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Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines-Diliman
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Scalar Fields
Denition
A scalar eld on Rn is any real-valued function whose domain is a
subset of Rn .
Example
Scalar elds on R2 :
f (x, y) = x2 − 3xy + 3
2 cos(xy) − x
φ(x, y) =
ex−y + 1
Scalar elds on R3 :
f (x, y, z) = x2 − y 3 + z 4
√
φ(x, y, z) = sin(xy − z) + 1 + x2
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Vector Fields
Denition
A vector eld on Rn is a function whose output is an n-dimensional
vector where each of the n components is a scalar eld on Rn .
A vector eld F~ on R2 has the form
F~ (x, y) = hP (x, y), Q(x, y)i = P (x, y) ı̂ + Q(x, y)̂,
~
G(x, y, z) = hP (x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)i
= P (x, y, z)ı̂ + Q(x, y, z)̂ + R(x, y, z)k̂
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Vector Fields
Example
Vector elds on R2 :
1 F~ (x, y) = hx + y, xyi
2 ~
G(x, y) = cos xı̂ + sin ŷ
Vector elds on R3 :
1 F~ (x, y, z) = hxy, xz, yzi
2 ~
G(x, y, z) = z 2 ı̂ + (x − y)̂ + exyz k̂
Remark
The function H(x,
~ y) = x2 , y − x, cos x is not a vector eld. Why?
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Vector Fields Illustration
Example
Sketch the vector eld F~ (x, y) = h−y, xi
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Flowlines
Denition
Flowlines are curves that are parametrized by R(t)
~ = hx(t), y(t)i such
that their tangent vector is equal to the vector eld F~ at the point
(x(t), y(t)), i.e.,
hx0 (t), y 0 (t)i = F~ (x(t), y(t)).
Example
1 Edited version of the original image courtesy of Symscape.com "CFD Study of a Car With and
Without Wing" licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
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Gravitational Force Field
1
Let φ1 (x, y) = p then
x2 + y2
* +
~ 1 (x, y) = −x −y
∇φ p ,p .
(x2 + y 2 )3 (x2 + y 2 )3
~ 1 (x, y) can be interpreted as the gravitational force
Note that ∇φ
eld.
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Gradient Fields
Remark
~ is a (gradient)
If φ is a scalar eld on Rn , then its gradient ∇φ
vector eld on Rn .
Example
The gradient
of the scalar eld φ(x, y) = x2 y is the vector eld
~
∇φ(x, y) = 2xy, x2 .
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Electric Field
1 1
Let φ2 (x, y) = p −p .
x2 + (y + 0.5)2 x2 + (y − 0.5)2
The gradient eld ∇φ
~ 2 (x, y) can be interpreted as the scaled version
of the electric eld induced by a single negative point charge.
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Gradient Field and Local Extrema
Remarks:
~ = ~0 at the local extrema
∇f
The arrows always point
towards the point where
local maximum occurs.
The gradient is perpendicular
to the contour curves. The contour map of f together
with the sketch of ∇f
~ .
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Divergence and Curl
Denition
Suppose F~ is a vector eld on R3 dened by F~ = hP, Q, Ri .
1 The divergence of F~ , denoted by div F~ , is the scalar eld given by
div F~ = Px + Qy + Rz .
2 The curl of F~ , denoted by curl F~ , is the vector eld given by
curl F~ = hRy − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py i .
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Divergence and Curl
Example
Dene F~ (x, y, z) = x2 y, y 2 z, xz 2 . Then
div F~ = Px + Qy + Rz
∂ 2 ∂ 2 ∂
= (x y) + (y z) + (xz 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xy + 2yz + 2xz,
and
curl F~ = hRy − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py i
= 0 − y 2 , 0 − z 2 , 0 − x2
= − y 2 , z 2 , x2 .
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The ~
∇ Operator
Denition
Dene the del operator ∇
~ by
~ = ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ , , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
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The ~
∇ Operator
ı̂ ̂ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
~ × F~
∇ =
∂x
∂y ∂z
P Q R
= hRy − Qz , Pz − Rx , Qx − Py i
= curl F~ (cross product)
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Divergence and Curl
Example
Find the divergence and curl of F~ (x, y, z) = hex sin z, ye−x , z tan yi at
the origin.
div F~ = ∇
~ · F~
∂ x ∂ ∂
= (e sin z) + (ye−x ) + (z tan y)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= ex sin z + e−x + tan y
div F~ (0, 0, 0) = 0 + 1 + 0 = 1.
curl F~ = ∇
~ × F~
ı̂ ̂ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
ex sin z ye−x z tan y
Remark
Let F~ = hP, Qi be a vector eld in R2 . Write
F~ (x, y, z) = hP (x, y), Q(x, y), 0i .
Then the divergence and curl of F~ will be given by
~ · F~ = ∂P + ∂Q + ∂0 = Px + Qy
div F~ = ∇
∂x ∂y ∂z
curl F~ = ∇
~ × F~
ı̂ ̂ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
= h0, 0, Qx − Py i
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
P (x, y) Q(x, y) 0
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Exercises
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