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Philosophy 9-18 Final PDF
Philosophy 9-18 Final PDF
Rational Action
Rationality is an ancient and notoriously difficult concept. At the same time, rationality is
a real, practical problem. Through reflection and theorization, through improvements in
technique and reforms to institutions, people have strived to act more rationally in science
and engineering, in commerce and industry, in administration, and in everyday life.
Jon Elster, “Rational Choice,” Explaining Social Behavior
Three distinct parts or branches:
1. Humanities 2. The social sciences 3. The natural sciences.
The social sciences can benefit from the biological study of human beings and other
animals...interpretation of works of art and explanation are closely related enterprises
Rational choice theory, also known as choice theory or rational action theory, is a
framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.
The theory also focuses on the determinants of the individual choices (methodological
individualism). Rational choice theory then assumes that an individual has preferences
among the available choice alternatives that allow them to state which option they prefer.
The rational agent is assumed to take account of available information, probabilities of
events, and potential costs and benefits in determining preferences, and to act
consistently in choosing the self-determined best choice of action. In simpler terms, this
theory dictates that every person, even when carrying out the most mundane of tasks,
perform their own personal cost and benefit analysis in order to determine whether the
action is worth pursuing for the best possible outcome.
Rationality is widely used as an assumption of the behavior of individuals in
microeconomic models and analyses and appears in almost all economics textbook
treatments of human decision-making. It is also used in political science, sociology, and
philosophy.
Gary Becker was an early proponent of applying rational actor models more widely.
A particular version of rationality is instrumental rationality, which involves seeking the
most cost-effective means to achieve a specific goal without reflecting on the worthiness
of that goal.
Rational choice theory has become increasingly employed in social sciences other than
economics, such as sociology, evolutionary theory and political science in recent
decades.
The concept of rationality used in rational choice theory is different from the colloquial
and most philosophical use of the word. Colloquially, "rational" behaviour typically means
"sensible", "predictable", or "in a thoughtful, clear-headed manner." Rational choice
theory uses a narrower definition of rationality. At its most basic level, behavior is rational
if it is goal-oriented, reflective (evaluative), and consistent (across time and different
choice situations). This contrasts with behavior that is random, impulsive, conditioned, or
adopted by (unevaluative) imitation.
Neoclassical economists writing about rational choice, including William Stanley Jevons,
assumed that agents make consumption choices so as to maximize their happiness, or
utility. Contemporary theory bases rational choice on a set of choice axioms that need to
be satisfied, and typically does not specify where the goal (preferences, desires) comes
from.
Bruce Bueno De Mesquita, “Introduction” to The Predictioneer's Game: Using the
Logic of Brazen Self-Interest to See and Shape the Future
Predictioneer's Game?
It teaches us that we can predict how a conflict may be resolved if we carefully consider
the incentives for all parties in the conflict.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita follows Shakespeare's path and opens a new world. In Bueno
de Mesquita's hands, game theory becomes a fascinating tool for understanding
everything from how to steer the selection of a CEO to great swaths of both the past and
future.
Debra Satz and John Ferejohn, “Rational Choice and Social Theory” is that rational
choice explanations are often best understood as not relying on any claims about
individual psychology. They call this position externalism.
Satz and Ferejohn also make interesting and important claims;
Rational choice theories are most secure and informative when they do not depend on
the idiosyncracies of individual beliefs and preferences, and R.C explanations may be
compatible with “structural” explanations in terms of facts about social structure and
constraints. Rational choice explanation of an action, an individual’s choice is determined
by the individual’s rational preferences among feasible actions. Physical, biological,
social, and psychological factors determine which actions are feasible. Rational choice
explanation thus appear to be psychological explanations. Those who take these
appearances at their face value are called by Satz and Ferejohn internalism.
Esther Duflo, “Poor but rational?”
Insurance
The poor, it is commonly acknowledged, face a very risky environment: the weather is
uncertain, crops fail for all sorts of reasons, prices are volatile, illness strikes often, etc.
Townsend (1994) made this point in a very influential article. Townsend argued that
advantage was fully taken of this possibility. The consumption of all families within a
village move very close together: When someone has a bad year, everybody in the village
suffers a little bit, and the affected family's consumption does not fall behind that of
others.
Agricultural Investment
If agricultural production is efficient, the investment, effort, and production on the land
should not depend on who is tilling it: Whoever is working on the land should extract the
maximum from the land, and these profits should then be shared.
Jon Elster, “Games and Behavior”
Rationality and the Emotions
EMOTIONS
Emotions, like beliefs and desires, can be conceived either as occurrent mental events
or as dispositions for such events to occur. I shall use 'emotions' or 'occurrent emotions'
for the former and 'emotional dispositions' for the latter. Whereas emotions are only to a
small extent under the control of the will, dispositions can to a larger extent be consciously
shaped. A succinct characterisation of the emotions might be that they are the stuff that
keeps us awake at night. More soberly, they go together with physiological arousal of
some sort or other.
EMOTIONS AND SOCIAL NORMS
In Elster (1989a, b) Idefined social norms as injunctions to behaviour that
1. are non-outcome-oriented,
2. apply to others as well as to oneself,
3. are sustained by the sanctions of others, and
4. are sustained by internalised emotions.
As norms are sustained by emotions, emotions and their expression may be regulated
by social norms. To the extent that expression of the emotions is within the control of the
will, they are obvious targets for social norms. There is, for instance, an effective norm
against laughing at funerals. Expressions that are largely involuntary, such as shedding
tears, blushing or fainting, are usually not the target of norms.
RATIONALITY AND THE EMOTIONS
An action is rational if it satisfies three optimality conditions.
First, the action has to be the best means of realising the agent's desires, given his beliefs
about ends-means relationships and other factual matters.
Secondly, these beliefs themselves have to be optimal, given the information available
to the agent. The process of belief formation, that is, must not be distorted by 'cold'
mistakes in information processing or 'hot' mistakes caused by motivational biases.
Thirdly the amount of information, or more accurately the amount of resources spent on
acquiring information, must itself be optimal, given the agent's prior beliefs about the costs
and benefits of information-acquisition and the importance of the decision to him.
First, emotions, being largely involuntary, are not actions. Secondly, only freely chosen
actions can be assessed as rational or irrational. Each premise might be questioned.
Sally Haslanger, “Social Construction: Myth and Reality”
Sally Haslanger’s Resisting Reality: Social Construction and Social Critique is a collection
of 13 essays. The collection is divided into three parts, labelled ‘Social Construction’,
‘Gender and Race’ and ‘Language & Knowledge’.
Gender, according to Haslanger, is the social meaning of sex, while race the social
meaning of (geographical) ancestry (what Haslanger calls ‘color’). While nature divides
us by colour and sex, we divide ourselves by race and gender.
The Construction of Ideas and Concepts
Ian Hacking urges us to distinguish the construction of ideas and the construction of
objects Let's start with “ideas.” What does it mean to say that the concept of gender, or the idea that
females should not be sexually attracted to other females, is socially constructed? Plausibly, the claim is
simply that they are products of a sociohistorical process. However, that would seem to be utterly obvious.
Surely at least most ideas and concepts are only possible within and due to a social context (allowing that
there are also innate cognitive processes and structures that also play a role). Concepts are taught to us
by our parents as we learn language; different cultures have overlapping but also distinct concepts
and ideas; and concepts as well as ideas evolve over time as a result of historical changes,
science, technological advances, etc. Let's (albeit contentiously) call this the "ordinary view" of
concepts and ideas.
The social sciences boast of a long and interesting history-one that is shaped by the
individual's inherent desire to find answers to unresolved questions, study the rise andfall
of institutions, and understand the socio-political circumstances of particular
historicalperiods, as well as the people's increasing awareness of the variety of the human
experience
The Need to Explore the World
The ancient Greeks and Romans were the first to expound on the concepts of the
individual, morality, and the state. Plato's The Republic laid down some of the earliest
thoughts on the foundations of an ideal society. Aristotle's Politics marked the first
comprehensive attempt to come up with the most ideal way of distributing power in a
community. Aristotle also laid the foundations of what would later be known as the
scientific method: he proposed that the truths of nature can be discovered through
careful observation of empirical facts and application of reasoning to one's
observations to arrive at the answers to scientific inquiry.
The Rise of Medieval Scholasticism
Say: The works of the Greek philosophers served as the foundation on which the various
forms of rational inquiry. were built. British mathematician and philosopher Alfred North
Whitehead (1861-1947) is often quoted for asserting that "the safest general
characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of
footnotes to Plato." The ideas put forth by these ancient scholars formed the basis for the
development and growth of the various disciplines existing today.
The Rise of Medieval Scholasticism
Peter Lombard and Peter Abelard to adopt Aristotelian reasoning and argumentation
Aristotle's teachings came back into favor among increasing numbers of academics.
Medieval philosopher-theologians saw in Aristotle's metaphysics new ways to logically
argue for the existence of God. One of these ideas was his Prime Mover- there must be
a source of all movement or change in the universe, but which itself remains
unmoved or unchanged.
Aristotle's the marriage of faith and logic. This marriage of reason and religion as a
method of learning is known as scholasticism.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE). An Italian Dominican. His most prominent
publication, the Summa Theologica (Theological Summation), is regarded as one of the
greatest works of medieval scholasticism.
Summa Theologica (Theological Summation) - It comprises articles examining various
concepts in the Christian religion, always following
First, it asks a question about Christian doctrine, such as "Is the existence of God self-evident?" Next, it
presents objections against the idea presented in the question and counterarguments against those
objections, often citing Scripture or writings by Church authorities for each point. Aquinas presents his
own position on the topic, dispelling the refutations by way of further citation of authorities and his own
logical arguments. This format exemplifies the scholastic method mastering the ability to examine an idea
from multiple, often contradicting viewpoints, and being capable of defending each side logically.
Avicennism and Averroism, even influenced the works of the scholastics. Of particular note are the
Iranian scholar Al-Biruni (973-1018 CE), whom some consider the first anthropologist," and was among
the first to launch comparative studies of peoples and cultures, focusing on the Mediterranean and South
Asia and the historiographer Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406 CE), whose seminal work, the Muqaddimah,
introduced many of the concepts used in modern sociology and economics.
Elements Of A State
People. The inhabitants of the state; the first and most essential element of state. Without
people, there can be no state.
Territory. A fixed portion of the surface of the earth inhabited by the people of the state.
This constitutes all the land and water within its external boundaries.
Largest state: Union of Soviet Socialist Republic and the smallest state: Vatican
Government. Which is the aggregate of authorities that rule society and must be obeyed
by its people. It may be monarchy, republic, or a dictatorship.
Sovereignty. The supreme and uncontrollable power inherent in a State by which the
State is governed.
Internal. Complete power to rule over the people. External. Freedom from foreign rule.
Functions Of The State
1. To defends man’s basic need or security.
2. To support his quest for natural well-being.
3. To see the administration of justice on a fair basis for all.
4. To help in the education and cultural life of the people.
5. To defend and advance the freedom of the citizens.
Forms Of Government
Monarchy. In which supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person or
ruler. He is the chief executive, legislator, and judge at the same time. His personal will
is the dominant consideration.
Aristocracy. Means government by an elite of the society that has social status, wealth
and political power. Political powers are entrusted or vested on few persons—the
aristocrats.
Oligarchy. Means government by a minority of the society, a minority that is not
necessarily distinguished by aristocratic title or privilege.
Government By The Few
Authoritarianism. Authoritarian governments are: Monarchies (ruled by one),
aristocracies (ruled by the titled few), oligarchies (ruled by the untitled few) .These
governments are content to the overt behavior of the citizen and to eliminate any sign
organized opposition.
Totalitarianism attempt to control not only the citizen’s behavior but his thoughts as well.
Dictatorship. Absolute power is exercised by a dictator. In this form of gov’t, political
ideas and expressions are suppressed and controlled by means of indoctrination, of
brainwashing, and propaganda.
Democracy. Form of gov’t in which the supreme power is vested in the people and
exercised directly by them. It upholds political equality among citizens.
According to Abraham Lincoln (16th President of the United States of America)
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.”
Democracy is truly a representative form of government.
Right And Reason
Right is a state of mind in accordance with what is good, proper or just. It is in conformity
with fact, reason or some standard principle.Right means something that is straight, not
crooked, in opposition to wrong. Right, or moral power works by appeal to one’s will
through the intellect.
MEANING OF REASON
Reason is a basis or circumstances explaining some belief, action, fact or event. It is also
statement presented in in justification or explanation of a belief or action.Reason is the
mental power concerned with forming conclusions, judgments, or interferences.
Right Reason as a Norm
Reason works out an ethical judgment, and these are:Any moral choice is preceded by
intelligent deliberation a weighing of the reasons for and against the contemplated course
of action.
Habit is said to be second nature. It is characteristic of reason to direct to an end.
Some values are seen to be nobler in intrinsic worth, more inclusive in scope, more
compatible with other values, and more productive of order and harmony in man and his
relations with others.
Conscience It is the intellect itself in a special function, the function of judging the
rightness or wrongness of an individual’s act.
The moral principle of conscience is “DO GOOD AND AVOID EVIL.” and “RESPECT THE
RIGHTS OF OTHERS.” It is the sense of what is right and wrong in one’s conduct or
motives, impelling one toward right action.
It is the ethical and moral principle that control or inhibit the actions or thoughts of an
individual.
Cardinal Virtues It includes prudence, courage, temperance, and justice.
Aristotle centers his ethics on these cardinal virtues, and they have been universally
adopted by Christian writers.
Prudence Is an intellectual virtue by essence; however it enters into the field of the moral
virtues by pointing out the mean and suggesting ways of attaining it. Without prudence,
fortitude becomes boldness, temperance becomes senseless, and justice becomes
harshness. It is the quality of being cautious with regards to one’s interest. It is care,
caution and good judgment.
Courage Is the difficulty of the mind or spirit that enables a person to face difficulty,
danger or pain with firmness and without fear.
Two types of courage: Physical, Moral
It also implies patience, perseverance, constancy and tenacity of purpose.
Aristotle adds two unusual virtues: Magnificence – dare wisely in matter of expense.
Magnanimity – dare wisely in matter of honor.
Justice Is the quality of conforming to principles of reason to generally accepted
standards of right and wrong, and to the stated terms of laws, rules, agreements in
matters affecting persons who could be wronged or unduly favored.
According to Aristotle, justice is divided into two types: General – cover all virtue that
has any social significance. Particular – which is cardinal virtue ;
Aristotle divides into :
1. Distributive – relation between the community and its members. It requires a fair and
proper distribution of benefits and burdens among the members of the community.
2. Corrective or Commutative –basis of contracts.
Temperance Is moderation or self-restraint in action or statement. It regulates the
appetite in the use of sensible pleasure. It moderates one’s drive toward self-preservation.
Happiness Results from the possession or attainment of what one considered good. It is
not a passing feeling or emotion, such as joy or goodness, but it is lasting state of being.
Perfect happiness fully satisfies all men’s desires.
Love The noblest aspiration and the most dynamic force we can have to drive us on
toward whatever good we know.It is justice expanded to the fullest scope of the human
person’s dignity.
Pleasure It is the state or condition of being pleased. It is the enjoyment or satisfaction
derived from what is to one’s liking, gratification and satisfaction.
Hedonism comes from the Greek word pleasure. It is the doctrine that pleasure or
happiness is the highest good. It is a devotion to a pleasure as a way of life.
Pleasure is a very important good. It is stimulates that nature uses to allure us to the
proper use of our abilities.
Responsibility Is the state or fact of being responsible of one’s action and answerable
for the act in so far as he did it.
The Common Good It is which society exists and means towards man’s ultimate goal. It
is to be shared in all by people in the community
CHAPTER 13
Analyzing Structure: Institutionalism, Structural Functionalism, and Marxism
The term INSTITUTION can be defined in various ways.
It could mean an established body of procedures, rules, and formal organizations of
government (Heywood, 2013). A collection of interrelated rules and routines that define
appropriate actions in terms of relations between roles and situations (March e Olsen,
1989). Considering these definitions, institutions could range from formal institutions
hike the local government, the legislature, and the family, to informal institutions such as
habits, norms and traditions.
Institutionalism Institutionalism as an approach believes that institutions matter because
they constrain as well as influence individual behavior and are able to affect political
decisions in a variety of ways. Institutionalism preeminence, however, was challenged
when the behavioral revolution called for a more empirical approach to studying politics.
Behavioralists criticized institutionalism for reducing politics to mere organizational
structures. In the 1980s, same scholars gained renewed interest in institutionalism with
the rise of new institutionalism. Under this renewed movement institutions were analyzed
not just as sets of independent organizations, but also as sets of processes that shape
behavior and are embedded in a socio-historical context.
Strands of New Institutionalism
While the old institutionalism originally emphasized laws and constitutions revolutions, and other aspects
of formal governance as subjects of analysis, new institutionalism studies how political behavior and
identities are shaped by institutions. It expands the concept of institutions by including the informal
conventions of political life. The definition of institutions has become larger, more complex, and more
resourceful, and holistic understanding of such is necessary to explain political outcomes. It also rejects
notion that institutions are neutral to political processes and the outcomes of those processes.
A number of strands under new institutionalism have emerged, but among these, the
following three are the most prominent: rational choice institutionalism,
sociological institutionalism, and historical institutionalism.
Rational choice institutionalism employs rational choice theory in the analysis of political behavior and
society. Rational choice institutionalists maintain that individuals tend to calculate the costs and benefits of
their choices and actions in an attempt to maximize the utility they receive. However, the choices and
actions are often restricted by the institutions in which these individuals live and operate. The rational choice
school examines these Institutions as systems of rules and incentives which can shape the patterns of
public activity and lead it towards certain outcomes. If members of a society perceive an institution to be
unfavorable to them, they can challenge that institution and modify or even replace it to cater to their
interests. The task of rational choice institutionalism, then, is to examine analyze and develop theories on
how individuals and groups live and operate within the constraints of institutions, or even challenge those
institutions to pursue their respective interests.
Ego (Self) – pertains to the organized and realistic aspect of the personality that mediates
between the aggressive tendencies of the id and the moral imperatives of superego.
e.g., A student wanted to pass the exam and did not give in to the temptation to cheat.
Super ego (above self) – refers to the critical and moral dimension of the personality
that invokes behavior which society deems acceptable and ethical.
E.g., a student wanted ton pass the exam and avoided cheating. He knows that cheating is morally wrong. He is also
aware that cheating is a form of academic dishonesty.
Martial law activists wrote protest songs and poetry to express their strong indignation
against the repressive policies of the government and its forces.
The Anti Military Bases Agreement Movement
The Senate Resolution also rejected the treaty for going against various constitutional
provisions (1) renounce war as a national policy, (2) pursue an independent foreign
policy, and (3) prohibit nuclear weapons in Philippine territory.
Intellectuals, according to political scientist Francisco Nemenzo, must also serve as
social critics. Intellectuals, in this context, include university professors, book writers,
media workers, students and consultants In the course of Philippine history, progressive
intellectuals, in strong alliance with the broad Filipino masses, played a crucial part in
dismantling the Marcos dictatorship and rejecting the extension of the military bases
agreement.
CHAPTER 16
Indigenization Movement in the Social Sciences
The indigenization movement seeks to achieve what Renato Constantino describes as
the "decolonized Filipino." Indigenization is part of decolonization, which seeks to reassert
indigenous identity and national so encompassing the economic, political, and cultural
aspects of our nation.
Indigenization Movement in the Social Sciences
Indigenization (pagsasakatutubo) an academic and socio-cultural movement in the
former colonies in the Third World which seeks to rediscover, relearn, and re apply the
traditional and indigenous cultural forms and systems that are authentic markers of
national identity. Philippines, indigenization addresses the neglect of Philippine
indigenous knowledge and systems and seeks to rediscover, study, appreciate and
practice them. Indigenization a collective process of reflection and reexamination,
contributing to the rediscovery of Filipino indigenous cultural identity. Advocates of indigenous
social science challenge scholars and practitioners to remove their colonial blinders, descend from their "Ivory towers,"
immerse themselves in the community, and contribute to the constructive resolution of social problems.
Cultural Subjugation
The Process of Cultural Subjugation
Pantayong Pananaw
Dr Zeus Salazar, forerunner of Pantayong Pananaw (PP), defines this approach in
historyas an internal interrelatedness of values, character, knowledge, wisdom, aspiration
traditions, behavior and experience of a particular culture or civilization as a whole.
Pantayong Pananaw aims to decolonize Philippine historiography (method of writing
history). Filipino historians who subscribe to Pantayong Pananaw seek to write and
explain Philippine history to fellow Filipinos in the language they can understand,
appreciate, and internalize. This is premised on the idea that Philippine history written by
Filipinos for fellow Filipinos is both liberating and empowering. In this manner, history
becomes a unifying thread that binds people with a common culture, language and
heritage.