Session 08 Nuclear II RE2018 Rev

Nuclear Energy in the XXI century
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH)

Master’s Degree in Energy Engineering
ENERGY RESOURCES
Nuclear energy in the XXI century
Lluís Batet
Professor at BarcelonaTECH
BARCELONA, October 2018
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Preface
In Session 7, an overview of the present situation of

nuclear power generation worldwide has been offered,
along with a short explanation of the physical basis for the
harvesting and use of this type of energy.
The present session is devoted to
• address some concerns public opinion has on
nuclear energy
• present some features of new and future types of
nuclear power plants

Master’s Degree in Energy Engineering 2
Concerns
• Risk of accidents
• Waste management
• Economics
• Limitation of uranium resources
• Proliferation

Nuclear in the XXI century

Global average annual capacity additions and retirements by
technology in the New Policies Scenario of the IEA
Not quite good news
Source: IEA WEO 2017

Concerns
• Economics
• Proliferation

Nuclear safety
• The IAEA Safety Standards Series establish the safety

requirements governed by the safety principles as well
as recommendations and guidance on how to comply
with the safety requirements. Usually this standards are
considered in National regulations adding specific
National Requirements.
• In countries with no specific nuclear regulations, it is
usual to require compliance with the regulations of the
Country of origin of the technology being acquired.

Nuclear safety
Fundamental Safety Principle: Protecting People and the
Environment. It must be ensured that facilities are operated
and activities are conducted so as to achieve the highest
standards of safety that can reasonably be achieved, in
order to:
– Control the radiation exposure of people and the release of
radioactive material to the environment.
– Restrict the likelihood of events that might lead to a loss of control
over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive
source or any other source of radiation.
– Mitigate the consequences of these events if they were to occur.

Nuclear accidents
11th March 2011
Earthquake magnitude 9 at 130 km from Japan east coast
Tsunami: waves of 14 meters in some places
National Police Agency

Reports (Sept 2012):
~15900 casualties
~6150 injured
~2650 missing
11th march 2011

The tsunami flooded the coast, already affected
by the earthquake
Fukushima Daiichi station is quite close to the
epicenter and suffers the effects of the
earthquake and subsequent tsunami.
Fukushima Daiichi
The plant is not designed for the

magnitude of the earthquake,
but suffers no damage.
The tsunami is higher than the 9
plant’ s design wave
Fukushima Daiichi station

FUKUSHIMA DAIICHI.
Unit 1: BWR 3 (439 MW). Operating
Status of the units at the Units 2 and 3: BWR 4 (760 MW). Operating
instant of the earthquake Units: 4 and 5: BWR 4 (760 MW). Shut down (unit 4 defueled)
Unit 6: BWR 5 (1007 MW). Shut down.

BWR

BWR
Spent Fuel Pool
Secondary Containment
Primary Containment
Reactor Vessel
Steel Containment Vessel
Source: GE

Suppression Pool (Torus)
ACCIDENT SEQUENCE
Normal Operation
Earthquake
Shutdown
Loss of External Power

Diesel Generators Start-up
Tsunami
Loss of Diesel Generators
Emergency cooling

REMINDER Need of cooling

Fission
products
Excess neutrons
Radioactive
85% of the energy is released in form

of kinetic energy pf fission fragments
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya7% is released later (decay heat)Energy Resources

(BarcelonaTECH)
Master’s Degree in Energy Engineering 135 135 135 135 135
Te → I→ Xe → Cs→ Ba (stable)
Need of cooling
REMINDER MAIN SAFETY FUNCTIONS
Stop the reaction chain Extract the residual heat and

and maintain the maintain the fuel in a coolable
reactor in a shutdown geometry
state
DONE Confine the radioactive
substances and avoid their
release to the environment
NOT POSSIBLE AFTER THE
TSUNAMI
Residual (decay) heat

BWR
1. Residual Heat Removal
2. Low Pressure Cooling
Injection
3. High Pressure Cooling
Injection
4. Reactor Core Isolation
Cooling (units 2,3 and 4)
5. Isolation Condenser
(unit 1)
6. Poison injection

ACCIDENT SEQUENCE
Normal Operation
Earthquake
Shutdown

Tsunami
Emergency cooling
Loss of energency cooling

Accident sequence
Dryout Core uncovery
Fuel
Overheating
Zr oxidation Release of FP
H2 production Cs, I, Xe, Kr
Overpressure Venting
Partial
retention
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) EnergyinResources
the SP
ACCIDENT SEQUENCE
Normal Operation
Earthquake
Shutdown

Tsunami
Emergency cooling
Loss of energency cooling
Severe accident
Sea water injection

Hydrogen explosion
Explosion in Unit 1.
12th March 15:36
Source unknown

Hydrogen explosion
Explosion in Unit 3. 14 March 11:01

Hydrogen explosion
Two fires (H2 combustion) on 15-16 March Cooling tried by throwing
water from helicopters and then with fire engine pumps and water cannons
24th March

Rating of the accident

INTERNATIONAL NUCLEAR EVENTS SCALE
Chernobyl
Fukushima Daiichi
TMI/Harrisburg
F-D Units 1, 2, 3
F-D Unit 4
Vandellòs I

Radiological impact
Se-79 Sr-89 Nb-97 Sn-121 m Xe-135 m Ba-142 U-237 Am-241
0.327 My 50.50 d 1.23 h 43.9 y 15.30 m 10.70 m 6.75 d 433 y
Br-84 Sr-90 Mo-99 Sb-125 Xe-135 La-140 U-238 Am-242
31.80 m 29.10 y 2.79 d 2.76 y 9.10 h 40.27 h 4468 My 16.0 h
Kr-85 m Sr-91 Mo-101 Sb-126 Xe-137 La-141 U-239 Am-243
4.48 h 9.51 h 14.60 m 0.33 My 3.82 m 3.90 h 23.5 m 7370 y
Kr-85 Sr-92 Tc-98 m Te-132 Xe-138 La-142 Np-237 Cm-242
10.72 y 2.71 h 6.02 h 3.26 d 14.20 m 92.50 m 2.14 My 162.8 d
Kr-87 Sr-93 Tc-99 I-129 Xe-139 Ce-141 Np-238 Cm-243
1.37 h 7.4 m 0.211 My 15.7 My 39.70 s 32.50 d 2.117 d 29.1 y
Kr-88 Y-90 Tc-101 I-131 Xe-140 Ce-143 Np-239 Cm-244
2.84 h 2.67 d 14.20 m 8.04 d 13.70 s 33.0 h 2.36 d 18.0 y
Kr-89 Y-91 Tc-104 I-132 Cs-134 Ce-144 Np-240
3.15 m 58.50 d 18.0 m 2.28 h 2.07 y 284.6 d 1.032 h
Kr-90 Y-92 Ru-103 I-133 Cs-136 Nd-147 Pu-238
32.30 s 3.54 h 39.27 d 20.80 h 13.16 d 10.99 d 87.74 y
Rb-88 Y-93 Ru-105 I-134 Cs-137 Sm-151 Pu-239
17.70 m 10.20 h 4.44 h 42.60 m 30.17 y 90 y 24100 y
Rb-89 Zr-93 Ru-106 I-135 Cs-139 Eu-155 Pu-240
15.40 m 1.53 My 1.02 y 6.57 h 9.30 m 4.76 y 6570 y
Rb-90 Zr-95 Rh-105 I-136 Ba-139 U-234 Pu-241
2.60 m 64.00 d 35.40 h 1.39 m 83.70 m 0.245 My 14.4 y
Rb-90 m Zr-97 Pd-107 Xe-133 Ba-140 U-235 Pu-242
4.30 m 16.80 h 6.5 My 5.24 d 12.75 d 704 My 0.376 My
Rb-91 Nb-95 Cd-113 m Xe-133 m Ba-141 U-236 Pu-243
58.00 s 34.97 d 14.1 y 2.23 d 18.30 m 23.42 My 4.96 h
Principal
Universitat radionuclides
Politècnica de Catalunyain(BarcelonaTECH)
the irradiated fuel, shortly after
EnergyaResources
shutdown
Master’s Degree in Non
Energy Engineering
Noble Short Small 24
Volatile gases lived quantity

Radiological impact
Characteristic properties of I-131 and Cs-137
Isotope I-131 Isotope Cs-137

364 keV gamma radiation in 81% of the 662 keV gamma radiation in 85% of the
decay processes decay processes
Emitted radiation Emitted radiation
Beta particulates: 606 keV in 89% of the Beta particulates: 511 keV in 94.6% of the
decay processes decay processes
Half-life 8.04 day Half-life 30.22 year
Biologic half-life 120 - 138 day Biologic half-life 110 day
Specific dose rate 7,647x10

-5
mSv/h per MBq at 1 metre Specific dose rate
-4
1,03x10 mSv/h per MBq at 1 metre
Intake limits fixed by Japanese authorities shortly after the accident

Product I-131 Cs-137
Vegetables 2000 Bq/kg 500 Bq/kg
Milk 300 Bq/kg 200 Bq/kg
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Adults 300
(BarcelonaTECH) Bq/kg 200 Bq/kg
Energy Resources
Water
Children 100 Bq/kg 100 Bq/kg
Radiological impact

2011_09_22
Radiological impact
Increased Risk of Solid Cancer with Dose for

A-bomb survivors.
Relationship with between increased risk and
radiation dose as reported by the "Health
Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing
Radiation: Biological Effects of Ionizing
Radiation VII (BEIR VII) report with 90 %
confidence bars.
Source: wikipedia / Linear no-threshold model

Effect on Energy Structure
54 units in operation in 2011
127.0 Million inhabitants in

2018
In operation in May 2018

(source: Wikipedia)


JAPAN Energy System 2010
TPED 496.8 Mtoe Electricity 1110.8 TWh


JAPAN Energy System 2012
TPED 452.3 Mtoe Electricity 1026.1 TWh


JAPAN Energy System Evolution
Source: IEA WEO 2012 2014 2016
Gas prices
$/mmBtu
JAPAN
Source: BP Statistical
Review of World Energy
2016
Source: BP Statistical Review

of World Energy 2016

Impact of historical accidents

Have resulted in significant improvements in
Safety, Equipment and Organization:
– After TMI: Importance of Human Factors versus
Design on Safety.
– After Chernobyl: Safety Culture and Severe
Accidents Management.
– After Fukushima: External events, Improved
response to beyond design basis events.

Concerns
• Economics
• Proliferation

REMINDER Spent fuel management

Fission products Heavy nuclides
Generated by neutron capture in uranium and
transuranic nuclides: Alpha emitters
Long lived


Time Evolution of high
level activity products
Example: 236Pu Decay Chain
236 α 232 α 228 α

94 Pu 
→ 92 U 
→ 90 Th 
→
224 α 220 α 216 α
88 Ra 
→ 86 Rn 
→ 94 Po 
→
212 β- 212 α 208 β-
82 Pb → 83 Bi 
→ 81Tl →
208
82 Pb (Estable)


Nuclear Cycle Back End
From the plant to ...
temporary storage Interim storage
plant’s spent fuel pool dry centralized
pool on-site
reprocess
(recycling) ultimate storage
(repository)
DGR (or other)
CLOSED CYCLE OPEN CYCLE


Temporary storage
in the plant. Spent
fuel pool.


Interim storage Example of a
dry storage
centralized
facility


Interim storage Example of a dry
individualized storage.
Ascó NPP
Tarragona, Spain
The canisters have been manufactured by ENSA

(Spain) and contain 32 spent fuel assemblies

Deep geological
repository

Spent fuel management

These subterranean cities are places no human
will ever inhabit or see, places designed to
repel life and light. They are a mirror image to
our towering achievements above ground and,
like the pyramids, they are both monument
and tomb. Every nuclear nation is compelled to
build them, at great effort and expense, and to
continue building them until we find a better
way to deal with nuclear waste or a better
Scream Edvard Munch
alternative to nuclear power. Until then, we
must live with the thought that in some
unimaginable future aeons hence, this could be
all that remains to prove our species was ever
here.
The Guardian
Sunday 24 April 2011
Nuclear waste: Keep out – for 100,000 years
Concerns
• Economics
• Proliferation

Economics of nuclear energy
Source: NEA /
IAEA: Uranium
2016:
Resources,
Production and
Demand



Typical structure of the cost of nuclear electricity
* Uranium cost is typically some 5%

Source: NEA and IEA


Effect of a 50% fuel cost increase on the cost of the
kWh electric
Source:
AIE WEO 2006

Levelized Cost of Electricity for Nuclear, Coal, Gas, PV and Wind,
at different discount rates
Source: IEA NEA Projected costs of

generating electricity 2015 edition

OECD/IEA © World Energy Outlook 2014

Concerns
• Economics
• Proliferation

Uranium production and demand

Source:
NEA IAEA:
Uranium 2016:
Resources,
Production
and Demand
Committed
production centres
are those that are
either under
construction or are
firmly committed for
construction.


• Identified resources recoverable at costs of <USD 130/kgU were
estimated as 5.72 MtU in 2015.
• Meeting high case demand requirements would consume less than
30% of the total 2015 identified resource base by 2035 (resources
recoverable at a cost of <USD 130/kgU). (NEA IAEA: Uranium 2016:
Resources, Production and Demand)
• Nevertheless, new mines will be required as present production
declines.
Reasonably assured reserves

Reminder

OECD/IEA © World Energy Outlook 2014

Demand of fuel cycle services

Forecast of conversion services demand and offer
Secondary supply
Source: E. Supko, T Meade “Conversion: Is renewal on the way?”

in Nuclear Eng. International, 7 Oct..2013 ERI: Energy Resources International

Demand of fuel cycle services

Forecast of enrichment services demand and offer
Requirements per area Supply adequacy.

Redirection of
Source: T Meade, E Supko “Enrichment Rosatom to
excess is here to stay ” in NEI, 13 Oct..2015 uranium
ERI: Energy Resources International production

Concerns
• Economics
• Proliferation

Proliferation
• Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty
– 5 states permitted to have nuclear weapons
– These states agree not to transfer weapons
technology to others
Bomb grade fissile material can be obtained
from the fuel cycle:
- Enriching uranium up to over 90% 235U
- Separating Pu from U while plutonium

composition is almost 239Pu
Incomplete fuel burn-up
+
Reprocessing technology

Concerns
• Economics
• Proliferation

The nuclear fuel cycle

Source: WNA
5.54 MWd/kg Unatural

The nuclear fuel cycle

Source: WNA
7.0 MWd/kg Unatural
Assuming the annual operation of 1000 MWe of nuclear power reactor capacity
such as in the new EPR, with 5% enriched fuel and higher (65 GWd/t) burn-up:

Advanced fuel cycles

• Aims of advanced nuclear fuel cycles:
– Improve the energy use of the fuel
– Reduce the radiological impact of waste in the long term
– Allow a simpler and more economical repository for spent fuel
– Reduce the proliferation risk
– Improve the perspectives for nuclear energy in the long term
• Necessary technological developments:
– treatment of irradiated fuel
– development of new fuels
– transmutation (partitioning and transmutation)


• In summary, thanks to technological advances, and
especially to transmutation, advanced nuclear fuel cycles
for fission reactors must allow:
– Recover the energy contained in the spent fuel
– Provide fuel for reactors of future generations
– Reduce the volume and toxicity of spent fuel
– Reduce the risk of proliferation that plutonium from spent fuel
represents
– Better use geological storage option (economically,
environmentally, proliferation-resistant)

New reactors

New reactors
Generation III
ABWR
EPR

New reactors
• Characteristics of 3rd generation reactors:
– Standardized designs: ease of licensing and reduction of costs and
construction time.
– Simpler and more robust designs: ease of operation, reduced
vulnerability to failures.
– Larger availability, longer operating times ~60 years.
– Smaller probability of accidents resulting in core melting (many designs
feature passive safety systems).
– Larger fuel burn-ups, to reduce the use of the uranium resource and the
amount of waste.
• European Utility Requirements (EUR document): reactors must
allow the use of mixed oxides (MOX) fuels (U-PuO2).

Reminder Reprocessing
Materials suitable for fission
• Fissile nuclides: fission can
be triggered by neutrons of
whatever energy, including very
low energies, (uranium-235,
uranium-233, plutonium-239,
plutonium-241).
2.4 d
• Fissionable nuclides: need
neutrons with E > 1 MeV
(uranium-238).
• The latter are called Fertile
because these nuclei (232Th,
238U) can yield fissile nuclei on
neutron capture.
Reminder Reprocessing
Comparison of the
composition of fuel before • Fuel reprocessing allows
the recuperation of U and
and after irradiation Pu from spent fuel
EXAMPLE
• Plutonium and other

actinides are obtained from
fuel reprocessing plants
• MOX = Mixed Oxides (UO2

+ PuO2, but other actinides
as well: NpO2)

Reprocessing
Z
Nuclide chart
Zoom in the actinide zone

MOX Fuel
PUREX process
• Fuel chopping
• Dissolution in nitric acid
• Separation of U and Pu from
the fission products and minor
actinides by a countercurrent
solvent (tributyl phosphate)
extraction process
• U is separated from Pu (U
remains on the organic phase,
Pu is transferred to the
aqueous phase)
• Pu is concentrated by
evaporation and converted to
PuO2.
• U is concentrated by
evaporation and converted to
UO2.
69
Source: WNA
MOX Fuel
• Recycled plutonium is mixed with depleted uranium, in
an adequate proportion to obtain the desired fissile
proportion.
– The mixture is grinded to form a solid solution of U-PuO2 which
will be used to produce fuel pellets by sintering
• In the future, reprocessing will evolve towards PUREX
variants that will provide the plutonium already mixed
with other actinides and uranium.
– The COEX process (France) leaves some U with the Pu and
possibly some Np.
– The UREX+ process (USA) leaves the Pu with other transuranic
elements to be used as fuel in fast spectrum reactors.
– Japanese reprocessing is linked to French developments.
These developments address proliferation risks
and waste treatment
Generation IV

Generation IV

Generation IV
Objectives (1)
• Sustainability:
– provide sustainable energy generation that meets clean air
objectives and promotes long-term availability of systems and
effective fuel utilization
– minimize waste generation and reduce its effect in the long term
• Economy:
– clear life-cycle cost advantage over other energy sources
– level of financial risk comparable to other energy projects

Generation IV
Objectives (and 2)
• Safety and Reliability
– very low likelihood and degree of reactor core damage
– elimination of the need for offsite emergency response
• Proliferation Resistance and Physical Protection :
– assure that the reactors are a very unattractive and the least
desirable route for diversion or theft of weapons-usable materials
– provide increased physical protection against acts of terrorism

Reminder Fast reactors

Microscopic cross section of the two principal
uranium isotopes 4
Probability of a fission reaction
Fission microscopic cross section σf (barn) 1x10

Larger probability
3
1x10 235U
2
1x10
1x101
Smaller
probability
1x100
En=0.025 eV
1x10-1
238U
-2
1x10
1x10-3 1x103
1x104
1x105
1x107
1x10-3
1x100
1x106
1x10-2
1x10-1
1x101
1x10
Neutron energy (eV) 1 barn = 10-24 cm2

Fast reactors
• Almost all the operating reactors are “thermal”, i.e. fissions are
induced by low energy neutrons (thermal spectrum).
• The reason is that the best way to sustain a fission chain needs the
slowing down (moderation) of the neutrons produced in the fissions
(that have a fast energy spectrum).
• In fast reactors the presence of moderating material (substances
with light atoms such as water or graphite) is avoided in order to
have a neutron spectrum as fast as possible.
• Usually, fast reactors are cooled by liquid metal (sodium, lead or
lead-bismuth), with high conductivity and high boiling point and
without moderating effect. They operate at 500-550°C and at near
atmospheric pressures.

Fast reactors
• In a typical fast reactor, the fuel in the core is Pu-239 (or U-238 with
Pu-239)
• The core is designed so that large number of neutrons escape from
it and produce Pu-239 in the fertile U-238 breding blanket.
• Part of the U-238 can undergo fission (basically in the core, since
the neutrons that reach the blanket have lost part of its energy and,
therefore, the only possible reaction with U-238 is capture, which
generates Pu-239)
• This type of reactor is more efficient in breeding than the current
thermal reactors.
• Fissile nuclei emit more neutrons when fission is induced by fast
neutrons than when by thermal neutrons
• Pu-239 emits more neutrons per fission than U-235

Fast reactors
fission Fission propagation

neutrons
Fission fragment
Incident 200 MeV

neutron Radiative
capture
Breeding
Uranium-238 --- Plutonium-239

Fast reactors
BLANKET CORE BLANKET

238U 238U 238U
+239Pu
Fission
Breeding Breeding

Fast reactors
235U
From using less than 1% of the uranium to using 100%

238U
Source: GIF Source: GIF
940 MWd/kg Unatural

Fast reactors
The role of fast reactors:
• Fast reactors can be designed as
breeder reactors to produce more
fissile material than they consume
• Also (without the breeding blanket)
they can be used as plutonium
“burners”
• A fast reactor could as well be used to
transmute (“burn”) part of the other
actinides
Transmutation probabilities %
Source: Chang, Y.I. 2014,

Plentiful Energy, the Story
of the Integral Fast
Reactor, Argonne, May
2014 (in WNA web site)

81
Source: GIF
Fast reactors
Fast nuclear Some 400 reactor-years experience has been gained in operation of FNR
reactors in
Generation IV reactor designs are largely of this type (FNR are a priority in
the World international cooperation)
Source: WNA
BN-800 Beloyarsk 4
(Rosatom)


• Different concepts of the fuel
cycle:
– One-through (open cycle
without any reprocessing
uranium)
– reprocessing of spent fuel, use
of U and Pu in thermal reactors,
– spent fuel reprocessing, use of
U and Pu in a mix of thermal
and fast reactors (fast breeder
reactors)
– Inclusion of thorium (thorium-
232) in the fuel cycle

Thorium cycle
Cycle U+Pu Cycle U+Pu+Th

Thorium cycle
• Thorium is much more abundant in nature than uranium
– It is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is 3 times
more abundant than uranium.
– Thorium is found in various minerals (the most common monazite,
which contains up to 12% thorium oxide, but the average is 6-7%).
– Thorium-232 is slightly radioactive but there are other isotopes in the
chain of uranium-238 which (although present in tiny amounts) are more
radioactive: thorium-234 and thorium-230.
• Thorium-232 can be used as nuclear fuel because it can generate
(breeding) uranium-233.
• The thorium fuel cycle produces much smaller amounts of plutonium
and other transuranic nuclides, comparing with the cycles of
uranium.

Thorium cycle
Reasonably assured and
Reasonably assured Uranium resources plus
inferred Thorium resources
inferred resources, to US$ 130/kg U
recoverable at a cost of $80/kg
Th or less
Source: WNA
Data taken from IAEA NEA
Uranium 2014: Resources,
Production and Demand

Small Modular Reactors

Diverse technologies
High interest:
• Safety
• passive safety features
• Could be placed underground or
underwater
• Reduced radioactivity inventory
• Costs
• Modularized
• Constructed in a factory (versus
being erected in-situ)
• Remote areas, countries with weak
grids
• Removable as a whole after operation
(versus decommissioning in-situ)
• etc.
More info: http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/small-nuclear-power-

reactors.aspx

Fueling the future

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion process

Nuclear Fusion
2H + 3H  4He + n
Comparison between fusion energy and

fission energy
Efusion= 17.6 MeV (4 nucleons involved)
Efission= 200 MeV (235 nucleons involved)
17.6 Mev 200 Mev

4
= 4.4 MeV/nucl. > 235
= 0.85 MeV/nucl.
Fusion Fission

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion
Evolution
of n T τ

Nuclear Fusion
Central Blanket
Solenoid Module
Vacuum Vessel
Outer Intercoil
Structure
Cryostat
Toroidal Field Coil
Port Plug (IC Heating)
Poloidal Field Coil

Divertor
Machine Gravity Supports

Torus Cryopump
ITER
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IP7Vuqz-MAE

Nuclear Fusion
• Safe by physical principle
• Radioactive waste: production orders of
magnitude below that of fission
• The first generation of fusion reactors must relay
on the D-T reaction 2H + 3H  4He + n
• Deuterium is “abundant” in sea water:
• 33 g m-3
• 46 1012 tonnes
• Tritium:
• do not exist in nature (T1/2 = 12.3 year)
• must be produced from lithium (6Li)
Nuclear Fusion
• Lithium is abundant in earth crust, in pegmatites and salt formations:
– North Carolina: 3Mt
– DR of Congo: 2.3 Mt
– Urals: 0.4 Mt
– Chile and Bolivia : ~ 7 Mt
Reserves: 2 Mt. Resources: 14 Mt.
• 2 g D + 6 g 6Li = 40 toe
• Two natural isotopes: 6Li (7.42%) and 7Li (92.58%).
• Having into consideration consumptions in conventional and
expanding applications (among them batteries and breeding
blankets), existing lithium can provide energy during 200-300 years.
• Lithium is present in earth crust (some 60 ppm) and in sea water (0.17 ppm)
which is equivalent to 240 109 tonnes

Thanks for your attention

96

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Nuclear Energy in the XXI century

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH)

Nuclear energy in the XXI century

BARCELONA, October 2018

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

In Session 7, an overview of the present situation of

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

• Limitation of uranium resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Nuclear in the XXI century

Not quite good news

Source: IEA WEO 2017

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

• Limitation of uranium resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

• The IAEA Safety Standards Series establish the safety

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

National Police Agency

11th march 2011

The plant is not designed for the

Fukushima Daiichi station

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Spent Fuel Pool

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Loss of External Power

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

REMINDER Need of cooling

85% of the energy is released in form

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya7% is released later (decay heat)Energy Resources

Stop the reaction chain Extract the residual heat and

Residual (decay) heat

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Loss of External Power

Loss of energency cooling

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Loss of External Power

Loss of energency cooling

Sea water injection

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Rating of the accident

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Isotope I-131 Isotope Cs-137

Half-life 8.04 day Half-life 30.22 year

Biologic half-life 120 - 138 day Biologic half-life 110 day

Specific dose rate 7,647x10

Intake limits fixed by Japanese authorities shortly after the accident

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Increased Risk of Solid Cancer with Dose for

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Effect on Energy Structure

54 units in operation in 2011

127.0 Million inhabitants in

In operation in May 2018

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (BarcelonaTECH) Energy Resources

Effect on Energy Structure

TPED 496.8 Mtoe Electricity 1110.8 TWh

Source: IEA WEO 2012