Chapter 7: Failure Prediction for

Cyclic and Impact Loading

All machines and

structural designs are
problems in fatigue
because the forces of
Nature are always at
work and each object
must respond in some
fashion.

Carl Osgood, Fatigue

Design

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 On the Bridge!

Figure 7.1 “On the Bridge”, an illustration from Punch magazine in

1891 warning the populace that death was waiting for them on the
next bridge. Note the cracks in the iron bridge.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements
 Methods to Maximize Design Life

1. By minimizing initial flaws, especially surface flaws. Great care is taken to produce fatigue-
insusceptible surfaces through processes, such as grinding or polishing, that leave
exceptionally smooth surfaces. These surfaces are then carefully protected before being
placed into service.
2. By maximizing crack initiation time. Surface residual stresses are imparted (or at least tensile
residual stresses are relieved) through manufacturing processes, such as shot peening or
burnishing, or by a number of surface treatments.
3. By maximizing crack propagation time. Substrate properties, especially those that retard
crack growth, are also important. For example, fatigue cracks propagate more quickly along
grain boundaries than through grains (because grains have much more efficient atomic
packing). Thus, using a material that does not present elongated grains in the direction of
fatigue crack growth can extend fatigue life (e.g., by using cold-worked components instead
of castings).
4. By maximizing the critical crack length. Fracture toughness is an essential ingredient. (The
material properties that allow for larger internal flaws are discussed in Chapter 6.)

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Stress Cycle and Test Specimen

1 cycle
σmax 7
__
3 16
σa
Tension

σr
+

σm
Stress

0
σmin 0.30
Compression

Time 9 7–8 R
–

Figure 7.3 R.R. Moore

Figure 7.2 Variation in
machine fatigue test specimen.
nonzero cyclic mean stress.
Dimensions in inches.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Cyclic Properties of Metals

Yield Fracture Fatigue Fatigue Fatigue

strength strength ductility strength ductility
Sy , σf! coefficient, exponent, exponent,
Material Condition MPa MPa "!f a α
Steel
1015 Normalized 228 827 0.95 -0.110 -0.64
4340 Tempered 1172 1655 0.73 -0.076 -0.62
1045 Q&Ta 80◦ F — 2140 — -0.065 -1.00
1045 Q&T 306◦ F 1720 2720 0.07 -0.055 -0.60
1045 Q&T 500◦ F 1275 2275 0.25 -0.080 -0.68
1045 Q&T 600◦ F 965 1790 0.35 -0.070 -0.69
4142 Q&T 80◦ F 2070 2585 — -0.075 -1.00
4142 Q&T 400◦ F 1720 2650 0.07 -0.076 -0.76
4142 Q&T 600◦ F 1340 2170 0.09 -0.081 -0.66
4142 Q&T 700◦ F 1070 2000 0.40 -0.080 -0.73
4142 Q&T 840◦ F 900 1550 0.45 -0.080 -0.75
Aluminum
1100 Annealed 97 193 1.80 -0.106 -0.69
2014 T6 462 848 0.42 -0.106 -0.65
2024 T351 379 1103 0.22 -0.124 -0.59
5456 H311 234 724 0.46 -0.110 -0.67
7075 T6 469 1317 0.19 -0.126 -0.52

Table 7.1 Cyclic properties of some metals.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Fatigue Crack Growth

10-2 Kc

∆σ2 > ∆σ1 Regime A Regime B

1 mm/min

Crack growth rate at 50 Hz

da/dN (mm/cycle)
Crack growth rate
∆σ1
Crack length, a

-4
10
∆σ2 da = C(∆K)m
dN
da m 1 mm/hour
dN 1
10-6
one lattice
1 mm/day
spacing
per cycle Regime C 1 mm/week
Number of cylces, N 10-8
log ∆K
(a) (b)

Figure 7.4 Illustration of fatigue crack growth. (a) Size of a fatigue

crack for two different stress ratios as a function of the number of
cycles; (b) rate of crack growth, illustrating three regimes.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Fatigued Part Cross-Section

Figure 7.5 Cross-section of a

fatigued section, showing
fatigue striations or
beachmarks originating from a
fatigue crack at B.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 High Nominal Stress Low Nominal Stress
No stress Mild stress Severe stress No stress Mild stress Severe stress
concentration concentration concentration concentration concentration concentration
or tension-compression

Fatigue Fracture Surfaces

Tension-tension
Unidirectional
bending
Reversed
bending

Figure 7.6 Typical fatigue

fracture surfaces of smooth
and notched cross-sections
Rotational
bending

under different loading

Fracture surface
conditions and stress levels.
Beachmarks

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Fatigue Strength of Ferrous Metals

1.0
0.9
Fatigue stress ratio, Sf /Sut

0.8
Not broken
0.7
0.6

0.5

0.4
103 104 105 106 107
Number of cycles to failure, N′

Figure 7.7 Fatigue strengths as a function of number of loading

cycles. (a) Ferrous alloys, showing clear endurance limit.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Fatigue Strength of Aluminum Alloys

80
70
60
50
40
Alternating stress, sa, ksi

35
30 Wr
ou ght
25
Per
20 ma
nen
18 tm
16 old
c ast
14
12 San
dc
ast
10
8
7
6
5
103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Number of cycles to failure, N′

Figure 7.7 Fatigue strengths as a function of number of loading

cycles. (b) Aluminum alloys, with less pronounced knee and no
endurance limit.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements
 Fatigue Strengths of Polymers

60
83103
50
Alternating stress, sa, MPa

Alternating stress, sa, psi

40 Phenolic 6
Epoxy

30 Diallyl-phthalate
Alkyd 4

20
Nylon (dry) 2
10 PTFE Polycarbonate
Polysulfone
0 0
103 104 105 106 107
Number of cycles to failure, N′

Figure 7.7 Fatigue strengths as a function of number of loading

cycles. (c) Selected properties of assorted polymer classes.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Endurance Limit vs. Ultimate Strength

1603103

140 Carbon steels

Alloy steels 0.6 0.5
Wrought irons S_′_e_ =
120 Su
0.4
Endurance limit, S′e , psi

100 x103 psi

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 3003103
Tensile strength, Sut, psi

Figure 7.8 Endurance limit as function of ultimate strength for

wrought steels.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Endurance Limit

Material Number of cycles Relation

Magnesium alloys 108 Se! = 0.35Su
Copper alloys 108 0.25Su < Se! < 0.5Su
Nickel alloys 108 0.35Su < Se! < 0.5Su
Titanium 107 0.45Su < Se! < 0.65Su
Aluminum alloys 5 × 108 Se! = 0.40Su (Su < 48 ksi
Se! = 19 ksi (Su ≥ 48 ksi

Table 7.2 Approximate endurance limit for various

materials.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Notch Sensitivity
Use these values with bending and axial loads  Steel,
 Su, ksi (MPa)
Use these values with torsion  as marked
1.0
180 (1241)
(1 379)
0 )
20 120 (827
965 )
0.8 0( 2)
14 80 (55
) 4)
689 60 (41
0(
Usage:
Notch sensitivity, qn

1 0 2)
0 (55 4)
0.6 8 (41 )
60 (345
50

0.4 Aluminum alloy (based on 2024–T6 data)

K f = 1 + (Kc − 1)qn

0.2

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Notch radius, r, mm
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
Notch radius, r, in.

Figure 7.9 Notch sensitivity as function of notch radius for

several materials and types of loading.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements
 Surface Finish Factor
Ultimate strength in tension, Sut , ksi
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
1.0
Polished
Ground

0.8
Machined or cold drawn k f = eSutf
Surface finish factor, kf

0.6
Manufacturing Factor e
process MPa ksi Exponent f
Hot rolled Grinding 1.58 1.34 -0.085
0.4 Machining or 4.51 2.70 -0.265
As forged
cold drawing
Hot rolling 57.7 14.4 -0.718
0.2 As forged 272.0 39.9 -0.995

0
Table 7.3 Surface finish factor.
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Ultimate strength in tension, Sut , GPa

Figure 7.10 Surface finish factors for

steel. (a) As function of ultimate strength
in tension for different manufacturing
processes.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements
 Roughness Effect on Surface Finish Factor

1.0 1
Surface finish factor, kf

4 2
0.9 16 8
32
0.8 63
125
0.7 250
0.6 2000 1000 500
Surface finish
0.5 Ra, µin.
0.4
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240x103
Ultimate strength in tension, Sut, psi

(b)

Figure 7.10 Surface finish factors for steel. (b) As function of

ultimate strength and surface roughness as measured with a
stylus profilometer.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements
 Reliability Factor

Probability of Relaibility factor,

survival, percent kr
50 1.00
90 0.90
95 0.87
99 0.82
99.9 0.75
99.99 0.70

Table 7.4 Reliability factor for six probabilities of survival.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Shot Peening
MPa
100 200 300
1380 200 483 70
Fatigue strength at two million cycles (MPa)

Al 7050-T7651
414 Ti-6Al-4V 60

Alternating stress, σa, MPa

1035 150
Peened - smooth Shot peened
or notched 345 50

ksi
ksi
690 100 276 40
Not peened - smooth
207 30
Machined Polished
345 50
138 20
Not peened - notched
(typical machined surface)
0 0
690 1380 2170 104 105 106 107 108
Ultimate tensile strength, Sut, (MPa) Number of cycles to failure, N'

(a) (b)

Figure 7.11 The use of shot peening to improve fatigue

properties. (a) Fatigue strength at two million cycles for high
strength steel as a function of ultimate strength; (b) typical S-N
curves for nonferrous metals.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Example 7.4

P r = 2.5 mm P
25 mm
25 mm
30 mm
25 mm 25 mm

P P r = 2.5 mm

(a) (b)

Figure 7.12 Tensile loaded bar. (a) Unnotched; (b) notched.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Influence of Non-Zero Mean Stress

Gerber Line
Syt ! "2
K f ns!a ns!m
Yield line + =1
Se Sut
Alternating stress, σa

Se
Gerber line Goodman Line
! "2
Goodman line K f !a !m 1
+ =
Soderberg line Se Sut ns

0
Syt Sut Soderberg Line
Mean stress, σm
! "2
Figure 7.13 Influence of nonzero K f !a !m 1
+ =
mean stress on fatigue life for tensile Se Syt ns
loading as estimated by four
empirical relationships.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements
 Modified Goodman Diagram
Su Su
+σ
Sy B C
Sy σmax
N

Se /Kf L σm
σmax A
D
45∞ σmin
H M

–σm 0 Sy Su σm

σmin

E
– Se /Kf

–σ Figure 7.14 Complete modified

45∞
G
F
–Sy Goodman diagram, plotting stress as
ordinate and mean stress as abscissa.
a b c d

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Modified Goodman Criterion
Line Equation
! " Range
Se Se Sy − Se /Kf
AB σmax = + σm 1 − 0 ≤ σm ≤
Kf S u Kf Se
1−
Kf S u
Se
Sy −
Kf
BC σmax = Sy ≤ σm ≤ Sy
Se
1−
Kf S u
Se

CD σmin = 2σm − Sy
Sy −
Kf
≤ σm ≤ Sy
Table 7.5 Equations and
1−
Se
range of applicability for
Kf S u
! " Sy −
Se construction of complete
DE σmin = 1+
Se
σm −
Se
0 ≤ σm ≤
Kf
Se
modified Goodman
Kf Su Kf
1−
Kf S u diagram.
Se Se
EF σmin = σm − − S y ≤ σm ≤ 0
Kf Kf
Se
FG σmin = −Sy −Sy ≤ σm ≤ − Sy
Kf
Se
GH σmax = 2σm + Sy −Sy ≤ σm ≤ − Sy
Kf
Se Se
HA σmax = σm + − S y ≤ σm ≤ 0
Kf Kf

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Modified Goodman Criterion

Region in Failure Validity limits

Fig. 7.14 equation of equation
Se
a σmax − 2σm = Sy /ns −Sy ≤ σm ≤ − Sy
Kf
Se Se
b σmax − σm = − Sy ≤ σ m ≤ 0
ns Kf Kf
Se
! " Sy −
Se Se Kf
c σmax + σm Kf Su
−1 = ns Kf
0 ≤ σm ≤
Se
1−
Kf Su
Se
Sy −
Sy Kf
d σmax = ≤ σm ≤ Sy
ns Se
1−
Kf Su

Table 7.6 Failure equations and validity limits of equations

for four regions of complete modified Goodman diagram.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Example 7.7

F
90

B C
60 45°
Stress, ksi

A
30 D 120

0
Mean stress, σm, ksi

–30
E 45 90

Figure 7.15 Modified Goodman diagram for

Example 7.7.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Alternating Stress Ratio for Cast Iron

1.5
Alternating stress
ratio, σa/Su

1.0

0.5 S
—e ≈ (0.4)(0.9) = 0.36
Su
0
–4.0 –3.5 –3.0 –2.5 –2.0 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0
Mean stress ratio, σm/Su

Figure 7.16 Alternating stress ratio as function of mean stress

ratio for axially loaded cast iron.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Properties of Mild Steel
100 100
Ultimate and yield stresses, Su and Sy, ksi

Sy/Su, percent
80 80

/S u
Ratio S y r e n gth S u
60 e s t 60
U lti m at

Total elongation
40 40
Yield strength S y

Elongation, percent
20 20

0 –6 0
10 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103
Average strain rate, s–1

Figure 7.17 Mechanical properties of mild steel at room

temperature as a function of strain rate.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 Example 7.10

y
V

2 ft
M
1.5 in. P
x
5 ft 18 in.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.18 Diver impacting diving board, used in Example 7.10.

(a) Side view; (b) front view; (c) side view showing forces and
coordinates.

Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements

 V
P

Sheer force, N
Brake Stud Design Analysis
M

Moment, N–m
Px
Machine frame

A–A

R = 0.375 in. (a)

3.0625 in. 1.375 in. 1 in. 2.25 in.

σa

Stress, Pa
P Shoulder

σm

x Time

(b)

Figure 7.19 Dimensions of existing

Figure 7.20 Press brake stud loading.
brake drum design. (a) Shear and bending-moment
diagrams for applied load; (b) stress
cycle.
Hamrock • Fundamentals of Machine Elements