Chapter 2 Answers

1. A graph of all the values that a variable can assume in a given population.
2. Central Tendency: Mean (very useful and used most often for analyzing), Median (not
influenced by outliers, often used), Mode (don’t use them in formal analysis)
3. Outliers: extreme scores, generally a score must be at least 2 absolute SD units away
from the mean
4. They are concepts, rather than tangible things/look for behaviors *associated* with
these conceptual variables that can be measured/approximate intelligence by
measuring behaviors we think are associated with it
5. A strict definition of a variable within a study/ Effective operational definition rely on
criteria validated by the academic community/Some definitions are more effective than
others/what specific thing you are measuring to reflect the conceptual variable
6. A proposed explanation of a phenomenon made on the basis of evidence that serves as
a starting point for an investigation/simple, clear and testable with experimental studies
7. Knowing that a hypothesis is wrong (not supported by data) can also affect our values,
laws and policies/ If we find that a drug does not have negative effects, we can relax
regulation of this drug/ If we find that a treatment does not improve mental health, we
might choose to discontinue it
8. Construct validity (our test measures what we say it measures) VS Test-retest reliability
(every time we do the test, we get a similar result) or Inter-rater reliability (no matter
who is scoring the test, we get a similar result)
9. General assessment of variables through systemic observation/It is not possible to infer
causation in descriptive research, as the researcher is not doing a manipulation/Case
studies: An intensive examination of one individual, provides proof of existence, difficult
to generalize to large populations, Freud /Surveys: Record data on a variable (or many
variables, commonly) in a large population via questionnaires or interviews, Can be
highly generalizable, Kinsey, Surveys rely upon honesty, which can be an issue/
Naturalistic observation: Observation of an animal in its natural setting without direct
intervention, high external validity; highly generalizable; avoids concerns about the
observer effect, poorly controlled, limited range of variables can be assessed, difficult to
study infrequent behaviors and thoughts, ethical concerns
10. Positive impression management can occur (exaggerating positive traits; as in a date or
interview) VS Malingering can occur (exaggerating/manufacturing problems; getting a
sick note when you’re not sick)
11. A correlation is a mathematical measure of the strength of relationship between two
variables; It is technically an analytic technique, not a research design/ The measure is
termed the correlation coefficient; Pearson r is the coefficient for continuous variables,
the r value can range from 0 – 1, the higher the absolute r value (positive or negative),
the stronger the relationship/ You can never infer cause from a correlation
alone/Correlation does not equal causation/Strong correlations suggest causal
relationships, but are not definitive proof of them; third factor effects (variable C causes
A + B), spurious associations, non-linearity (correlation equation won’t work)
12. An experiment is a controlled environment wherein we study the relationship between
a defined set of variables by controlling all the rest/ The researcher manipulates one
 variable (independent variable/IV) while measuring another (dependent variable/DV)
13. Here, group membership in one case (depression) is decided BEFORE the experiment
begins/Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable. However,
unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely on random assignment.
Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.
14. The researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable/IV) while measuring
another (dependent variable/DV). An uncontrolled variable that is related to the
dependent and/or independent variables is termed a confounding variable
15. Between subject design: 2+ groups, each given a different treatment
Within subject design: One group observed 2+ times (e.g. before and after treatment
Within-subject designs and mixed designs allow us to control for confounding variables
(as subjects are compared to themselves)
Mixed Designs: 2+ groups, each observed 2+ times
16. Mixed Design – allows for control of confounding variables and also a greater
distribution to more groups.
17. Observer: where people in studies change their behavior because they are watched. 
Demand Characteristics: denote the situation where the results of an experiment are
biased because the experimenters' expectancies regarding the performance of the
participants on a particular task create an implicit demand for the participants to
perform as expected.
18. A placebo effect is an effect of a treatment that cannot be attributed to the active
properties of that treatment. In order to control for the placebo effect, we include
placebo comparison groups that are given a placebo substance with no active
ingredients. If someone responds to a placebo, it is likely because of
expectation/beliefs (because there are no active ingredients). Very common in the life
sciences (particularly for the treatment of pain and mood disorders). Associated
w/neurophysiological changes (we can ‘see’ the placebo effect in your brain)
19. Importantly, the participant does not know what treatment they are receiving
(placebo or treatment). This is termed single-blinding or participant blinding.
20. Sampling: To generalize results in the laboratory to a larger population (external
validity), we need to make sure our lab sample is representative of that population.
Representative Sample: A representative sample is a group that closely matches the
characteristics of its population as a whole. In other words, the sample is a fairly
accurate reflection of the population from which the sample is drawn. Sampling
bias refers to situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the
target population. If we cannot generalize our results, we say our study lacks external
validity
21. Importantly, while sampling bias is a fault which should be acknowledged, studies
with sampling bias are not necessarily ‘wrong’ or ‘useless’