PART 8: SOURCES, IMPACT AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER

POLLUTION

Using water very often results in it then becoming unusable as a result of

pollution. Not surprisingly, therefore, the three main uses of water are also the
three main polluters.

Domestic waste
Sewage is waste matter carried away from houses and other buildings in both
cities and small villages. It is taken away in drains called sewers and is then
dumped or converted into a form that is less harmful.
Sewage treatment
Sewage is very rich in organic matter and so microbial organisms can thrive in
it. Sewage has to be disposed of, and this is usually into bodies of water, so it
must be treated beforehand.
The main aim of sewage treatment is to reduce the biological oxygen demand
(BOD) of the sewage. The BOD of sewage is the amount of oxygen it would use
up if released directly into a river or lake. The removal of this oxygen from the
river or lake would cause problems for the organisms, such as fish and insect
larvae, living in the water. Further details about these problems are given
below in the section on eutrophication. The main parts of a sewage treatment
works can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The stages in a sewage treatment plant.

1. Sewage outfall: waste water from homes, and sometimes industry, is taken
to a sewage treatment works in pipes called sewers.
2. Screening tank: large objects are removed from the waste water using a
coarse grid.
3. Primary treatment, first settling tank: the solid organic matter, mainly
human waste, is allowed to settle to the bottom of the tank. This settled
material is called sludge, which is treated in the sludge-digester (see step 7).
The cleaned water overflows the sides of the tank and is taken to the next
stage.
4. Secondary treatment, oxidation: the water is now pumped into a tank where
oxygen is bubbled through it. This encourages the growth of bacteria and other
microbes, which break down dissolved organic matter, which causes the BOD.
5. Secondary treatment, second settling tank: the water now enters the second
settling tank, where the bacteria settle to the bottom, forming more sludge.
This cleaner water overflows the sides of the tank as effluent.
6. The effluent is discharged into the environment, usually a river.
7. Sludge digester: in the sludge digester, oxygen-free conditions are created
that encourage the growth of bacteria which can break down the sludge,
releasing methane, which can be burnt.
8. The treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and used as organic
fertiliser on farmland.
In some sewage works, tertiary treatment is
KEY TERM
carried out. This may involve further filtering
Effluent: a discharge of liquid waste of the effluent or its chlorination (see below).
This produces even cleaner effluent, which
may be needed to protect the habitat into which the effluent is released.
Improved sanitation
• An improved sanitation facility is defined as one that separates human
excreta from contact with humans. This can be achieved using a variety
of toilets and latrines.
• A flush toilet uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a water seal that
prevents smells. A pour flush toilet has a water seal but uses water
poured by hand for flushing. In either case the waste needs to be
removed by:
• either connection to a system of sewer pipes, also called
sewerage, that collects human faeces, urine and waste water,
which is then removed from the house
• or connection to a septic system, which consists of an
underground, sealed settling tank.
• A pit latrine with a platform is a dry pit fully covered by a platform that is
fitted with a seat over a hole, or just has a hole, in the platform. The
platform covers the pit without exposing the contents, other than
through the hole. Sometimes these latrines are ventilated to take away
smells.
• A composting toilet is a dry toilet into which vegetable waste, straw,
grass, sawdust and ash are added to the human waste to produce
compost.
Water treatment
Water that is fit for domestic use such as drinking, washing and cooking is
called potable water. To make water potable it undergoes coagulation
treatment, and is filtered and disinfected.
 Coagulants make particles in the water stick together and settle to the bottom
of the container. The water is then filtered through sand. To kill any disease-
causing organisms (pathogens) that may remain, chlorine is added to the
filtered water as a disinfectant; this process is called chlorination (Figure 2)

Figure 2 The stages in the treatment of water to produce potable

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1) Typhoid, cholera and malaria are water related diseases. Which of these
could be transmitted by drinking contaminated water? Explain your
answer.
2) A school party was told that a man had drunk a glass of water from a tap
that drew water from treated sewage. They were told that this water
was potable. To what extent do you think they were being told the
truth?
KEY TERM

Chlorination: adding chlorine-based

substances to water
Industrial processes

Industry produces and uses a wide range of chemicals that can be harmful to
both humans and the environment. Because of its excellent solvent properties,
many of these chemicals end up in water bodies and cause pollution. Outfalls
from industry often discharge into rivers and lakes. Gases from industrial
chimneys enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water and form acid
rain. The bodies of living things are at least 75% water and so these water-
soluble pollutants can easily enter organisms and cause problems.
Toxic compounds from industry
Many industrial processes use and produce a variety of poisonous (toxic)
substances. Some of these may enter bodies of water and cause immediate
harm and even death to the organisms living there. In other cases, a less
dramatic effect is seen. This may be because, although the substance is toxic, it
only enters the water in very small amounts. However, because of a process
called biomagnification, such substances may achieve levels where they
become toxic. The most well-known examples of biomagnification are heavy
metals and some pesticides.
Many industrial processes involve the use of heavy metals such as lead,
mercury and cadmium. These metals are toxic and can be stored in the bodies
of plants and animals, including humans. This means they may build up to high
levels, which can cause illness.
Acid rain
In the mid-19th century it was noticed that, in some industrial countries,
forests downwind of industrial sites showed signs of damage. In 1872, Robert
Smith showed that acid water could damage plants and various materials. By
the 1970s, acid rain was recognised as a serious problem. The water in lakes
and rivers was more acidic than previously. Fish in the lakes and rivers were
dying. The leaves and small branches of trees in many forests of the world
were dead (dieback) (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Dieback in coniferous trees.

What causes acid rain?

KEY TERMS
Biomagnification: the process in which the
concentration of a substance in living things
becomes higher at progressively higher levels in a
food chain or web
Bioaccumulation: the build-up of a substance in
the body of a living thing
Dieback: the death of a tree or shrub that starts at
the tip of its leaves or roots and spreads towards
the centre of the plant, caused by unfavourable
environmental conditions or disease
The pH of water is a measure of
how acid or alkaline it is (Figure 4).
A pH of less than 7 is acid, 7 is
neutral, and above 7 is alkaline.
The pH range is from very acid (0)
to very alkaline (14). Rain usually
has a pH of between 5 and 6, so is
always slightly acidic. Acid rain has
a pH lower than this: values as low
as 2 have been recorded, which is
about the same as battery acid.
 Figure 4 The pH scale, with some everyday examples.

When fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are burned, the gases sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are produced. They enter the atmosphere
and can be blown long distances. These gases react with water in the
atmosphere to form acids.
SO2 dissolves in water in clouds, producing sulfuric acid, and NOx produces
nitric acid (Figure 5). When it rains, these acids fall to the ground (see Section
7.2).
 Figure 5 How acid rain is formed

The gases can be blown from one country to another, for example many
coniferous forests in Scandinavia are thought to have been damaged by acid
rain gases from northern Europe in the 1960s and 1970s.
The impact of acid rain on aquatic ecosystems

KEY TERM When water in a river or lake is acidified, the

lower pH makes it intolerable to organisms.
Leaching: the movement of a soluble
chemical or mineral away from soil, Fish egg-laying is often reduced and young
usually caused by the action of fish are malformed. Acid rain can also lead to
rainwater leaching of heavy metals, such as aluminium,
lead and mercury, from the soil into the
water. This leads to further harmful effects. Aluminium, for example, clogs fish
gills and can cause suffocation. Another effect is that some minerals essential
for life, notably calcium and potassium, are washed out of the lake or river.
This reduces algal growth, leaving less food for fish and other animals. The
direct and indirect effects of acid rain and run-off of heavy metals from
surrounding soils affect the whole ecosystem.
Reducing acid rain
A reduction in the production of acid rain-causing gases is achieved when
substitutes for fossil fuels are found to produce energy. To reduce SO2
emissions, low-sulfur varieties of fossil fuel should be used. Any sulfur still in
the emissions can be removed by scrubbers. There are various forms of
scrubber but for all of them, once the sulfur has been removed, the waste then
has to be disposed of safely. NOx emissions can be reduced by burning with a
cooler flame or adjusting the air to fuel ratio.
Clean air acts have been passed to encourage power plants and others to
employ some or all of these methods so that they stay within permitted
emission levels.

Agriculture
Modern agriculture makes use of many chemicals called agrochemicals (see
Section 3.4). These include pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers. All of these are
water-soluble and can cause pollution in water bodies, with a variety of
consequences for humans and the environment.

Eutrophication
Nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate can enter water from many sources,
including farmland, industry and domestic outputs. In addition, organic matter
can enter water directly as sewage and from other sources.

Figure 6 The sources of excess organic matter and minerals in water.

Any increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in a river or lake
will cause a rapid growth of algae. This is called an algal bloom. When the algae
die there is an increase in organic matter in the water. This acts as food for
bacteria as they decompose the dead algae. These bacteria use up oxygen,
lowering its level in the water. Most living things rely on oxygen, so this can
lead to the death of other organisms in the water. See Figure 7 for a summary
of this process, which is called eutrophication.

NUTRIENTS ENTER WATER KEY TERMS

Algae: plant-like, photosynthetic organisms that lack true

stems, roots and leaves
STIMULATE ALGAL GROWTH, Algal bloom: the rapid growth of algae in water, caused
AN ALGAL BLOOM particularly by a surge of nutrients

Organic: derived from living organisms

Eutrophication: a sequence events starting with

ALGAE DIE enrichment of water by mineral nutrients or organic
matter that leads to a reduction in oxygen levels in the
water and the death of fish and other animals

BACTERIA DECOMPOSE ORGANIC MATTER FROM

DEAD ALGAE, INCREASING SEWAGE, MANURE, PAPER
THE ORGANIC MATTER. WASTE AND MANY OTHER
SOURCES

OXYGEN USED UP AND

LEVEL IS LOWERED

FISH AND MANY OTHER

AQUATIC ANIMALS, INCLUDING
INSECT LARVAE, DIE

Figure 7 A flowchart showing how eutrophication occurs

Pesticide and herbicide pollution

Pesticides are designed to kill living things, but not humans. However, because
human physiology has much in common with other living organisms, it is not
surprising that pesticides can have negative effects on humans. Insecticides, a
class of pesticide produced to kill insects, will kill both the target species (the
pest) and non-target species, which worryingly can include the natural enemies
of the pests. Pesticides are generally water-soluble, so water pollution by these
agrochemicals is a major concern. The impact of agrochemicals is covered in
more detail in Section 3.4.

Pollution control and legislation

Governments around the world have been tackling pollution by legislation.
Industries in participating countries are required to monitor the pollution they
cause and keep it within set levels. The legislation puts pressure on the
polluters to find ways to reduce the pollutants. An example of this approach is
the bi-national Great Lakes water quality agreement (GLWQA) which was
devised in 1972. A loading limit of phosphorus was set at 11 000 metric tonnes
year-1 or 1 mg dm-3. This was in response to eutrophication issues in the Great
Lakes of USA and Canada.
Such legislation uses various tools to make sure companies follow the rules.
There can be fines for exceeding set limits. Companies may be prosecuted and,
in extreme cases, forced to close down. Companies might need government
agreement on strategic plans to reduce pollutions levels. Incentives can also be
used to encourage companies to take part, such as grants or tax relief for those
that do achieve a reduction in pollution.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1) Explain why countries need to work together to solve the problem of
acid rain. Give examples in your answer.
2) Explain why it would not be a good idea to use water from ponds or
small lakes in preference to water harvested from a roof.
3) Drugs, vector eradication, improved sanitation, clean water supply and
chlorination are all ways of dealing with water-related diseases. State
which would be most suitable for controlling malaria, cholera and
typhoid. Explain your answers.
 Summary
After completing this chapter, you should know:
• how to describe the water cycle
• the distribution of water around the world
• the different uses of water
• sources of water
• the impact of multipurpose dam projects
• the causes of water pollution
• the impact of water pollution on people and the environment
• strategies for improving water quantity and quality
• strategies for the control and eradication of malaria and cholera
• about water pollution in Haiti.