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What is an Operating System and its role in the Computing environment?

An operating system is an interface between hardware and user. An OS is responsible for the
management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the computer.
The operating system acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine.  As a host,
one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the
hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes
it easier to write applications. Almost all computers including handheld computers, desktop
computers, supercomputers, video game consoles as well as some robots, domestic
appliances, and portable media players use an operating system of some type .

The operating system of a large computer system has even more work to do. Such operatingsystems monitor

different programs and users, making sure everything runs smoothly, without interference, despite the fact that
numerous devices and programs are used simultaneously. An operating system also has a vital role to play in
security. Its job includes preventing unauthorized users from accessing the computer system.

There are multiuser, multiprocessing, multitasking, multithreading, and real-time operatingsystems. A

multiuser operating system enables multiple users to run programs simultaneously. This type
of operating system may be used for just a few people or hundreds of them. In fact, there are
some operating systems that are used to allow thousands of people to run programs at the same time.

A multiprocessing operating system allows a program to run on more than one central processing unit (CPU) at a
time. This can come in very handy in some work environments, at schools, and even for some home-
computing situations. Multitasking operating systems work a little differently; they make it possible to run more than
one program at a time. Multithreading operating systems are even more different, allowing varied parts of one
program to be used simultaneously.

Real-time operating systems are designed to allow computers to process and respond to input instantly. Usually,
general-purpose operating systems, such as disk operating system(DOS), are not considered real time, as they may
require seconds or minutes to respond to input. Real-time operating systems are typically used when computers
must react to the consistent input of information without delay. For example, real-time operating systems may be
used in navigation.

Today’s operating systems tend to have graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that employ pointing devices for input. A
mouse is an example of such a pointing device, as is a stylus. Commonly used operating systems for IBM-
compatible personal computers include Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Unix variations. For Macintosh computers,
Mac OS X, Linux, BSD, and some Windows variants are commonly used.

Major parts of Operating System.

The parts of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All user
software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a
mouse or keyboard or as complex as an Internet part.

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Kernel
This has the task of loading the application into memory. making sure they do not interfere with one another and allowing
them to share use of the cpu efficiently. the kennel also handles file storage to and from secondary storage devices such
as hard disk and optical drives
.in other words the kernel handles
loading/unloading application from memory
scheduling tasks to run on the cpu
memory management
file management
data security
the single user, single application operating system does not have to deal with networking.
unlike the server base operating system, and on other hand , a device such as a mobile phone
will have to have an extremely efficient memory management kernel as its memory is a very limited
resource. so the kernel of each type of operating system will have been designed with different
duties in mind.

Device Drivers:

every piece of hardware that makes up the computer or connected to it. will have a device driver
that allows the operating system to control and communicate with it. There could be hundreds of devices
drivers pre-installed with the operating system, and the right one for that particular computer set-up
is loaded on boot-up. the exact detail of which device driver is needed by the operating system is kept in
a file- in window the file is called is called ''registry' and in Linux the details will be stored as a number
of 'configuration files'.
makers of printers, graphic tablets, scanner, digital cameras and so on, will normally provide device
drivers for each make of operating system. a device driver for window xp is different from the device driver of Linux
this is why if u remove an operating system such as vista from a hard disk and install Linux instead, u will need to make
sure
u have all the correct drivers available for each piece of hardware.

User interface or (Graphic User Interface):

this part of operating system that user will see on screen (via the device driver) and reacting to your key
presses and other inputs. The user interface could be the basic command line interface, as u might find on a server, or it
might be a full
blown Graphical User Interface (GUI) such as perhaps gnome on lunix, window vista, or xp.

Graphical user interfaces, such as Microsoft Windows and the one used by the Apple Macintosh, feature the following
basic components:

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Pointer: A symbol that appears on the display screen and that you move to select objects and commands. Usually, the
pointer appears
as a small angled arrow. Text processing applications, however, use an I-beam pointer that is shaped like a capital I.
The pointer
is controlled by a pointing device such as a mouse, trackball, joysticks, touchpad’s, and light pens.
Icons: Small pictures that represent commands, files, or windows. By moving the pointer to the icon and pressing a
mouse button, you can execute a command or convert the icon into a window. You can also move the icons around the
display screen as if they were real objects on your desk.
Desktop: The area on the display screen where icons are grouped is often referred to as the desktop because the icons
are intended to represent real objects on a real desktop.
Windows: You can divide the screen into different areas. In each window, you can run a different program or display a
different information.
You can move windows around the display screen, and change their shape and size at will.
Menus: Most graphical user interfaces let you execute commands by selecting a choice from a menu.
Folders: Graphical representation of a directory.

Modes:

Modern CPUs support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability use at least two modes: protected
mode and supervisor mode. The supervisor mode is used by the operating system's kernel for low level tasks that need
unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is written and erased, and communication with devices
like graphics cards. Protected mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Applications operate within protected
mode, and can only use hardware by communicating with the kernel, which controls everything in supervisor mode. CPUs
might have other modes similar to protected mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor
types, such as 16-bit processors on a 32-bit one, or 32-bit processors on a 64-bit one

Program execution

The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an
application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating
system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs.
Executing an application program involves the creation of a process by the operating system kernel which assigns
memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary
code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and with hardware
devices

Interrupts
Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact with and
react to its environment. The alternative — having the operating system "watch" the various sources of input for events
(polling) that require action — can be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or 60 bytes) but are unusual in
modern systems with large stacks. Interrupt-based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts
provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to
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events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be
run when that event takes place.

When an interrupt is received, the computer's hardware automatically suspends whatever program is currently running,
saves its status, and runs computer code previously associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to placing a bookmark
in a book in response to a phone call. In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by the operating
system's kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer's hardware or from the running program.

Security
A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides
access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like
networks via the kernel.

The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and
others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between "privileged" and "non-
privileged", systems commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be
a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password.

Desktop Vs Server base Operating System.

Server base
a server is a physical computer (a computer hardware system) dedicated to run one or more services (as a host),[1] to
serve the needs of the users of other computers on a network. Depending on the computing service that it offers it could
be a database server, file server, mail server, print server, web server, gaming server, or some other kind of server.

Desktop
A desktop computer is a personal computer (PC) in a form intended for regular use at a single location, as opposed to a
mobile laptop or portable computer. Early desktop computers are designed to lie flat on the desk, while modern towers
stand upright. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens and keyboards.

Prior to the widespread use of microprocessors, a computer that could fit on a desk was considered remarkably small.
Early personal computers, like the IBM PC, were "desktop" machines, with a horizontally oriented computer case, usually
intended to have the display screen placed on top to save space on the desktop. In modern usage the word "desktop"
usually refers to tower cases that are in fact more often located on the floor under the desk than on a desk.

Technically speaking desktop and tower computers are two different styles of computer case that use desk space in
varying ways Cases intended for home theater PC systems are usually considered to be desktop cases in both senses,
regardless of orientation and placement.

Difference
almost any computer that meets the minimum hardware requirements can run a server operating system that alone does
not make a desktop computer a true server. Even if the desktop computer had similar processor speeds, memory and

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storage capacity compared to a server, it still isn't a replacement for a real server. The technologies behind them are
engineered for different purposes.

A desktop computer system typically runs a user-friendly operating system and desktop applications to facilitate desktop-
oriented tasks.  In contrast, a server manages all network resources. Servers are often dedicated (meaning it performs no
other task besides server tasks). Because a server is engineered to manage, store, send and process data 24-hours a
day it has to be more reliable than a desktop computer and offers a variety of features and hardware not typically used in
the average desktop computer.

1.With server OS we can manage desktop OS. Server Os is higher version of Desktop OS.
2.server OS gives centralised administration for users shared resources higher security. 
But Desktop OS gives local machine administration only.
3.Server OS is fully covered & managed security. For (ex) Domain Controller application server print
server etc. We make server with security. for Desktop OS Normal PC. We make low level security.

Installing Windows 7 - Step by step

Preparations
Backup

You may be installing Windows 7 on a machine that already has an operating

system installed. In that case, you will have to consider what to do with
existing data on the disk.

You may want to completely wipe the existing data and start clean. Or you
may want to incorporate Windows 7 into the existing setup, whether as a side-
by-side installation or an upgrade. Whatever you choose, please make sure
your files are safely backed up, so that you do not accidentally, irrecoverably
overwrite critical data during the installation.

Installation key

Please make sure you have the Windows 7 installation key available. Without
it, you will not be able to install the operating system.

Drivers for the computer hardware

There is no guarantee that Windows 7 built-in set of drivers will include your
specific hardware. Therefore, please make sure you have the right drivers
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available before you start the installation. The drivers usually come
on CD/DVDs supplied by the manufacturer with newly purchased hardware.
Alternatively, you may also download them from official vendor websites.

Having the drivers available will make sure that after you have installed
Windows 7, your system will perform to its fullest. If you meet the above three
requirements, we are ready to go.

Boot from Windows 7 DVD

The first step is to place your Windows 7 DVD into the DVD tray and boot the
machine. Your computer needs to be configured to boot from DVD. This is
done via BIOS. On most computers, the BIOS menu can be accessed by
pressing either the F2 or Del keys while the machine is booting.

Once you have completed this stage, Windows 7 will start loading. If you see
the below image, you're doing well so far.

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After a few moments, you will reach the installation menu. Your first step is to
choose the language and the keyboard.

You will be now taken to the Install now menu. We have already prepared for
the installation, so you can click Install now and proceed.

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The next step is to accept the license agreement.

After this, you will have to decide whether you want to Upgrade an existing
installation or perform a Custom (advanced) installation, which is basically
creating a new copy of Windows.

We will discuss multiple boots in a separate tutorial. For now, if you are
interested, you may want to explore a Dual boot tutorial that tackles this issue
from the Linux side, with a Linux distribution being installed alongside
Windows XP. In the soon-to-come multiple-boot tutorial, I will address the
installation of Windows 7 alongside other Windows (XP and 7), as well as
Linux.

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Fresh installations are always better. Your machine starts in a pristine state
and does not rely on old leftovers.

Partitioning
The next step is to choose where you want to install Windows 7. This is
probably the most important part of the entire installation, so you need to be
very careful here and make the right choices.

We only have a 20GB unallocated space on our disk, so we have no dilemma.

However, it is possible that you may have other partitions from previous
installations present, or you may have created a custom partitioning setup
before starting Windows 7 installation using a third-party partitioning software,
like GParted. We will soon this discuss in greater detail. For now, let us create
our Windows 7 partitions.
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Inexperienced users can simply highlight the unallocated space and click Next.
The partitioning layout will be created for them. However, we want to explore
additional features. To this end, we need to expand the Drive options
(advanced).

You now have the option to create new partitions, format them with a desired
filesystem, change the size of existing or newly created partition (Extend), or
delete them. The Load Driver function is usually necessary if you want to
create more complex setups like RAID, but this is currently beyond the scope
of this tutorial.

We will create a new partition. According to official system requirements,

Windows 7 needs 16GB of free space. However, you can do with less. The
minimum recommended space for a partition where you want to place
Windows 7 is 10350MB. Eventually, the installation itself will take approx.
7GB.

Just for your information, here's a snippet of what would happen if you try to
install Windows 7 on a partition that does not meet the minimum expected
size limit:

This does not mean your installation won't succeed. It might, but why risk it?
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We will create a 14GB partition:

Windows 7 installer will now tell you that it will have to create an additional
partition for the core system files. This will be a small primary partition ahead
of your newly created one.

This is what it looks like:

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Important technical bits to pay attention to!

We now have a system partition and a primary partition, plus some free space.
In purely technical terms, there is no such thing as a partition of the type
system. There are only two types of partitions: primary and logical. The
above-mentioned partition is a primary partition.

In total, there can only be up to four primary partitions on any physical disk.
Windows 7, by itself, creates and uses at least two primary partitions. If we
created another partition in the free space, it would too, become a primary
partition.

Some quick math, this means that if we want to have more than two Windows
7 installations side by side, we don't have enough partitions available.

Recommendation:

Use a third-party partitioning tool to create a partition layout beforehand. This

will allow you to place Windows 7 files on a logical partition, saving yourself
the precious commodity of wasting primary partitions on what is essentially
non-system data. We will see this example in a separate tutorial.

If you're using ONLY Windows 7 to create a partition layout on your system,

then you should just create a partition with a sufficient size to hold the
Windows 7 data files and nothing else. The system partition will be added.
Leave the handling of any unpartitioned, free space after the installation.

Begin installation

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If you're comfortable with your setup, highlight the created partition and click
Next. Windows 7 will be installed to this partition. Depending on your
hardware, this can take some time. My testing shows approx. 30-40 minutes.

During the installation, your computer may restart several times. Let it be.

User settings
Eventually, you will be asked to provide your username and a computer name.
You will also have to password-protect your account. This is most advisable.
You should opt for a strong password.

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Activation
The next step is to activate your Windows. Grab your key and type it here.

Updates
You will be asked to configure your updates. You can choose either setting you
like. However, I recommend you configure this choice later, after Windows 7 is
installed and running properly.

We will discuss this separately in the Windows 7 security tutorial. Therefore, I

will chooseAsk me later, but you may want to go for either the first or the
second option, as you see fit.

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Time zone
Configure your time zone:

Location
Your location will determine the firewall settings for your newly installed
Windows 7. You have three choices: home, work or public network. Home and
work networks are supposed to be trusted, so you should not experience any
problems adding other machines to your group or sharing data with them.

However, the public network is meant to be untrusted. So if you have installed

Windows 7 in, let's say, Internet cafe, then you should choose the third option.

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Congratulations!
Congratulations, you have just successfully installed Windows 7.

Conclusion

Installing Windows 7 is not that difficult. The installation is more streamlined

and user-friendly compared to Windows XP, however some of the options are
more restrictive, like the partitioning, for example.

Overall, it's a simple procedure that should take you no more than an hour to
complete. Of course, once the installation is done, there's the long post-install
setup, where you should customize the looks of your new desktop, determine
the security settings, and choose the programs you want to install and use.

By Faizan Ali