in urban development in the Metro Manila city-region.

The fact that this project is an unsolicited bid is

indicative of the greatly expanded role of the private sector in all phases of the planning process. This
consortium proposes to develop an entire urban system, including a large-scale real estate venture and
supporting mass transit and other infrastructure linking it to the region. Indeed, the proposed new city
development will be equivalent in size to some smaller Metro Manila municipalities. Private sector
Urban megaprojects and the privatization of planning in Southeast Asia 389 390 G Shatkin
N:/psfiles/epa4002w/ Table 1. Major real estate developments in Metro Manila (sources: Ayala Land
Inc., 2005; Bases Conversion Development Authority, 2005; Filinvest Corporate City, 2005; Laguna
Technopark Inc., 2005; Ortigas Center, 2005; Philippine National Railways Authority, 2005; Wikipedia,
2005a; 2005b; 2005c). Project (year Developer(s) Planners Size and Description development
composition began) Bonifacio Global City (1996) Ayala Land Inc. Hellmuth, Obatat & Kassabaum (HOK)
150 ha of former military land Public ± private partnership to develop residential, commercial, office,
and industrial space. Development planned to eventually accommodate 250 000 residents and 500 000
daytime workers and shoppers. Rockwell Center (1995) Lopez Group Skidmore Owings Merrill 15.5 ha
on a former thermal power plant site Includes 5 high-rise residential towers, office towers, a mall, and a
branch campus of the prestigious Ateneo de Manila University. Eastwood City Megaworld Corporation
Klages Carter Vail & Partners (USA) 15 ha high-density development Includes residential towers and
several high-rise office buildings. It has attracted national headquarters of IBM and Citibank. Ayala
Alabang (1976) Ayala Land, Inc. Various 659 ha Development of over 5000 residential lots. Includes a
number of educational institutions, a community center, equestrian club, and a golf and country club.
Ortigas Center Ortigas Group Various About 200 ha Major commercial center that contains the
headquarters of the Asian Development Bank and several major corporate headquarters. Ayala
Westgrove Heights Ayala Land Inc. Helber Hastert & Fee, Planner, Inc (Hawaii)ÐMaster Plan Consultant
400 ha Upscale residential development that includes commercial retail centers. Laguna Technopark
(1989) Ayala Land Inc. 387 ha The largest export-processing zone in the country, hosting manufacturing
activities of over 100 export-oriented companies, including Honda, Panasonic, and Hitachi. Filinvest
Corporate City Filinvest Skidmore Owings Merrill, the SWA Group 244 ha New business district,
Filinvest's `gateway' development to the CALABARZON region. Includes a high-rise residential complex,
mall, Cyberzone, and retail, dining, and entertainment center. influence has predominated at all stages
of the planning process, from plan formulation to implementation to many aspects of postproject
maintenance. Government agencies have played a rather modest role in facilitating the achievement of
the consortium's objectives. The entire endeavor is premised on the belief that, given the poor
performance of government in the areas of transportation and land development in the past, and the
restrictions on its power and capacity at present, there is a close alignment between public and
corporate interests. Table 1 details some of the most notable urban development projects undertaken in
Metro Manila in recent years, and figure 1 shows their locations along with recent transportation
infrastructure projects. The real estate projects contain certain common features. First, they are
integrated, containing residential, commercial, office, and industrial space in what is, at least
theoretically, a self-contained development. Each was planned according to what its developers viewed
as `international' standards and best practices; indeed, many were planned by major multinational
architectural and planning firms. Each also employs a system of development controls (such as floor-
area ratios, minimum setbacks, and building codes) and traffic management to prevent the
`informalization' of the built environment and to maintain a distinctive planned character. The intent is
to differentiate these spaces from those of the `public' city in their aesthetic appeal, in the types of
clientele that they attract, in their levels of security, and in the quality of the connecting transportation
infrastructure. While these projects do borrow design and planning elements from cities in the United
States, Europe, and elsewhere in Asia, they often do so in an eclectic manner that does not adhere to
any one specific model. This is demonstrated in the three photos (figure 2) of adjacent portions of
Eastwood City that evoke alternately the forms of Singaporean high-rise housing, a Southern California
shopping center, and a New York style glass and steel canyon. These developments reflect changes in
competition and opportunity in the real estate sector. In the 1980s developers began to realize that
great opportunity lay in building integrated megaprojects, as such projects ``enjoy enhanced profitability
because each facility fed the other, by attracting and circulating custom'' (Dick and Rimmer, 1998, page
2312). The result was competition to increase the scale and scope of these developments in order to
provide the highest quality of amenities. In order to realize such projects, some developers have moved
into banking and constructionö thus internalizing financial capacity and managing costs (Sajor, 2003).
They have also tapped into sources of capital from international ethnic Chinese networks and large
development companies in other countries in the region. The largest have also endeavored to `diversify'
their holdings by following trends in urban development, and in some cases shaping them to their own
benefit. In particular, expansion to the rapidly growing provinces of Laguna and Cavite to the south of
Metro Manila, and to a lesser extent the area around the emerging export-processing zones in the
former Subic and Clark military bases to the north, have come to be seen as key to future profitability.
For this reason they have also been strong proponents of, and sometimes investors in, transportation
infrastructure aimed at opening up these regions for investment. Real estate interests have in some
cases played a more direct role in connecting mass transit and toll road projects in recognition of the
importance of these developments for their property holdings. For example, the MRT-3 light-rail transit
line, completed in 2000, was developed by a consortium that included four property developers, the
most prominent of which was Ayala Land (World Bank, 2004). The experience of Ayala Land illustrates
how developers have attempted to shape the metro region to the ends of corporate profit. One of the
oldest family-owned companies in the country, Ayala Land began to establish its identity as a property
Urban megaprojects and the privatization of planning in Southeast Asia 391 MRT-3 MRT-3 extension
(proposed) 0 3.75 7.5 15 km Figure 1. Major real estate and infrastructure projects in Metro Manila and
its surrounding region (sources: 3rd Island Corporation, 2005; Asiatype, Inc., 2005; Bases Conversion
Development Authority, 2005; Filinvest Corporate City, 2005; Orejas, 2005; Ortigas Center, 2005;
Philippine National Railways Authority, 2005; Rockwell Center, 2005; UTP, 2003; Wikipedia, 2005a;
2005b; 2005c). Notes: The map displays a selection of prominent road and real estate projects. Polygons
for real estate developments are approximations and may not be to scale. 392 G Shatkin developer with
the development of the first integrated megaproject in the country, the Makati CBD, in the period after
World War Two (Zobel de Ayala, 1983). The company was also one of the first to recognize the
importance of the region's southern expansion, and developed a second megaproject, Ayala Alabang, in
southern Metro Manila. This was developed on a large lot purchased from a prominent local landowner
(Ayala Land Inc., 2004). More recently, as the status of the Makati CBD has begun to face challenges
from newer developments with lower rents, the company has sought to maintain its lead in this
segment of the market by purchasing a controlling stake in the Fort Bonifacio Global City development
after the financial crisis of 1997 led to the collapse of the original consortium of developers. The
company has continued its southern expansion with the purchase of development rights to large tracts
of land in Laguna, where it plans to build Ayala Westgrove Heights. It has also become a major player in
the development of industrial estatesöits Laguna Technopark is the country's premier industrial park.
Ayala Land has moved