Organizational Behaviour: Unit-Wise Exam Notes

ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR Unit-wise Exam

Notes
Ashutosh Shukla Modern Girls College of Professional
Studies, Lucknow
UNIT-
I
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 2
Organizational Behavior- it is made out of two words “organization” and
“behavior.”
What is an Organization? Organization as two or more individuals who are

interacting with each other within a deliberately structured set up and working in
an interdependent way to achieve some common objective/s. Organizations
play a major role in pure lives. We possibly cannot think of a single moment in
our lives when we are not depending on organizations in some form or the
other. Right from the public transport that you use to come to your institute, the
institutes itself, the class you are attending at this moment, are all examples of
organizations.
What is Behavior? It is the behavior of the people working in an organization to

achieve common goals or objectives. Organization comprises of people with
different attitudes, cultures, beliefs, norms and values.
So let us understand organizational behavior and what it exactly it means.

“Organizational Behavior” can be defined as the study of what people think,
feel, and do in and around organizations. The study of Organizational Behavior
facilitates the process of explaining, understanding) predicting, maintaining, and
changing employee behavior in an organizational setting. The value of
organizational behavior is that: it isolates important aspects of the manager’s
job and offers specific perspective on the human side of management:
• People as
organizations,
• People as
resources,
• People as people In other words, it involves the understanding, prediction
and control of human behavior and factors affecting their performance and
interaction among the organizational members. And because organizational
behavior is concerned specifically with employment – related situations, you
should not be surprised to find that it emphasizes behavior as related- to
concerns such as jobs, work, absenteeism, employment turnover, productivity,
human performance and management
DEFINITIONS
:
Organizational Behavior: OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the
purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an o rganization’s
effectiveness.
Organizational Behavior is an applied field of inquiry that encompasses the study of
all aspects of behavior in and by formal organizations. It treats as units of analysis

everything from individuals acting, feeling and thinking in an organization to groups,
larger subunits such as departments or divisions, the organizations as a whole and even
populations of organizations and their relationship to larger social structure such as
state and society.
A. Organizational behavior is a field of

study.
1. OB studies three determinants of behavior in organizations: individuals,

groups, and structure.
2. OB applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups, and the effect of
structure on behavior in order to make organizations work more effectively.
3. OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how

that behavior affects the performance of the organization.
Organisational behaviour can then be defined as:"The study of human behaviour in

organisational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organisational
context, and the organisation itself."
Organizational behavior (often abbreviated OB) is a field of study that

investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior
within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward
improving an organization’s effectiveness.
OB is the study of what people do in an organization and how their behavior

affects the organization’s performance. OB includes the core topics of
motivation, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group
structure and processes, learning, attitude development and perception, change
processes, conflict, work design, and work stress.
ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR
The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure,

technology and the environment in which the organisation operates.
• People: People make up the internal and social system of the organisation.
They consist of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small;
formal or informal; official or unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in
the organisation to achieve their objectives.
• Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in
organisations. Different people in the organisation are performing different
type of jobs and they need to be (elated in some structural way so that their
work can be effectively co-ordinated.
• Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide
the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they
perform. The technology used has a significant influence on working
relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it also restricts'
people in various ways.
• Environment: All organisations operate within an external environment. It is
the part of a larger system that contains many other elements such as
government, family and other organisations. All of these mutually influence
each other in a complex system that creates a context for a group of people
INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOR
Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built on

contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, social psychology, anthropology and economics.
• Psychology: Psychology is the study of human behavior which tries to identify the
characteristics of individuals and provides an understanding why an individual
behaves in a particular way. This thus provides us with useful insight into areas
such as human motivation, perceptual processes or personality characteristics.
• Sociology: Sociology is the study of social behavior, relationships among social
groups and societies, and the maintenance of social order. The main focus of
attention is on the social system. This helps us to appreciate the functioning of
individuals within the organization which is essentially a socio-technical entity.
• Social psychology: Social psychology is the study of human behavior in the context
of social situations. This essentially addresses the problem of understanding the
typical behavioral patterns to be expected from an individual when he takes part in
a group.
• Anthropology: Anthropology is the science of mankind and the study of human
behavior as a whole. The main focus of attention is on the cultural system, beliefs,
customs, ideas and values within a group or society and the comparison of
behavior among different cultures. In the context of today’s organizational scenario.
It is very important to appreciate the differences that exist among people coming
from different cultural backgrounds as people are often found to work with others
from the other side of the globe.

• Economics: Any organization to survive and sustain must be aware of the
economic viability of their effort. This applies even to the non-profit and voluntary
organizations as well.
• Political Science: Although frequently overlooked, the contributions of political
scientists are significant to the understand arrangement in organizations. It studies
individuals and groups within specific conditions concerning the power dynamics.
Important topics under here include structuring of conflict, allocation of power and
how people manipulate power for individual self-interest etc.
MODELS OF
OB
There are five models of OB, which are as

follows -
1. Autocratic model
2. Custodial model
3. Supportive
model 4. Collegial
model 5. System
model
1. Autocratic Model: In this model we can find that this model relies on power. For
example, managers have the ability, authority to control their employees and the
employee’s performance in this stage will be much lower than expected.
Points to be
remembered:
• Depends on
power
• Managerial orientation is
authority
• Employee orientation is
obedience
• Employee psychological result depends on
boss
• Employee needs met is
subsistence
• Performance result is minimum Example: Defense team, because here
officer hold power and authority to obey them and thus soldiers are obedient to
execute officer’s order.
2. Custodial Model: This model usually depends on economic resources (money).

For instance, managers can simulate their employees by offering them facilities,
and benefits, but in this model the employee’s won’t work as a team (Less sharing
with others) because everyone will depend on hisself to get more benefits than the
others.
Points to be
remembered:

• Depends on economical
resource
money
• Employee orientation is security and
benefit
• Employee psychological result depends on
organization
• Employee needs met is
security
• Performance result is passive
cooperation
Example: Garments factory, because here it is based on economical resource.

Here labors execute their job for security and benefit, again here if an
organization do well then employee get better benefit.
3. Supportive Model: This model relies on leadership. For example, managers

support their employees by encouraging, and supporting them to perform a better
job, get along with each other and as well as developing their skills. The
Performance results will be awakened drives.
Points to be
remembered:
• Depends on
leadership
support
• Employee orientation is job and
performance
• Employee psychological result is
participation
• Employee needs met is status and
recognition
• Performance result is awakened
drives
Example: Software firm, because here leaders support there employee to

perform their tasks or their project.
4. Collegial Model: This model means that employees depend on each other
cooperatively and work as a team to do the task. Everyone will be having a normal
enthusiasm self-discipline, and responsible behavior towards their tasks.
Points to be
remembered:
• Depends on
partnership
teamwork
• Employee orientation is responsible
behavior
• Employee psychological result is self
discipline
• Employee needs met is self
actualization
• Performance result is moderate
enthusiasm
Example: Social organization such as willingly blood donation organization

BADHON, because here every one work as teamwork and each member takes

responsibilities for organizational goal. Each member works here only for self
actualization.
5. System Model: This model is based on trust, self-motivation, and the

performance results will be more than expected, because employees will be
committed to do their tasks as expected, and as well as organizational goals. After
we explained the models in brief we would like to inform you that the world
nowadays requires from us necessary steps before we decide the best model to
have for an each organization. One of the most important things to consider is that
managers and leaders should clearly understand the nature of their organizations
before making any decision. Also, they have to consider and look at the changing
in the environment and of course the employee’s needs so that they can have the
best model to use to get a better result.
Points to be
remembered:
• Depends on trust, community,
understanding
• Managerial orientation is caring,
compassion
• Employee orientation is psychological
ownership
• Employee psychological result is self
motivation
• Employee needs met is wide
range
• Performance result is passion, commitment, organization
goal
Example: Some corporate firm which are based on trust or community where
employees are self motivated and committed for organizational goals.
ROLE OF MANAGER
Organizational Behavior is an indigenous learning of techniques which deals

with the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure
on behavior in order to make organizations work more effectively. Through
these methods a budding manager can gain several virtues to induce personal
growth of self and group related issues. Since managers are individuals who
achieve goals through other people, OB makes us aware of the various roles
we need to play as managers to encourage the workforce to work with more
satisfaction and profitability. As managers we will participate in several roles,
mainly:
Interpersonal Roles:
• Figurehead: All managers are required to perform duties that are

ceremonial and symbolic in nature, representing the organization/unit to
outsiders.
• Leader: All managers also have a leadership role. This role includes hiring,
training, motivating employees, disciplining employees and unifying efforts.
Informational Roles:
• Monitor: Managers monitor the flow of information. All managers, to some

degree, collect information from outside organizations and institutions. And
Transmit necessary information to outsiders.
• Disseminator: Managers then act as a conduit to transmit info to
organizational members.
Decisional Role:
Managers initiate and design change. They allocate resources and negotiate on
behalf of the organization. Here managers deal with various affairs such as,
overseeing new projects, taking corrective measure in an unforeseen event and
discuss issues and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their own
unit.
These roles demand a deep understanding of human behavior in both individual

and group forms, and so OB provides us with the means of tackling these
issues with confidence. Understanding OB has never been more important for
managers than it is today. In today’s world, the people of earth are much closer
than before and managers need to deal with a vast array of diversities, such as,
• Culture
• Demography
• Religion
• Higher demand of customer
satisfaction
• Coping with rapid changes in
technology
• Balancing Stress related lifestyle of the
workers
• Ethical behavior
As a manager, the teachings of OB can significantly increase one’s personal

sensibilities and outlook on these attributes; 1. Working with people from different
cultures: What might seem motivating to a manager might not appeal to his
workforce at all. Or a manager’s style of communication may be straightforward,
but the workforce may find it threatening and uncomfortable. As a manager one
must learn how to adapt his managerial style to their cultural, geographic and
religious disparities. 2. Workforce diversity: Organizations are increasingly
becoming a more heterogeneous mix of people in terms of gender, race, age,
ethnicity and sexual orientation. No longer can these disparities and clichés be
ignored, these people are in the real world educated and ready to work. So
mangers must recognize the fact that they don’t leave their

lifestyles, cultural values and perception at home, so we as managers must learn to
accommodate this diverse group of people by addressing their different lifestyles,
family needs and work styles. 3. Customer Service: Many an organization has failed
because its employees failed to please its customers. Management needs to
create a customer-responsive culture. OB can provide considerable guidance in
guidance in helping managers create such cultures- cultures in which employees
are friendlier and courteous, accessible, knowledgeable and prompt in responding
to customer needs, in order to please the patron. 4. Ethics: Today’s manager needs
to create an ethically healthy climate for his employees, where they can work
productively and confront a minimal level of uncertainty regarding what constitutes
right and wrong behavior. Organizational behavior is the path to understanding how
elements of the work place fall into place. As a nascent manager one can develop
the self with the help of these learning’s and partake in managerial roles
confidently.
UNIT-
II
MOTIVATIO
N
People work for a number of reasons. Most people work because they need to
earn money to survive, while others work voluntarily for other reasons.
Motivation is the reason why people work, and it drives them to work better.
Therefore, managers try to find out what motivate workers and use them to
encourage workers to work more efficiency. This results in higher productivity,
increased output, and ultimately higher profits.
Nowadays, machinery is more common in businesses which results in

increased productivity as well. However, the amount that a well motivated
workforce can produce must still be recognised, since employees are firm’s
greatest assets!
In common parlance
Motivation is
• the act or process of giving someone a reason for doing something : the
act or process of motivating someone
• the condition of being eager to act or work : the condition of being
motivated
• a force or influence that causes someone to do
something
“Internal and external factors that stimulate desire andenergy in people to be

continually interested and committed to a job, role or subject, or to make an effort
to attain a goal.”
Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious
factors such as the 1. intensity of desire or need,

2. incentive or reward value of the goal, and 3. expectations of the individual
and of his or her peers. These factors are the
reasons one has for behaving a certain
way.
SOURCES OF
MOTIVATION
There are two different sources of

motivation –
a. Intrinsic
and b.
Extrinsic.
They can have either positive or negative influence on learners. Influencing

learners to become intrinsically motivated is not an easy task for teachers.
Different research shows that intrinsically (internally) motivated learns are in
fact more motivated than the extrinsically (externally) motivated ones. This
could be due to the fact that intrinsically motivated students are often
extrinsically motivated, at the same time. But on the other

hand, extrinsically motivated students are seldom found to be intrinsically
motivated. Below there is the detailed explanation of what the intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation is.
Intrinsic
Motivation:
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that source comes from inside an

individual rather than from any external or outside rewards or punishments. The
motivation comes from the pleasure one can get from the task itself, completing
the task or just working on a task. However, it doesn’t mean that one will not
seek for a reward.It means that for the intrinsically motivated learner the view of
getting a good grade might be not enough to keep him or her motivated in
completing the task he or she is not interested in. It is driven by an interest or
enjoyment in the task itself, and comes out of the inside of the individual rather
than relying on any external pressure. Learners who are intrinsically motivated
are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their
skills, which will increase their competencies.
Extrinsic
Motivation:
Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that source comes from outside an

individual. The motivating factors are external and outside the learner. It can be
a reward, like getting a good grade, or a punishment, like failing the exam. The
reward provides satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not
provide.Conversely, the perspective of punishment creates strong anxiety. The
learner is afraid of failing and that is why he or she is motivated to complete the
task. Although many researches claim that fear is a very strong, motivator they
also say that it can have the adverse effect on the learner. Thus it is better
when the learner has a strong intrinsic motivation and the extrinsic one is the
additional factor.
CONTENT THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Content theories are also called needs theories, because they are generally
associated with a view that concentrates on the importance of determining
'what' motivates us. In other words they try to identify what our 'needs' are and
relate motivation to the fulfilling of these needs.
• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Theory
• Management Assumptions (Theory X and Theory
Y)
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• McClellands Need
AchievementTheory
• Herzbergs' Two Factor
Theory

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that people
possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious
desires. Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain
needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfill the next one, and so
on. The earliest and most widespread version of Maslow's hierarchy of needs
includes five motivational needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a
pyramid.
This five stage model can be

divided into basic (or
deficiency) needs (e.g.
physiological, safety, love,
and esteem) and growth
needs (self-actualization).
The deficiency or basic needs are said to motivate people when they are
unmet. Also, the need to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the
duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food
the more hungry they will become. One must satisfy lower level basic needs
before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. Once these needs
have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level
called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up
the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is
often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including
divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of
the hierarchy. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully
self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on
esteem, love and other social needs.
The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model

includes:
1. Biological And Physiological Needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep
etc. 2. Safety Needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability,
freedom
from fear. 3. Love And Belongingness Needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and
love, - from
work group, family, friends. 4. Esteem Needs - achievement, mastery,
independence, status, dominance, prestige,
self-respect, and respect from others. 5. Self-Actualization Needs - realizing
personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth and peak
experiences.

HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY
Frederick Herzberg, contributed to human relations and motivation two theories

of motivation as follows:
Herzbergs' first component in his approach to motivation theory involves what

are known as the hygiene factors and includes the work and organizational
environment. These factors do not lead to higher levels of motivation but
without them there is dissatisfaction. These hygiene factors include:
• Its policies and its
• The organization administration
• The kind of supervision (leadership relations
and management, including • Salary
perceptions) which people receive • Status
while on the job
• Job security
• Working conditions
• Interpersonal
The second component in Herzberg’s' motivation theory involves what people

actually do on the job and should be engineered into the jobs employees do in
order to develop intrinsic motivation with the workforce. The motivators are -
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Growth /
advancement
• Interest in the job
These factors result from internal instincts in employees, yielding motivation

rather than movement. Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must
be done simultaneously. Treat people as best you can so they have a minimum
of dissatisfaction. Use people so they get achievement, recognition for
achievement, interest, and responsibility and they can grow and advance in
their work. Therefore, the hygiene and motivation factors can be listed as
follows:
• Achievement
• Hygiene • Recognition for
• Company policies and achievement
administration • Interest in the task
• Supervision • Responsibility for enlarged
• Working conditions and interpersonal task
relations • Growth and advancement to
• Salary, status and higher level tasks
security
• Motivators
MCCLELLAND NEED ACHIEVEMENT
THEORY
David McClelland (Studies in Motivation, 1955) identified three basic types of

motivating needs present in people. He shows that all three needs can be
present in a person but the weight attached to each can vary. The three needs
are:
a) Need for Achievement (N Ach) - where this is high then people have an
intense
desire to succeed and an equally intense fear of
failure.
b) Need for Affiliation (N Aff) - where this is high people tend to seek
acceptance by others, need to feel loved and are concerned with maintaining
pleasant social relationships.
c) Need for Power (N Pow) - people with a high need for power seek
opportunities to influence and control others, seek leadership positions and are
often articulate,outspoken and stubborn.
THEORY X AND THEORY

Y
Douglas McGregor further developed the needs concept of Maslow and

specifically applied it to the workplace. McGregor maintained that every
manager made assumptions about their employees and adopted a
management approach based upon these assumptions. He maintained there
were two main categories and that managers adopted one or the other.
The first category, which he termed Theory X, he maintained was the dominant
management approach and assumed:
• the average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if
possible,
• because of this most people needed to be coerced, controlled, directed and
threatened with punishment to get them to put adequate effort into the
achievement of organisational objectives, and
• the average person prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has
very little ambition and wants security above all else.
• McGregor maintains that the application of this approach, as well as
misunderstanding the real needs of employees, creates a self-fulfilling outcome
because it forces people to become like this—they have no alternative.
McGregor proposed an alternative set of assumptions which he called Theory

Y. The assumptions here are virtually the opposite to Theory X. They are:

• Work is as natural as play or
rest.
• External control and threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing
about effort towards organisational objectives. People will exercise self-direction
and self- control towards the achievement of objectives they are committed to.
• Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement.
• The average person learns under proper conditions to not only accept
responsibility but also seek it.
• The ability to seek and develop innovative problem solving approaches is
widely, not narrowly distributed across the whole population.
• In most work organisations the abilities of most employees is only partially
utilised.
McGregor advocated that the application of Theory Y, would not only meet the
needs of the organisation but also those of the employee. He believed that
Theory X at best only met Maslows Deficiency needs, whilst Theory Y also met
the Growth Needs. You would thus have more motivated employees if you
adopted Theory Y.
ALDERFER’S ERG
THEORY
Clayton Alderfer revised Maslow's theory in 1972. He reduced the levels in the
hierarchy from five to three and termed these Existence needs, Relatedness
needs and Growth needs. His most significant contribution, however, was to
alter Maslow's concept of a one-way progression up the hierarchy, to one that
allowed for regression to lower levels if these needs are no longer being met.
This is a more realistic approach as it recognises that, because a need is met,
doesn't mean it will always remain met. For example, if I were to remove all the
air from the room you are in, would you be motivated to keep learning?
The psychologist Clayton Alderfer developed a new model to explain the

simultaneous nature of Maslow's five needs. Called the ERG Theory of
motivation, he first published it in a 1969 article titled "An Empirical Test of a
New Theory of Human Need."
In his theory, Alderfer compressed Maslow's hierarchy of needs from five

to three:
• Existence
• Relatedness
• Growth
Next, we experience relatedness needs, where we fulfill our need for satisfying
interpersonal relationships. This level relates to Maslow's social needs and to
the

external part of self-esteem needs – we feel good about ourselves based on
eeds level. Here, we
what others think about us. Finally, we reach the growth n
are looking for personal growth and development by doing work that is of high
quality, and meaningful. This equates to the internal part of Maslow's
self-esteem needs and to his self-actualization needs. However, Alderfer's
theory goes further than simplifying the number of needs and broadening what
each covers. While he still maintains that there is a general order for pursuing
needs, he claims that this order is not as fixed as it is in Maslow's hierarchy.
Even though existence needs generally have a higher priority than relatedness
and growth needs, priorities can change, depending on the person and the
situation.
VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (VIE

THEORY)
Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors

such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. The expectancy
theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if
they believe that:
• There is a positive correlation between efforts and

performance,
• Favorable performance will result in a desirable
reward,
• The reward will satisfy an important
need,
• The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort
worthwhile.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory is based upon the following three

beliefs:
• Valence: (Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with

respect to outcomes [rewards]. The depth of the want of an employee for
extrinsic [money, promotion, time-off, benefits] or intrinsic [satisfaction]
rewards). Management must discover what employees value.
• Expectancy: (Employees have different expectations and levels of

confidence about what they are capable of doing). Management must
discover what resources, training, or supervision employees need.
• Instrumentality: (The perception of employees whether they will actually
get what they desire even if it has been promised by a manager).
Management must ensure that promises of rewards are fulfilled and that
employees are aware of that.
Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality,

and Valence interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the
employee

acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid pain. This force can be 'calculated'
via the following formula: Motivation = Valance x Expectancy (Instrumentality)
This formula can be used to indicate and predict such things as job satisfaction,
one's occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job, and the effort one
might expend at work.
PERCEPTION
What Is
Perception?
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both
the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these
stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties
and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not
only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our
environment. Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, taste smell and
taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving
the ability to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves
the cognitive processes required to process information, such as recognizing
the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.
Perception (from the Latin perceptio, percipio) is the organization, identification,

and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand
the environment.All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in
turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For
example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by
odor molecules, and hearing involves pressure waves. Perception is not the
passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory,
expectation, and attention. Perception involves these "top- down" effects as well
as the "bottom-up" process of processing sensory input. The "bottom-up"
processing transforms low-level information to higher-level information (e.g.,
extracts shapes for object recognition). The "top-down" processing refers to a
person's concept and expectations (knowledge), and selective mechanisms
(attention) that influence perception. This process of ‘interpretation of stimulus
is known as perception’. So perception involves two processes: sensation
interpretation. But interpretation of any stimulus requires past experience also.
For example, a child who

has not seen an elephant earlier either in photo or directly cannot identify that
animal, whereas another child who has seen earlier will identify the animal
easily.
Hence, perception may be defined as “a process of interpretation of a present

stimulus on the basis of past experience”.Perception is not as simple as said
here. It is an integrated approach. It is a synthetic process where different
physiological and psychological processes are involved. For example, the
accuracy of sense organs, clarity of sensations, mental set of an individual, etc.
Otherwise our perception may go wrong.
Perception Definition: A perception is a belief held by a person, or many people,

based upon how they see the world around them.
Perception is -
“the process of selecting, organising and interpreting information in order to make
sense of the world around us” ( Bratton: 2010)
“the dynamic and complex way in which individuals select information (stimuli) from
the environment, interpret and translate it so that a meaning is assigned which will
result in a pattern of behaviour or thought” (Mullins)
Perception in
Organisations
Often the main aspects of perception in an organisation is how an individual

views others, as this can be a major point in how that person will behave within
the business. It is also a aspect of how an individual is motivated within an
organisation. If they preserve people in a certain way than they may believe
they are disliked, not listened to or ignored by this person and therefore their
motivation to do anything will be far smaller. This is why in organisations there
needs to be a way of making sure employees fit before being hired and then
when they are hired their first perceptions of others need to be good.To achieve
a good first impression companies will often introduce new employees and
current employees in ways which show off key skills, highlight the importance of
these people to the team, so that perceptions are built around positives instead
of negatives. The perceptual process is how organisations cope with the
aforementioned.
PROCESS OF PERCEPTION
• Receiving Stimuli – Picking up all external and internal

factors.

• Selecting Stimuli – Selecting the stimuli which will be most important – This
is where the introduction of new employees is important, they need to be
presented in a way where the selected stimuli are positive.
• Organising – Grouping and selecting which are the perceptions to
keep.
• Interpreting – Fundamental Attribution Error, stereotyping, Halo Effect and
projection.
• Response – The perception is then turned into attitudes, motivation, feelings
and beliefs, which will change the behaviours of the individuals.
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERCEPTION
There are individual differences in perceptual abilities. Two people may

perceive the same stimulus differently. The factors affecting the perceptions of
people are:
a. Perceptual learning:
Based on past experiences or any special training that we get, every one of us
learns to emphasize some sensory inputs and to ignore others. For example, a
person who has got training in some occupation like artistry or other skilled jobs
can perform better than other untrained people. Experience is the best teacher for
such perceptual skills. For example, blind people identify the people by their voice
or by sounds of their footsteps. b. Mental set:
Set refers to preparedness or readiness to receive some sensory input. Such
expectancy keeps the individual prepared with good attention and concentration.
For example, when we are expecting the arrival of a train, we listen to its horn or
sound even if there is a lot of noise disturbance. c. Motives and needs:
Our motives and needs will definitely influence our perception. For example, a
hungry person is motivated to recognise only the food items among other articles.
His attention cannot be directed towards other things until his motive is satisfied. d.
Cognitive styles:
People are said to differ in the ways they characteristically process the
information. Every individual will have his or her own way of understanding the
situation. It is said that the people who are flexible will have good attention and
they are less affected by interfering influences and to be less dominated by
internal needs and motives than or people at the constricted end.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION PROCESS

In perceptual process we select a particular stimulus with our attention and
interpret it. In the same way whenever it is necessary many discrete stimuli in
our visual field are

organised into a form and perceived more meaningfully than they appear. This
phenomenon was well explained by Gestalt psychologists. They believed that
the brain creates a coherent perceptual experience by perceiving a stimulus as
a whole than perceiving discrete entities. This is more meaningfully stated in the
gestalt principle as ‘the whole is better than sum total of its parts’. This is
explained under many sub- principles of perception.
Figure-ground Relationship: According to this principle any figure can be

perceived more meaningfully in a background and that figure cannot be
separated from that background. For example, letters written with a white chalk
piece are perceived clearly in the background of a blackboard.
Grouping of Stimuli in Perceptual Organisation: As said above, according to

gestalt principle, the objects can be perceived meaningfully when they are
grouped together. There are some principles which are followed by us in order
to make our perception more meaningful.
They are as
follows:
a. Proximity: Proximity means nearness. The objects which are nearer to each
other can be perceived meaningfully by grouping them. For example, the word
‘Man’, here though the letters are discrete, when grouped together gives some
meaning. b. Similarity: Stimuli need not be nearer to each other for perception.
If there is similarity in these objects, they are grouped together and perceived,
even if they are away. c. Continuity: Any stimulus which extends in the same
direction or shape will be
perceived as a whole d. Closure: When a stimulus is presented with gaps, the
human tendency is to
perceive that figure as complete one by filling the gaps psychologically. e.
Symmetry: Objects which are having symmetrical shape are perceived as
groups. f. Perceptual Constancy: This refers to stableness in perception. We
have a tendency to perceive the objects as relatively stable and unchanging in
shape and size, inspite of a change in the image that we receive. Even then we
perceive him as the same person. When we see people and houses from the
top of hill, they seem to be very small but we do not get confused by this. We
perceive them correctly according to their actual size. Perceptual constancy
depends upon several factors like past experience, expectancy, habits,
motivations, cognitive styles, learning, imagination, etc. g. Perception of
Movement: When a particular object appears in different places at different
times we understand that the object is in movement. This process is called
perception of movement. Such an ability to perceive movement is gained from
birth itself as a natural process. This is a most important ability. It is only by this
ability

the organism can understand the world around and can perceive the dangers /
threats in the movement, so that it can easily escape from such dangers. h.
Apparent motion: Sometimes we perceive that the objects are moving. In fact
the objects are stationary, i.e. they will not be moving. Hence the perception of
an object which is not moving, as an object moving is an illusion. For example,
when we are moving fast in a bus, the trees, plants and other non-moving
objects appear to move in the opposite direction. In the same way, even the
movements of figures in a film appear to move, though they remain without
movement. Since moving pictures are taken continuously and the film reel is
run very fast, it produces a movement feeling called stroboscopic motion or phi
phenomenon.
LEARNING
Learning is one of the processes of acquiring knowledge about the world. It is

a process of cognition. Any response that the organism has not inherited is said
to be learnt. Human beings have lesser-inborn instincts compared to their
learned responses. Animals lower in the developmental continuum deal with
environmental challenges by relying on an innate set of responses, called
fixed-action patterns. The behaviors of human beings are controlled more by a
set of learned responses. The things that we were not able to do before, but are
capable of doing now are the results of learning. Knowing to ride a bicycle, to
swim, to solve arithmetic problems, to use language, and to operate on a
computer are some of the common examples of learning. Without learning, the
world would have been still a booming, buzzing confusion.
Learning is a very fundamental topic for psychologists. It plays a central role

in every branch of psychology. A psychologist studying perception might ask,
"How do we learn that people who look small from a distance are far away, not
simply tiny?" A developmental psychologist might inquire, "How do babies learn
to distinguish their mothers form other women?" A clinical psychologist might
wonder, "Why are some people afraid of frogs?" A social psychologist might
ask, "How does a human child learn the etiquettes of his culture?" A
psychologist studying animal behaviors might wonder, "How does a dog learn to
obey its master, and not strangers?" These questions drawn from different
fields of psychology can be answered only with reference to learning process.

THEORIES OF
LEARNING
Several learning theories have been propounded by the psychologists who

explain the process of learning. Let us learn some important theories of
learning.
1. Classical Conditioning
You must be aware about the stimulus and response. In classical conditioning,
learning takes place through the connection between unconditioned stimulus
and conditioned stimulus. These two stimuli are paired to elicit the desire
response. Let us take an example of food which elicits the response of
salvation. The food is termed as unconditioned stimulus and the salvation is
known as unconditioned response. A conditioned stimulus is a mental stimulus
that does not elicit the response. A response which is elicited by the conditioned
stimulus is termed as conditioned response. When conditioned stimulus is
paled with unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus also starts eliciting
the response. In this process a stimulus- response bond is developed between
a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response through the repeated linking
of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
Pavlov conducted this experiment on the dog. He presented the food to the dog
and the dog salivated. Here the food is the conditioned stimulus and the
salvation of the dog is the unconditioned response. Pavlov used a bell as
conditioned stimulus. When he rang the bell, the dog did not do anything.
Pavlov started paring of the conditioned stimulus (bell) with the unconditioned
stimulus (food). He presented the food to the dog and rung the bell. This was
repeated several times. After some time, he found that the bell also elicited the
response of salvation even when the unconditioned stimulus (food) was not
present. He rings the bell and the dog salivates without the presentation of as
well. Thus the dog learnt the ringing of the bell with the salvation. The focus of
this theory is building up an association between an unconditioned stimulus and
a conditioned stimulus.
The training of airplane pilot regarding the use of newly installed warning
system is a good example of classical conditioning. In this training, whenever
the plane drops below critical altitude, the warning light is shown and pilot
increases the planes altitude. Over the period, the pilot learns to adjust the
planes altitude in response to the warning light without the presence of the
trainer.
This theory has been criticized on the ground that it considers the learner as a
passive element. The learner notices the connection between the unconditioned
stimulus and the conditioned stimulus and forms an association. Another
noticeable point is that it explains the simple reflexive behavior. In most of the
organization, people are not passive; they are actively involved in executing
their behaviour. Moreover behaviors are also not elicited, they are emitted.
These behaviors are under workers control.

Despite these limitation, the principles of association, as an important
phenomenon of learning cannot be undermined.
2. Operant Conditioning
Skinner g ave the theory of operant condition .This theory advocates that’s
Learners response is instrument in a producing a reinforcing stimulus. This
means that the response which produces the reinforcement becomes stronger
and the response which produce the reinforcement become stronger and the
respond which does not produce reinforcement become weaker .Skinner box
was used for demonstrating the operant learning. It is a simple box having a
liver fitted at the end of the box. The liver is a switch which operates as a food
–delivery mechanism. A hungry rat is placed inside the box .Initially the rat sit
idle in the box ,gradually it starts exploring inside the box all on a sudden it
presses the liver. As the liver is pressed it releases a piece of food .After
pressing the liver a number of times. The rat realizes that it releases the piece
of food and the rat start eating them. Now the rat presses the liver and eat the
food constitutes the reinforcement and reinforcement is contingent upon the
operation of the lever
The box can be arranged I such a way that every response i.e. pressing of liver
may not release the food. Some response may release the food and some may
not release. This is termed as partial reinforcement. it may also be arranged in
such away that pressing of lever may result in a shock to the rat. This is termed
as negative reinforcement. Thus the response which fulfils the desired needs of
the rat is known as positive reinforcement. At the same time, the response may
also lead to escape from the painful situation which is known as negative
reinforcement. The focus of this theory is the reinforcement follows a response.
So the response becomes instrumental in achieving the appropriate goal. The
manipulation of response and reinforcement may increase; reduce all lead to
the extinction of the behaviour.
You must be aware of Thorndike’s law of effect which states that the responses
which are accompanied or closely followed by reinforcement will be more likely
to occur. at the same time, the responses which are accompanied or closely
followed by discomfort will be less likely to occur. This means that the behaviour
which leads to positive outcome will be likely to be repeated whereas behaviour
which leads to negative outcome will be avoided. Hull proposed three
component of learning theory i.e. drive, habit and reinforcement. A drive refers
to the internal state of disequilibrium which becomes a motive for learning. a
drive stimulates the person to perform the desired act. Habit refers to the
association between stimulus and the response. The appropriate link is formed
between environmental stimulus and behaviour of a person. The formation of
this connection play very important role in learning. Reinforcement refers to the
feedback received by the person as a result of his behaviour.

Thus appropriate understanding of connection between behaviour and
consequences by the person makes him to learn about the situation. The focus
of the operant theory is to make the learner to operate in the environment to
acquire reinforcement. This means that the behaviour may be directed by
appropriate reinforcement. For example whenever you perform well in the
office, your boss appreciate you. This appreciation helps you in strengthening
the behaviour of performing well in the office.
3. COGNITIVE LEARNING
The cognitive theory was given by Tolman. It focuses on the fact that learning
takes place by thinking about the problem, from insight of the individual and
from integrating different cues or piece of information. Acquisition of information
plays important role in the learning process. The cognitive theory advocates
that the association between cognitive environmental cues and expectation lead
to learning. According to cognitive theory, learning takes place as a result of
stimulus-stimulus association. Here, two stimuli are repeatedly paired. The
presentation of one stimulus arouses an image, idea or some process
representing the second stimulus, even when it is not presented. When more
than two stimuli are presented, whole stimuli may become associated. The
process of association leads to formation of cognitive map. This cognitive map
is especially applicable to the learning of spatial relationship of objects in
environment. Tolman tested the cognitive learning phenomenon on rats through
a complicated maze structure in the laboratory. He found the rats ran through
the maze structure towards the food. Rats developed expectations at every
point of the maze and reached to the goal. Thus the relationship between cues
and expectancy got strengthened and cognitive map was formed. The formation
of cognitive map was the result of learning. in day to day life also you form a
cognitive map of the way you go to the college, market and other places or
about the persons, things etc.
4. Social Learning
This theory advocates that the people learn through observation and direct
experience. it emphasizes an interaction among cognitive, behavioral and
environmental determinants of behaviour. People learn by observing others
behaviour. They model those behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes. at the
same time, they try to appoint those behaviors that leads to unfavorable
outcomes if you analyze your behaviour, you will find that your behaviors are
influenced by your parents, friends, teachers, movies, television, achievers,
successful persons, etc you try to imbibe their behaviour because their
behaviour lead to positive consequences. This theory focus on learning the
consequences of behaviour and self reinforcement

REINFORCEMEN
T
Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that

increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Note that reinforcement is
defined by the effect that it has on behavior - it increases or strengthens the
behavior.
For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the reinforcer)

immediately after a child puts away her toys (the response). By reinforcing the
desired behavior with praise, the girl will be more likely to perform the same
actions again.
Types of
Reinforcement
Reinforcement can include anything that strengthens or increases a behavior,

including stimuli, events and situations. In a classroom setting, for example,
types of reinforcement might include praise, getting out of unwanted work,
token rewards, candy, extra playtime and fun activities.
There are two major categories of
reinforcement:
Primary reinforcement, sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement,

occurs naturally and does not require learning in order to work. Primary
reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that they aid in the survival of the
species. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, air, sleep, water and
sex. Genetics and experience may also play a role in how reinforcing such
things are. For example, while one person might find a certain type of food very
rewarding, another person may not like that food at all.
Secondary reinforcement, also known as conditioned reinforcement, involves

stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing
stimulus. For example, when training a dog, praise and treats might be used as
primary reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be associated with the praise
and treats until the sound of the clicker itself begins to work as a secondary
reinforcer.
In operant conditioning, there are two different types of

reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement involves the addition of something to increase a

response, such as giving a bit of candy to a child after she cleans up her room.
Negative reinforcement involves removing something in order to increase a

response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn in all of their homework for
the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher hopes to
increase the occurrence of the desired behavior (completing all homework).

The Strength of the Response
How and when reinforcement is delivered can affect the overall strength of a
response. This strength is measured by the persistence, frequency, duration
and accuracy of the response after reinforcement is halted.In situations when
the presentation of reinforcement is controlled, such as during training, the
timing of when a reinforcer is presented can be manipulated. During the early
stages of learning, continuous reinforcement is often used. This schedule
involves reinforcing a response each and every time it occurs.

UNIT-
III
GROUP
Meaning of a
Group
Group is a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to
achieve common goals.
Characteristics of Group:
• Interaction
• Activities
• Norms
• Informal leadership
• Cohesion
• Conformity
• Awareness
• Group perception
• Common objective of
goals
In a true
group,
1. Members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve common

goals 2. Members interact with one another to pursue those goals over a
sustained period
of
time
Conceiving of a group as a dynamic whole should include a definition of group that is

based on interdependence of the members (or better, the subparts of the group). Kurt
Lewin (1951: 146)
We mean by a group a number of persons who communicate with one another often
over a span of time, and who are few enough so that each person is able to
communicate with all the others, not at second-hand, through other people, but face-to-
face. George Homans (1950: 1)
They are units composed of two or more persons who come into contact for a purpose
and who consider the contact meaningful. Theodore M. Mills(1967: 2)
A group is a collection of individuals who have relations to one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree. As so defined, the term group refers to a
class of social entities having in common the property of interdependence among their
constituent members. Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander (1968: 46).

FORMATION OF
GROUP
Groups change over time. There is a real sense in which they are living things.
They emerge, they exist, and they die. This phenomenon has led to the
formulation of a wide range of theoretical models concerning developmental
processes. Most commentators assume that groups go through a number of
phases or stages if they exist for an extended period. It is clear, for example,
that people tend to want to know something about the other members; have to
develop a degree of interdependence in order that the group or team may
achieve its tasks and be satisfying to its members; and has to learn at some
level to deal with conflict if it is to survive. The most influential model of the
developmental process - certainly in terms of its impact upon texts aimed at
practitioners - has been that of Bruce W. Tuckman (1965). While there are
various differences concerning the number of stages and their names - many
have adopted a version of Tuckman's model - forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning.
• Forming: Teams initially go through a "forming" stage in which members

are positive and polite. Some members are anxious, as they haven't yet
worked out exactly what work the team will involve. Others are simply
excited about the task ahead. As leader, you play a dominant role at this
stage: other members' roles and responsibilities are less clear. This stage is
usually fairly short, and may only last for the single meeting at which people
are introduced to one-another. At this stage there may be discussions about
how the team will work, which can be frustrating for some members who
simply want to get on with the team task.
• Storming: Soon, reality sets in and your team moves into a "storming"
phase. Your authority may be challenged as others jockey for position and
their roles are clarified. The ways of working start to be defined and, as
leader, you must be aware that some members may feel overwhelmed by
how much there is to do, or uncomfortable with the approach being used.
Some may react by questioning how worthwhile the goal of the team is, and
by resisting taking on tasks. This is the stage when many teams fail, and
even those that stick with the task may feel that they are on an emotional
roller coaster, as they try to focus on the job in hand without the support of
established processes or relationships with their colleagues.
• Norming: Gradually, the team moves into a "norming" stage, as a

hierarchy is established. Team members come to respect your authority as
a leader, and others show leadership in specific areas.

Now that the team members know each other better, they may be
socializing together, and they are able to ask each other for help and
provide constructive criticism. The team develops a stronger commitment
to the team goal, and you start to see good progress towards it.
There is often a prolonged overlap between storming and norming

behavior: As new tasks come up, the team may lapse back into typical
storming stage behavior, but this eventually dies out.
• Performing: When the team reaches the "performing" stage, hard work
leads directly to progress towards the shared vision of their goal, supported
by the structures and processes that have been set up. Individual team
members may join or leave the team without affecting the performing
culture. As leader, you are able to delegate much of the work and can
concentrate on developing team members. Being part of the team at this
stage feels "easy" compared with earlier on.
• Adjourning: Project teams exist only for a fixed period, and even
permanent teams may be disbanded through organizational restructuring.
As team leader, your concern is both for the team's goal and the team
members. Breaking up a team can be stressful for all concerned and the
"adjourning" or "mourning" stage is important in reaching both team goal
and personal conclusions.
TYPES OF
GROUPS
There are various ways of classifying groups, for example in terms of their
purpose or structure, but two sets of categories have retained their usefulness
for both practitioners and researchers. They involve the distinctions between:
Primary and Secondary

Groups
Charles Horton Cooley (1909) established the distinction between 'primary

groups' and 'nucleated groups' (now better known as secondary groups):
Primary Groups:
Primary groups are clusters of people like families or close friendship circles
where there is close, face-to-face and intimate interaction. There is also often a
high level of interdependence between members. Primary groups are also the
key means of socialization in society, the main place where attitudes, values
and orientations are developed and sustained.
Secondary Groups:

Secondary groups are those in which members are rarely, if ever, all in direct
contact. They are often large and usually formally organized. Trades unions
and membership organizations such as the National Trust are examples of
these. They are an important place for socialization, but secondary to primary
groups.
• Command Group (permanent):
A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given

manager.
• Task Group (temporary):
Those working together to complete a job or

task.
Formal
Group:
A formal group is the deliberate and systematic grouping of people in an

organization so that organizational goals are better achieved. Formal groups
can be permanent or temporary
• Permanent work groups or command groups in the vertical structure often

appears in the organization chart as departments( market research dept)
division (consumer product division) or teams (product assembly teams)
• Vary in size
• They are formed to perform specific function on an ongoing basis-continue
till some decision to change or reconfigure the organization\
Informal Group:
Informal groups are the natural and spontaneous grouping of people whenever
they work together over a period of time. Whenever people interact and work
together over a certain period of time, it’s very natural for them and it comes
very spontaneously for them, that they form informal groups. They emerge
without being officially designated by the organization
Types of informal groups
• Friendship groups
• Interest groups
FORMAL GROUPS INFORMAL GROUPS

created.
1. Deliberately
created. Informal groups are not really created,
they are naturally formed.
Formal groups are knowingly and
systematically created. 1. Systematic
Spontaneously structure.
in a formal group. So the relationship and
As we discussed earlier, in the computer behavior is almost prescribed in a formal
department, we have HOD, OFFICE group.
STAFF, etc. So there is a system in place. Relationship is
Loose personal.
structure
In an informal group, the interaction and
In informal groups, there is no structure the attachment becomes very personal
at all. They just come together for some and not official.
time. There is no junior and
senior...everybody is equal.
1. Communication is restricted and
1. Importance to
slow
position.
.
In a formal group, importance is always
By restricted we mean that the “boss
given to the position. Ex: the group leader,
may d ecide that certain information
the head of department, etc. The position
e discussed below a certain
should not b
gets importance in a formal way because
level.”
there is a system in place.
Importance to the Communication is very slow because a
person. certain procedure has to be followed if we
want to pass down the information.
The beauty of being in an informal group
Communication is free and
is that the position does not exist at all
fast.
because there is no structure. So
importance is always given to the person. Everybody wants to tell everyone all the
information. With the gossip network in
an informal group, information is passed
1. Relationship is very quickly.
official.
The relationship is very formal and official

THEORY OF GROUP
FORMATION
Theodore Newcomb’s classic balance theory of group

formation
• Similar attitudes and common relevant objectives and

Goals
Individual X ------------------------------------------------------------- Individual Y
(Z)
Common Attitudes and

Values
Religio
n
Politic
s
Lifestyl
e
Marriage-Work-Authorit
y
Homan’s
Theory
George Casper Homans (August 11, 1910 – May 29, 1989) was an American
sociologist, founder of behavioral sociology and the exchange theory According
to Homans they are psychological for two reasons: first, they are usually tested
on people who call themselves psychologists and second, they are
psychological because of the level at which they deal with the individual in
society. Homans says, "They are propositions about the behavior of individual
human beings, rather than propositions about groups or societies.
Social Psychological
Theory
• Exchange theory similar to its functioning as a work –motivation

theory
• Based on reward –cost outcomes of
interaction
• Rewards from interactions gratify
needs
• Costs incur anxiety –frustration-embarrassment
fatigue
Propinquity
Theory
Propinquity means “nearness”. & here nearness refers to geographical & spatial
location. It means informal group will be easily formed among those person who
are geographically located at same place.

GROUP
COHESIVENESS
A group is said to be in a state of cohesion when its members possess bonds

linking them to one another and to the group as a whole. Cohesive teams may
be more successful in terms of performance and group longevity, but there can
also be some drawbacks to group cohesion.
Cohesive bonds may be cultivated through a sense of belonging, teamwork and

division of labor, and interpersonal and group-level attraction. Team cohesion
and its relation to team performance can also be boosted with incentives.
Cohesive groups may be more successful in terms of performance and group
longevity. Cohesive teams may communicate more often and successfully,
report more satisfaction, and be more aligned to similar outcomes. There can
also be negative consequences to group cohesion. If the social pressures of the
group intensify, it may lead to creativity-stifling pressures to conform or
resistance and inflexibility to change.
The bonds that link group members to one another and to their group as a
whole are not believed to develop spontaneously. Over the years, social
scientists have explained the phenomena of group cohesiveness in different
ways. Some suggested that cohesiveness among group members develops
from a heightened sense of belonging, teamwork and interdependence through
division of labor, and interpersonal and group-level attraction, whether via the
similarity of group members or barriers to group entry or some other process.
Group cohesion and its relation to team performance can be boosted with
incentives, positive (group-based rewards) or negative (things lost upon leaving
the group). For example, an organization or manager may structure a portion of
the material or non- material rewards toward the promotion of collaboration or
group-orientation.
Group cohesion has been linked to a range of positive and negative

consequences. Firstly, members of cohesive groups tend to communicate with
one another in a more positive fashion than non cohesive groups. As a result,
members of cohesive groups often report higher levels of satisfaction and lower
levels of anxiety and tension than members of non cohesive groups. Secondly,
group cohesion has been linked to improved group performance, especially
when the members of a group are committed to the group’s tasks.
Membership in a cohesive group can also have negative consequences. For

example, the social pressures of a cohesive group may intensify and lead to
creativity-stifling pressures to conform. Furthermore, group cohesion can trigger
distress and maladaptive behavior in members following changes to the
structure of the group.
GROUP DECISION
MAKING
Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple

individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and
evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives a
solution or solutions. The number of people involved in group decision-making
varies greatly, but often ranges from two to seven. The individuals in a group
may be demographically similar or quite diverse. Decision-making groups may
be relatively informal in nature, or formally designated and charged with a
specific goal. The process used to arrive at decisions may be unstructured or
structured. The nature and composition of groups, their size, demographic
makeup, structure, and purpose, all affect their functioning to some degree. The
external contingencies faced by groups (time pressure and conflicting goals)
impact the development and effectiveness of decision-making groups as well.In
organizations many decisions of consequence are made after some form of
group decision-making process is undertaken. However, groups are not the
only form of collective work arrangement. Group decision-making should be
distinguished from the concepts of teams, teamwork, and self managed teams.
Although the words teams and groups are often used interchangeably, scholars
increasingly differentiate between the two. The basis for the distinction seems
to be that teams act more collectively and achieve greater synergy of effort.
Katzenback and Smith spell out specific differences between decision making
groups and teams:
The group has a definite leader, but the team has shared
leadership roles
• Members of a group have individual accountability; the team has both

individual and collective accountability.
• The group measures effectiveness indirectly, but the team measures
performance directly through their collective work product.
• The group discusses, decides, and delegates, but the team discusses,
decides, and does real work.
GROUP DECISION MAKING

METHODS
There are many methods or procedures that can be used by groups. Each is
designed to improve the decision-making process in some way. Some of the
more common group decision-making methods are brainstorming, dialetical
inquiry, nominal group technique, and the delphi technique.
a. Brainstorming: Brainstorming involves group members verbally suggesting ideas

or alternative courses of action. The "brainstorming session" is usually relatively
unstructured. The situation at hand is described in as much detail as necessary so
that

group members have a complete understanding of the issue or problem. The
group leader or facilitator then solicits ideas from all members of the group.
Usually, the group leader or facilitator will record the ideas presented on a flip
chart or marker board. The "generation of alternatives" stage is clearly
differentiated from the "alternative evaluation" stage, as group members are not
allowed to evaluate suggestions until all ideas have been presented. Once the
ideas of the group members have been exhausted, the group members then
begin the process of evaluating the utility of the different suggestions presented.
Brainstorming is a useful means by which to generate alternatives, but does not
offer much in the way of process for the evaluation of alternatives or the
selection of a proposed course of action.
One of the difficulties with brainstorming is that despite the prohibition against
judging ideas until all group members have had their say, some individuals are
hesitant to propose ideas because they fear the judgment or ridicule of other
group members. In recent years, some decision-making groups have utilized
electronic brainstorming, which allows group members to propose alternatives
by means of e-mail or another electronic means, such as an online posting
board or discussion room. Members could conceivably offer their ideas
anonymously, which should increase the likelihood that individuals will offer
unique and creative ideas without fear of the harsh judgment of others.
b. Dialetical Inquiry
Dialetical inquiry is a group decision-making technique that focuses on ensuring

full consideration of alternatives. Essentially, it involves dividing the group into
opposing sides, which debate the advantages and disadvantages of proposed
solutions or decisions. A similar group decision-making method, devil's
advocacy, requires that one member of the group highlight the potential
problems with a proposed decision. Both of these techniques are designed to
try and make sure that the group considers all possible ramifications of its
decision.
c. Nominal Group Technique
The nominal group technique is a structured decision making process in which

group members are required to compose a comprehensive list of their ideas or
proposed alternatives in writing. The group members usually record their ideas
privately. Once finished, each group member is asked, in turn, to provide one
item from their list until all ideas or alternatives have been publicly recorded on
a flip chart or marker board. Usually, at this stage of the process verbal
exchanges are limited to requests for clarification—no evaluation or criticism of
listed ideas is permitted. Once all proposals are listed publicly, the group
engages in a discussion of the listed alternatives, which ends in some form of
ranking or rating in order of preference. As with brainstorming, the prohibition
against criticizing proposals as they are presented is designed to

overcome individuals' reluctance to share their ideas. Empirical research
conducted on group decision making offers some evidence that the nominal
group technique succeeds in generating a greater number of decision
alternatives that are of relatively high quality.
d. Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique is a group decision-making process that can be used by

decision- making groups when the individual members are in different physical
locations. The technique was developed at the Rand Corporation. The
individuals in the Delphi "group" are usually selected because of the specific
knowledge or expertise of the problem they possess. In the Delphi technique,
each group member is asked to independently provide ideas, input, and/or
alternative solutions to the decision problem in successive stages. These inputs
may be provided in a variety of ways, such as e-mail, fax, or online in a
discussion room or electronic bulletin board. After each stage in the process,
other group members ask questions and alternatives are ranked or rated in
some fashion. After an indefinite number of rounds, the group eventually arrives
at a consensus decision on the best course of action.

COMMUNICATIO
N
A famous quote says - “The way we communicate with others and with ourselves
ultimately determines the quality of our lives” . The process of passing any
information from one person to the other person with the aid of some medium is
termed as communication. The first party who sends the information is called the
sender and the second party who receives the information, decodes the
information and accordingly responds is called the receiver or the recipient. Thus
in simpler terms communication is simply a process where the sender sends
the information to the receiver for him to respond. Communication process is a
simple process where a message is being transferred from a sender to the
receiver. The receiver after receiving the message understands the message in
the desired form and then acts accordingly.
Communication is neither transmission of message nor message itself. It is the

mutual exchange of understanding, originating with the reciever.
Communication needs to be effective in business. Communication is essence of
management. The basic functions of management (Planning, Organizing,
Staffing, Directing and Controlling) cannot be performed well without effective
communication. Business communication involves constant flow of information.
Feedback is integral part of business communication. Organizations these days
are verly large. It involves number of people. There are various levels of
hierarchy in an organization. Greater the number of levels, the more difficult is
the job of managing the organization. Communication here plays a very
important role in process of directing and controlling the people in the
oragnization. Immediate feedback can be obtained and misunderstandings if
any can be avoided.
Business Communication can be of two

types:
a. Oral Communication - An oral communication can be formal or informal.

Generally business communication is a formal means of communication, like
: meetings, interviews, group discussion, speeches etc. An example of
Informal business communication would be - Grapevine. b. Written
Communication - Written means of business communication includes
- agenda, reports, manuals
etc.
Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It

is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This
message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient. It is
essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms
as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus,
communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from
the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.

Components of Communication
Process
The main components of communication process are as

follows:
a. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This

context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication
proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a
context. b. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the
message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to
convey the message and produce the required response. For instance - a training
manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an
individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills,
competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message.
The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining
interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the
sender. c. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate.
It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins
with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main
objective of the message is clear. d. Medium - Medium is a means used to
exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium
for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the
desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is
essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the
recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the
features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a
message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is
chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as
misunderstandings are cleared then and there. e. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient /
Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The
degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various
factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and
the reliance of encoder on decoder. f. Feedback - Feedback is the main component
of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the
message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by
the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of
smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.
There are several barriers that affect the flow of communication in an organization.
These barriers interrupt the flow of communication from the sender to the reciever,
thus

making communication ineffective. It is essential for managers to overcome
these barriers. The main barriers of communication are summarized below.
BARRIERS OF
COMMUNICATION
Following are the main communication

barriers:
Perceptual and Language Differences: Perception is generally how each

individual interprets the world around him. All generally want to receive
messages which are significant to them. But any message which is against their
values is not accepted. A same event may be taken differently by different
individuals. For example : A person is on leave for a month due to personal
reasons (family member being critical). The HR Manager might be in confusion
whether to retain that employee or not, the immediate manager might think of
replacement because his teams productivity is being hampered, the family
members might take him as an emotional support.
The linguistic differences also lead to communication breakdown. Same word

may mean different to different individuals. For example: consider a word
“value”.
• What is the value of this

Laptop?
• I value our relation?
• What is the value of learning technical
skills?
Communication Barriers
“Value” means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown

occurs if there is wrong perception by the receiver.
Information Overload: Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is

essential to control this information flow else the information is likely to be
misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result communication is less
effective.
Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a traveler
may pay attention to one “NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is put all over the
city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored for
effective communication. Similarly if a superior is engrossed in his paper work
and his subordinate explains him his problem, the superior may not get what he
is saying and it leads to disappointment of subordinate.
Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have to be achieved within a

specified time period, the failure of which has adverse consequences. In a
haste to meet deadlines, the formal channels of communication are shortened,
or messages are

partially given, i.e., not completely transferred. Thus sufficient time should be
given for effective communication.
Distraction/Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions.

Physical distractions are also there such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable
sitting, unhygienic room also affects communication in a meeting. Similarly use
of loud speakers interferes with communication.
Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects

communication. If the receiver feels that communicator is angry he interprets
that the information being sent is very bad. While he takes it differently if the
communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the message is interpreted to be
good and interesting).
Complexity in Organizational Structure: Greater the hierarchy in an organization

(i.e. more the number of managerial levels), more is the chances of
communication getting destroyed. Only the people at the top level can see the
overall picture while the people at low level just have knowledge about their
own area and a little knowledge about other areas.
Poor retention: Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One cant
always retain what is being told specially if he is not interested or not attentive.
This leads to communication breakdown.
BERLO’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Berlo’s model of communication takes into account the emotional aspect of the
message. Berlo’s model of communication operates on the SMCR model.
In the SMCR
model
S - Stands for
Source
M-
Message
C-
Channel
R –
Receiver
LEADERSHIP
Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence

the behavior and work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a
given situation. Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce the
subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as

the capacity to influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are
required to develop future visions, and to motivate the organizational members
to want to achieve the visions.
According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek

defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group
together and motivates it towards goals.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
1. It is a inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing and

guiding
workers towards attainment of
goals.

2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes
intelligence,
maturity and personality. 3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people
interacting with each other. 4. A leader is involved in shaping and moulding
the behaviour of the group
towards accomplishment of organizational goals. 5. Leadership is situation
bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends
upon tackling with the
situations.
QUALITIES OF A
LEADER
A leader has got multidimensional traits in him which makes him appealing and
effective in behavior. The following are the requisites to be present in a good
leader:
1. Physical appearance- A leader must have a pleasing appearance.

Physique and
health are very important for a good leader. 2. Vision and foresight- A leader
cannot maintain influence unless he exhibits that he is forward looking. He
has to visualize situations and thereby has to frame logical programmes. 3.
Intelligence- A leader should be intelligent enough to examine problems and
difficult situations. He should be analytical who weighs pros and cons and
then summarizes the situation. Therefore, a positive bent of mind and
mature outlook is very important. 4. Communicative skills- A leader must be
able to communicate the policies and procedures clearly, precisely and
effectively. This can be helpful in persuasion and stimulation. 5. Objective- A
leader has to be having a fair outlook which is free from bias and which does
not reflects his willingness towards a particular individual. He should develop
his own opinion and should base his judgement on facts and logic. 6.
Knowledge of work- A leader should be very precisely knowing the nature of
work of his subordinates because it is then he can win the trust and
confidence of his subordinates. 7. Sense of responsibility- Responsibility and
accountability towards an individual’s work is very important to bring a sense
of influence. A leader must have a sense of responsibility towards
organizational goals because only then he can get maximum of capabilities
exploited in a real sense. For this, he has to motivate himself and arouse
and urge to give best of his abilities. Only then he can motivate the
subordinates to the best. 8. Self-confidence and will-power- Confidence in
himself is important to earn the confidence of the subordinates. He should
be trustworthy and should handle the

situations with full will power. (You can read more about Self-Confidence at :
Self Confidence - Tips to be Confident and Eliminate Your Apprehensions).
9. Humanist-This trait to be present in a leader is essential because he deals
with human beings and is in personal contact with them. He has to handle
the personal problems of his subordinates with great care and attention.
Therefore, treating the human beings on humanitarian grounds is essential
for building a congenial environment. 10. Empathy- It is an old adage
“Stepping into the shoes of others”. This is very important because fair
judgment and objectivity comes only then. A leader should understand the
problems and complaints of employees and should also have a complete
view of the needs and aspirations of the employees. This helps in improving
human relations and personal contacts with the employees. From the above
qualities present in a leader, one can understand the scope of leadership
and its importance for scope of business. A leader cannot have all traits at
one time. But a few of them helps in achieving effective results.
LEADERSHIP
STYLE
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement

of a goal while leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act
towards achieving a common goal. Different leadership style will result in
different impact to organization.
1. Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership is a term used to classify a group of leadership

theories that inquire the interactions between leaders and followers. This style
of leadership starts with the premise that team members agree to obey their
leader totally when they take a job on. The “transaction” is usually that the
organization pays the team members, in return for their effort and compliance.
As such, the leader has the right to “punish” team members if their work doesn’t
meet the pre-determined standard. Transactional leadership is really just a way
of managing rather a true leadership style, as the focus is on short-term tasks. It
has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work, but remains a
common style in many organizations.
2. Autocratic Leadership
Under the autocratic leadership styles, all decision-making powers are

centralized in the leader as shown such leaders are dictators. Autocratic
leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where a leader exerts
high levels of power over his or her

employees or team members. People within the team are given few
opportunities for making suggestions, even if these would be in the team’s or
organization’s interest.
3. Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a leadership style that is defined as leadership

that creates valuable and positive change in the followers. A transformational
leader focuses on “transforming” others to help each other, to look out for each
other, to be encouraging and harmonious, and to look out for the organization
as a whole. In this leadership, the leader enhances the motivation, morale and
performance of his follower group. In many organizations, both transactional
and transformational leadership are needed. The transactional leaders (or
managers) ensure that routine work is done reliably, while the transformational
leaders look after initiatives that add new value..
4. Charismatic Leadership
The Charismatic Leader and the Transformational Leader can have many
similarities, in that the Transformational Leader may well be charismatic. Their
main difference is in their basic focus. Whereas the Transformational Leader
has a basic focus of transforming the organization and, quite possibly, their
followers, the Charismatic Leader may not want to change anything. A
charismatic leadership style can appear similar to a transformational leadership
style, in that the leader injects huge doses of enthusiasm into his or her team,
and is very energetic in driving others forward.
5. Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership
Although a democratic leader will make the final decision, he or she invites
other members of the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This
not only increases job satisfaction by involving employees or team members in
what’s going on, but it also helps to develop people’s skills.
6. Laissez-Faire Leadership
The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the “hands-off ̈ style. It is

one in which the manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as
much freedom as possible. All authority or power is given to the employees and
they must determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.
This French phrase means “leave it be” and is used to describe a leader who
leaves his or her colleagues to get on with their work.
UNIT-
!V
CONFLICT
Psychologists define conflict as; “a situation in which a person is motivated to engage
in two or more mutually exclusive activities”.
According to communication scholars when there is incompatibility or inconsistency

among an individual’s cognitive elements [which] implies that a new cognitive
element is at variance with a prior explanation or expectation.
Conflict is a clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions (De Bono,

1985). Conflict refers to the existence of that clash. Conflict is initiated the
instant clash occurs. Generally, there are diverse interests and contrary views
behind a conflict, which are revealed when people look at a problem from their
viewpoint alone. Conflict is an outcome of organizational intricacies, interactions
and disagreements. It can be settled by identifying and neutralizing the
etiological factors. Once conflict is concluded it can provoke a positive change
in the organization.
When we recognize the potential for conflict, we implicitly indicate that there is
already a conflict of direction, even though it may not have yet manifested itself
as a clash. Confliction is the process of setting up, promoting, encouraging or
designing conflict. It is a wilful process and refers to the real effort put into
generating and instituting conflict. Deconfliction is the annihilation of conflict. It
does not refer to negotiation or bargaining, or even to resolution of conflict: it is
the effort required to eliminate the conflict.
Meaning of Conflict
“Working together is not always easy”, it is because of conflict. Conflict is a part

of everyday life of an individual and of an organization. It has a considerable
impact on employee’s performance, satisfaction and behavior. It is not possible
to compress the essential ingredients of conflict in a precise definition because
it may take several forms. In simple words it can be explained as a collusion
and disagreement. The conflict may be within an individual, between two or
more individuals or between two or more groups within an organization. There
has been no shortage of definitions of conflict.
According to J.W.Thomas, “Conflict is a process that begins when one party

perceives that another party has negatively affected, or about to negatively affect,
something that the first party cares about.”
This definition describes that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction

crosses over to become an inter party conflict.

“Conflict is a process in w hich an effort is purposefully made by one-person or unit to
block another that results in frustrating the attainment of the other’s goals or the
furthering of his or her interest.
For example, if A deliberately tries to offset the efforts of B by some form of

blocking that will result in frustrating B in attaining his goal, it is conflict.
NATURE OF
CONFLICT
In a discussion on the nature of conflict, it is necessary to discuss the

following points:
• Conflict is different from competition: Competition takes place when individuals or

groups have incompatible goals but do not interfere with each other as they try to
attain their respective goal. On the other hand, conflict takes place when
individuals or groups have incompatible goals and they try to interfere with each
other as they try to attain their respective goals. For ex.: In sports, track events are
the example of competition because every runner tries to run faster but they are
not allowed to interfere with the other, while cricket, hockey are the example of
both conflict and competition.
• Conflict occurs when two or more parties pursue two or more mutually exclusive
goals: It is based on the assumption that there are two or more parties, having
goals which are mutually exclusive and incompatible.
• Conflict arises out of two perceptions: If X perceives his goal to be incompatible
with those of Y and x has no opportunity to frustrate the goal attainment of Y, there
is no conflict.
• Conflict refers to deliberate behavior: If X deliberately tries to prevent y from
attaining his goal, conflict arises but if interference is accidental, there is no conflict.
SOURCES OF
CONFLICT
There are three levels of conflict in the life of an organization, and for every
level there are different sources:
1. Intra –Personal Conflict: Intra personal conflict refers to the conflict within
an individual. It arises from frustration, numerous goal which requires equal
attention but is not possible to devote and goals having both positive and
negative aspects. 2. Inter- personal Conflict: Inter personal conflict refers to
the conflict between two or more individuals with a group. It arises due ti
differences in personalities, perceptions, temperaments, values, socio-
cultural factors and role ambiguities.

3. Inter- Group Conflict: It is also called organizational conflict. It refers to the conflict
between two or more sections, groups or departments in an organization. Conflict
between groups is frequent and highly visible.
The reasons for inter group conflict are many, such as:
a. Task Interdependence: It refers to the extent to which two departments depend
on each other for information, compliance and assistance. b. Task Ambiguity: Another
important source or inter group conflict arises when
it is not clear, which group is responsible for performing which task. c. Goal
incompatibility: if goals of two departments of an organization clash with
each other, conflict arises. d. Competition for limited resources: Resources’ of an
organization are limited, and every department tries to secure maximum share in that. It
results in conflict. e. Competitive reward system: if there is a system in the organization
that reward
will be given on the basis of competitive performance, it will result in conflict.
CHANGING VIEWS OF CONFLICT
Conflict exists in the organization from the very beginning, but attitude toward conflict
has been changed. This change can be explained as:
S.No. TRADITIONAL VIEW MODERN VIEW 1 Conflict is avoidable Conflict is
inevitable 2 Caused by management error in
designing situations
Caused by either organizational structure ,unavoidable difference in goals, difference in
values , goals etc. 3 Disrupts the organization & prevents
optimal performance
It contributes and detract from organizational performance 4 Task of management is to
manage the
conflict
Task of management is to manage the level of conflict 5 Optimal organizational
performance
requires the removal of conflict
Optimal organizational performance requires a moderate level of conflict
Conflict is defined as disagreement between individuals. It can vary from a mild
disagreement to a win-or-lose, emotion-packed, confrontation (Kirchoff and Adams,
1982). There are two theories of conflict management.
The traditional theory is based on the assumption that conflicts are bad, are
caused by trouble makers, and should be subdued.
Contemporary theory recognizes that conflicts between human beings are

unavoidable. They emerge as a natural result of change and can be beneficial
to the organization, if managed efficiently. Current theory (Kirchoff and Adams,
1982) considers innovation as a mechanism for bringing together various ideas
and viewpoints into a new and different fusion. An atmosphere of tension, and
hence conflict, is thus essential in any organization committed to developing or
working with new ideas. Behind-the-back attackers are difficult to handle
because the target person is not sure of the source of any criticism, nor even
always sure that there is criticism.
LEVELS OF
CONFLICT
Reward systems of most organizations encourage employees to compete with

each other. Competition may be either open or closed. Unfortunately improper
reward systems or reorganization systems for employees create some conflict.
Organization conflict is a situation of closed or win-lose competition, in which
parties try to keep each other from attaining their goals. There are mainly three
levels of organizational conflict. It may exist between individuals, or between
individuals and groups, or groups in same organization. Every inter-group
conflict passes through five stages. They are
1. Latent Conflict 2.

Perceived Conflict 3.
Felt Conflict 4.
Manifest Conflict 5.
Conflict Aftermath.
Latent conflict: This is the first stage in which only potential opposition exists
between parties. This means all causes of conflict lying hidden.
Perceived conflict: In this stage, parties become aware of this conflict, and they
begin perceiving the conflict.
Felt conflict: In this stage, parties become emotionally involved in the conflict,
and feeling the conflict.
Manifest conflict: In this stage, parties begin to give expression in their hostile
behavior. Some expressions of hostile behaviors are lack of coordination,
decreased interaction, and break down in work flow etc.
Conflict Aftermath: Conflict is not discrete situations, with a clear beginning

and end.

FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF
CONFLICT
Functional Conflict refers to confrontation between two ideas, goals and parties
that improve employees and organization performance. Benefits of conflict are
as following:
Conflict increases awareness

of: -
1. Conflict motivates organizational members to consider problems. 2.

Conflict promotes changes. 3. Conflict enhances moral and cohesion. 4. High
quality decision result when persons express their opposing views and
perspectives. 5. Conflict stimulates interest and creativity. 6. Conflict
adds to the fun of working with others when not taken seriously.
Dysfunctional Conflict: Conflict is inevitable in organizations and also desirable.

But without an effective means for handling it, conflict can tear relationships
apart and interfere with the exchange of ideas, information and resources in
groups and between departments. Dysfunctional conflict hinders and prevents
organizational goals from being achieved.
REASONS OF
CONFLICT
In most organizations, conflicts increase as employees assert their demands for

an increased share in organizational rewards, such as position,
acknowledgment, appreciation, monetary benefits and independence. Even
management faces conflicts with many forces from outside the organization,
such as government, unions and other coercive groups which may impose
restrictions on managerial activities.
Conflicts emanate from more than one source, and so their true origin may be
hard to identify. Important initiators of conflict situations include:
i. People disagree: People disagree for a number of reasons (De Bono,

1985).
a. They see things differently because of differences in understanding and

viewpoint. Most of these differences are usually not important. Personality
differences or clashes in emotional needs may cause conflicts. Conflicts
arise when two groups or individuals interacting in the same situation see
the situation differently because of different sets of settings, information
pertaining to the universe, awareness, background, disposition, reason or
outlook. In a particular mood, individuals think and perceive in a certain
manner. For example, the half-full glass of one individual can be half-empty
to another.

Obviously both individuals convey the same thing, but they do so differently
owing to contrasting perceptions and dispositions. b. People have different
styles, principles, values, beliefs and slogans which determine their choices
and objectives. When choices contradict, people want different things and
that can create conflict situations. For example, a risk-taking manager would
be in conflict with a risk-minimizing supervisor who believes in firm control
and a well-kept routine. c. People have different ideological and
philosophical outlooks, as in the case of different political parties. Their
concepts, objectives and ways of reacting to various situations are different.
This often creates conflicts among them. d. Conflict situations can arise
because people have different status. When people at higher levels in the
organization feel indignant about suggestions for change put forward from
their subordinates or associates, it provokes conflict. By tolerating and
allowing such suggestions, potential conflict can be prevented. e. People
have different thinking styles, which encourage them to disagree, leading to
conflict situations. Certain thinking styles may be useful for certain purposes,
but ineffectual or even perilous in other situations (De Bono, 1985). f. People
are supposed to disagree under particular circumstances, such as in
sports. Here conflict is necessary, and even
pleasurable.
ii. People are concerned with fear, force, fairness or funds (De Bono, 1985)
a. Fear relates to imaginary concern about something which might happen in

the future. One may fear setbacks, disgrace, reprisal or hindrances, which
can lead to conflict situations. b. Force is a necessary ingredient of any
conflict situation. Force may be ethical or emotional. It could be withdrawal
of cooperation or approval. These forces are instrumental in generating,
strengthening and terminating conflicts. c. Fairness refers to an individual's
sense of what is right and what is not right, a fundamental factor learnt in
early childhood. This sense of fairness determines the moral values of an
individual. People have different moral values and accordingly appreciate a
situation in different ways, creating conflict situations. d. Funds or costs can
cause conflict, but can also force a conclusion through acceptable to the
conflicting parties. The cost of being in conflict may be measurable (in
money terms) or immeasurable, being expressed in terms of human lives,
suffering, diversion of skilled labour, neglect or loss of morale and self
esteem. (De Bono, 1985)

TYPES OF
CONFLICT
1. Intraorganization conflict
• Conflict that occurs within an
organization
• At interfaces of organization
functions
• Can occur along the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the
organization 2. Vertical conflict: between managers and subordinates 3.
Horizontal conflict: between departments and work groups 4. Intragroup
conflict
• Conflict among members of a
group
• Early stages of group
development
• Ways of doing tasks or reaching group's
goals 5. Intergroup conflict: between two or more
groups 6. Interpersonal conflict
• Between two or more
people
• Differences in views about what should be
done
• Efforts to get more
resources
• Differences in orientation to work and time in different parts of an
organization
CONFLICT
RESOLUTION
Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in

facilitating the peaceful ending of conflict. Often, committed group members
attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about
their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of the group (e.g., intentions;
reasons for holding certain beliefs), and by engaging in collective negotiation.
Ultimately, a wide range of methods and procedures for addressing conflict
exist, including but not limited to, negotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and
creative peacebuilding.
It may be important to note that the term conflict resolution may also be used
interchangeably with dispute resolution, where arbitration and litigation
processes are critically involved. Furthermore, the concept of conflict resolution
can be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by
conflicted parties in an attempt to promote effective resolution.
Dual Concern Model of Conflict

Resolution
The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that

assumes individuals’ preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two
underlying themes or dimensions:

• A concern for self (i.e. assertiveness),
and
• A concern for others (i.e.
empathy).
According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying
personal needs and interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and
interests of others in different ways. The intersection point between these two
dimensions ultimately lead individuals towards exhibiting different styles of
conflict resolution (Goldfien & Robbennolt, 2007).[3] The dual model identifies
five conflict resolution styles/strategies that individuals may use depending on
their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals. 1. Avoidance conflict style
Characterized by inaction and passivity, avoidance conflict style is

typically used when an individual has reduced concern for their own
outcomes as well as the outcomes of others. During conflict, these
avoiders adopt a “wait and see” attitude, often allowing conflict to phase
out on its own without any personal involvement (Bayazit & Mannix,
2003). Unfortunately, by neglecting to address high-conflict situations,
avoiders risk allowing problems to fester out of control.
2. Yielding conflict style
In contrast, yielding or “accommodating” conflict styles are characterized

by a high concern for others while having a low concern for one’s own
self. This passive pro-social approach emerges when individuals derive
personal satisfaction from meeting the needs of others and have a
general concern for maintaining stable, positive social relationships.
When faced with conflict, individuals with a yielding conflict style tend to
give into others’ demands out of respect for the social relationship (e.g.,
to maintain group unity) because they believe being “agreeable may be
more important than winning” (Goldfien & Robbennolt, 2007).
3. Competitive conflict style
Competitive or “fighting” conflict style maximizes individual assertiveness

(i.e., concern for self) and minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for others).
Groups consisting of competitive members generally enjoy seeking
domination over others, and typically see conflict as a “win or lose”
predicament. Fighters tend to force others to accept their personal views
by employing competitive, power tactics (e.g., argue; insult; accuse;
violence) that foster feelings of intimidation (Morrill, 1995).
4. Cooperation conflict style

Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and pro-self
behavior, cooperation conflict style is typically used when an individual
has elevated interests in their own outcomes as well as in the outcomes
of others. During conflict, cooperators collaborate with others in an effort
to find an amicable solution that satisfies all parties involved in the
conflict. Individuals with this type of conflict style tend to be highly
assertive and highly empathetic at the same time. By seeing conflict as a
creative opportunity, collaborators willingly invest time and resources into
finding a “win-win” solution. According to the literature on conflict
resolution, a cooperative conflict resolution style is recommended above
all others (Sternberg & Dobson, 1987; Jarboe & Witteman, 1996)
5. Conciliation conflict style
Conciliation or “compromising” conflict style is typical of individuals who

possess an intermediate-level of concern for both personal and others’
outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing so, anticipate
mutual give-and-take interactions. By accepting some demands put forth
by others, compromisers believe this agreeableness will encourage
others to meet half-way, thus promoting conflict resolution (van de Vliert
& Euwema, 1994). This conflict style can be considered an extension of
both “yielding” and “cooperative” strategies.

ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE
CONCEPT OF
CHANGE
Change is inevitable in the history of any organisations. Organisations that do

not change or keep pace with the changing environment suffer from entropy
and soon become defunct. Organisations have an internal environment, but
exist in an external environment. The internal environment is in terms of the
task, structure, technology, social (people) and economic variables, while the
external environment is in terms of the larger social, political, economic and
cultural factors. To function effectively, organisations have to achieve
equilibrium within the internal variables in active interaction with each other and
also with the external environment. However this equilibrium is not static but
dynamic. Hence organisations have to modify and change to adapt to the
changing internal and external environment. Thus no organisation can stand
still and “tread water” for very long.
Change as a Learning
Process:
The adoption-diffusion model of change, so popular in agriculture, is based on

the theory of change being the process of learning. Learning takes place when
one is dissatisfied with the present state, wants a change, sees the new
alternatives somewhere, debates in one's mind about the pay off of the new
alternative, checks with others one trusts, tries the new alternative, assesses its
advantages over the old ways, and finally adopts it. Two main elements of this
model are:
• Change is regarded as a sequential process,

and
• the rate of change varies from one individual or a group to
another.
THE PROCESS OF
CHANGE
A method such as force-field analysis is the beginning step of any planned
change. There are many different models for the change process in the
literature; the following is a simple, straight forward ne proposed by Egan (1988,
p. 5). He delineates three steps: • The assessment of the current scenario.
• The creation of a preferred

scenario.
• Designing a plan that moves the system from the current to the preferred
scenario.
It is evident that Egan has been influenced by Lewin, in the emphasis on both
planning and assessment. Additionally, Egan argues that planning must lead to
an action that

produces valued outcomes or results for the organization. Thus, both planning
and change must be directed toward a specific goal.
Once the need for change has been determined, one follows the steps of the
model in sequence. While these steps could each be examined in detail, only
step three will be discussed in an in-depth manner here. The first step,
“assessing the current scenario,” can be accomplished through a mechanism
such as force-field analysis. It provides the necessary information on the forces
that can facilitate the desired change and the forces that will resist and deter the
change. Step two, “creating a preferred scenario,” is often accomplished
through team effort in brainstorming and developing alternative futures. While
the need that precipitates the change is clearly compelling, there may be
several ways in which the change could actually occur within the organization. It
is important to examine the various alternatives thoroughly.
The third step of the process, “devising a plan for moving from the current to the
preferred scenario,” includes the strategies and plans that educator and
managers must develop to overcome the restraining forces in an organization.
This is a political process, requiring individuals to harness and utilize power.
Power is necessary for change to occur. It is neither inherently good nor bad; it
simply assists individuals in accomplishing their goals. Change masters must
gather support for the desired change throughout the organization, using both
formal and informal networks. The multiplier or “bandwagon “effect, he notes, is
often necessary to rally enough support for the change.
During this stage of planning, it is useful to distinguish the different roles
associated with the change process. These roles must remain distinctive in
order to implement planned change effectively. However, within different
settings or systems, a judicial educator may play more than one role. The
various roles that individuals can play, as described by Conner (1990), are:
Change Sponsor: Individual or group who legitimizes the

change.
Change Advocate: Individual or group who wants to achieve a change but does
not possess legitimization power.
Change Agent: Individual or group who is responsible for implementing the

change.
Change Target: Individual or group who must actually

change.
One of the most critical tasks for the educator in implementing change is to
harness the support of an effective change sponsor. The sponsor is in a
position to legitimize the change.
ORGANISATIONAL
CHANGE
Organisational change refers to relatively enduring alteration of the present state
of an organisation or its components or interrelation amongst the components
and their differential and integrated functions in totality in order to attain greater
viability in line context of the present and anticipated future environment.
Forces/Factors of Organisational
Change
External Factors:-
1. Technology: - The adoption of new technologies, such as computers,
telecommunication systems, robotics and flexible. Manufacturing operations
have a profound impact on organizations’ that adopt them. 2. Social
changes:- After globalisation there is a radical change shift In one value
placed on higher education, lifestyle, views on marriage, joint family system
and shopping preferences. 3. Marketing conditions:- The need, wants,
appreciations, liking, disliking and preferences of customers are changing
frequently. Consumer is emerging as a ‘king’ who is a actually deciding
factor of market forces. 4. Globalisation:- Global economy refers that
competitors ae likely to come from different countries. Organisations will
encounter a wide variety of dynamic changes – merger, acquisition, down
rising etc.

5. Political forces:- As long as currencies fluctuate and some economies
outperform other, assets will flow across
borders.
Internal Forces:
1. Changes is managerial personnel:- Changes in the functioning of top level
professional manager bring changes in one organisation in terms of
organisation design, delegation of authority, allocation of work, firing
responsibility and installation of supervision and contact etc. 2. Shift in social
cultural values:- workers are more educated, less conservative and more
women are joining the work force. They place greater emphasis on human
values, such as dignity recognition, social status, equality etc. 3. To have a
dynamic environment:- if one organisation is not moving forward, then it will not
survive and grow. Flexibility, specialisation, standardisation, modernisation and
automation are the necessities of the time. Required changes should be
incorporated so that employees modify their attitude towards changes. 4.
Deficiency in the existing structures:- Changes may be required in the present
setup of the organisation to meet the challenges imposed by the workforces
and technology. These deficiencies may be in the form of more no of levels,
lack of cooperation and coordination, poor system of committee, lack of uniform
policy decisions, multiplicity of committee autocracy in decision making,
centralization and so on . NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
Organisational Change is the alteration of work environment in organisation. It

implies a new equilibrium b/w different component of the
organisation-technology, structural arrangements, job design and people.
Features of Organisational Change:
1. When change occurs in any part of the organisation, it distributes the old
equilibrium, necessitating the development of new equilibrium depends on
the degree of change and its impact on the organisation. 2. Any change may
affect the whole organisation: some parts of the org. may be
affected more, others less, some parts are affects directly, others indirectly. 3.
Organisational Change is a continuous process. However, some changes
which are of minor type may be absorbed by the existing system
equilibrium; others, which are major ones, may require special changes
efforts.
Planned
change
According to Thomas and Bennis, “planned change is one deliberate design

and implements of a structural innovation, a new policy or goal, or a change in
operating philosophy, climate, or style.” Planned change attempts at all aspects
of one organisation which are closely interrelated; technology, task, people,
structure.
Structur
e
Task Technology
Peopl
e
Technology related changes may include:
-> Introduction of automated data processing devices like computers to

facilitate managerial planning and control. -> Change in methods of production
like conversion of unit production to mass production.
Task related changes more focuses on:

-> High internal work motivation
and -> High quality work
performance.
Structure related changes:
-> Changing the no hierarchical levels. ->

Changing line-staff to functional
authority.
People related changes:
-> Skill change and

-> Behaviour
change.

Process of Planned Change
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
It can be understood in two
ways:-
Resistance as a cost:-
e.g. in order to above its manufacturing capacity of two wheelers, one Bajaj auto
ltd. Procured land near its old plant site but later shifted the new plant site away
from the old plant because of resisting work culture of the old plant which was
expected to percolate to the new plant also. On this phenomenon Madhur Bajaj,
MD of Bajaj Auto commented that “ The Pune plant is fully saturate. We wanted
a new plant culture and new layout. We saw resistance to change at the existing
plant.
Resistance as
benefit:-
1. It may signal the need for more effective communication about the meaning
and purpose of a change or need to rethink precisely how a proposed change
will affect one org. and its members. 2. It also highlights real inadequacies in
one proposed change and suggests better
ways for developing and introducing
change.
OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO
CHANGE
At individual levels At group Level
Involvement group contact
Commitment (private and public) participation
Leadership (effective leader) group dynamics training for
Chang
e
ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE
Organizational culture works a lot like this. Every company has its own unique
personality, just like people do. The unique personality of an organization is referred to
as its culture. In groups of people who work together, organizational culture is an
invisible but powerful force that influences the behavior of the members of that group.
Organizational culture is a system of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs, which

governs how people behave in organizations. These shared values have a strong
influence on the people in the organization and dictate how they dress, act, and perform
their jobs. Every organization develops and maintains a unique culture, which provides
guidelines and boundaries for the behavior of the members of the organization. Let's
explore what elements make up an organization's culture.
Organizational culture is composed of seven characteristics that range in priority from

high to low. Every organization has a distinct value for each of these characteristics,
which, when combined, defines the organization's unique culture. Members of
organizations make judgments on the value their organization places on these
characteristics, and then adjust their behavior to match this perceived set of values.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE
The seven characteristics of organizational

culture are:
1. Innovation (Risk Orientation) - Companies with cultures that place a high value on
innovation encourage their employees to take risks and innovate in the performance
of their jobs. Companies with cultures that place a low value on innovation expect
their employees to do their jobs the same way that they have been trained to do
them, without looking for ways to improve their performance. 2. Attention to Detail
(Precision Orientation) - This characteristic of organizational culture dictates the
degree to which employees are expected to be accurate in their work. A culture that
places a high value on attention to detail expects their employees to perform their
work with precision. A culture that places a low value on this characteristic does not.
3. Emphasis on Outcome (Achievement Orientation) - Companies that focus on
results, but not on how the results are achieved, place a high emphasis on this value
of organizational culture. A company that instructs its sales force to do whatever it
takes to get sales orders has a culture that places a high value on the emphasis on
outcome characteristic. 4. Emphasis on People (Fairness Orientation) - Companies
that place a high value on this characteristic of organizational culture place a great
deal of importance on how their
decisions will affect the people in their organizations. For these companies, it is
important to treat their employees with respect and dignity. 5. Teamwork
(Collaboration Orientation) - Companies that organize work activities around teams
instead of individuals place a high value on this characteristic of organizational
culture. People who work for these types of companies tend to have a positive
relationship with their coworkers and managers. 6. Aggressiveness (Competitive
Orientation) - This characteristic of organizational culture dictates whether group
members are expected to be assertive or easygoing when dealing with companies
they compete with in the marketplace. Companies with an aggressive culture place a
high value on competitiveness and outperforming the competition at all costs. 7.
Stability (Rule Orientation) - A company whose culture places a high value on
stability are rule-oriented, predictable, and bureaucratic in nature. These types of
companies typically provide consistent and predictable levels of output and operate
best in non- changing market conditions.
ORGANIZATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
The term "Organization Development" is often used interchangeably with Organizational

effectiveness, especially when used as the name of a department within an
organization. Organization Development is a growing field that is responsive to many
new approaches including Positive Adult Development.
DEFINITIONS OF
OD
Organization development (OD) is defined as a planned, top-down, organization-wide

effort to increase the organization's effectiveness and health. It is a complex strategy
intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that
they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges. It is a particular
kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD can
involve interventions in the organization's "processes," using behavioral science
knowledge as well as organizational reflection, system improvement, planning, and
self-analysis.
According to Middlemist and Hitt (1988, p. 493), organizational development is: A

systematic means for planned change that involves the entire organization and is intended to
increase organizational effectiveness.
Cummings and Huse (1988, p. 1) define OD in broader terms: A system wide application
of behavioral science knowledge to the planned development and reinforcement of
organizational strategies, structure, and processes for improving an
organization’s effectiveness.
Several parts of the above definitions are particularly worth emphasizing. The first is
that organizational development is a systematic activity, an ongoing process that can
help organizations deal with current and anticipated problems, putting leaders in a
proactive, rather than reactive, stance. This stance differs from the “putting-out-fires”
approach that so many groups and organizations have relied upon historically.
The second noteworthy item is that OD involves planned change within an entire
organization or work team. This means that a proactive stance is absolutely necessary
for change to be effective; otherwise, the planned change effort will lag too far behind
the need that it is intended to address.
The third part of an OD definition to keep in mind is the rationale for organizational
development- to improve organizational effectiveness. Organizations and work teams
must be effective and efficient, particularly in the current environment of limited
resources. In thinking about effectiveness, every organization and team would be
well-advised to adopt a “quality” mentality regarding OD efforts. Ongoing,
institutionalized OD strategies are akin to continuous quality improvement. Quality
concepts originated in the manufacturing sector, but today, the quality movement is
being incorporated into service organizations as well.
OD is a long range effort to improve organization's problem solving and renewal

processes, particularly through more effective and collaborative management of
organizational culture, often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the
use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science.
Organization development is a "contractual relationship between a change agent and a

sponsoring organization entered into for the purpose of using applied behavioral
science in a systems context to improve organizational performance and the capacity of
the organization to improve itself.
Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process to implement effective
change in an organization. Organization development is known as both a field of applied
behavioral science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and
as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on
sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality.
Some Other Definitions of

OD
According to Burke
(1982)
“Planned process of change in an organization’s culture through the utilization of

behavioral s cience technologies, research, and theory.
According to French &
Bell
“A long-r ange effort to improve an organization’s (1978) problem solving and
renewal processes, particularly through a more effective and collaborative management of an
organization culture . . . with the assistance of a change agent, or catalyst, and the use of the
theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research.
According to
Margulies
“A value-based process of self-assessment and Raia (1972) planned change, involving

specific strategies and technology, aimed at improving the overall effectiveness of an
organizational system.
According to
Porras
“Planned, behavioral science- based interventions in Robertson work settings for the
purpose of improving (1992) organizational functioning and individual development.
According to Jamieson,
Bach
“Long- term, planned changes in the culture, Kallick, & Kur technology, and management of
a total (1984) organization or at least a significant part of the total organization.
According to Warrick
(1984)
“Planned, long-range systems and primarily behavioral science strategy for understanding,
developing, and changing organizations to improve their present and future effectiveness and
health.
Organization development is a planned process of promoting positive humanistically

oriented large-system change and improvement in organizations through the use of
social science theory, action research, and behaviorally based data collection and
feedback techniques.
Regardless of the definition that one subscribes to, however, it should be apparent
when reviewing these definitions that although they differ on several important
dimensions—for example, some focus on the importance of technology in the change
process, whereas others explicitly mention top management support, and still others
reference values explicitly—they share common components as well. Given the nature
of these definitions and the experience in and exposure to others in the field over the
past decade, the OD should be conceptualized as representing three essential
components.
First and perhaps foremost, OD is fundamentally a data-driven process; diagnosis and

intervention are based on some form of behaviorally relevant data (such as
observations, assessments, and surveys) collected through a process known as action
research.
Second, the OD model represents a total systems approach to organizational change in
which this change is a formal and planned response to targeted organization-wide
issues, problems, and challenges.
Finally, although this component is controversial and by no means universally accepted

as yet (Church, Burke, & Van Eynde, 1994), it is believed that values represent a third
key component to the field. OD is (or should be) a normative and humanistic
values-based approach to organizational improvement. In short, OD work should be
focused on and conducted for the good of the individual, as well as the good of the
organization. Although balancing issues of effectiveness and profitability are certainly
important for economic success and survival, it is argued that an OD approach does not
prioritize these concerns over the human perspective.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OD
Long term plan: It is planned and long-term–the process is based on gathering data and
planned with the expectation of changes taking years.
Change:
OD is a planned strategy to bring about organizational change. The change effort aims
at specific objectives and is based on a diagnosis of problem areas.
Change Agent: It involves change agent–there is a distinct role for an active facilitator
and ombudsmen of the process, to ensure that changes are real; he stimulate, facilitate,
and coordinate change.
Action oriented: It’s action-oriented–instead of being descriptive of necessary changes,

organizational development is diagnostic and prescriptive, seeking measurable results.
Collaborative:
OD is typically involves a collaborative approach to change that includes involvement
and participation of the organization members most affected by the changes.
Performance
:
OD programs include an emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performance
and quality.
Learning
:
It involves learning principles–individuals, groups and managers at all levels of the
organization must re-learn how to function together. Managers who embrace
organizational development must be committed to effecting fundamental changes in the
organization. The learners'
experiences in the training environment should be the kind of human problems they
encounter at work. The training should NOT be all theory and lecture.
Systems orientation: OD represents a system approach concerned with the

interrelationship of divisions, departments, groups, and individuals as interdependent
subsystems of the total organization, must work together.
Scientific: OD is based upon scientific approaches to increase

organization effectiveness.
Humanistic Values: Positive beliefs about

the potential of employees.
Problem Solving: It is problem-oriented – a multidisciplinary approach is taken to apply

theory and research to effect solutions; problems are identified, data is gathered,
corrective action is taken, progress is assessed, and adjustments in the problem solving
process are made as needed. This process is known as Action Research.
Contingency Orientation: Actions are

selected and adapted to fit the need.
Levels of Interventions: Problems can occur at one or more level in the organization so
the strategy will require one or more interventions
BENEFITS OF
OD
• Change throughout the

organization
• Greater Motivation
• Higher job satisfaction
• Increased productivity
• Lower turnover
• Better quality of work
• Improved teamwork
• Reduction in organizational
conflict
• Increased willingness to
change
• Commitment to
objectives

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ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR ​Unit-wise Exam

What is an Organization? ​Organization as two or more individuals who are

What is Behavior? ​It is the behavior of the people working in an organization to

So let us understand organizational behavior and what it exactly it means.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 3

A. Organizational behavior is a field of

1. OB studies three determinants of behavior in organizations: individuals,

3. OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how

Organisational behaviour can then be defined as:​"The study of human behaviour in

Organizational behavior (often abbreviated OB) is a field of study that

OB is the study of what people do in an organization and how their behavior

The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure,

INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL

Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built on

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 5

There are five models of OB, which are as

2. Custodial Model: ​This model usually depends on economic resources (money).

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 6

Example: ​Garments factory, because here it is based on economical resource.

3. Supportive Model: ​This model relies on leadership. For example, managers

Example: ​Software firm, because here leaders support there employee to

Example: ​Social organization such as willingly blood donation organization

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 7

5. System Model: ​This model is based on trust, self-motivation, and the

Organizational Behavior is an indigenous learning of techniques which deals

• ​Figurehead: ​All managers are required to perform duties that are

• ​Monitor: ​Managers monitor the flow of information. All managers, to some

These roles demand a deep understanding of human behavior in both individual

As a manager, the teachings of OB can significantly increase one’s personal

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 9

Nowadays, machinery is more common in businesses which results in

“Internal and ​external factors that stimulate desire andenergy in people to be

Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious

factors such as the ​1. ​intensity of desire or need,

There are two different sources of

They can have either positive or negative influence on learners. Influencing

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 12

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that source comes from inside an

Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that source comes from outside an

• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 13

This five stage model can be

The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 14

Frederick Herzberg, contributed to human relations and motivation two theories

Herzbergs' first component in his approach to motivation theory involves what

The second component in Herzberg’s' motivation theory involves what people

These factors result from internal instincts in employees, yielding motivation

David McClelland (Studies in Motivation, 1955) identified three basic types of

THEORY X AND THEORY

Douglas McGregor further developed the needs concept of Maslow and

McGregor proposed an alternative set of assumptions which he called Theory

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 16

The psychologist Clayton Alderfer developed a new model to explain the

In his theory, Alderfer compressed Maslow's hierarchy of needs from five

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR B. Com (H) Sem. 6 Page 17

VROOM'S EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION (VIE

Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors

• There is a positive correlation between efforts and

Vroom's Expectancy Theory is based upon the following three

• ​Valence: ​(Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with

• ​Expectancy: ​(Employees have different expectations and levels of

BEHAVIOUR Unit-wise Exam

What is an Organization? Organization as two or more individuals who are

What is Behavior? It is the behavior of the people working in an organization to

Organisational behaviour can then be defined as:"The study of human behaviour in

2. Custodial Model: This model usually depends on economic resources (money).

Example: Garments factory, because here it is based on economical resource.

3. Supportive Model: This model relies on leadership. For example, managers

Example: Software firm, because here leaders support there employee to

Example: Social organization such as willingly blood donation organization

5. System Model: This model is based on trust, self-motivation, and the

• Figurehead: All managers are required to perform duties that are

• Monitor: Managers monitor the flow of information. All managers, to some

“Internal and external factors that stimulate desire andenergy in people to be

factors such as the 1. intensity of desire or need,

• Valence: (Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with

• Expectancy: (Employees have different expectations and levels of

via the following formula: Motivation = Valance x Expectancy (Instrumentality)

Perception Definition: A perception is a belief held by a person, or many people,

• Receiving Stimuli – Picking up all external and internal

Figure-ground Relationship: According to this principle any figure can be

Grouping of Stimuli in Perceptual Organisation: As said above, according to

Primary reinforcement, sometimes referred to as unconditional reinforcement,

Secondary reinforcement, also known as conditioned reinforcement, involves

• Forming: Teams initially go through a "forming" stage in which members

• Norming: Gradually, the team moves into a "norming" stage, as a

• Command Group (permanent):

• Task Group (temporary):

a. Brainstorming: Brainstorming involves group members verbally suggesting ideas