the use of magnetized water allows reduction of
cement consumption (30%) without affecting the concrete compressive strength.
3.3.2 Flexural Strength
The flexural strength for the concrete mixes was obtained from testing Tri-arc paver
block under single-point loading (see Table 5 and Fig. 3). The flexural strength of
high value is recorded for the mixes prepared with superplasticizers. The values of
the flexural strength for the concrete mixes fabricated with magnetized water from
1 to 3.5% are higher than the value of the flexural strength of the concrete produced
Table 5 Hardened paver test result (N/mm2 )

Percentage substitution of granite powder Compressive strength Flexural strength
NW MW NW MW
0 27 30.34 3.169 3.472
5 32.26 36.47 3.231 3.6
10 31.24 35.47 3.208 3.543
15 30.09 34.04 3.105 3.438
20 28.33 32.12 2.95 3.185
25 27.12 30.23 2.84 3.066
30 25.99 28.70 2.56 2.813
Fig. 3 Effect of granite
Flexural Strength of
5
4.5 Normal water Magnec water
powder on flexural strength 4
of paver 3.5
7days
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
% Substuon of granite power
by tap water. Similar to compression strength, the use of self-curing superplasticizer

(Saro-plast) provides 28 days strength in 3 days of self-curing.
3.4 The Effect of MFTW on the Microstructure of Paver

Blocks
Figures 4 and 5 show calcium hydroxide (CH) crystal in concrete paver prepared
with tap water and magnetic water, respectively. C-S-H gel, monosulfate hydrate and
ettringite are the hydrated products of cement paste which show similar trends with
normal water and magnetic water while mixing process. However, larger CH crystals
with distinctive hexagonal plate-like structure were observed in Fig. 1, consisting of
molecules with each other and form clusters. The CH plates which are packed in
the transition zone could be produced after cement has reacted with cluster of water
molecules. Figures 4 and 5 show the CH crystal in hydrated paste that tends to
be smaller and is formed separately, because smaller molecules of water of MFTW
reacted with cement. This denotes the effective utilization of MFTW paste to enhance
strength parameter in concrete paver than tap water.
Fig. 4 SEM micrograph of

calcium hydroxide crystals
in paver prepared with tap
water
Fig. 5 SEM micrograph of

calcium hydroxide crystals
in paver prepared with
magnetic water
3.5 Cost Analysis
Cost of construction comprises labor and materials required for completion of work,
that is, formwork, casting and placing of reinforcement. In practice, construction
cost estimates as a percentage of materials cost. The cost difference in making paver
blocks is influenced primarily by the reduction of cement, mixed with magnetic water.
The utilization of magnetized water instead of tap water will allow 30% reduction in
cement and reduces up to 21% in cost reduction without affecting strength parameter.
4 Conclusions
1. The use of normal water and magnetic water improves the mechanical properties
of paver sample containing granite powder up to 30% replacement for cement.
2. The compressive strength of paver containing granite powder is higher than that
of paver without substitution. However, with the increase in percentage of granite
powder will decrease the compressive strength.
3. The value of the compressive strength for paver block prepared with magnetic
water is from 1 to 35.07% higher than the compressive strength of paver prepared
with normal water.
4. The value of flexural strength for the paver mix prepared with magnetized water
shows higher value from 1 to 13.6% than normal water.
5. The use of magnetized water instead of tap water may allow reduction of cement
up to 30%, and reduce cost approximately 21% per paver without affecting the
resulting concrete compressive strength.
6. The paver quality enhancement is an evidence of the effect of using magnetic
water in preparing paver.
7. Early attainment of strength parameter of paver due to use of magnetic water is

helpful for early removal of formwork.
8. The microstructure study shows large amount of C-S-H at early age in magnetic
water concrete in comparison with tap water concrete.
References
1. Gabrielli C, Jaouhari R, Maurin G, Keddam M (2001) Magnetic water treatment for scale
prevention. Water Res 35(13):3249–3259
2. Fu W, Lang ZB (1994) New technology of concrete engineering. Publishing House of Chinese
Architectural Industry, Beijing, pp 56–90
3. Nan S, Chea-Fang W (2002) Effect of magnetic field treated water on mortar and concrete
containing flyash. Cement and concrete composite, pp 681–688
4. Yu Q, Sugita S, Sawayama K, Isoijma Y (1998) Effect of electron water curing and electron
charge curing on concrete strength. Cen Concr Res 28:1201–1208
5. Wang G, Wu Z (1998) Magnetochemistry and magnetomedicine. The Publishing House of
Ordnance Industry, Beijing, pp 82–90
6. Nan S, Yeong-Hwa W, Chung-Yo M (2000) Effect of magnetic water on the engineering
properties of concrete containing blast-furnace slag. Cement and concrete research, pp 599–605
7. Chau ZJ (1996) The new construction method of concrete Beijing. The Publishing House Of
Chinese Architectural Industry, pp 401–407
8. Li KT (1994) World of magnetism Chain. Hu-Nan Educational Pub, pp 107–109
9. Stafford L (1996) The mechanism of the vortex water energy system. Helping agriculture and
the environment through the 21st century. Fluid Energy Australia, pp 23–66
10. Tawfic YR, Abdelmoez W (2013) The influence of ‘water magnetization’ on fresh and hardened
concrete properties. Int J Civil Eng Technol 4:0976–6316
11. Siva Konda RB, Sudarsana Rao H, Vaishali GG (2014) Influence of magnetic water on strength
properties of concrete. Indian J Sci Technol 7:14–18
12. Cai RH, Yang JH, Zhu W (2009) The effects of magnetic water on molecular hydrogen bonds.
J Mol Struct 938:15–19
13. IS 15656 (2006) Precast concrete blocks for paving—specification
14. IS 10262 (2009) Concrete mix proportioning—guidelines
15. IS 10500 (2012) Drinking water specifications
16. IS: 2386 (Part III)—(1963) Methods of test for aggregate in concrete—specific gravity, density,
voids, absorption and bulking
17. IS: 2386 (Part IV)—(1963) Methods of test for aggregate in concrete—mechanical properties
18. IS: 383—(1970) Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete
Floor Response Spectra: An Investigation
on Hospital Building
H. D. Karthik Nadig, R. Sreekala, K. Sathish Kumar, and J. Simon
Abstract Seismic protection of hospital buildings is at most important as they

belong to lifeline structures. Proper definition of seismic demand is essential for
earthquake protection of structural components. Generation of floor response spectra
assumes significant in design and analysis of structural contents which require high
seismic demand. Limiting the floor acceleration/drift is found to be difficult in most
of the times in traditional lateral load resisting system and is period-sensitive in
addition to ductility [1]. But decoupling the floor from the building using suitable
isolation schemes found to reduce the floor accelerations and displacements [2]. The
paper presents an investigation into the seismic demand reduction for a chosen isola-
tion scheme on a 10-storey hospital building which essentially lies in the descending
portion of response spectrum [3]. The passive isolation scheme consists of spring and
damper assembly connecting isolated floor to the building. Nonlinear time history
analysis has been carried out on both the floor isolated and non-isolated building
subjected to an earthquake intensity of 0.3 g. Dynamic characteristics of the building
were evaluated, and apparent dynamic magnification factors were found out which
are useful for generation of floor response spectra. Seismic peak floor acceleration
(PFA) is one of the significant parameters influencing performance of the building
contents. In addition to PFA, spectral acceleration and displacements were selected
as engineering demand parameters. Based on the acceleration and drift demands,
suitable floor isolation system is suggested. With the chosen floor isolation scheme,
seismic demand has been found to decrease imparting higher efficiency to the system.
H. D. K. Nadig (B) · J. Simon

School of Civil Engineering, VIT, Vellore, India
e-mail: karthik.nadig2017@vitalum.ac.in
J. Simon
e-mail: simon.jayasingh@vit.ac.in
R. Sreekala · K. Sathish Kumar
ASTaRlab, CSIR-SERC, Chennai, India
e-mail: kala@serc.res.in
K. Sathish Kumar
e-mail: ksk@serc.res.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_28
338 H. D. K. Nadig et al.
Accurate recommendation related to displacements and floor acceleration provisions

are necessary for the efficient seismic protection design of non-structural elements.
Keywords Floor response spectra · Seismic safety of hospital building · Floor

isolation · Nonlinear time history analysis
1 Introduction
Recent earthquakes in the world have demonstrated the catastrophic effects on build-
ings and lifeline structures like hospitals, and hence require at most protection in this
regard. Research and development on seismic response control has gained enough
momentum specific to the selection of suitable control measures for hospital build-
ings. Passive control strategies including seismic isolation of structure or structural
component are one of the best solutions to mitigate the possible effects of an earth-
quake [4]. Past earthquakes like San Fernando earthquake (1971) and its effect
on Olive View Hospital, Hawaii earthquake effects on Kona community hospital,
Bremerton earthquake on Naval Hospital and so on are few examples urging the
importance of floor isolation practices for better seismic protection for the contents
concerned. Stringent requirements are imposed on the seismic design of hospital
buildings as per international practices like FEMA regulations [5]. Owing to the
limitations of base isolation in protecting the sensitive hospital equipment, floor
isolation provides a practically feasible solution. Base isolation is having its limita-
tions of effectiveness [6]. Various zones of the hospital building have been catego-
rized according to the functional requirements, and the types of equipment require
a suitable control scheme for better seismic performance. Control strategies can be
provided at the global and local levels in order to satisfy the limiting criteria.
The floor isolation system is used with the intention to protect critical equip-
ment from floor motion. Thus, it is an ideal solution whenever an entire building
is not possible or cost-effective. Application of floor isolation is mostly found in
various fields, like data centres, high-value laboratories and spaces having high-tech
manufacturing equipment, medical equipment, artwork, and so on [7].
Important buildings have been provided with floor isolation across the world. It is
reported [8] that the Lawrence Berkeley Computational Research and Theory centre
has a 1500 m2 isolated floor that meant to protect two supercomputers from the
earthquake. “J2 building” of Tokyo Institute of technology located in Yokohama is
constructed with isolated floors with several types of dampers [9].
Kaneko et al. [10] report that the floor isolation system on Kanasi area worked on
1995 hyogokenNanbu earthquake, and the authors confirmed the efficacy of isolation
effects of the floor isolation system. Basic of floor isolation system is that it divides
the building into two parts [11]: a soft and stiff part. In low acceleration, a major
mass of the building is present in soft part and minor mass in stiff part. To enhance
the seismic damage resistance of the building, seismic design strength of structural
building has been increased beyond building code provisions [12]. But increased
Floor Response Spectra: An Investigation on Hospital … 339
strength can lead to quasi-elastic structural response during an earthquake, and this
is was the case in Costa Rica (1990) & Ecuador [13] where retrofitted hospitals floors
and hospital equipment toppled due to high acceleration.
Recently it was reported that [12] a sustainable isolation system called “recycled
tire floor isolation system” is evaluated in a Miguel. H. Alcivar hospital in Ecuador. As
an increase in research on seismic isolation, different kind of efficient floor isolation
is being tested and used. Hybrid mass floor isolation system [14] having slabs curved
at their ends, rest on curved supports and having rubber bumper to connect slab and
the frame found to reduce displacement and storey drift up to 45%.
The structural seismic control mechanism is classified into three groups passive,
active and semi-active. Among these, passive isolation system does not require any
active energy source. The present analytical investigation throws light on the passive
isolation scheme which is adapted for floor isolation.
A floor response spectrum is obtained to decide isolator properties [1]. Floor
isolation technique is considered to have a minimum of two benefits. First, the floor
slab is free to vibrate independently of the main structure. Secondly, isolators absorb
seismic energy and reduce excitation of an isolated floor. Also, this can be dismantled
and placed at locations of choice. In the present investigation, the floor response
spectrum method combined with a design-oriented approximate method is utilized
for the passive control scheme. The dynamic interaction between the equipment and
the isolated floor is not considered in the analysis. The objective of this paper is to
investigate a ten-storey hospital building with and without isolation scheme under
the excitation of El-Centro input time history. The efficiency of the isolated scheme
has been assessed from the analytical investigation.
2 Structural Model
The structural model considered is RCC structure with concrete of M30 and steel
of Fe415. The Takeda and kinematic hysteresis models are considered for concrete
and steel, respectively. The structural model used in this analysis is a 10-storey
building with two bays in the X-direction and one bay in the Y-direction. The height
of each storey is 3 m, and each bay measures 3.5 m. The plan of the building is
shown in Fig. 1b. Throughout the building uniform sections of beam and column are
provided, and the section dimensions are 250 mm × 300 mm and 300 mm × 300
mm, respectively. For structural analysis moment of inertia of beams and columns
is provided as per latest codal provisions of the 1893 (part 1 2016). All floors are of
150 mm thickness. A uniform live load of 4 kN/m2 is considered over all the floors
except on the second bay of fifth floor, where medical equipment is assumed to be
placed. For this floor of non-uniform loading, a live load of 16 kN/m2 is considered,
accounting for equipment and related configurations. According to IS [15] part 1
(2016), 50% of the live load has been considered for the analysis.
In case of an isolated floor, a passive isolation system is adopted and spring-
dashpot systems are provided at the corners of the slab. Isolated floor is considered
Fig. 1 a Floor isolation

system, b plan of the
building
at second storey level of the structure, as shown in Fig. 1a. The modelled structure is
analysed in SAP 2000 software. The time period of the structure is found to be 2.1 s,
which lies on the lower descending gentle slope of Indian codal response spectrum
for medium soil.
3 Floor Response Spectra
Floor response spectrum was first developed in the early 1960s, and its first applica-
tion was in defining seismic inputs for secondary systems. Since the concept of the
response spectrum was introduced into earthquake engineering, this technique has
been used for estimating seismic force and deformation demands, which are imposed
by earthquake ground motions.
One of the important aspects to be considered for knowing dynamic behaviour
of structural and non-structural elements present in different floors is floor response
amplification. The floor response amplification can be inferred by floor response
spectrum. Floor amplifications/demands are highly dependent on dynamic charac-
teristics and time history analysis assume great importance in this regard. This method
has been confirmed as accurate for non-structural elements whose masses are smaller
than their supporting structure. Present investigations consider mass ratio of 0.0115,
which is the ratio of isolated floor mass with respect to the whole structure.
Another important aspect is apparent magnification factor. Apparent magnifica-
tion factor can be defined as ratio of the peak spectral acceleration and peak acceler-
ation obtained from nonlinear analysis. Dynamic amplification factors are found to
be dependent on:
(1) Period of vibration of supporting structure to the period of vibration of
supporting element.
Fig. 2 Floor response spectra at different levels of the building. Both spectral acceleration and
displacement at base, mid height and top roof are shown
(2) Duration of the seismic excitation.

(3) The amplitude of the seismic excitation and its irregularity.
The floor response spectra give idea about seismic demand of the floors to be
isolated and characteristics of response at considered location. The generated floor
response spectrum for the building considered with respect to the input base excitation
in the spectral domain for 5% damping (spectral acceleration and displacement) is
as shown in Fig. 2. In the spectral domain, mid floor is found to experience an
amplification of five times the input acceleration.
Figure 3 shows three floor response spectrum for 5 and 15% damping at base,
mid height and top roof.
4 Nonlinear Time History Analysis
Towards generation of floor response spectra, dynamic analysis of structure is

performed by nonlinear time history method. A direct integration of time history
method has been used, which follows Hiber-Huges-Taylor solver. This method solves
equilibrium equations of motion which are fully integrated as structure is subjected
to dynamic loading. Analysis involves integration of the structural properties and
behaviour at a series of time stretch which are small relative to loading duration. The
analysis involves P-delta effects also.
60
Spectral Acceleration (m/sec2)

5% damping :base
15% damping:base
40 5% damping :5th floor
15% damping:5th floor
5% damping :top roof
20 15% damping:top roof
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time Period (S)
Fig. 3 Spectral acceleration at base, mid height and top roof of 10-storey building at 5 and 15%
damping
Fig. 4 El-Centro input time history data
El-Centro Earthquake ground motion is considered as input time history data

for the analysis (Fig. 4). Peak acceleration of this data is 0.3 g and the duration is
21.798 s. Input time step considered for the analysis is 0.014 s.
5 Floor Isolation
The seismic floor isolation system is a method to protect important non-structural

elements like medical equipment, chemicals, laboratory units and so on, and to
ensure working condition of important floor spaces like critical units, emergency
units during and after the earthquake. Based on the investigation, a floor isolation
scheme has been arrived and provided. The isolated platform (to keep the equipment)
is supported on the spring-dashpot system, which in turn rest on the fifth-storey floor
slab on an area 3 m × 3 m, as shown in Fig. 1.
The spring-dashpot system/isolator properties are designed after the analysis of
the structure, and the transmissibility considerations are suitably arrived based on the
dynamic characteristics of the system. A link damper element with suitable stiffness,
damping (U1, U2, U3) are connected between the floor slab and the platform to be
isolated. The system has been optimized by trial and error approach to get the most
effective passive control scheme. The design methodology involves the following
aspects:
(i) Selection of the floor level for equipment functional requirements.
(ii) Development of floor spectral acceleration demands at the location of the
building where an isolated floor is to be installed, and
(iii) Design and details of the floor isolation system to meet the performance
objective.
Alternately, properties of spring-dashpot assembly/isolators can also be found
using the following steps: (i) find shear and displacement of the storey; (ii) deriving
stiffness and damping demand from these values and adopting the same. In this study,
the properties are derived from the above methods with a sufficient number of trial
and error analyses in order to obtain the most effective isolator properties.
Nonlinear time history analysis is performed with direct integration techniques
with El-Centro earthquake as input data. The performance of the system has been
realized in terms of acceleration and displacement values obtained on the isolated
floor. Transmissibility of the isolated floor is of significance in assessing the seismic
performance and hence the protection of equipment. Towards this, the floor seismic
demand is found out after the structure is analysed without isolation scheme. Based
on the amplified demand at the particular floor level, the scheme has been designed
and modelled accordingly. After carrying out the nonlinear time history analysis,
the output acceleration time history of the isolated floor and non-isolated floor are
compared at the same storey level.
Details obtained from the time history analysis provide acceleration and displacement
demand for the structure. It is observed that output peak acceleration at isolated floor
is 0.12 m/s2 , which is significantly less compared to the non-isolated floor peak
acceleration (5 m/s2 ), as shown in Fig. 5, and hence provides maximum efficiency
to the system.
Figure 6 represents absolute displacement time history of isolated and non-isolated
floor. A 65% reduction in the values of the absolute displacement of the isolated floor
with respect to the non-isolated one is observed. The system provides an effective
passive isolation scheme for the floor considered and it would be an ideal solution to
reduce the seismic excitation effect on sensitive equipment of the hospital building.
Peak floor acceleration (PFA) is one of the significant parameters affecting the
performance of building contents, especially for acceleration-sensitive ones. Varia-
tion of ratio of PFA with respect to the peak ground acceleration (PGA) is shown in
Fig. 7.
6
Non isolated 5th floor isolated floor
4
Acceleraon,m/sec2
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time,Sec
Fig. 5 Floor acceleration time history
5th floor FIS

0.15
Displacement,m
Absolute
-0.05
-0.25
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time,Sec
Fig. 6 Floor displacement time history
1
0.8
0.6
Z/H
0.4
0.2
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
PFA/PGA
Fig. 7 Variation in PFA/PGA with respect to Z/H
7 Conclusion
Generation of floor response spectra is quiet challenging, especially for acceleration-

sensitive elements. The paper talks about the floor isolation concerning hospital
buildings, a dynamic analysis procedure and a methodology for practical implemen-
tation. Floor response spectrum method combined with design-oriented approxima-
tion method is utilized for the passive control scheme. Principle of floor isolation
recommends transmitted force to be the least on the floor considered, in order to meet
the performance objective. A passive control scheme has been arrived by carrying
out a nonlinear analysis on a 10-storey RC building.
Study of floor response spectrum gives information about seismic demand. The
selected mid floor of the building provides amplification of five times in the spectral
domain for the specified earthquake input.
The platform provided for the isolation of the equipment found to reduce the
acceleration and displacement level significantly. Based on the PFA/PGA values,
a methodology for designing an isolator platform has been arrived and reported
elsewhere. The isolated floors of the buildings showed minimum transmissibility of
less than 10%.
Acknowledgements This paper is being published with the permission of Director CSIR-SERC,
and support provided by ASTaR Laboratory (CSIR-SERC) is highly acknowledged.
References
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in reducing seismic demand. In: Proceedings of the international conference on advances in
concrete composites and structures. SERC, Chennai, India, pp 1057–1064
2. Liu S, Warn GP (2016) Seismic performance and sensitivity of floor isolation systems in steel
plate shear wall structures. Eng Struct 42:115–126
3. IS: 12433 Part-2 (2001) Indian standard—basic requirements for hospital planning, part 2: up
to 100 Bedded Hospital. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
4. Bozorgnia Y, Bertero V (2004) Earthquake engineering: from engineering seismology to
performance based engineering. CRC press, Taylor & Francis
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other structures. Design guide for improving hospital safety in earthquakes, floods, and high
winds: providing protection to people and buildings. Federal Emergency Agency, Washingto,
D.C (2007)
6. Villaverde R (2009) Fundamental concepts of earthquake engineering. Taylor & Francis group,
BocaRaton, US
7. DIS Dynamic Isolation System (online) Available: http://www.dis-inc.com/
8. Eriksen KB, Mohammed MS, Coria CB (2018) Seismic isolation in North and South America.
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USA
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during 2011 east Japan earthquake. In: 15th world conference of earthquake engineering
10. Kaneko M, Yasui Y, Okuda Y (1995) Simultaneous horizontal and vertical vibration tests of
three-dimensional floor isolation system. AIJ J Technol Des 1:186–190
11. Pourmohammad H, Ziyaeifar M, Mohsen G (2004) Analytic study of floor isolation system.
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Ecuador Earthquake on April 16, 2016. Earthquake reconnaissance team report, Earthquake
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Behavior of Rectangular Footing
on Geosynthetic Reinforced Crusher
Dust
Bandita Paikaray, Sarat Kumar Das, Benu Gopal Mohapatra,

and Sweta Sarangi
Abstract Due to rapid industrialization, a huge amount of industrial waste such as

red mud, fly ash, and crusher dust is being produced in enormous quantities every day
causing environmental pollution to a great extent. Utilization of this waste in a better
way is a challenge for the present society. Here in the present study, few laboratory
model tests have been conducted on isolated rectangular footing (15 cm × 30 cm)
taking crusher dust at loose and medium relative density state as a foundation mate-
rial instead of sand or clay. The test was conducted on unreinforced and geosynthetic
reinforced crusher dust to find the bearing capacity of the footing. Geosynthetic
as a reinforcing element was used to enhance the bearing capacity of footing. The
experimental results are presented in terms of bearing capacity of reinforced footing
with respect to the unreinforced condition and also with the variation of the rein-
forcement layer. The bearing capacity ratio (BCR) has been obtained with respect to
the unreinforced case. It is found that two layers and three layers of reinforcement
showed a higher result compared to a single layer of reinforcement. Bearing capacity
is increasing with an increase in relative density. It has been observed that the inclu-
sions of geosynthetic reinforcement to foundation soil at loose state increased the
bearing capacity by 85%, 107%, and 130% for single, double, and three layers of
reinforcement and for the medium dense state, it is increasing by 77%, 113%, and
133%, respectively, with respect to unreinforced condition. The BCR is increasing
with an increase in reinforcement and also with an increase in relative density.
Keywords Industrial waste · Model test · Crusher dust · Geosynthetic · Relative

density
B. Paikaray (B)
School of Civil Engineering, KIIT, Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, India
e-mail: bandita.paikarayfce@kiit.ac.in
S. K. Das · B. G. Mohapatra
I.I.T(ISM), Dhanbad, India
S. Sarangi
KIIT, Deemed to Be University, Bhubaneswar, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_29
348 B. Paikaray et al.
1 Introduction
Crusher dust being produced in a huge quantity every day is used for surface filling in
roads and in cuttings in low-cost areas for its better utilization. Being produced in a
large quantity as a low-cost material if can be used below foundation as an alternative
way for its large consumption thus reducing the load on the environment, which in
turn will control the pollution to a great extent. A number of wastes like fly ash,
red mud, stone dust, marble dust, etc., are produced in a large quantity every day
from industrial areas rested in the same locality as waste without proper application.
Crusher dust is produced as waste from rubble crusher unit is behaving like a poorly
graded sandy soil. Bearing the property of sand, it can be best utilized as sandy soil
and as a combination with clayey soil below foundation as well as in pavements.
Crusher dust in the early stage of the application was only used as a stabilizer
for controlling the behavior of some soft expansive clay and its study is done by
different researchers [1–5]. Crusher dust samples yielded high CBR values which
indicate strength as a good sub-base material [4]. In a similar way, many works have
been done on crusher dust using as a soil improvement additives but few works have
been done using it as a foundation soil to date [6].
Reinforced soil foundation is a regular practice in engineering to increase the
bearing capacity. In an ancient age, people were using natural reinforcement like
straw, branches of a tree, bamboo sticks, etc. But gradually, research carried out to
use synthetic material like geosynthetic as soil reinforcement like steel in concrete.
In the initial stage, the study was conducted on bearing capacity of strip footing on
reinforced sandy soil [7] to have the knowledge about reinforcement. Later, eminent
researchers have also experimentally worked on finding bearing capacity on rein-
forced sand [6–13]. Few studies have been done on bearing capacity of footing on
crushed stone over soft soil [1–3, 6, 9–12, 14–17].
In the present work, an isolated rectangular footing has been taken as a model
footing placed on crusher dust considered as foundation material without combining
of any other material for finding it’s bearing capacity in unreinforced and geosynthetic
reinforced condition keeping in view of its utmost utilization and giving the best result
as foundation material, as shown in Fig. 1.
2 Experimental Materials and Methods
Experimental work on rectangular footing placed over crusher dust reinforced with
geosynthetic was conducted on a model test tank of size 1.6 m(L) × 1.0 m(W) ×
1.2 m(H), as shown in Fig. 2. The dimensions of the box were kept as more than five
times the width of footing for avoiding the boundary effect. A rectangular plate of
size 15 cm(B) × 30 cm(L) × 25 mm(T) was used as a surface footing. Two sides
of the walls of the tank were made of the glass sheet for clear visibility of placing
crusher dust into it. A load cell was attached to the test plate through the hydraulic
Behavior of Rectangular Footing on Geosynthetic … 349
Fig. 1 Crusher dust collected for laboratory test
Fig. 2 Schematic view of the test setup

Fig. 3 Load–settlement test on the rectangular footing
jack vertically down through an attachment rod. A groove was made on the test plate
to set the attachment rod on the ball bearing placed over the plate for easy transferring
of the load to the plate, as shown in Fig. 2. Two LVDTs were placed vertically on
the plate in a diagonal position for measuring the settlement during the test and the
results were transferred to the data logger through the readout unit at the same time
of testing. The picture attached below is depicting the position clearly, as shown in
Fig. 3.
To reinforce the crusher dust, a synthetic material such as non-woven geosynthetic
was used, as shown in Fig. 4. Geosynthetic was cut into the desired size of 5B (B
= width of the footing) based upon the requirement satisfying the relative density
of crusher dust and was placed below footing with three-layer basis with top layer
depth ‘u’ as 0.25B/0.4B and successive layer ‘h’ as 0.5B, as shown in Fig. 5. The
geosynthetic properties were obtained according to the standard [18]. ASTM D4595-
17. The tensile strength of geosynthetic was obtained as 16.5 kN/m from a laboratory
tensile strength test method. The soil used was crusher dust exhibiting the property
of a poorly graded sandy soil. Physical properties of crusher dust were obtained from
the grain size distribution of the material through laboratory tests. The maximum and
minimum void ratio of 0.591 and 0.323 were obtained from dynamic compaction
test in the laboratory [19], as shown in Table 1.
Fig. 4 Use of geosynthetic over crusher dust
geosynthetic
u B
h 5B
Fig. 5 The layout of geosynthetic below the footing
Table 1 Physical property of crusher dust

D10 (mm) D30 (mm) D50 (mm) D60 (mm) Gs Cu Cc E max E min
0.09 0.2 0.54 0.95 2.7 10.55 0.47 0.591 0.323
u = Top layer depth of reinforcement below footing (cm)

h = Intermediate layer of reinforcement depth below footing (cm)
B = Width of footing (cm)
5B = Size of reinforcement (cm)
P = Point load applied on footing (kN).
The test was conducted at both the density state of crusher dust at RD 29% (loose)
and RD 64% (dense) taking geosynthetic as a reinforcement placed at three layers
below the foundation. The load-carrying capacity of footing at both reinforced and
unreinforced crusher dust with both the relative density state was found out from the
model test and the results were compared with respect to the above condition.
A plate load test was conducted on the rectangular footing at the loose and medium
dense condition of crusher dust considering as a surface footing. The pressure–
settlement curve was obtained from the experimental work and the ultimate bearing
capacity (UBC) was found out at both with and without reinforcement condition.
Figure 6 is showing the pressure–settlement curve at both the density state without
reinforcement. It is clear that the higher density is taking a higher load than low
dense (RD 29%). Similarly, a single density with a variation in reinforcement layers
(N) from one- to three-layer cases is depicted in Figs. 7 and 8. At each density,
the ultimate load-carrying capacity is increasing with an increase in layers, and with
respect to the unreinforced case, layering of reinforcement giving a higher value. The
tensile strength of reinforcement takes the load and distribute it to a wider area with
a failure of the general shear condition. Hence, the higher ultimate is obtained. At
both densities, it is observed that the load–settlement values are more distinguished
and separated in the case of RD 64%, whereas for RD 29%, the difference is less
showing their capacity of taking the load.
0
RD 29%,N=0
10 RD 64%,N=0
20
30
Settlement (mm)
40
50
60
70
80
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Bearing Pressure (kPa)
Fig. 6 Pressure–settlement curve without reinforcement

10
20
30
Settlement (mm)
40
50
60
70 RD 64%, unreinforced(N=0)
N=1
N=2
80 N=3
0 200 400 600 800

Fig. 7 Pressure–settlement curve at medium dense
10
20
Settlement (mm)
30
40
50
RD 29%, unreinforced(N=0)
60 N=1
N=2
N=3
70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 8 Pressure–settlement curve at loose dense

Fig. 9 Pressure–settlement 0
curve at different density RD 29%,N=1

RD 64%,N=1
with the same layer
10
Settlement (mm)
20
30
40
0 100 200 300 400 500

3.1 Discussion on Geosynthetic Reinforcement
See Figs. 7, 8, 9.
For a single layer with a variation of relative density, the higher packing increases
the frictional resistance of crusher dust to bear higher load which the curve is depicting
itself in Fig. 9.
The UBC of the footing is obtained by the double tangent method. The increase
in a load of showing UBC is drawn against the increase in a number of layers. The
slope of the curve is increasing with an increase in layers along with the density
index of the material, as shown in Fig. 10.
Due to the inclusion of geosynthetic, the UBC is substantially increasing with
an increase in reinforcement layers with a percentage variation of 85%, 107%, and
130%. The tensile strength of geosynthetic makes it capable to take the higher load
if the numbers are increasing up to three layers. A similar case is happening in the
case of RD 64%, given in Table 2. Taking more layers can be analyzed in the future
for optimization.
Similarly for geogrid layers, the percentage variation is 60%, 105%, and 120% at
RD 29%, whereas for RD 64%, it is varying with 15%, 455%, and 62%, respectively,
for single-, double-, and three-layer reinforcement.
3.2 Effect of Reinforcement on BCR
The improvement in bearing capacity is expressed as the bearing capacity ratio (BCR)
which is presented as the ratio of maximum bearing capacity with reinforcement to
the same in without unreinforced state.
RD 29%,Geosynthetic
600 RD 64%,Geosynthetic
Ultimate bearing capacity (kPa) 500
400
300
200
100
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Number of layers (N)
Fig. 10 Ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) versus the number of layers (N)
Table 2 Bearing capacity

RD (%) Number of geosynthetic Increase in ultimate
variation (%) with layers (N)
layers (N) bearing capacity (%)
29/64 0 –
1 85/77
2 107/113
3 130/133
qult (R)
BCR =
qult (UR)
qult (R) = UBC at reinforced state

qult (UR) = UBC at unreinforced state
It has been observed that the BCR is increasing with an increase in reinforcement
layers which is shown in Table 3.
Table 3 BCR of rectangular

RD (%) Number of layers (N) BCR
footing with a variation in
layers (N) 29/64 0 1/1
1 1.85/1.77
2 2.07/2.13
3 2.30/2.33
2.4 RD 29%,rectangular
RD 64%,rectangular
2.2
2.0
1.8
BCR
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Number of Layers (N)
Fig. 11 BCR versus the number of layers (N)
The rate of increase in the loose and dense states in the initial stage is increasing
in a parallel way, whereas, with more reinforcement layers (N = 2–N = 3), they are
showing more increase in value with a difference. For individual density, the rate of
increase is drastic from N = 0 to N = 1, as shown in Fig. 10. The same trend has been
observed in percentage increase as well as at BCR, as shown in Fig. 11. The increase
in BCR is signifying the increase in bearing capacity which is an improvement due
to the inclusion of layers of geosynthetic below the square footing.
4 Conclusion
Based on the above study, the following conclusions are drawn.

1. Bearing capacity of footing in reinforced crusher dust is showing higher ultimate
compared to unreinforced soil.
2. The bearing capacity is increasing with an increase in reinforcement layers from
N = 1 to N = 3 and also with an increase in density (loose to medium).
3. The percentage increase is very much higher compared to without a reinforcement
case.
4. The BCR is increasing with an increase in layers of geosynthetic.
References
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A Master of Science thesis, submitted to the graduate school of natural and applied sciences
of the Middle East technical university
2. Gupta AK, Sachan AK, Sahu AK, Kumar S (2002) Stabilization of black cotton soil using
crusher dust: a waste product of Bundelkhand region. In: Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical
Conference, Allahabad, pp 308–311
3. Soosan TG, Sridharan A, Jose BT, Abraham BM (2005) Utilization of quarry dust to improve
the geotechnical properties of soils in highway construction. Geotech Test J 28(4):1–9
4. Soosan TG, Jose BT, Abraham BM (2001) Use of Crusher dust in embankment and highway
construction. In: Proceedings of Indian Geo-Technical Conference, December, Indore, pp
274–277
5. Wood SA, Marek CR (1993) Recovery and utilization of quarry by-products in highway
construction. Synthesis of Highway practice 199. National Academy Press, Washington
6. Bai X-H, Huang X-Z (2013) Bearing capacity of square footing supported by a
geobelt-reinforced crushed stone cushion on soft soil. Geotext Geomemb 38:37–42
7. Adam MT, Collin JG (1997) Large model spread footing load tests on geosynthetic reinforced
soil foundation. J. Geotech Eng ASCE 123(1):66–72
8. Azzam WR, Nasr AM (2015) Bearing capacity of shell strip footing on reinforced sand. J Adv
Res 6:727–737
9. Basudhar PK, Saha S, Deb K (2007) Circular footing resting on the geotextile-reinforced sand
bed. Geotext Geomemb 25:377–384
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beds with additional planar reinforcement. Geotext Geomemb 19:529–538
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footings on the geosynthetic-reinforced sand. Soils and Foundation 53(2):335–348
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sand reinforced with geosynthetics. Geotext Geomemb 26:404–415
13. Yetimoglu T, Wu TH, Saglamer A (1994) Bearing capacity of rectangular footings on
geogrid-reinforced sand. J Geotech Eng ASCE 120(12):2083–2099
14. Binquet J, Lee KL (1975) Bearing capacity tests on reinforced earth slabs. J Geotech Eng
ASCE 101:1241–1255
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slabs. Can Geotech J 23:435–440
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wide-width strip method. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA
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Evaluation of Pozzolanic Performance
of Treated and Untreated Bagasse Ash
S. Sindhu, S. Praveenkumar, and G. Sankarasubramanian
Abstract Cement is one of the highly consumed materials in the world for the
development of humankind. But it leads to the production of enormous amounts
of toxic materials like CO2 which affects the eco-system to a large extent. Hence
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) with high pozzolanic content are used
as replacement for cement. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is an example of SCM
that can be partially replaced with cement. It is obtained as a by-product from the
combustion boilers in sugar industries. Both treated (processed) and untreated SCBA
can be used as replacement for cement. The properties of the treated and untreated
SCBA are different from each other though they originate from the same source.
This is because processing methods have a great influence on altering the chemical,
mineralogical and microstructure properties of the ash after treatment. These prop-
erties define their suitability for replacement as a partial binding material. This paper
investigates on the performance and microstructural characterization of treated and
untreated bagasse ash.
Keywords Supplementary cementitious materials · Sugarcane bagasse ash ·

Blended cement · Pozzolanic activity
1 Introduction
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are additives partially added to

cement to enhance the cementing properties. They are also good alternatives to
cement, as the production of cement involves the depletion of natural resources,
excess energy consumption and emission of carbon-di-oxide which is a harmful
greenhouse gas [1]. Usually the solid by-products from various industries and natural
pozzolans are used as SCMs throughout the world [2]. A few examples of the
commonly used SCMs are fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated furnace slag
(GGBS), rice husk ash (RHA), metakaolin, volcanic ash and so on.
S. Sindhu · S. Praveenkumar (B) · G. Sankarasubramanian

Department of Civil Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004, India
e-mail: spk.civil@psgtech.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_30
360 S. Sindhu et al
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is obtained from sugarcane industries in huge

quantities as a by-product. After extracting the juice from the sugarcane, the fibrous
matter that is left behind is known as bagasse. This bagasse is used as a fuel for running
boilers and other equipment in industries. After combustion of the bagasse, a large
quantity of carbon residue is left behind which is dumped over huge landfills. They
can be collected using a bag-house filter and used as a supplementary cementitious
material [3]. This offers an environment-friendly and profitable alternative in the
disposal of the ash.
The SCBA obtained as an industrial by-product can be directly used or is processed
as per the standards to obtain the desired properties as a replacement material. The
various treatment processes usually adopted for the treatment of SCBA are burning,
grinding, sieving, chemical activation and combination of the above methods [4].
These treatment processes increase the pozzolanic properties of the SCBA when
compared to the untreated SCBA. It is found that burning the raw SCBA at 600 °C
is the most appropriate temperature to a good pozzolan [5]. The sieve size normally
adopted is 75 microns sieve (No. 200 ASTM) [6].
A broad class of siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess
little or no cementitious value but in finely divided form and in the presence of water
react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties known as pozzolans [7]. Pozzolanic activity is
quantification of the capacity of a pozzolan to react with calcium hydroxide and
water to give cementing compounds. Sugarcane bagasse ash has a high content of
silica (SiO2 ) and hence can be used as a pozzolan [8, 9].
In this study, the properties and characterization of treated and untreated sugar-
cane bagasse ash are studied. Raw bagasse ash has coarse and fine fibrous particles
and fine burnt particles. The processes involved for preparing treated SCBA are
burning, grinding and sieving, whereas for untreated SCBA only sieving is done
which removes the fibrous content from it.
2 Materials
The bagasse is collected from the dumping site of a sugarcane mill in Gobi near
Coimbatore. It is dried in open fills under sun to make it dry. The collected bagasse
is then burned at 110–120 °C to get the raw bagasse ash rich in carbon. This raw
bagasse is then used for making treated and untreated bagasse ash as a pozzolanic
material. The methodology for preparing the treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse
ash is explained in Fig. 1.
The dried bagasse ash is first sieved through a 300 micron sieve to remove the
coarse and fine fibrous particles. The sieving is done for about 10 min for the complete
removal of undesired products. The residue is then sieved through a 75 micron sieve
for about 5 min to give the untreated sugarcane bagasse ash [6]. This low-energy
method adopted in post treating the ash is simple and less time-consuming.
Evaluation of Pozzolanic Performance of Treated and Untreated … 361
Fig. 1 Preparation of treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse ash
The methods adopted in obtaining treated bagasse ash are more complicated than
that of untreated bagasse ash. After drying, the raw bagasse ash of 5 kg is grinded
in a rotary type ball miller with steel balls for about 120 min [4]. It is then dried at
an optimum temperature of 600 °C for 3 h [4]. To obtain the fineness of cement, the
dried ash is pulverized in a pulverizer for 1 h. This gives the treated bagasse ash with
better properties.
For finding the properties of the pozzolan, ordinary portland cement (OPC) of
grade 53 conforming to IS: 12269 [10] with specific gravity 3.2 is used for conducting
experiments. It has a normal consistency of 30%, with initial and final setting times
of 132 and 178 min, respectively. The fineness of the cement used is 310 m2 /kg.
362 S. Sindhu et al
3 Experimental Methods
The material, mineralogical and microstructure properties of the untreated and treated
bagasse ash are found out.
The standard Le Chatelier flask and kerosene of density 0.75 g/cc is used for
the determination of specific gravities of untreated and treated bagasse ash as per
IS: 1727-2004 [11]. The fineness of the treated and untreated bagasse ash is found
using Blaine’s air permeability test. The standard consistency is determined as per IS:
4031-2005. A mixture of the ash (untreated and treated) and cement in the proportion
of 0.2 N:0.8 is used to determine the consistency, where N is the ratio of specific
gravity of ash (pozzolan) to the specific gravity of cement as specified in IS: 1727-
2004 [11]. The initial and final setting time is determined as per IS: 4031-1988 [12].
Different samples with 5, 10, 15 and 20% replacement of the treated and untreated
ash are prepared to determine the initial and final setting time. It is observed that the
initial and final setting time increase for both the treated and untreated ash samples
with the increase in replacement.
The mineralogical analysis of the treated and untreated bagasse ash is determined
by X-ray diffraction (XRD), using CuKα radiation. No significant difference in the
diffraction patterns was observed in both the samples. However, the amorphous
phases in treated bagasse ash are more than that of untreated bagasse ash.
The chemical composition of the treated and untreated bagasse ash is determined
using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The
silica content in the treated bagasse ash is found to be higher than the untreated
bagasse ash. The microstructure characteristics of the treated and untreated bagasse
ash are done using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
The pozzolanic activity or strength activity index (SAI) of the untreated and treated
bagasse ash is determined as per ASTM C311-11b [13]. A replacement of 10% of
cement by treated and untreated bagasse ash is opted. The tests are conducted on 7
and 28 days. The loss in ignition (LOI) test is carried as per IS: 1727-2004 [11]. This
helps in determining the unburnt carbon particles in the bagasse ash.
The physical characterization of the treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse ash is
enlisted in Table 1.
The untreated bagasse ash has a specific gravity of 2.09 whereas the specific
gravity of treated bagasse is 2.21. The specific gravity of both the ashes is less when
compared to that of the cement used which has a value of 3.2. The fineness using
Blaine’s air permeability test is found to be 153 m2 /kg for untreated bagasse ash
and 290 m2 /kg for treated bagasse ash. The low value of the specific gravity and
fineness/specific surface area of the untreated bagasse ash is due to the presence of
Table 1 Physical characteristics of untreated and treated bagasse ash

Material property Untreated bagasse ash Treated bagasse ash
Specific gravity 2.09 2.21
Specific surface area (Blaine, m2 /kg) 153 290
Consistency (%) 48 37
Initial setting time, 10% replacement (minutes) 190 205
Final setting time, 10% replacement (minutes) 310 330
Loss on ignition (%) 19 4
SAI at 7 days (%) 77 109
SAI at 28 days (%) 79 108
very fine unburnt fibrous particles that cannot be removed by sieving. These values
alter the consistency and the setting times of the cement.
The consistency of the blended cement with untreated bagasse and treated bagasse
ash is 48 and 37%, respectively. The initial and final setting times of the untreated
bagasse ash for 20% replacement of cement are 190 and 310 min, respectively. The
values of initial and final setting times of treated bagasse ash for 20% replacement of
cement are 205 and 330 min, respectively. This is because the specific surface area
of both the treated and untreated bagasse ash is less than that of cement and hence it
requires more water to meet the consistency and more time for setting.
Quartz and crystobalite peaks are highly distinguished in the diffraction patterns
obtained using XRD in both the untreated and treated bagasse ash samples. This gives
a clear indication of reactive silica in both the ashes. However, the amorphous nature
of the minerals in untreated sugarcane bagasse ash is slightly less when compared to
that of the treated bagasse ash. Amorphous nature of the silica is more suitable for
pozzolanic reaction when compared to the crystalline nature. Burning the bagasse at
600 °C gives amorphous forms of silica, whereas increasing the temperature leads
to the formation of crystalline phases and hence is undesirable.
The elemental composition by EDS of the treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse
ash is shown in Table 2 and the molecular composition by XRF analysis of the treated
and untreated sugarcane bagasse ash is shown in Table 3. The XRF analysis and
EDS analysis indicate the presence of higher silica content of 41.286% in the treated
bagasse ash when compared to the untreated bagasse ash which has a slightly lower
value of 33.453%. This is because, after treatment the chemical alignment of the
particles in the ash is modified and it gives rise to formation of more Si–O bonds.
The EDS analysis of the treated and untreated bagasse ash is shown in Fig. 2.
The microstructure of the treated and untreated sugarcane bagasse ash is shown in
Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. The untreated bagasse ash mostly showed fibrous particles.
This is because of the presence of unburnt carbon content at micro levels not visible
to naked eye. No proper-shaped particles can be traced in the SEM micrographs.
The treated bagasse ash has both the fibrous particles and prismatic particles. The
364 S. Sindhu et al
Table 2 Elemental
Element Untreated bagasse ash (%) Treated bagasse ash (%)
composition by EDS for
treated and untreated bagasse O 42.32 45.01
ash Si 14.75 22.39
Al 2.5 11.10
Ca 11.2 5.30
K 13.03 4.75
Mg 4.75 3.89
Na 4.3 3.39
Fe 3.07 2.91
P 4.08 1.27
Table 3 Molecular
Element Untreated bagasse ash (%) Treated bagasse ash (%)
composition by XRF for
treated and untreated bagasse SiO2 33.453 41.286
ash K2 O 25.734 10.985
CaO 23.668 9.225
Fe2 O3 2.098 3.143
P2 O5 4.110 2.054
Na2 O 8.311 4.123
Al2 O3 1.102 25.43
MgO 1.524 3.754
Fig. 2 EDS spectrum of untreated and treated sugarcane bagasse ash
prismatic particles with well-defined edges show the modification to more fine, less
fibrous particles and carbon less ash [14].
The pozzolanic activity or strength activity index (SAI) of untreated and treated
sugarcane bagasse ash is shown in Table 1. The SAI of the untreated bagasse ash at 7
and 28 days is found to be 77 and 79%, respectively, whereas the SAI of the treated
bagasse ash at 7 and 28 days is found to be 109 and 108%, respectively. For a material
Fig. 3 SEM micrographs of untreated sugarcane bagasse ash
Fig. 4 SEM micrographs of treated sugarcane bagasse ash
to be pozzolanic, a minimum value of 75% SAI is required as per ASTM C618-12a

[15, 16]. Both the treated and untreated bagasse ash satisfies the requirement to be
considered a pozzolanic material.
The loss on ignition (LOI) of the untreated and treated bagasse ash is shown in
Table 1. The LOI of the untreated bagasse ash is 19% and the LOI of treated bagasse
ash is 4%. The higher value of LOI for untreated sugarcane bagasse ash is due to the
presence of small amounts of unburnt carbon particles. If the coarse and fine fibrous
particles are not removed by sieving, the LOI values will further increase and may
have a value of 70–80% which is highly insignificant for using in blended cements.
5 Conclusion
From the results obtained, it is observed that both the untreated and treated bagasse
ash can be used as SCMs. However, the treated bagasse ash is more significant when
compared to the untreated bagasse ash for the following reasons:
• The fineness/specific surface area and specific gravity of the treated bagasse ash
is more than the untreated bagasse ash. The value is very close to the specific
366 S. Sindhu et al
surface area of cement. This significantly reduces the setting times and also gives
a better consistency to the blended cement.
• The more amorphous nature of the treated sugarcane bagasse ash when compared
to the untreated sugarcane bagasse ash helps in the proper reaction of the silica
with water and calcium hydroxide to easily start the pozzolanic activity.
• The higher content of silica in treated sugarcane bagasse ash helps in attaining
more strength for blended cements as the reaction rate increases and the quantity
of hydration products is also increased.
• The well-defined prismatic particles and less fibrous and unburnt carbon content
is observed more in treated sugarcane bagasse ash.
• The strength activity index of the treated sugarcane bagasse ash is much
higher than the untreated sugarcane bagasse ash and hence preferred more as
a replacement material.
• The low value of loss on ignition for treated sugarcane bagasse ash signifies the
very less amount of unburnt carbon particles present in it.
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of sugarcane bagasse ash blended cement in concrete. Cement Concr Compos 59:77–88
8. Cordeiro GC, Toledo Filho RD, Fairbairn EMR (2009) Effect of calcination temperature on
the pozzolanic activity of sugar cane bagasse ash 23(11):3301–3303
9. Chusilp Nuntachai, Jaturapitakkul Chai, Kiattikomol Kraiwood (2009) Utilization of bagasse
ash as a pozzolanic material in concrete. Constr Build Mater 23(11):3352–3358
10. Indian Standard (IS) 12269. Specification for 53 grade ordinary Portland cement. Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, (2008)
11. Indian Standard (IS) 1727-2004: Indian Standard Methods of Test for pozzolanic Mate-
rials, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
12. Indian Standard (IS) 4031-1988: Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement, (2005)
13. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C311-11b: Standard test methods for
sampling and testing fly ash or natural pozzolans for use in Portland-cement concrete, (2011)
14. Jagadesh P, Ramachandramurthu A, Murugesan R, Sarayu K (2015) Micro-analytical studies
on sugarcane bagasse ash. Indian Acad Sci 40(5):1629–1638
15. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C618-12a: Standard Specification for
Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, (2012)
16. Praveenkumar S, Sankarasubramanian G, Sindhu S (2020) Strength, permeability and

microstructure characterization of pulverized bagasse ash in cement mortars. Constr Build
Mater 238:117691
Experimental Study on Bubble Deck Slab
Using Palm Seeds
M. Iswarya and V. S. Tamilarasan
Abstract Bubble deck slab is an innovatory floor system of reinforced concrete

which contains palm seeds as concrete saving elements. Palm seeds replace the
ineffective concrete in the centre of the slab, thus decreasing the dead weight from
30 to 50%. Due to lightweight of slab, it reduces the loads on the columns, walls and
foundations. The main aim of this project is to study the behaviour of load deflection
of RC slab and bubble deck slab. In this study, conventional slab and bubble deck
slab are cast and tested. From the results, it was found that the load-carrying capacity
of bubble deck slab is 28% more than that of conventional slab. It is also observed
that the deflection value in bubble deck slab showed less value than conventional
slab.
Keywords Bubble deck slab · Palm seeds · Ultimate load · Deflection
1 Introduction
In the building construction, slab is one of the largest structural members consuming
concrete. In general, slabs are classified as being one way or two way. Slabs that
primarily deflect in one direction are referred to as one-way slabs. When slabs are
supported by columns arranged generally in rows so that the slabs can deflect in
two directions, they are usually referred to as two-way slabs. In reinforced concrete
slab, the bottom portion will be in tension and therefore require steel reinforcement
to prevent failure. The top portion will be in compression, and the middle portion
will effectively work only as a bridge, holding the top and bottom portions together.
Waffle slabs and hollow core precast slabs have been the most common voided slabs
used in the United States.
M. Iswarya (B)
M.E. Structural, Dr. Sivanthi Aditanar College of Engineering, Tiruchendur, India
e-mail: iswaryam1996@gmail.com
V. S. Tamilarasan
Civil Engineering, Dr. Sivanthi Aditanar College of Engineering, Tiruchendur, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_31
370 M. Iswarya and V. S. Tamilarasan
Bubble deck slab is an innovatory floor system of reinforced concrete which

contains palm seeds as concrete saving elements. By virtually eliminating the
concrete in the middle portion of the slab, bubble deck slab leads to 30–50% lighter
slab which reduces the loads on the columns, walls and foundations. Bubble deck
technology creates a cushion of air between layers of concrete with the reinforce-
ment. The bubble deck system offers a wide range of advantages in building design
and during construction. They are
• As no beam support is required, it allows longer spans between supports up to
50% than traditional structures.
• It enables to reduce foundation sizes since the structural self-weight is reduced
by 50%.
• Cross bracing and intermediate supports are eliminated.
• Concrete usage is significantly reduced.
• It uses fewer building elements compared to steel frame and metal.
2 Reviews of Literatures
Numerous experimental studies were conducted on bubble deck slab. Reshma and
Binu (2006) studied the punching shear behaviour of bubble deck slab compared
to solid slab, and they concluded that the load-carrying capacity was increased up
to 20% in bubble deck slab compared with solid slab. Teja et al. (2012) discussed
the various properties of bubble deck and concluded that the bending stresses in
the bubble deck slab are found to be 6.43% lesser than solid slab, and deflection of
bubble deck was 5.88% more than that of the solid slab. Saifee and Parikh (2013) did a
comparative study of voided flat plate slab and solid flat plate slab and concluded that
the results for deflection are almost same as compared to that of solid flat slabs under
same loading and at the same point. [1] studied the flexural capacities of reinforced
two-way bubble deck slabs and concluded that the ultimate load-carrying capacities
for bubble deck slabs having bubble diameter to slab thickness of 0.01–0.64 were the
same as that of solid slabs. Churokav (2015) studied the different types of hollow core
slabs technology and concluded that the hollow core slab led to reduced self-weight
up to 50%, which also reduces the foundation sizes. [2] did an experimental study
on bubble deck slab system with elliptical balls and concluded that the reduction in
dead weight was up to 50%. Breuning (2015) conducted a study of voided biaxial
concrete slab and concluded that the bubbles decreased the dead weight up to 35%
and increased the load-carrying capacity by almost 100% with the same thickness.
Balapure and Mirajkar (2015) conducted a study of bubble deck slab and concluded
that the bubble deck configuration is having much stiffness and shear capacity of at
least 70% when the same amount of concrete and the same reinforcement were used
as in the solid slab.
Experimental Study on Bubble Deck Slab Using Palm Seeds 371
3 Objective of the Study
The main objectives of this project are

i. To study the structural behaviour of bubble deck slab by using palm seeds.
ii. To study load versus deflection characteristics, ultimate load and crack pattern.
4 Methodology
i. Basic tests are studied on materials like cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and palm seeds
ii. Mix design for M25 grade concrete
iii. Tests conducted on fresh and hardened concrete
iv. Design of slab and preparation of slab specimens
v. Testing of specimens
vi. Results and discussion.
5 Material Properties
The preliminary study was carried out to derive the mix proportion of M25 grade
concrete. Table 1 shows the test results of materials. Mix design was done using IS
10262: 2009 for a slump of 40 mm and water cement ratio 0.45. Quantity of materials
as per mix design is given in Table 2.
Table 1 Test results of various materials

Material Test for Observed value
Cement (OPC 53 grade) Specific gravity 3.083
Standard consistency 33%
Initial setting time 33 min
Final setting time 390 min
Fineness modulus 2%
7 days compressive strength 23.71 N/mm2
28 days compressive strength 31.78 N/mm2
Fine aggregate Specific gravity 2.456
Coarse aggregate Specific gravity 2 817
Palm seeds Water absorption 35.5%
Table 2 Quantity of
Material Quantity
materials per m3
Cement 413.33 kg
Fine aggregate 429.8 kg
Coarse aggregate 913.9 kg
Water 186 l
Water cement ratio 0.45
Cement:FA:CA 1:1.04:2.211
6.1 General Outline of Experimental Study
The aim of the present study is to understand the basic strength difference, deflection
and crack pattern of bubble deck slab with that of normal reinforced concrete slab.
Study on bubble deck slab was based on placing the palm seeds alternately across
the entire slab as shown in Fig. 1 and comparing the results with Normal RCC Slab.
The size of palm seeds used is 50 mm diameter.
The slab of size 1 m × 1 m × 0.1 m was used, and reinforcement provided in the
slab was 8 mm diameter bar with a spacing of 200 mm c/c. Cover of 15 mm was
given on each side. The main bars were placed in the form of a mesh as shown in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Alternate
arrangement of palm seeds
Fig. 2 Reinforcement mesh
6.2 Testing of Specimens
The specimens were tested in a loading frame of capacity 50 tonnes under simply
supported condition. Dial gauges were placed at the centre to note the deflection.
Deflections were taken using a dial gauge of least count 0.01 mm and 10 mm range.
Figure 3 shows the test set-up of the specimen.
Fig. 3 Test set-up

7.1 Ultimate Load and Crack Load
The ultimate load-carrying capacity and maximum deflection was noted for various
specimens, and the results are given in Table 3. Load was applied till the specimen
was failed, and the load was noted as ultimate load.
Conventional slab showed minor cracks at a load of 60 kN. Crack propagation
started at 62 kN at the bottom face of the slab. Many minute cracks were also
observed along the side faces while increasing the load. The typical crack pattern of
conventional slab is shown in Fig. 4.
Bubble deck slab showed minor cracks at a load of 78 kN. Crack propagation
started at 80 kN at the bottom face of the slab. Many minute cracks were also observed
along the side faces while increasing the load. The typical crack pattern of bubble
deck slab is shown in Fig. 5.
Table 3 Load and deflection

Type of slab Load (kN) Deflection (mm)
values
Conventional slab 64 15.30
Bubble deck slab 82 13.20
Fig. 4 Crack pattern of

conventional slab
Fig. 5 Crack pattern of bubble deck slab
7.2 Load Versus Deflection
The load versus deflection graph was plotted taking the deflection along the X axis
and the load along the Y axis. From the graph, it was observed that the deflection
increased as the load increased. It is also noted that the deflection is proportional to
load applied up to the yield stage and after which the deflection is increased. The
Load versus Deflection graphs of conventional slab and bubble deck slab are shown
in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively.
Conventional slab carried a load of 64 kN, and corresponding deflection is about
15.95 mm. There was no deflection recorded up to 8 kN. The deflection started at
10 kN load, and the initial deflection observed was 1.30 mm.
Bubble deck slab carried a load of 82 kN, and corresponding deflection is about
14.98 mm. There was no deflection recorded up to 8 kN. The deflection started at
10 kN load, and the initial deflection observed was 1.16 mm.
Fig. 6 Load versus deflection of conventional slab

Fig. 7 Load versus deflection of bubble deck slab
8 Conclusion
i. The load-carrying capacity of bubble deck slab is 28% more than that of the
conventional slab.
ii. Bubble deck slab showed lesser deflection and strain than conventional slab.
iii. Bubble deck slab reduces the volume of concrete which decreases the weight
of slab.
iv. Bubble deck slab can be used in open floor designs such as commercial,
educational, hospitals and other institutional buildings.
References
1. Ibrahim AM, Salman WD (2013) Flexural capacities of reinforced concrete two way bubble
deck slabs of plastic spherical voids. Diyala J Eng Sci 06(02):9–20, ISSN: 1999-8716
2. Shetkara A, Hanche N (2015) An Experimental study on bubble deck slab system with elliptical
balls. Proc NCRIET-2015 Indian J Sci Res 12(01):021–027
Self-compacting Concrete: A Review
J. Abdul Bari and K. S. Krithiga
Abstract Compaction of concrete is often seen as a difficulty in traditional concrete,

because poor compaction affects the concrete’s physical appearance, its strength and
durability. It must be reduced by the use of SCC, a form of concrete that needs no
mechanical vibration after placing as it flows into formwork on its own weight. The
primary objective of the present study is to make use of hybrid fibres in the self-
compacting concrete and understand its effects on the fresh properties, and other
mechanical properties. The study also intended to quantify the amount of super-
plasticizers and fibre content to be added to the concrete according to the value of
concrete properties measured. The basic properties of concrete materials are tested.
The fresh tests such as slump flow test, V-funnel test and L-box test are conducted.
The results showed that the workability of the self-compacting concrete decreased
as the fibre content increases up to some percentages.
Keywords Self-compacting concrete · Hybrid fibre · Slump flow · L-box · V

funnel and workability
1 Introduction
Self-consolidating concrete is a good flowable type of concrete that fills into the form
without the need for mechanical vibration. It uses superplasticizers and stabilizers
to significantly increase the ease and rate of flow. It achieves compaction into every
place of the mould or framework simply by means of its own self-weight without any
segregation of the coarse aggregate. SCC can be placed easily in complicated form-
work and congested reinforcement. It is super workable due to its low water/cement
ratio, which gives high strength development, more durability and good quality. It
is self-compacted, so there is no need to use any vibrator. Segregation and bleeding
problems are almost low. It gives a smooth and well-finished surface after concreting.
J. Abdul Bari · K. S. Krithiga (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, K.S. Rangasamy College of Technology, Tiruchengode, India
e-mail: kskeerthi96@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_32
378 J. Abdul Bari and K. S. Krithiga
Thinner concrete slab elements can be casted easily. Its application has been widely
used in the pre-cast industry.
SCC was developed in Japan in 1980s in order to achieve high performance
concrete structures, and with advancement technology in concrete its use has
become widespread all over the world. Compared with conventional concrete, SCC
includes large amounts of binder material, superplasticizer and viscosity modifying
admixtures.
The advantages of self-compacting concrete in its fresh and hardened states
include economic-efficient, consume high amount of industrial by-products, reduces
construction noise and health hazards. Construction of reinforced concrete elements
with closely arranged reinforcement sections, construction of elements with limited
compaction possibilities, faster construction and less manpower reduce the overall
production cost. SCC can be placed easily in complicated formwork and dense
reinforcement.
SCC may be used in pre-cast applications or for concrete placed on site. It can be
manufactured in a site batching plant or in a ready mix concrete plant and delivered to
site by truck. It can be placed either by pumping or pouring into horizontal or vertical
structures. In designing the mix, the size and the form of the structure, the dimension
and density of reinforcement and cover should be taken into consideration. These
aspects will all influence the specific requirements for the SCC. Due to the flowing
characteristics of SCC it may be difficult to cast to a fall unless contained in a form.
SCC has made it possible to cast concrete structures of a quality that was not possible
with the existing concrete technology.
2 Properties of SCC
• Flowing ability—the ability to completely fill all areas and corners of the
formwork into which it is placed.
• Passing ability—the ability to pass through congested reinforcement without
separation of the constituents or blocking.
• Resistance to segregation—the ability to retain the coarse components of the mix
in suspension in order to maintain the material homogeneity.
3 Innovative Techniques in SCC
3.1 SCC Containing Fibres
The addition of sisal fibre increased the compressive strength on cubes and the split
tensile strength on cylinders. On addition of 1.5% of fibre, the strength of the concrete
increased [1].
Self-compacting Concrete: A Review 379
The compressive strength and the split tensile strength of the self-compacting
concrete were increased due to the addition of 0.5% of the sisal fibres [2].
Addition of fibres imparts higher compressive and flexural strength, which is more
suitable for RCC frame members such as columns and beams. Addition of fibre
should be in the specified range, between 0.3 and 0.5%. The addition of admixtures
like superplasticizer although increases the cost of construction but it results in greater
compressive, tensile and flexural strength [3].
Two types of fibres were used, namely ZP 305 (steel fibre hooked ends) and OL
6/16 (straight ends). T50 slump flow, J-ring flow, V-funnel, compressive and split
tensile strength of the SCC mixtures and ultrasonic pulse velocity were measured.
The mix reinforced with only OL 6/16 fibres had the highest compressive strength
values at both 28 and 56 days [4].
Three different types of steel fibres with and/or without hooked ends were added
to the mixtures in two different volume fractions (0.75 and 1.5% of the total volume
of concrete). The results of slump flow, U-box, V-funnel and J-ring tests have shown
that increasing the fibre content of the concretes slightly reduced the workability of
HSFR SCC. The results from the experimental tests showed that the flexural strengths
increased slightly with increasing strength of long fibres, whereas the splitting tensile
strength remained unchanged [5].
Fibre-reinforced self-compacting concrete with recycled fibres: The tests were
conducted on both fresh and hardened state. The slump flow, V-funnel, L-box,
compressive strength and split tensile strength tests were measured. The results
showed that the optimal proportion of both the fibre types assures equal post
cracking behaviour compared to ordinary FRC and the rheological properties of self-
compacting matrix provide better dispersion and orientation of recycled fibres [6].
Slump flow and L-box were performed to assess polypropylene fibres influence
on workability. The fibres used were varying in content (0.005, 0.010 and 0.015
kN/m3 ) and length (20, 40 and 60 mm). The strength development for unreinforced
SCC mixture was 1.29 for 7 and 28 days, while it decreased to 1.14, 1.09 and 1.12
after reinforcing with 0.005, 0.010 and 0.015 kN/m3 [7].
Adding two types of fibre to SCC of same ratio leads to clear improvement in
the 7 days compressive strength of about 6.86% but at the age of 28 days caused
decrease in compressive strength of about 5.51%. The flexural strength decreased
both at 7 and 28 days [8].
The binder dosage (600 kg/m3 ) proved to be adequate to achieve the needed
strength and flowability. The coarse/fine aggregates particle size ratio more suitable
to obtain an SCC (with or without fibres) is around 0.38. The compressive strength
achieved 55 MPa at early ages (24 h) as well as 94 MPa at 28 days [9].
The experimental test results show compressive strength, split tensile strength and
flexural strength of the mix (SCC–HF) to be 28.37, 56.61 and 67.59% higher than the
control mix. The hardened properties such as ultrasonic pulse velocity and modulus
of elasticity were found higher for the mix containing fibres and admixtures [10].
The hooked end and straight steel fibres were used with a dosage of 0.5, 1.0 and
1.5% of volume ratio. SCC indicates similar flexural behaviour to NVC where the
increase of fibres volume ratio increases the flexural tensile strength. The fracture
energy increases with the increase of fibre dosage and is higher for hooked end steel
fibres than for straight ones [11]. The flexural ductility of RC beam with minimum
longitudinal reinforcement ratio is decreased due to fiber addition [12]. The two-
million cycles fatigue strength of SCFRC has been found to be higher than that of
Normally vibrated fiber reinforced concrete [13].
The mechanical properties and durability aspects of steel, synthetic and hybrid
fibre-reinforced self-compacting concrete exposed to early wet/dry cycles. The flex-
ural and splitting tensile strengths of all FRSCC were higher than that of the control
mixture by 7–26 and 12–79% [14].
3.2 SCC Containing Lightweight Aggregates
The use of synthetic fibres in self-compacting lightweight aggregate concretes

(SCLWACs) was characterized at the fresh state by means of slump flow, V-funnel
and L-box tests, and after hardening by means of compression, splitting tension and
bending tests, and drying shrinkage measurements [15]. Tensile and flexural strength
values were consistent with conventional concrete, while the elastic modulus was
quite low with respect to normal weight self-compacting concrete (SCC) [16].
3.3 SCC Containing Mineral Admixtures and Fibres
Addition of steel fibre as 0.75% and polypropylene as 0.25%, incorporating rice

husk ash as a partial replacement for cement in varying percentages up to 30% with
increment of 5%. By the addition of fibres the formation of initial crack is delayed
and strength is more. Water/cement ratio is increased by the addition of rice husk
ash. The optimum level of replacement of rice husk ash in concrete is 15–20%, and
further addition of RHA decreases the compressive strength [17].
4 Mix Proportion
In my present experimental work, the following mix proportions were followed.
Mix Id Cement (kg/m3 ) C.A (kg/m3 ) F.A (kg/m3 ) w/c SP (%)

SCC 467.31 690 972.9 0.4 2
Study of literature review

1. Cement
2. Fine aggregate
Collection of materials 3. Coarse aggregate
4. Sisal and steel fibre
5. Superplasticizer
1. Fineness Study on material properties
2. Specific gravity
Mix design (IS 10262-2009)
Fresh concrete test

1. Slump flow
2. V-funnel
3. L- box
Fig. 1 Methodology of present work
4.1 Methodology of Present Work
See Fig. 1.
4.2 Basic Properties of Present Work
Slump flow:
The slump flow test is used to assess the horizontal free flow of self-compacting
concrete in the absence of obstructions. It was first developed in Japan for use in
assessment of underwater concrete. It is the most commonly used test, and gives a
good assessment of filling ability. It gives no indication of the ability of the concrete
to pass between reinforcement without blocking, but may give some indication of
resistance to segregation.
The slump flow has been conducted for SCC and hybrid fibre-reinforced SCC. The
slump value has been within the range for the mix 1 and it gradually decreased due
to the addition of hybrid fibres. The test results are shown in Table 1 (Figs. 2 and 3).
4.3 V-Funnel Test
The V-funnel test is used to determine the filling ability of the concrete with a
maximum aggregate size of 20 mm. The funnel is filled with about 12 L of concrete
Table 1 Slump flow values

S. no. SCC mixes Slump flow value (mm)
1 SCC 660
2 SCFRC 1 620
3 SCFRC 2 580
4 SCFRC 3 550
Fig. 2 Slump flow measure
slump flow
680
660
slump flow value(mm)
640
620
600
580
560
540
520
500
480
SCC SCFRC 1 SCFRC 2 SCFRC 3
Fig. 3 Slump flow
and the time taken for it to flow through the apparatus is measured. After this the
funnel is refilled with concrete and left for 5 min to settle. If the concrete shows the
segregation then the flow time increases significantly (Table 2, Figs. 4 and 5).
Table 2 V-funnel values

S. no. SCC mixes V-funnel value (s)
1 SCC 11
2 SCFRC 1 13
3 SCFRC 2 17
4 SCFRC 3 20
Fig. 4 V-funnel apparatus
V funnel test
25
20
V funnel value(sec)
15
10
0
Fig. 5 V-funnel
4.4 L-Box Test
The test assesses the flow of the concrete and also the extent to which it is subjected
to blocking by reinforcement. The L-box test values also decreased by the addition
of hybrid fibres. The test apparatus and result values are shown in Figs. 6 and 7 and
Table 3.
Fig. 6 L-box test apparatus
L box test
1.6
1.4
L box value(h2/h1)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Fig. 7 L-box test

Table 3 L-box values

S. no. SCC mixes L-box value
1 SCC 0.84
2 SCFRC 1 0.96
3 SCFRC 2 1.3
4 SCFRC 3 1.5
1. Self-compacting concrete mix provide good workability, passing ability and

filling ability in all the fresh tests such as slump flow, V-funnel and L-box tests.
2. The workability has decreased with the addition of 0.5% of hybrid fibres but the
values of the fresh tests lie within the range specified by the EFNARC guidelines.
3. The fresh test values are further decreased by the continuous addition of hybrid
fibres in the self-compacting concrete.
4. The finalized mix design used in the present work is given in Table 1.
5. The specific gravity of cement, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are
determined.
6. The fineness modulus of fine aggregate also has been determined.
6 Conclusion
In the present experimental work the literature review and the fresh tests of the self-
compacting hybrid fibre-reinforced concrete were conducted and the results were
discussed. The conclusions are:
1. The specific gravity of cement, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are 3.85, 2.54
and 2.56, respectively.
2. The fineness value of cement is 2.49 and the fine aggregate is 6.9.
3. The values of the slump flow decreased with the increasing of the hybrid fibres.
4. The time has been increased for the V-funnel test due to the addition of fibres.
5. The L-box value also decreased by the addition of hybrid fibres.
6. The hardened properties of the self-compacting hybrid fibre-reinforced concrete
have been conducted in further studies.
References
1. Chandak A, Agrawal N, Thakur D, Titiksh A (2016) Analysis of self compacting concrete

using hybrid fibres. Int J Trend Res Dev 3(2):641–645
2. Sugathan A (2017) Self-compacting concrete reinforced with sisal fibres. Int J Latest Technol
Eng Manage Appl Sci VI:180–187
3. Suja B, Jaganathan V (2016) Flexural behavior of hybrid fibre reinforced self compacting
concrete incorporating rice husk ash. J Mech Civ Eng 8:75–82
4. Bobby Ramteke RK, Parve AK, Bandwal N (2015) Experimental study on flexural behavior
of the self-compacting concrete with hybrid fibres. Int J Civ Eng Technol 6:144–152
5. Akcay B, Tasdemir MA (2012) Mechanical behaviour and fibre dispersion of hybrid steel fibre
reinforced self-compacting concrete. Constr Build Mater 28:287–293
6. Aslani F, Nejadi S (2013) Self-compacting concrete incorporating steel and polypropylene
fibers: compressive and tensile strengths, moduli of elasticity and rupture, compressive stress–
strain curve, and energy dissipated under compression. Compos Part B 53:121–133
7. Upadhyay H, Shah P, George E (2011) Testing and mix design method of self-compacting
concrete. Recent Trends Eng Technol 2:67–69
8. Pajak M, Ponikiewski T (2013) Flexural behavior of self-compacting concrete reinforced with
different types of steel fibers. Constr Build Mater 47:397–408
9. Skazlic M, Baricevic A, Bjegovic D (2014) Fibre reinforced SCC concrete with recycled
fibres. In: International workshop on performance based specification and control of concrete
durability, vol 3, pp 633–640
10. Abukhashaba MI, Mostafa MA, Adam IA (2014) Behavior of self-compacting fiber reinforced
concrete containing cement kiln dust. Alex Eng J 5:1–9
11. Sahmaran M, Alperen Yurtseven I, Yaman O (2005) Workability of hybrid fiber reinforced
self-compacting concrete. Build Environ 40:1672–1677
12. You Z, Chen X, Dong S (2011) Ductility and strength of hybrid fiber reinforced self-
consolidating concrete beam with low reinforcement ratios. Syst Eng Procedia 1:28–34
13. Goel S, Singh SP, Singh P (2012) Flexural fatigue strength and failure probability of self
compacting fibre reinforced concrete beams. Eng Struct 40:131–140
14. Yehia S, Douba A, Abdullahi O, Farrag S (2016) Mechanical and durability evaluation of
fiber-reinforced self-compacting concrete. Constr Build Mater 121:120–133
15. Corinaldesi V, Moriconi G (2015) Use of synthetic fibers in self-compacting lightweight
aggregate concretes. J Build Eng 4:247–254
16. Nivetha, Chella Kavitha, Kaviyarasi (2017) Experimental study on the mechanical behaviour
of sisal fibre reinforced self-compacting concrete. Int Res J Eng Technol 4:2286–2287
17. Fernandes Paulo A L, Veludo J, Almeida N, Baptista J, Rodrigues H (2018) Study of a self-
compacting fiber-reinforced concrete to be applied in the precast industry. Innov Infrastruct
Solut 3:28
Strength Characteristics of Red Mud
and Silica Fume Based Concrete
Chava Venkatesh, Madduru Sri Rama Chand, Nerella Ruben,

and Chereddy Sonali Sri Durga
Abstract Red mud is a residue of alumina refinery plant; it has high alkaline
nature which leads to contamination of nearby lands, water bodies, and air. One ton
of alumina produces more than one ton of red mud. The disposal of red mud can be
reduced by using it as a replacement to cement in concrete. Also, silica fume used
as a ternary mineral in red mud based concrete. The proportion of silica fume as a
replacement to cement is kept constant at 5% by weight of cement, and red mud is
used as a replacement to cement from 0 to 25% with an interval of 5%. All concrete
mixes are tested against flexural, split tensile, and compressive strengths to know
the mechanical properties, and also rapid chloride penetration test is conducted to
know the durability property. Results showed that the 20% replacement of red mud
had shown greater strength values in mechanical properties. Increase in percentage
of red mud offered more resistance against chloride ions movement in concrete.
Keywords Silica fume · Red mud · Compressive strength · Chloride ions

penetration test · Ternary mineral
1 Introduction
Red mud is a massive amount of alkaline slurry, which is disposed of alumina indus-
tries [1–4]. Production of alumina throughout the world is more than 120 MT per
year; one ton of alumina produces more than one ton of red mud [5, 6]. Disposal of
red mud is highly expensive and difficult to handle. In general, using red mud as a
construction material can minimize pollution due to the disposal of red mud. 2% of
cement replaced by red mud has increased the strength of concrete, whereas, beyond
C. Venkatesh (B) · N. Ruben · C. Sonali Sri Durga

Department of Civil Engineering, Vignan’s Foundation for Science Research & Technology
(Deemed to be University), Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: chvenky288@gmail.com
M. Sri Rama Chand
Department of Civil Engineering, Sree Chaitanya College of Engineering, Karimnagar,
Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_33
388 C. Venkatesh et al.
2% replacement, there is a decrease in strength [7]. Rathod et al. [8] concluded

that cement replaced by red mud within 25% has shown equal strength values like
normal concrete [8]. Sawant and Kumthekar [9] reported that the optimum dosage of
neutralized red mud in weight of cement is 15%. Red mud–coal industry residue based
concrete has shown satisfied results in compressive strength [10]. Moreover, red mud
is used in many ways such as ceramic tiles, corrosion inhibitor, metal absorbent, and
others [11–15]. Silica fume is formed from thermal treatment of silicon and silica
alloys [16]. Many studies have been conducted on silica fume, used in cement mortar
and concrete [17–20].
2 Materials and Methods
Cement used in the current work is conforming to IS 12269-1987; all the physical
properties of cement are within limits of IS 4031-I (1996). Fine aggregates and coarse
aggregates used are conforming to IS 583-2016 and IS 383-2016. The chemical
composition of cement used in current work is shown in Table 1.
2.1 Red Mud
Red mud is obtained from Nalco refinery plant, Orissa, India. Red mud is a residue
of alumina refinery plant, and is in the form of a slurry. In current work, red mud is
thermally treated at a 600 °C temperature before replacing into cement. The chemical
composition of red mud used in current work is shown in Table 1.
2.2 Silica Fume
Silica fume used in present work is conforming to ASTM C240-15. Specific gravity
and specific surface area of silica fume are 2.2 and 18,000 m2 /kg, respectively. The
chemical composition of silica fume used in current work is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Chemical composition of cementitious materials (%)

S. No. Mineral CaO SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 TiO2 MgO Na2 O LOI
1 OPC 63.29 20.93 4.73 3.95 – 0.45 0.22 2
2 SF – 92.1 0.48 0.23 – 0.87 0.63 1.51
3 RM 2.90 17.90 28.24 23.79 7.50 0.39 10.83 5.96
Strength Characteristics of Red Mud and Silica Fume Based … 389
2.3 Mechanical Properties
In current work, all concrete mixes are prepared for 45 MPa strength and tested
against flexural, split tensile, and compressive strength. For compressive strength,
the samples are prepared with a size of 150 × 150 × 150 mm according to IS 516-
2013. For split tensile strength, the cylinder samples are prepared with a height of
300 mm and diameter of 150 mm according to IS 5816-1999. For flexural strength,
the samples are prepared with a size of 100 × 100 × 500 mm according to IS 516-
1959. For rapid chloride penetration test, the cylindrical samples are prepared with
a size of 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height according to ASTM C 1202.
3.1 Compressive Strength
In current work, all concrete mixes are tested in compressive strength test machine
with a rate of loading as 140 kg/cm2 /min. All samples are cured in regular water for
28 and 56 days. The 28 and 56 days cured samples of replacement with RM at 20%
showed 5.168% and 6.84% increment in the strength when compared to reference
samples. It is the optimum replacement in the current mix. However, in the case of
25% replacement mix, it has shown 6.030% and 4.60% of strength reduction after 28
and 56 days of curing, respectively, when compared to reference samples as shown
in Fig. 1. The reason for strength reduction is low pozzolanic reactivity of red mud.
All the results of the current mix are reported with an average of three samples.
60
Compressive Strength(MPa)
28 Days 56 Days
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
RM0 RM5 RM10 RM15 RM20 RM25
Replacement of RM
Fig. 1 Compressive strength versus replacement of RM

28 Days 56 Days
Split tensile Strength(MPa)

6
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
Replacement of RM
Fig. 2 Split tensile strength versus replacement of RM
3.2 Split Tensile Strength
In current work, all concrete mixes are tested to assess the split tensile strength
with rate of loading applied to the sample is 140 kg/cm2 /min. The results after the 28
and 56 days of curing; 20% replacement of red mud mix showed optimum strength
compared to other mixes. At replacement of 20%, the strength is increased by 5.44%
and 5.72% after 28 and 56 days of curing respectively. But, 0.90% and 1.43% of
strength reductions were observed for 28 and 56 days of curing for 25% replacement
as shown in Fig. 2. The reason for strength increment up to 20% is fineness of red
mud which minimized the microcracks. The reason for strength reduction at 25%
replacement of red mud is less chemical reaction between red mud and other minerals
present in the concrete.
3.3 Flexural Strength
In current work, all concrete mixes are tested in the flexural testing machine to know
the flexural strength of concrete, and rate of loading applied to the samples is 140
kg/cm2 /min. Based on results analysis, it is observed that 20% replacement of red
mud has shown optimum strength values when compared to the other mixes. An
increment in the strength of 2.51% and 4.04% is observed after a curing period of 28
and 56 days for 20% replacement mix. Afterward, for a 25% replacement mix, the
strength is decreased by 3.09% and 0.57% after 28 and 56 days of curing as shown
in Fig. 3. The reason for strength reduction is less water content present in the mix
to develop required pozzolanic action.
28 Days 56 Days
Flexural strength (MPa)

5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5
4.9
4.8
Replacement of RM
Fig. 3 Flexural strength versus replacement of RM
3.4 Rapid Chloride Penetration Test
In current work, rapid chloride penetration test is conducted for all mixes to know the
chloride ions movement inside concrete. Based on the results analysis, increase in the
quantity of red mud in concrete offered more resistance to chloride ions penetration
into the concrete due to the fineness of the red mud, and also it made concrete denser.
There is much difference in chloride ions movement inside concrete for 28 and 56
days of curing as shown in Fig. 4.
3000 28 Days 56 Days
2500
Coulombs
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Replacement of RM
Fig. 4 Passage of coulombs versus replacement of RM

4 Conclusions
In current work, red mud based concrete was prepared by replacing different propor-
tions of red mud (0% to 25%) and a 5% of silica fume. All the mixes are tested,
analyzed, and reported by taking average of three samples. Based on the results, the
following conclusions are made.
• The strength of concrete increased with increases the quantity of red mud upto
20%; the reason for strength increament is due to the presence of a higher quantity
of silica in cementitious materials which is responsible for strength enchancement.
• Due to an insufficient chemical reaction between the minerals; after 20% of
red mud replacement sudden strength (compressive, split tensile and flexural)
was reduced.
• Fine particles of red mud have filled the pores and microcracks of concrete, which
in turn increased the resistance to chloride ions passage.
Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr. P. K. Pattajoshi and V. Krishna Kumari, AGM

(Chemical)-R&D, Nalco, India for providing red mud.
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engineering construction material. J Cleaner Prod 168:679–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcl
epro.2017.08.210
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construction material. Aei 2017. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784480502.032
8. Rathod RR, Suryawanshi NT, Memade PD (2012) Evaluation of the properties of red mud
concrete ISOR J Mech Civ Eng 31–34
9. Sawant AB, Kumthekar MB, Sawant SG (2013) Utilization of neutralized red mud (industrial
waste) in concrete. Int J Inventive Eng Sci 1(2):9–13
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material composed of red mud and coal industry byproducts. Constr Build Mater 47:496–501.
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self compacting concrete. Eur Sci J 10(21). https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2014.v10n21p%25p
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using Di-potassium phosphatic binder Silicate Indus
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by red mud in concrete. Sci Res Essays 10(4):137–143
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Effect of Green Corrosion Inhibitors
on the Properties of Mortar and Concrete
K. Kavya, S. Keerthana, and T. Pradeep
Abstract The effect of corrosion inhibiting properties on concrete and mortar is

investigated experimentally. The mortar was prepared by using Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) and Pozzolanic Portland Cement (PPC). Based on the efficiency
obtained, OPC was used to prepare concrete. Based on the literatures, Azadirachta
indica (Neem) is in two forms, one as powder and another as solution and acting as a
Green Corrosion Inhibitor (GCI). The efficiency of two forms of GCI was compared.
The physical properties such as consistency and initial setting time have been eval-
uated by mortar paste, and the mechanical properties such as compressive strength
and split tensile strength have been tested by casting mortar cubes, concrete cubes,
and cylinders. The addition of GCI in the form of powder decreases the compres-
sive strength due to drought resistance of the neem powder, whereas solution shows
the best result due to hydroscopic property of ethanol. Therefore, extracts of plants
and natural products are used to achieve cheap, environmentally acceptable, abun-
dant source, readily available and effective molecules having very high inhibition
effectiveness and low or zero ecological impact.
Keywords Green Corrosion Inhibitor (GCI) · Setting time · Drought resistance ·

Hydroscopic · PPC and OPC
1 Introduction
Concrete is composed of cement, water, and aggregates which is used worldwide.

Cement is a major constituent of concrete, when mixed with water forms a paste that
sets and hardens due to hydration reactions [1]. Usually, concrete is comparatively
weak in tension; arrangements have to be made for the tensile stresses in the structure
to be transferred to another material that is strong in tension. Thus, concrete structures
are often strengthened by embedding steel ribs which is known reinforcement in
concrete [2–7]. Prime setback of fortification in concrete is corrosion. In general,
K. Kavya (B) · S. Keerthana · T. Pradeep

Department of Civil Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: kavyakathirvel@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_34
396 K. Kavya et al.
concrete provides reinforcing steel with admirable corrosion protection [21]. The
high alkaline environment in concrete results in the formation of a tightly adhering,
which passivates the steel and protects it from corrosion.
Corrosion is detoriation of metal as a result of chemical reaction between and
surrounding environment. Rate of deterioration is found by the type of metal and
the environmental conditions, particularly what gases that are in contact with the
metal. Corrosion inhibitors can be defined as those compounds that added in suit-
able amounts cause lowering in the corrosion rate of the metal without completely
changing the weighting up any other corrosive agent. Corrosion inhibitors help the
metal or the alloy and maintain its resistance against corrosion via various inhibition
mechanisms. The use of inhibitors is simple and economical with good inhibiting
effect. The use of inhibitors depends mainly on the concentration of inhibitor; more
the concentration more is the inhibitor effect on corrosion [8–12]. The function
requires transport of inhibitor to the reinforcement where it has to reach suitably on
the surface of reinforcement to protect the steel against corrosion or to diminish the
rate of ongoing corrosion. The application of inhibitor does not require any ability.
It only depends on adding of inhibitor in appropriate proportion [21].
2 Preparation of Organic Extract
Fresh Azadirachta indica leaves which are shown in Fig. 1. were collected, and they
were dried at 80 °C in hot air oven; the dried leaves are shown in Fig. 2. Dried leaves
were finely ground into powder; Fig. 3. shows the fine powder of neem leaves. About
15 g of finely grained powder was weighed and added to 100 ml of ethanol. Fig. 4.
shows the prepared Green Corrosion Inhibitor (GCI) solution before filtration. The
mixtures of ethanol and powder were left out for 24 h without stirring and allowed
to cool overnight. The extract was obtained by filtering the mixtures by Whatman
filter paper no. 4; the filtration process is shown in the (Figs. 5 and 6) [15–20].
Fig. 1 Fresh neem leaves
Fig. 2 Dried neem leaves

Effect of Green Corrosion Inhibitors on the Properties … 397
Fig. 3 Neem powder
Fig. 4 Ethanol
Fig. 5 GCI solution
Fig. 6 Filtration
3 Experimental Results 3.1comparative Analysis

for Mortar
3.1 Consistency
The standard consistency of mortar for OPC and PPC was found and compared for
different percentages of addition of green corrosion inhibitor in the form of powder
and solution. The consistency results were tabulated in Table 1. The consistency
comparison represented in Fig. 7 clearly shows that the consistency of Portland
Pozzolanic cement is high; it is due to the fineness of fly ash. In addition of water, the
fly ash along with cement particles flocculate and entrap added water. This results
in poor workability; so, to deflocculate or to achieve desired workability, plasticizer
should be added. It is also observed that addition of GCI in both forms does not alter
consistency of cement.
398 K. Kavya et al.
Table 1 Consistency results of OPC and PPC

Sample detail Powder Solution
1% 2% 3% 1% 2% 3%
OPC 38 40 40 30 30 30
PPC 38 40 40 30 30 30
Fig. 7 Comparison of Comparison of consistency

consistency
opc ppc
3838 4040 4040

consistency %
3030 3030 3030
P1 P2 P3 S1 S2 S3
Specimen Details
Table 2 Initial setting time results for OPC and PPC

Sample detail Powder Solution
1% 2% 3% 1% 2% 3%
OPC 32 30 31 35 32 30
PPC 35 34 33 37 35 34
3.2 Initial Setting Time
The initial setting time of mortar for OPC and PPC was found and compared for
and solution. Result of initial setting time is tabulated in Table 2.
The addition of fly ash and green corrosion inhibitor does not infer the hydra-
tion process at it meet the required initial setting. In addition of water, there was a
Pozzolanic reaction, that is, reaction of Pozzolanic material with calcium hydroxide,
and water forms calcium silicate hydrate gel.
3.3 Compressive Strength of Mortar
The compressive strength of mortar for OPC and PPC was found and compared for
Table 3 Compressive strength results for OPC and PPC

Specimen details Compressive strength n/mm2
OPC PPC
7th 28th 7th 28th
Powder 1% 11.24 14.24 9.52 13.5
2% 4.57 6.96 3.82 6.92
3% 1.48 2.24 0.82 4.35
Solution 1% 17.68 20.64 11.80 16.05
2% 11.22 18.56 10.63 15.24
3% 9.63 14.24 7.87 12.04
and solution. The compressive strength result is tabulated in Table 3 and graphically
compared in Figs. 8 and 9.
Fig. 8 7th day compressive 7 th day compressive strength

strength results comparison comparison
compressive strength
20
N/mm2
15
10
5
ppc 9.52 3.82 0.82 11.8 10.63 7.87
Fig. 9 28th day compressive 28

th
day compressive strength
strength results comparison
comparison
25
water absorption %
compressive strength
20
N/mm2
15
10
0
P1 P2 P3 S1 S2 S3
opc 14.24 6.96 2.24 20.64 18.56 14.24
ppc 13.3 6.92 4.35 16.05 15.24 12.04
400 K. Kavya et al.
The results show that the addition of GCI in the form of powder decreases the
strength by 60–80% when compared with addition of GCI in the form of solution.
Decrease in compressive strength in usage of GCI in the form of powder is due to
the drought resistance property. From the compression strength, it is absorbed that
usage of OPC increases the compressive strength for about 15–20%. The decrease
in strength of PPC is due to the pozzolanic reaction which results in later strength.
3.4 Water Absorption
The water absorption of mortar for OPC and PPC was found and compared for
and solution. The water absorption result of OPC for different percentages of addition
of GCI is tabulated in Table 4, and similarly for PPC it is tabulated in Table 5 and
graphically compared in Figs. 10 and 11, respectively. Water absorption percentage
decreases by about 75% for GCI solution. Comparing OPC and PPC, water absorption
result was similar.
The percentage of water absorption was calculated as follows,
% of water absorption = [(ww-wd/wd) × 100%] where ww = saturated weight
of specimen and wd = dry weight of specimen.
Table 4 Water absorption result of OPC

Specimen details % of inhibitors Initial weight (G) Final weight (G) Percentage of water
absorption
Powder 1 0.728 0.779 8.89
2 0.712 0.778 5.13
3 0.746 0.774 3.62
Solution 1 0.769 0.787 2.29
2 0.750 0.766 2.06
3 0.772 0.769 3.07
Table 5 Water absorption result of PPC

Specimen details % of inhibitors Initial weight (G) Final weight (G) Percentage of water
absorption
Powder 1 0.728 0.779 8.89
2 0.712 0.778 5.13
3 0.746 0.774 3.62
Solution 1 0.769 0.787 2.29
2 0.750 0.766 2.06
3 0.772 0.769 3.02
Fig. 10 Comparison % of comparison % of water

water absorption of OPC absorption of OPC
8.89
5.13
3.62
3.07
2.29 2.06
P1 P2 P3 S1 S2 S3
Specimen Details
Fig. 11 Comparison % of water absorption of PPC

water absorption of PPC
8.89
% of water absorption
5.13
3.62
3.02
2.29 2.06
P1 P2 P3 S1 S2 S3
Specimen details
4 Comparative Analysis for Concrete
4.1 Cube Compressive Strength
The concrete cube compressive strength for different mixes was compared with
conventional. The compressive strength of cube is obtained for different mixes with
an addition of green corrosion inhibitor in the form of solution. OPC is used since it
has early strength property. The compressive strength result is tabulated in Table 6
and graphically compared in Fig. 12.
Figure 12 clearly shows that with the addition of green corrosion inhibitor solution
there is an increase in strength gradually. For addition of 1 and 2% of solution, there
was decrease in strength of about 15.65 and 4%. But for an addition of 3%, there
was slight increase in strength.
402 K. Kavya et al.
Table 6 Cube compressive

Specimen details % of inhibitors Average compressive
strength results
strength n/mm2
7th day 28th day
CC – 24.35 38.97
CS1 1 39.98 32.87
CS2 2 32.87 37.28
CS3 3 34.11 39.27
Fig. 12 Comparison of Comparison of Compressive

compressive strength Strength
Compressive strength
3 65
3.34 3.3
2.9 3 3.01
N/mm 2 2.6 7 2.7 1
2.4 2
7th day
28th day
CC CS1 CS2 CS3

Specimen Details
4.2 Tensile Test
The concrete cylinder specimen tested for split tensile strength for different mixes
was compared with conventional. The split tensile strength of cylinder is obtained for
different mixes with an addition of green corrosion inhibitor in the form of solution.
OPC is used since it has early strength property. The split tensile strength result is
tabulated in Table 7 and graphically compared in Fig. 13. Figure 13 clearly shows that
with the addition of green corrosion inhibitor solution there is an increase in strength
gradually. For addition of 1 and 2% of solution, there was decrease in strength of

Specimen details % of inhibitors Average tensile
results
strength
7th day 28th day
CC – 2.93 3.34
CS1 1 2.42 3.01
CS2 2 2.67 3.30
CS3 3 2.71 3.65
Fig. 13 Comparison of Comparison of Tensile Strength

tensile strength 3.65
Tensile strength
3.34 3.01 3.3
2.93 2.67 2.71
2.42
N/mm2
7th day
28th day
CC CS1 CS2 CS3
Specimen Details
about 10 and 1%. But for an addition of 3%, there was increase in tensile strength of
about 9%.
5 Conclusion
Based on the experimental data received after a wide range of study on green corrosion
inhibitor, following conclusions are made.
• The consistency of Portland Pozzolanic cement is high which results in poor
workability by flocculation. Addition of GCI in both form as neem powder and
solution does not alter the consistency of cement.
• The addition of fly ash and green corrosion inhibitor does not infer the initial
hydration process hence the required initial setting can be easily achieved.
• Mortar compressive strength decreased by 60–80% in addition of GCI in the form
of neem powder than GCI solution. 15–20% of compression strength is increased
for OPC than PPC.
• It is inferred that neem powder is not efficient due to drought resistance, whereas
GCI solution shows better results due to hydroscopic property of ethanol.
• Usage of PPC will result in better durability by making dense and impervious
concrete, but it poses later strength development.
• Cube compressive strength decreases by about 15.65 and 4% for an addition of
1 and 2% of GCI solution, but for an addition of 3%, there was slight increase in
strength.
• Split tensile strength decreased by about 10 and 1% for an addition of 1 and 2%
of GCI solution, but for an addition of 3%, there was increase in tensile strength
of about 9%.
404 K. Kavya et al.
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steel corrosion in 1 M HCl 9
21. Raja PB, Ghoreishiamiri S, Ismail M (2015) Natural corrosion inhibitors for steel reinforcement
in concrete—a review. Surf Rev Lett 22(03):1550040
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an overview. Int J Corros 2012:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/380217
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green corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in 0.5 M H2 SO4 . J Mol Liq 258:89–97. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.molliq.2018.02.104
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2:47–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/17518250903002335
Utilizing and Optimizing Waste
Resources in Paver Block
S. Janaki Raman and Shanmugasundaram
Abstract Use of concrete paver blocks in road pavements is more common nowa-
days. Concrete paver block is a better option in the road construction from the point
of cost and better suitability, when compared to conventional road, which is made
by bitumen and gravel. This paper is based on a project undertaken on utilization of
coconut shells and waste paper sludge ash as inputs in manufacturing concrete paver
block as replacement of coarse aggregate and cement, respectively. In the project,
three sets of concrete paver block are proposed to be created on M40 design mix.
The first set of paver block is the partial replacement of coarse aggregate by crushed
coconut shells in the proportion of 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15%. The second set of paver block
is the partial replacement of cement by waste paper sludge ash in the proportion of
0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15%. The parameters will be tested regarding compressive strength
behaviour of paver block specimens for 7 and 28 days. Based on the compressive
value, the percentages of the coconut shell and waste paper sludge ash are combined
to form a third set of paver block. This block is also to be checked for Compressive
Strength, Water Absorption test, Abrasion Resistance test and Flexural Strength test.
Keywords Paver block · Waste · Coconut shell · Concrete · Compressive strength
1 Introduction
Concrete paving blocks are ideal materials on the roads and footpaths for easy laying,
better look and finish. Concrete blocks are economical when compared to conven-
tional material in both flexible and rigid pavements. The strength, durability and
aesthetically pleasing surfaces have made paving blocks attractive for commercial,
municipal and industrial applications such as parking areas, pedestrian walks, traffic
S. Janaki Raman (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore,
India
e-mail: raman26892@gmail.com; janakiraman@karunya.edu
Shanmugasundaram
Department of Civil Engineering, KLN College of Information Technology, Madurai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_35
408 S. Janaki Raman and Shanmugasundaram
intersections, container yards and roads. Also, using paver blocks in important road
junctions restricts the speed of the road vehicles, which serves as one of the vital road
safety measures. Concrete paver blocks are made with concrete basically consisting
of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, water, chemical pigments, etc. The
overall performance of concrete paver blocks are mainly governed by properties of
materials, water–cement ratio, mixing process and curing process.
The utilization of concrete is increasing at a higher rate due to development in
infrastructure and construction activities all around the world. However, there are
some negative impacts on excessive and continuous extraction of coarse aggregate
from natural resources leading to its depletion and ecological imbalance. In order to
overcome this ill-effect, it is required to find alternative materials to partially replace
the conventional materials by commonly available waste resources. This includes
sugarcane bagasse ash, wooden chips, plastic waste, rice husk ash, coconut shell,
paper and pulp industry wastes and the like. Coconut shells are not commonly used
in the construction industry and are often dumped as agricultural waste. Likewise,
the waste paper sludge obtained from paper and pulp industries are being disposed
of by land filling. The aim of this project is to study the feasibility of utilizing
waste paper sludge ash and coconut shell as a partial replacement of cement and
coarse aggregate in concrete paver block by determining its compressive strength,
water absorption and abrasion test. Apart from cost economics, utilizing these waste
products in construction reduces the disposal problems and also protects the envi-
ronment. Using the coconut shell as aggregate in concrete can reduce material cost
in construction. Coconut shell concrete is also classified as structural lightweight
concrete.
The idea of using waste paper sludge ash as a cement replacement material
emerged from the fact that it contains silica content and other chemical compositions
which are commonly found in cement. Tests are as per the specified procedure of
Indian standard codes.
2 Selection of Materials
2.1 Material Characteristics
2.1.1 Crushed Coconut Shells
The coconut shells were collected; crushed and checked for impact test in order to
find the possibility of using these as partial replacement for coarse aggregate. Since
the test value was within the limit, this material was selected. Coconut shells contain
cellulose, lignin, pentosans and ash in varying percentage. Coconut shells are not
commonly used in construction industry and are often dumped as agricultural waste.
The aim of this project is to spread awareness of using coconut shells as partial
replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete paver block (Fig. 1).
Utilizing and Optimizing Waste Resources in Paver Block 409
Fig. 1 Crushed coconut

shells after sieve
2.1.2 Waste Paper Sludge Ash
At present, there are over 850 paper manufacturing mill available in the country,
which produces variety of papers based on customer requirements. Waste paper
sludge is a major waste product in the paper mills. The material is a by-product of the
deinking and repulping of paper. Its huge volume causes disposal and environmental
problems for the paper mills. There is no taker of this material for recycling or any
other activity. This waste material is to be sun-dried first and can also be used as
a fuel. After firing, the ash derived can be used as cement replacement material in
manufacturing concrete paver block because of similar chemical compositions as
that of cement. The waste paper sludge ash normally contains Calcium (Ca), Silicon
dioxide (SiO2 ) and Aluminium oxides (Al2 O3 ) (Fig. 2 and Tables 1 and 2).
2.1.3 Admixture
As per IS 9103: 1999, the suitable quantity and quality of admixture was mixed with
water. The amount of admixture to be mixed is based on IS 10262: 2009. Normally,
Fig. 2 Waste paper sludge ash (before and after sieve)


S. no. Physical properties Results
of waste paper sludge ash
1 Particle size 90 µ
2 Specific gravity 3
3 Fineness of WPSA 11
4 Colour Grey
Table 2 Chemical
S. no. Chemical composition Mass (%)
Composition of Waste Paper
Sludge Ash 1 O 15.83
2 Ca 14.94
3 Si 60.57
4 Al 2.06
5 Mg 3.59
6 S 1.07
7 Fe 0.92
the admixture to be mixed is 2–3% by the weight of cement. In this project, the
admixture used was Sika Plast 1000 ES.
3 Material Test Results
Properties Waste paper sludge ash Coconut shell

Specific gravity 2.5 1.18
Fineness 11% 4.7%
4 Mix Design
In this case of mix design for medium strength, less parameter is required to be consid-
ered. Design can be finalized on observing one or two trial mixes. In this project, the
design mix of concrete grade M40 was used. This mix is designed corresponding to
the degree control specified as good for its code. Three-dimensional specimens of
250 mm × 125 mm × 80 mm were used to determine compression strength, water
absorption and abrasion values. The total of 56 specimens was casted. The mix ratio
is 1:2.1:2.9. The water–cement ratio is taken as 0.4. The waste paper sludge ash and
Coconut Shell is replaced in 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 respectively.
5 Preparation of Test Specimen
5.1 Mould
The thickness of the paver block is decided based on the grade designation of the
paver blocks. In this project, M40 grade of concrete is used. As per IS 15658: 2006,
for M40 grade of concrete, the recommended paver block thickness is 80 mm. The
size of paver block mould = 250 mm × 125 mm × 80 mm (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
During first set of casting paver blocks, the coarse aggregates were partially
replaced by coconut shells (CS) by increasing its percentage such as 0, 3, 6, 9,
12 and 15%. Due to high water absorption of coconut shell, they were presoaked in
water for 24 h, prior to mixing. During second set of casting paver blocks, the cement
was partially replaced by waste paper sludge ash by increasing its percentage such
as 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15%. The design was based on M40 grade of concrete. Since
the waste paper sludge ash contains silica content, it can be effectively used as a
replacement material for cement. The test results were analysed and compared with
theoretical values obtained from various codes. Four blocks were casted with 12%
waste paper sludge ash and coconut shell (Fig. 6).
Fig. 3 Dimension of paver

block specimen
Fig. 4 Filling of concrete in

the mould
Fig. 5 Casting of paver

block using table vibrator
Fig. 6 Paver block

specimen for testing
6 Experimental Test Results
6.1 Compressive Strength Results
From the figure, it is seen that the coconut shells can be utilized up to 12% based
on the compressive strength values for 7 days and 28 days. At 15%, the value of
compressive strength becomes lesser than minimum compressive value.
From the figure, it is seen that for waste paper sludge ash the value of compressive
strength increases at 3% than the conventional paver block specimen for 7 days and
28 days, and gradually increased up to 12%. Beyond 12%, the value of compressive
strength is less than minimum compressive strength value. Therefore, the waste paper
sludge ash can be replaced up to 12% for cement.
Based on the bar chart, 12% of coconut shells and 12% of waste paper sludge ash
can be combined to form the final paver block. It is concluded that the compressive
strength for 7 days and 28 days using 12% of coconut shells and 12% of waste paper
sludge ash in a single paver is greater than minimum compressive value (Figs. 7 and
8 and Table 3).
Fig. 7 Comparison of compressive strength of coconut shells for 7 and 28 days
Fig. 8 Comparison of Compressive strength of waste paper sludge ash for 7 and 28 days
Table 3 Compression value of paver block for 28 days (Using both coconut shell and waste paper
sludge ash)
Paver block identity Ultimate mean stress (N/mm2 ) *Corrected compressive strength
(N/mm2 )
CS—12% and WPSA––12% 42.16 49.75
* Corrected compressive strength = ultimate mean stress × correction factor
Correction factor = 1.18 (for chamfered block)
6.2 Water Absorption Test
The water absorption test was conducted on optimized value of paver block (i.e. for
0% of coconut shell and waste paper sludge ash and 12% of coconut shell and waste
paper sludge ash). From table, it is seen that for 0% of coconut shell and waste paper
sludge ash, the percentage of water absorption is less than that of 12% of coconut
shell and waste paper sludge ash. Since the water absorption value is within the limit
(i.e. up to 7%), the paver block is considered as a good water absorption specimen
for 12% of coconut shell and waste paper sludge ash (Table 4).
6.3 Abrasion Resistance Test
For finding the abrasion value of paver block, the specimen is to be of 70 mm × 70 mm

× 28 mm in size in order to fix the specimen in the proper position in the abrasion
testing machine. From the table, it is seen that the loss in volume of specimen after 16
cycles is 454 mm3 , where the actual total volume of the specimen is 1,37,200 mm3 .
The abrasion value of the specimen should not exceed 2% by the total volume of the
specimen. It is concluded from the results that the percentage of abrasion resistance
for the given specimen is 0.33% which is much less than standard percentage value
of 2% (Table 5).
6.4 Flexural Strength Test
The flexural strength test was conducted on paver block specimen for 7 days and
28 days using 0% of coconut shell and waste paper sludge ash and 12% of coconut
shell and waste paper sludge ash, respectively. It is seen from the results that the
flexural strength value of the specimen for 12% replacement of coconut shell and
waste paper sludge is within the specified limit as per codal provision (Fig. 9 and
Table 6).
Table 4 Water Absorption test results on paver block specimen

Paver block identity Water absorbed (gm) Water absorption (%)
CS—0%, WPSA––0% 75 1.22
CS—0%, WPSA––0% 88 1.56
Table 5 Abrasion resistance test on paver block specimen

Specimen Total volume (mm3 ) Loss in volume (mm3 ) Percentage loss (%)
CS—12%, WPSA––12% 1,37,200 454 0.33
Fig. 9 Flexural strength test

on paver block specimen

Paver block identification Max. Flexural
paver block
breaking load strength
(N) (N/mm2 )
CS—0%, WPSA––0% 23100 10.82
CS—12%, WPSA––12% 17700 8.296
7 Conclusion
Based on the Paver Block specimens manufactured using Waste Paper Sludge Ash
and Coconut Shells as partial replacement of Cement and Coarse Aggregate and the
tests carried out on them and findings of the test results, coconut shell and waste
paper sludge ash can effectively replace coarse aggregate and cement up to 12% in
paver block manufacturing, with the required strength similar to that of conventional
paver block. The increase in the percentage of replacement by coconut shells beyond
12% reduces the compressive strength of the paver block. Similarly, increase in the
percentage of replacement for waste paper sludge ash beyond 12% causes reduction
in compressive strength. The water absorption values for 0% and 12% replacement
of coconut shell and waste paper sludge ash were 1.22 and 1.56%, respectively,
which were less than 7% as specified by codal provision. The abrasion resistance of
paver block specimen for 12% replacement of coconut shells and waste paper sludge
ash is 0.33% which is less than permitted level of 2%. The flexural strength results
show that the values of paver block using coconut shell and waste paper sludge ash
are well within the values specified in the codal provisions. Thus, the four types of
tests conducted as mentioned above show that the quality of output using coconut
shell and waste paper sludge ash meets with the required standards as per the codal
provisions and can be utilized effectively on par with the conventional paver blocks.
The coconut shells can be used in the locations, where it is available in abundance,
which reduces the requirement of coarse aggregate and will be cost effective.
The paper sludge which is an effluent from the industries is a complete waste and is
not recyclable. Hence, the use of such paper sludge in the paver block manufacturing
will help in producing an economical process to reduce use of raw material for paver
block manufacturing and also eco-friendly use of waste sludge materials.
Prediction of Strength Characteristics
of Soil Using Neural Network Techniques
Amit Kumar and D. K. Soni
Abstract New era of machine learning technique has many prediction techniques
like linear/nonlinear regression, genetic expression programming, artificial neural
networks (ANN), etc. In the present study, among all artificial intelligence techniques,
ANN was used to predict the maximum dry density, optimum moisture content, and
unconfined compressive strength of 7-, 14-, and 21-day-aged soil samples those
contained stone waste at different percentages. The prediction model consists of
input parameters, i.e., mix constituents, one hidden layer with two neurons, and
results as output parameters. The training and testing results of prediction models
were validated with the laboratory findings. The results showed that ANN prediction
model produced very precise results with respect to high correlation coefficient and
least root mean square error. Therefore, ANN predictive model can be used to predict
various parameters of soil efficiently.
Keyword Clayey soil · Stone waste · Artificial intelligence · Artificial neural

networks · Prediction model
1 Introduction
Industrial growth promotes the production of by-products and wastes normally in

the form of solid, liquid, and gaseous state. Safe and secure dispose-off of all by-
products is mandatory for the safe environment. Unfortunately, these wastes are being
disposed openly to the land spaces or water courses from a long time. This nonsense
is not only creating threat to environment but also misbalancing the ecosystem too.
Stone industries produce waste in the form of stone slurry or stone waste those
generated during shaping the stones. The waste of the stone industry is injurious
A. Kumar (B) · D. K. Soni

Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra
136119, India
e-mail: kauleamit0089@gmail.com; amit_6160040@nitkkr.ac.in
D. K. Soni
e-mail: dksoni54@yahoo.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5001-0_36
418 A. Kumar and D. K. Soni
to crop land also as it triggers soil infertility by clogging the soil pores. And if
charged to the water courses without any necessary treatment, then flora and fauna
of water courses may end. Dry stone powder is equally dangerous to humans and
animals, as its direct exposure may give rise to respiratory problems, eye and throat
diseases too. By considering its severity, a safe and manageable disposal is needed
[1, 2]. Stone waste may be used as a stabilizer of soil in road construction indus-
tries. Literature mentioned that when stone waste has been used as a stabilizer, it
produced amazing results in loading as well as weathering conditions. Replacement
of Kota stone powder to the marble powder in marble bricks proved betterment in the
compressive strength [3]. Kota stone intrusion in clayey subgrade lit up appreciable
changes in California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value and compressibility characteristics
[4]. Stone slurry waste, another form of stone waste, was also found effective for soil’s
compaction, strength characteristics, and CBR properties [5]. High compressible soil
like black cotton soil (BCS) also found improved, when used with some other addi-
tives like saw dust and fibers. The improvement was ranged from 26 to 35%. But high
amount of fibers may reduce the dry density of soil due to low density of fibers than
soil [6, 7]. Interchanged marble slurry with Kota stone sludge showed better results
[8]. Kota stone slurry had found a good stabilizer to improve BCS subgrade. The
treated soil showed remarkable changes in unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
and CBR values [9]. Calcium-enriched additive, i.e., eggshell powder was found as
a good material to improve the strength characteristics of silty soil, on the basis of
physicochemical tests [10]. Abovementioned all researches were based on conven-
tional design of experiments. But modern techniques like artificial neural networks
(ANN) and others likewise support vector machine (SVM), multiple regression anal-
ysis (MRA) promise most accurate results than conventional methodologies. Shahin
et al. in their review article, mentioned many laboratory results. All the laboratory
condition results were predicted by using ANN technique [11]. ANN and SVM tech-
niques had been used by Das et al. to predict the residual strength of soil. Authors
found SVM models produced more precise results than ANN models [12]. A dataset
of 72 experiments was investigated by Abdulabbas and Bind to estimate the cohe-
sion and angle of shearing resistance in separation and combination. Findings of the
study might be used for geotechnical purposes [13]. In spite of extensive literature
of ANN models used in geotechnical engineering, the usage of ANN tools in other
civil engineering projects like hydraulic works, construction, etc. cannot be ignored.
Chithra et al. also compared MRA and ANN models to predict 90-day compres-
sive strength of high-performance concrete combined with nanosilica and copper
slag. ANN models demonstrate more precise results with higher correlation factor
[14]. Eskandari and Tayyebinia used 12 mix proportions with varying cement/sand
ratio and water/binder ratio for the prediction of strength parameters using ANN
model and model showed a strong potential for predicting compressive strength of
mortars [15]. A comparative study of ANN and GEP prediction method performed
by Azimi-Pour and Eskandari-Naddaf showed ANN as a high precise method than
GEP prediction method. Models were based on cement mortar containing nanosilica.
Porosity was also considered as an input parameter to compare ANN and GEP models
[16]. MATLAB-oriented ANN models of recycled aggregate-based concrete were
Prediction of Strength Characteristics of Soil … 419
analyzed by Naderpour et al. to predict the compressive strength. Results showed a

promising prediction for the strength evaluation of recycled aggregate-based concrete
[17].
Research significance
In the present study, ANN prediction model was employed to predict the UCS of
stone waste-stabilized clayey soil. UCS of the soil was measured at 7, 14, and 21 days
age. Six mix proportions having different weight percentage replacements with stone
waste were casted. Raw materials were considered as input parameters and compres-
sive strength was taken as output. Training of multilayer perception predictive model
was done through error backpropagation algorithm.
2 Methodology
The subjected soil and stone powder were obtained from a deposit of Kurukshetra and
Kota (INDIA), respectively. The soil was found to be CL type as per plasticity chart
proposed by Indian Standard Classification System (ISC). Stone powder is a waste
material generated during the dimensioning of stones, dried, crushed to finer particles
and used as an additive (powder form). To maintain the uniformity of stone powder,
the powder was sieved through 425 µ sieve and used throughout the experimentation.
Stone waste was taken by dry weight of soil, mixed dried and content was 0, 4, 8,
12, 16, and 20%. Whole soil testing was performed as per Indian standards of soil
testing in civil engineering [18]. To meet the requisite objectives of the present work,
whole job was done in two phases. First phase was completed with the determination
of maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) of parent
and treated soil using standard proctor test as per IS 2720 (VII) 1974 and to perform
the strength test by unconfined strength test as per IS 2720 (X) 1991. In the second
phase, analyses of laboratory results was done to create prediction model.
To predict the MDD, OMC, and UCS at 7-, 14-, and 21-day-aged soil samples,
ANN was employed. Whole modeling/prediction were done by using Weka 3.8.2
software. ANN is a statistical tool, which enables to train and validate the laboratory
data. During modeling, one hidden layer of two neurons was taken to analyze the data.
Soil, stone waste, and water were taken as inputs and MDD, OMC, and UCS were
experimental outputs. ANN prediction model of the study is given in Fig. 1. ANN
modeling continued until least mean square error is achieved. Regression values (R-
values) have been used to establish a correlation between input and output parameters.
Mean square error and R2 can be taken as criterion for evaluation of generated network
performance.
Fig. 1 ANN prediction model
3 Results
Addition of the stone waste in the clayey soil improved the compaction and strength
characteristics marginally. During experiments, stone waste was used in powdery
form to prepare homogeneous mixes. Having cementitious properties in stone waste
an appreciable change in MDD and OMC was expected and same was observed in the
present study. The increase in dry density was noted as 0.58–3.49% with comparison
to parent soil. The possible reason for the improvement in MDD after intrusion of
stone waste was that the stone powder was finer than soil particles those filled the
voids of the soil marginally and helped to produce a dense material. Furthermore,
a decrease in OMC was also observed. As stone waste is full of lime so as long
as the lime is present in the mix, it requires more water to react. That is why the
consumption of water increases to promote the pozzolanic reactions. Stone powder
increased the UCS linearly and is found very effective to increase the UCS of the
subjected soil at a certain level. Similar results were found in the previous studies
when stone waste was charged to the clayey as well as black cotton soil too [4, 5, 9].
Analyses of prediction model
ANN model of the present study consists of prediction model for UCS of the stabi-
lized soil at 7-, 14-, and 21-day-aged cured specimens. ANN model was constructed
using one hidden layer with two neurons. Experimental data consists of five different
soil-additive proportions. WEKA 3.8.2 software was used for multilayer perception
prediction. Inputs and their stats are given in Table 1. The backpropagation training
was used to analyze the prediction model of soil samples.
Table 1 Input parameters and their range for ANN model

Inputs Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation
Soil (gm) 149.43 154.64 152.177 2.013
Water (gm) 21.37 21.67 21.503 0.105
Stone waste (gm) 0 0.387 0.192 0.145
MDD (kg/cm3 ) 1.72 1.78 1.752 0.023
OMC (%) 13.93 14.5 14.15 0.224
7-day UCS (kg/cm2 ) 0.096 0.418 0.237 0.125
14-day UCS (kg/cm2 ) 0.117 0.572 0.375 0.182
21-day UCS (kg/cm2 ) 0.15 0.619 0.433 0.193
The predicted-experimental graphical representations of various targeted results

have been given in Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Figures 2 and 3 depict the relationship
between predicted and experimental results of the MDD and OMC, respectively.
1.79 MDD
Predicted results, MDD
1.78
1.77
1.76
1.75
1.74 y=x
1.73 R² = 1
1.72
1.71
1.7 1.72 1.74 1.76 1.78 1.8
Experimental results, MDD
Fig. 2 Predicted versus experimental results (MDD)
14.6 OMC
Predicted results, OMC
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.2
14.1
y = 1.0045x - 0.0667
14 R² = 0.9997
13.9
13.8
13.8 14 14.2 14.4 14.6
Experimental results, OMC
Fig. 3 Predicted versus experimental results (OMC)

Predicted results, UCS 0.5 7 Days UCS

0.4
0.3 y=x
0.2 R² = 1
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Experimetal results, UCS
Fig. 4 Predicted versus experimental results (7-day UCS)
14 Days UCS
0.6
Predicted results, UCS
0.5
0.4
y = 0.9907x - 0.0012
0.3 R² = 0.9996
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.8 21 Days UCS

Prediced results, UCS
0.6
0.4 y = 0.9868x - 0.0018
R² = 0.9991
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
From Figs. 2 and 3, a good relationship between predicted and experimental results
can be seen. Regression coefficients were found near to unity with minimal errors.
Figures 4, 5 and 6 illustrated the predicted and experimental relation graphs for the
UCS test results obtained at 7, 14, and 21 days age.
The graphical representation of the predicted and experimental relation of UCS
showed low errors and high regression coefficient similarly. Values of R (correlation
coefficient), R2 , mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), and
equations have been given in Table 2.
Table 2 Statistical data of targeted parameters

Properties R R2 MAE RMSE Relation equation
MDD 1 1 0 0.0001 y=x
OMC 0.9999 0.999 0.0035 0.005 y = 1.004x − 0.066
7-day UCS 1 1 0.0001 0.001 y=x
14-day UCS 0.9998 0.999 0.0048 0.0057 y = 0.990x − 0.001
21-day UCS 0.9996 0.999 0.0076 0.0094 y = 0.986x − 0.001
4 Conclusions
Present study checks the feasibility of the stone waste to stabilize the weak soil and
to construct a predictive model that suits the best for the prediction of the results
for the ease in future work. Stone waste proved their efficacy to improve the various
engineering properties of the soil by decreasing and increasing the OMC and MDD,
respectively. Strength properties were found improved up to certain extent of engi-
neering usage. Inherent lime of the stone waste was the prime reason to improve
the various soil’s properties and helped to form cementitious properties in the soil.
Thus, the experimental results might be used for subgrade improvement in case of
rural roads. Artificial neural network model was trained and tested to predict the
MDD, OMC, and UCS (7, 14, and 21 days). Predicted and experimental results both
were compared graphically and their correlation coefficients were found near to unity
with minimum errors. Therefore, presented ANN model suggests that the results of
the predictive model were precise and reliable for future work, whereas it could be
limited for the particular type of soil and having similar type of stone waste.
Interest of Conflict There is not any interest of conflict by other authors and any educa-
tional/funding firms.
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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Sanjay Kumar Shukla

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15087

Bibhuti Bhusan Das Sreevalsa Kolathayar

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

Perth, Australia Sanjay Kumar Shukla

Comparative Study of Pedestrian Vibration for Design of Steel

A Study on Dynamic Behaviour of Monoblock Concrete Sleepers

Inﬂuence of Steel Fibers on Enhancing the Toughness Property

Effect of Green Corrosion Inhibitors on the Properties of Mortar

Dr. Sanjay Kumar Shukla is an internationally recognized expert in the ﬁeld of

Dr. Srinivasan Chandrasekaran is a Professor in the department of Ocean

Dr. Bibhuti Bhusan Das is currently serving as an Associate Professor at

Rahul Suresh, A. Sofi, and K. Ganesh

Keywords STAAD pro · Design and analysis · Pedestrian vibration · Comparative

A bridge is a method by which a street, railroad or different administrations is

R. Suresh · A. Sofi (B)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

Data CollecƟon &

3 Analysis and Design

Fig. 1 Cross-sectional view of the entire member section

Table 1 Load cases and

3.1.1 Temperature Analysis

Fig. 2 Shear force and bending moment

Fig. 3 IRC 6 positive temperature diagram

Fig. 4 Reverse temperature

• Reverse differential Temperature

3.2.1 Erection Methodology

Fig. 5 Erection of arch portion of the bridge

4.1 IRC:SP:56/BS 5400-2

The fundamental natural frequency f 0 of a superstructure which exceeds 5 Hz for

Fig. 6 Erection of the deck slab and removal of temporary support

Table 2 Configuration factor k

Fig. 7 Dynamic response factor Ψ

L is the length of the main span (in m)

Table 4 Configuration factor C

4.2 Eurocode 5 Part 2

avert,n = 0.23avert,1 nkvert

ahor,n = 0.18ahor,1 nkhor

“Dynamic behaviour of footbridges” a group working for the French Technical

Fig. 9 The design procedure as defined by Sétra

Table 6 Vertical vibration for comfort criteria

Fig. 10 The design procedure as defined by Sétra

The force to be taken for modes in the vertical direction:

Table 8 Frequency range (Hz) of the vertical and longitudinal vibrations

Table 9 Frequency from different codes

Table 10 Acceleration from different codes

4.4 Comparison with Different Codes

Akash John Koshy, A. Sofi, and A. R. Santhakumar

Keywords Linear analyses · Pushover analysis · Storey displacements ·

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 19

2 Objective of the Study

The objectives of the study include:

Table 1 Geometrical properties of structures

Table 2 Material properties

Table 3 Seismic data

the above-mentioned cases at specific locations, either as straight or L-shaped walls.

5 Shear Wall Positioning

Fig. 2 Core with opening

Base Reactions (kN)

MRF CORE CORE-OPENING STRAIGHT-1 STRAIGHT-2 L-1 L-2 L-3

Fig. 8 Base reactions in kN

9 Top Storey Displacements