GI Tract Control

Gut doesn’t obey normal rules of homeostasis – it doesn’t worry about body content but worries only about diet and
maximises digestion/absorption. Works independent of the rest of the body and is concerned with whatever it is
presented with, trying to maximise nutrient absorption.
It does this by regulating motility: rate at which food moves through body especially through stomach and S.I.
Another way to control this is control of digestive juice secretion
There’s little control of absorption in gut – switched on all the time.
Fat or too much salt in diet doesn’t tell the body to stop eating; it has to continue working whatever it is fed with.
Function of gut is controlled by content of the gut and not by status of the body
Intestinal epithelium is largest sensory organ in body
It is packed with: mechanoreceptors which detect distension, Osmoreceptors which detect change in osmolality as
molecules arrive in gut, Chemoreceptors which detect acidity and Chemoreceptors which detect digestive products
especially peptides and fatty acids

Receptor activation triggers 3 pathways.

Neuronal reflexes
Long: include nerves of autonomic nervous
system and expand out to the peripheral
nervous system
Short – gastrointestinal tract has its own
nervous system within the wall of the gut and
intestine: the enteric nervous system (Enteric
meaning intestine, gastric means within
stomach) - It is made of 100 million nerve
cells present in 2 plexuses in the body
Diagram: Mucosa is the epithelial cells
Sub mucosa and layers of smooth muscle are linked to
motility lectures
Plexuses are collection of nerve cell bodies.
Between the 2 layers of smooth muscle is myentic plexus
In the enteric nervous system/short reflex
Signals from afferent nerves from sensory cells in the
walls of gut synapse onto interneuron/linking neurone
and then an efferent neurone which produces an action
All these nerves are present within enteric nervous
system and are important in motility control and coordination
such as peristalsis.
Long reflexes known as extrinsic nerves interact with
autonomic nervous system.
Both para and sympa have counter effects on the gut.
Para increases motility and secretion
Sympa reduces motility
In gut wall are vagovagal reflexes (long), where the vagus nerve
carries fibres up to brain stem which stimulate efferent nerves.
Hormones
Are peptides released from wall of gut and sent via blood to other parts of the body e.g. to brain
Main ones are secretin, gastrin and CCK
Secreted by enteroendocrine cells found in mucosa of the gut and stomach. They secrete hormones in the gut which
target the site of action – GI tract, glands such as stomach and liver
CCK: Secreted by intestine affects the pancreas, gall bladder and stomach. It affects CNS causing satiety – feeling of
fullness/satisfaction.

Paracrine transmission discovered in the gut

Control of acid secretion in the stomach
Known as short hormones, simply diffuse to local environment e.g. Histamine; important in control in gastric
secretion.
Other paracrine transmitters include prostaglandins, bradykinin which are released in response to irritation of gut
wall and prevent damage from enzymes present in gut and lumen
E.g. CCK is a neurotransmitter which is also a hormone secreted when chime arrives in the duodenum
Structure of SI
Good at absorbing as surface area increases due to
finger like projections called villi. In between are crypts
of lieberkuhn which lie deep into the layer. These are
sites of stem cells which divide to produce all the cells
that cover the rest of the crypt and the villus
structures.
Main types of cells are villi which are absorptive cells,
Enteroendocrine cells are less common, paneth cells
are part of immune system and goblet cells secrete
mucus and cover lining of Small Intestine.
Undifferentiated crypt cells are daughters of the divided crypt cells
Migration takes 2-4 days for cell which is born at bottom to flow to top of epithelial outer layer hence faster E.CELL
turnover
The large intestine is similar to SI; they have crypts but don’t have villus.
Problem with nerves is ~24 hrs later, cells have moved out of the original place as they migrate and so have different
neural contact. Solution is a special type of endocrine cell called enterochomraffin cells.
90% of enteroendocrine cells are enterochomraffin cells
Mucosal cells are Enterenchromaffin cells which secrete adrenaline. They have vesicles packed with
neurotransmitters called 5-HT.
Enterochomraffin cells are the main chemo and mechanoreceptors of the gut which have a microvillus membrane
based in the lumen
When they are stimulated by chemo/mechano stimulus, they secrete serotonin/5-HT
This is released into submucosal space and diffuses through interstitial fluid and is able to stimulate sensory nerves
because it interacts with receptor operated channels on these nerves which are sensitive to 5-HT
Salivary secretion – simplest of secretions
Composition is 99% water and 1% proteins including useful proteins such as amylase - but does little in terms of
digestion because as soon as food is swallowed, it enters stomach and is broken down by stomach acid. But it helps
making food slimy and anti-bacterials help against oral infections.
Ions are secreted as well. HCO3- opposes effect of bacteria in the mouth – when teeth are not cleaned, it digests food
and produced metabolic acid which eat away at the teeth.
Functions: Lubrication, solvent, protect teeth and gums
3 pairs of salivary glands: Parotid in cheek, Sublingual in tongue (rich in protein and mucus) and Submandibular
under jaw bone
All have same basic structure. Duct cells and acinus cells have different functions.
Acinus cells produce all the fluid – secrete NaCl which produces an
osmotic gradient which drives water secretion into the gland
Ductal cells can reabsorb NaCl and conserve sodium – produce
hypertonic saliva
Control of saliva is almost entirely nervous as hormones have slow
effects
Basal rate of secretion: Secreting certain amount per min – 0.5mlmin-1
Important for oral health and getting rid of bacteria.
Dry mouth is caused by nervousness – saliva helps articulate and helps produce sounds of speech
Food in mouth, taste and smell all enhance secretion of saliva which sends signals to medulla which control
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems – both combine to stimulate secretion in terms of saliva.
Para produces ACh generally which works on receptor cells and secretes watery saliva with low enzyme content. It
can increase secretion rate from 0.5 to 4mlmin-1
VIP is a small intestine hormone which is also produced by parasympathetic nerves going to the salivary glands.
Increase in fluid secretion means more blood flow to salivary gland
Sympathetic nerves produce noradrenaline and have a similar role

Acinar secretion
Anions are important: Cl- movement is central to
salivary secretion
Basolateral membrane transporter uses sodium
gradient to move Cl- into cell
Na+ ions moves out, K+ ion channels open when
transporter is pumping ions in
3 ions move in: Then Na+ moves out and K+ leaves cell
Cl- is negative so as Cl- moves into the lumen, it causes
the lumen side of E.Cell to become more negative 
provides a gradient for Na+ ions to move
paracellularly from blood into lumen.
Aquaporin proteins in salivary glands allow H 2O to
move across due to osmotic effect
When not secreting saliva; no parasympathetic drive so these channels tend to be closed
When sympathetic nerves stimulate glands, they release ACh; on basolateral membrane are ACh receptors.
When activated this causes release of intracellular Ca 2+ ions inside the cell which directly binds to these channels and
causes them to open
Similar mechanisms in all secretory epithelia hence same structures in eyes as lacrimal glands have acinar cells.