Section 6 – Cyclic Groups

Instructor: Yifan Yang

Fall 2006
Outline

Elementary properties of cyclic groups

Structure of cyclic groups

Subgroups of finite cyclic groups

Cyclic groups

Definition
1. A group G is cyclic if G = hai = {an : n ∈ Z} for some
a ∈ G. We say the element a is a generator of G.
2. Let G be a group and a ∈ G. The subgroup
hai = {an : n ∈ Z} is the cyclic subgroup of G generated by
a.
3. If hai has a finite number of element, then the order of a is
the order |hai| of this subgroup.
4. If hai has infinitely many element, we say a is of infinite
order.

Remark
If a is of finite order, then the order of a is exactly the smallest
positive integer m such that am = e.
Cyclic groups

Theorem (6.1)
Every cyclic group G is abelian.

Proof.
We have G = hai for some a ∈ G. If x, y ∈ G, then x = ar ,
y = as for some integers r and s. Now

xy = ar as = ar +s = as+r = as ar = yx.

Thus G is abelian.
Cyclic groups

Theorem (6.6)
A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof.
Let G = hai be a cyclic group, and H be a subgroup.
Case H = {e}. Then H = hei and H is cyclic.
Case H 6= {e}. Then an ∈ H for some positive integer n. Let
m be the smallest positive integer such that am ∈ H, and set
c = am . We claim that H = hci. Let b ∈ H. Since
H ⊂ G = hai, b = an for some n ∈ Z. By the division
algorithm, there exist integers q and r with 0 ≤ r < m such that
n = qm + r . Now ar = an−qm = bc −q ∈ H because b, c ∈ H.
By the assumption that m is the smallest positive integer such
that am ∈ H, we must have r = 0. That is, b = c q ∈ hci.
Subgroups of Z

Corollary (6.7)
The subgroups of Z under addition are precisely the groups nZ
under addition for n ∈ Z.

In-class exercises
1. Let m and n be two integers, and let

H = {am + bn : a, b ∈ Z} .

Prove that H is a subgroup of Z.

2. Consider m = 6, n = 4. Find an integer k such that
H = k Z.
3. Make a general conjecture about the relation between m,
n, and k .
Subgroups of Z

Theorem
Let m and n be two integers, and set d = gcd(m, n) and
H = {am + bn : a, b ∈ Z}. Then H = dZ.

Proof.
We will show
H ⊂ dZ: Since d|m and d|n, we have d|(am + bn) for all
a, b ∈ Z. Therefore H ⊂ dZ.
dZ ⊂ H: It suffices to show that d = am + bn for some
integers a, b ∈ Z. This follows from the Euclidean algorithm in
high school algebra.
Structure of cyclic groups

Theorem (6.10)
Let G be a cyclic group with generator a. If the order of G is
infinite, then G is isomorphic to hZ, +i. If G is has finite order n,
then G is isomorphic to hZn , +n i.

Proof for the case am 6= e for all m 6= 0

Define φ : Z 7→ G by φ(m) = am . We claim that φ is an
isomorphism. We check
1-to-1: If φ(m) = φ(n), then am = an and am−n = e. By
assumption, this happends only when m − n = 0. Therefore,
φ is one-to-one.
Onto: Given b ∈ G, we have b = am for some m ∈ Z. Then
φ(m) = b.
Homomorphy: φ(m + n) = am+n = am an = φ(m)φ(n).
Structure of cyclic groups

Proof for the case am = e for some m ∈ Z

Let n be the smallest positive integer such that an = e. Define
φ : Zn 7→ G by φ(m̄) = am . We need to check four things.
Well-defined: Suppose that m̄ = k̄ . We need to show that
am = ak . Now m̄ = k̄ implies m = k + pn for some integer p.
Thus, am = ak +pn = ak (an )p = ak .
1-to-1: Suppose that φ(m̄) = φ(k̄ ). Then am = ak . It follows
that am−k = e. Since n is the smallest positive integer such
that an = e, we have n|(m − k ). (cf. proof of Theorem 6.6.)
Thus, m̄ = k̄ .
Onto: Clear.
Homomorphy: Easy.
A remark on isomorphic groups

Remark
Suppose that φ : G1 7→ G2 is an isomorphism between two
groups. Then there is a one-to-one correspondence between
the subgroups of G1 and those of G2 . The correspondence is
given by H ↔ φ(H) for H < G.
This means that isomorphic groups have the same number of
subgroups and the same subgroup structures. Thus, the
above theorem tells that to understand the structures of cyclic
groups, it suffices to study those of Z and Zn .
In-class exercise

Let φ : G1 7→ G2 be given as above.

1. Let H be a subgroup of G1 . Prove that φ(H) is a subgroup
of G2 .
2. Prove that if φ is an isomorphism, then H is isomorphic to
φ(H).
3. Prove that if H and H 0 are subgroups of G1 such that
H 6= H 0 , then φ(H) 6= φ(H 0 ).
Subgroups of finite cyclic groups

Theorem (6.14)
Let G be a cyclic group of n elements generated by a. Let
b ∈ G and let b = as , and d = gcd(n, s). Then
n o
hbi = a0 = e, ad , a2d , . . . , an−d .

Corollary
Let G be a cyclic group of n elements generated by a. Then
har i = has i if and only if gcd(n, r ) = gcd(n, s).
Subgroups of finite cyclic groups

Corollary (6.16)
If a is a generator of a finite cyclic group of order n, then the
other generators of G are the elements of the form ar , where r
is relatively prime to n.

Corollary
Let G be a cyclic group of n elements generated by a. Then the
number of subgroups of G is equal to the number of divisors of
n. They are
{e, ad , a2d , . . . , an−d },
where d runs over all divisors of n.
Additive version of Theorem 6.14

Remark
The above results are stated in terms of multiplicative groups.
In terms of additive groups, such as Zn , Theorem 6.14 says
that the subgroup of Zn generated by s̄ is

{0̄, d̄, 2d, . . . , n − d},

where d = gcd(n, s).

Example

Example
Find all subgroups of Z7 .

Solution
By Theorem 6.6, every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Thus, the subgroups of Z7 are h0i, h1i, . . ., h6i. Now,
gcd(7, 1) = gcd(7, 2) = · · · = gcd(7, 6) = 1. Thus,
h1i = h2i = · · · = h6i = {0, 1, . . . , 6} = Z7 . Also,
gcd(7, 0) = 7. Thus, h0i = {0}.
Conclusion: There are two subgroups {0} and Z7 .
Proof of Theorem 6.14

Proof of Theorem 6.14.

We have ar ∈ hbi ⇔ ar = bk = aks for some integer k . Since
n is the smallest positive integer such that an = e (see Proof of
Theorem 6.10), ar = aks if and only if r = ks + `n for some
integer `. That is, ar ∈ hbi ⇔ r = ks + `n for some integers k
and `. As k and ` run over all integers, r runs over all
multiples of d = gcd(n, s). Therefore,

hbi = {e, ad , a2d , . . . , an−d }.

More examples

Example
Draw the subgroup diagram of Z4 .
Solution. The divisors of 4 are 1, 2, and 4. The subgroups
generated by them are {0, 1, 2, 3}, {0, 2}, and {0}, respectively.
So the subgroup diagram is

Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}

h2i = {0, 2}

h0i = {0}
More examples

Draw the subgroup diagram of Z12 .

Solution. The divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. The
subgroup diagram is

h1i = Z12
 Q
 Q
 Q
h3i h2i
Q  Q
Q  Q
QQ 
 Q
Q
h6i h4i
Q 
Q 
Q 
h12i = {0}
Exercises

In-class exercise
1. What is wrong with the statement “an element a of a group
G has order n ∈ Z+ if and only if an = e”?
2. Find all the generators of Z6 .
3. Determine the number of subgroups of Z36 .
4. Draw the subgroup diagram of Z18 .

Homework
Problems 18, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 37, 40, 44, 49, 50, 55 of
Section 6.