Preprint typeset in JHEP style - HYPER VERSION

Classical Mechanics III

Ashoke Sen
Harish-Chandra Research Institute Chhatnag Road,
Jhusi, Allahabad 211019, India
padakshep@gmail.com

Abstract: This note is based on a handwritten note by Prof Sen. This note is typed by
Sampath Mukherjee and Arnab Rudra under Padakshep Open Teaching Project. Padakshep
is an NGO which is working to in education sector in West Bengal, India. Padakshep Open
Teaching Project is an initiative to provide free education for all. More information can be found
at www.padakshep.org
Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

Contents

1. Dynamics of Rigid Body Motion 1

1. Dynamics of Rigid Body Motion

−→A Collection of p points with fixed distance from each other (p −→ ∞)

How many coordinates do we need? Six(6)
Take a fixed point on the Rigid body, and have three axes fixed on the body passing through
the fixed point.
If the point O and the orientation of the three axes are known, then the coordinates of every
other point of the body is known.
Take a space fixed coordinate system.
⃗ & ⃗n1 , ⃗n2 , ⃗n3 completely spacifies the rigid body.
R

3 + 9 = 12 Coordinates (1.1)
Not all Independent

⃗n1 .⃗n2 = 0, ⃗n2 .⃗n3 = 0, ⃗n3 .⃗n1 = 0, ⃗n21 = 1, ⃗n22 = 1, ⃗n23 = 1 (1.2)
=⇒ 6 Constraints

⃗n1 = (nx1 , ny1 , nz1 ) , ⃗n2 = (nx2 , ny2 , nz2 ) , ⃗n3 = (nx3 , ny3 , nz3 ) (1.3)

 
nx1 nx2 nx3
 
S =  ny1 ny2 ny3  ⇐⇒ S T S = 1, the constraints on ⃗n1 , ⃗n2 , ⃗n3 (1.4)
nz1 nz2 nz3

Independent Coordinates R, ⃗ S, S T S = 1
Interpretation of S :
Suppose a point on the rigid body has coordinate ρ⃗ = (ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 ) in the body fixed system.
Then the coordinate of the point in the space fixed system is ,

⃗
⃗r = (ρ1⃗n1 + ρ2⃗n2 + ρ3⃗n3 ) + R (1.5)

     
rx Rx ρ1 nx1 + ρ2 nx2 + ρ3 nx3
     
=⇒  ry  =  Ry  +  ρ1 ny1 + ρ2 ny2 + ρ3 ny3  (1.6)
rz Rz ρ1 nz1 + ρ2 nz2 + ρ3 nz3

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

   
Rx ρ1
 y  
=  R  + S  ρ2  (1.7)
Rz ρ3

⃗ + S⃗
=⇒ ⃗r = R ρ (1.8)

Kinetic term of the Rigid body : Regard it as a collection of p points at fixed coordinates
ρ
⃗(1) ......ρ⃗(p) in the body fixed system and masses m(1) .....m(p)

⃗ + S⃗
⃗ra = R ρ(a) 1≤a≤p (1.9)

1∑
p
T = m(a)⃗r˙a2 (1.10)
2
a=1

1∑
p ( )2
= m(a) R⃗˙ + Ṡ⃗
ρa (1.11)
2
a=1

1∑ (p )( )
= m(a) Ṙi + Ṡij ρ(a)j Ṙi + Ṡik ρ(a)k 1 ≤ i, jk ≤ 3 (1.12)
2
a=1

1∑
p ( )
m(a) Ṙi Ṙi + Ṙi Ṡik ρ(a)k + Ṙi Ṡij ρ(a)j + Ṡij Ṡik ρ(a)k ρ(a)j (1.13)
2
a=1

1 ⃗˙ 2 ∑p
1 ∑ ∑
M R + Ṙi Ṡik m(a) ρ(a)k + Ṡij Ṡik m(a) ρ(a) ρ(a) where m(a) ρ(a) ρ(a) = Kjk (1.14)
2 2 a a
a=1

Consider two cases:

1.The rigid body is not subjected to any other constraint.
Take the origin to be the cntre of mass.

∑
p
m(a) ρ(a)k = 0 (1.15)
a=1

1 ⃗˙ 2 1
T = MR + Ṡij Ṡik Kjk (1.16)
2 2
T
dSki
dSij
where Ṡij Ṡik Kjk = dt Kjk dt
( )
1 ⃗˙ 2 1 dS dS T
=⇒ T = M R + Tr K (1.17)
2 2 dt dt
2.The rigid body is fixed at a given point.Take the origin to be that point.

⃗
dR
=⇒ =0 (1.18)
dt

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

1
=⇒ T = Ṡij Ṡik Kjk (1.19)
2
( )
1 dS dS T
= Tr K (1.20)
2 dt dt
⃗ and S decouples.
The kinetic term involving R
We shall analyze the symmetries of the terms involving S.
Kinetic terms of the Rigid Body
I. No Constraint :
( )
1 ⃗˙ 2 1 dS dS T
=⇒ T = M R + Tr K (1.21)
2 2 dt dt
⃗ Centre of mass coordinate.
R:
S : An orthogonal matrix (parametrized by 3 numbers)
∑
Kij = m(a) ρ(a)i ρ(b)j (1.22)
a

−→ d3 ρD(⃗
ρ)ρi ρj ρ) −→ Density at the point ρ
where D(⃗ ⃗
ρ
⃗: measured in a body fixed coordinate system with origin at the centre of mass.
II. One point O fixed
( )
1 dS dS T
T = Tr K (1.23)
2 dt dt
K : same expression.
ρ
⃗: measured in a body fixed coordinate with origin at O.
Relationship with inertia matrix :
∑ ( ) ∑
Iij ≡ m(a) ρ⃗2(a) δij − ρ(a)i ρ(a)j , K = m(a) ρ(a)i ρ(a)j (1.24)
a a
∑
T rK = ⃗2(a)
ma ρ (1.25)
a

=⇒ I = T r(K)1 − K (1.26)

T r(I) = 3T rK − T rK = 2T rK (1.27)

1
⇒ T r(K) = T r(I) (1.28)
2
1
=⇒ K = T r(I)1 − I (1.29)
2
Knowledge of K =⇒I and vice versa.

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

( ) ( )
dS T T dθ i dθj
K : symmetry matrix. T = 12 T r dS
dt K dt = 21 T r ∂S
∂θ i
K ∂S
∂θj dt dt

K = W Kd W T , W −→ f ixed orthogonal matrix (1.30)

( )
1 dS dS T
T = Tr W Kd W T (1.31)
2 dt dt

SW ≡ S̃ (1.32)

( )
1 dSe dSeT
T = Tr Kd (1.33)
2 dt dt
Interpretation :
 
nx1 nx2 nx3 ( )
 
S =  ny1 ny2 ny3  ≡ ⃗n1 ⃗n2 ⃗n3 (1.34)
nz1 nz2 nz3
( )
S̃ ≡ SW ⃗n e1 ⃗n
e2 ⃗n
e3 (1.35)

   
e1
⃗n ⃗n1
e  T  
 ⃗n2  = W  ⃗n2  (1.36)
e3
⃗n ⃗n3

e1 = W11⃗n1 + W21⃗n2 + W31⃗n3

⃗n (1.37)

e2 = W12⃗n1 + W22⃗n2 + W32⃗n3

⃗n (1.38)

e3 = W13⃗n1 + W23⃗n2 + W33⃗n3

⃗n (1.39)
=⇒Rearrangement of the vectors ⃗n1 , ⃗n2 , & ⃗n3
=⇒Realigning the body fixed axes, so that if we calculate K in the new frame it becomes
diagonal.
W is a fixed matrix.
( )
1 dSe dSeT
T = Tr Kd (1.40)
2 dt dt
Symmetries
1.
S̃ −→ U S̃ UT U = 1 (1.41)

( )
1 dSe dSeT T
T −→ T r Ũ Kd Ũ (1.42)
2 dt dt

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

( )
1 dSe dSeT T
= Tr Kd Ũ Ũ (1.43)
2 dt dt
( )
1 dSe dSeT
= Tr Kd (1.44)
2 dt dt
=⇒A Symmetry
Infinitesimal version :

∑
3
U =I+ ϵT a −→ Antisymmetric matrices (1.45)
a=1

Corresponding conserved quantities, Lx , Ly , Lz −→Angular Momentum.

Note: We have not taken into account the potential energy. These symmetries may be
destroyed by V .
Physical interpretation

˜ 1⃗n
S̃ = (⃗n ˜ 2⃗n
˜3) (1.46)

˜ 1⃗n
S̃ −→ U S̃ = U (⃗n ˜ 2⃗n
˜ 3 ) = (U ⃗n
˜ 1 U ⃗n
˜ 2 U ⃗n
˜3) (1.47)
=⇒Overall rotation of the body(active), or equivalently the space-fixed frame(passive).The
axis of rotation and the amount of rotation is fixed when viewed from the space fixed axis.
=⇒Corresponding conserved quantities can be identified with angular momenta.

S̃ −→ S̃V V TV = I (1.48)

T
1 dS̃ dS̃
T −→ T r( V Kd V T ) (1.49)
2 dt dt
=⇒is a symmetry only if

V K d V T = Kd (1.50)

=⇒ V Kd = Kd V (1.51)
Infinitesimal transformation :
 
0 η3 η2
 
V = I +  −η3 0 η1  (1.52)
η2 −η1 0
 
λ1
 
Kd =  λ2  (1.53)
λ3

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

 
0 (λ1 − λ2 ) η3 − (λ3 − λ1 ) η2
 
Kd V − V Kd =  − (λ2 − λ1 ) η3 0 (λ2 − λ3 ) η1  (1.54)
(λ3 − λ1 ) η2 − (λ3 − λ2 ) η1 0

=⇒ (λ1 − λ2 ) η3 = 0 (1.55)

=⇒ (λ1 − λ3 ) η2 = 0 (1.56)

=⇒ (λ2 − λ3 ) η1 = 0 (1.57)
If λ1 , λ2 , λ3 are all different, then η1 = η2 = η3 = 0
=⇒No infinitesimal Symmetry.
If λ1 = λ2 ̸= λ3 then η1 = η2 = 0, η3 ̸= 0=⇒One parameter group of Symmetries.
If λ1 = λ2 = λ3 then η1 η2 , η3 ̸= 0=⇒Three parameter group of Symmetries.
Physical Interpretation
Consider symmetry generated by η3 :
 
0 η 0
 
V = I +  −η 0 0  (1.58)
0 00

S̃ ≡ (⃗ñ1⃗ñ2⃗ñ3 ) −→ (⃗ñ1⃗ñ2⃗ñ3 )V (1.59)

= (⃗ñ1 − η⃗ñ2 ⃗ñ2 − η⃗ñ1 ⃗ñ3 ) (1.60)

=⇒Rotation of the body fixed frame by ϵareound ⃗ñ3 axis
Transformations generated by a general V =⇒Rotation of the body fixed framearound an
arbitrary axis −→a fixed linear combinations of ⃗ñ1⃗ñ2 &⃗ñ3 & a fixed amount.
=⇒The axis of rotation is fixed in the body.−→A new choice of the body fixed frame.
Generically it is not a symmetry=⇒reflected in the fact that for arbitrary Kd this is not a
symmetry.
But this might be a symmetry for special kind of Kd e.g. abody with a Cylindrical symmetry.
λ1 = λ2 by symmetry
If instead of choosing frame 123we choose the frame 1′ 2′ 3′ we shall get the same from the
equations of motion.
Spherically symmetric object:

λ1 = λ2 = λ3 (1.61)
Any orthogonal choice of 1′ 2′ and3′ axis of the body fixed axis will give the same equations
of motion.
=⇒3 parameter group of transformation.
The transformations generated by U and V commutes.

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

S −→ U S −→ U SV (1.62)

S −→ SV −→ U SV (1.63)

=⇒Conserved charges associated with U symmetry have vanishing Poission Bracket with
those associated with V symmetry.
Kinetic Energy of a Rigid(Body )
S̃ T
Relevent Term :T = 21 T r ddtS̃ Kd ddt , S̃ T S̃ =
Symmetries:

Se −→ U Se −→ U T U = 1 (1.64)

Se −→ SV
e −→ V T V = 1, V K d = Kd V (1.65)

−→We can get non-trivial infinitesimal V only if two or more eigenvalues of K are equal.
Expression for the corresponding conserved quantities:
If δq i = ϵϕi (⃗q) =⇒ δL = 0
Conserved charge

∂L i
Q= ϕ (⃗q) (1.66)
∂q i
∂L
−→Insensitive to the potential energy term.
∂q i
=⇒Expression for Q can be found without knowing what the potential energy term is
although the presence of the potential energy term may destroy the conservation laws.
Some Definitions:

dS̃ dS̃ T
Ω ≡ S̃ −1 + S̃ (1.67)
dt dt

d T d
= (S̃ S̃) = (1) = 0 (1.68)
dt dt
 
0 ω3 −ω2
 
=⇒ Ω =  −ω3 0 ω1  (1.69)
ω2 −ω1 0
Suppose the body is rotating about an axis OA passing through O and fixed in space.In the
body fixed frame OA has direction cosines α1 α2 α3
i.e.
⃗ = α1⃗ñ1 + α2⃗ñ2 + α3⃗ñ3
α (1.70)

⃗ −→Unit vector along OA .

α
At that instant of time ,the axis of rotation in the space fixed frame is

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

   
α1 β1
   
S̃  α2  =  β2  (say) (1.71)
α3 β3
Since OA is fixed in space,  
β1
d  
 β2  = 0 (1.72)
dt
β3

But since the body is rotating about OA, the angle between OA and 1̃2̃3̃ axes does not
change  
α1
d  
=⇒  α2  = 0 (1.73)
dt
α3
   
α1 β1
dS̃   d  
=⇒  2
α =  β2  = 0 (1.74)
dt dt
α3 β3
 
α1
−1 dS̃  
=⇒ S̃  α2  = 0 (1.75)
dt
α3

dS̃
S̃ −1 −→ Ω (1.76)
dt

ω1 α2 − ω2 α1 = 0 (1.77)

ω1 α3 − ω3 α1 = 0 (1.78)

ω2 α3 − ω3 α2 = 0 (1.79)

⃗ ×α
=⇒ ω ⃗ =0 ⃗ ∥α
=⇒ ω ⃗ (1.80)
=⇒Direction of ω⃗ coincides with the direction of the axis of rotation in the body fixed frame.
In general the direction of motion is not fixed.
=⇒Direction of ω ⃗ (t)=⇒ Direction of the instantaneous axis of rotation in the body fixed
frame.
Interpretation of the magnitude of ω ⃗:
Consider a point ρ̃ ≡ (ρ̃1 , ρ̃2 , ρ̃3 ) fixed in the body coordinate in the space fixed frame.
⃗

⃗r = R ⃗˜ ⃗r = ρ̃1⃗ñ1 + ρ̃2⃗ñ2 + ρ̃3⃗ñ3

⃗ + S̃ ρ (1.81)
⃗ fixed
Ris

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

   
ρ̃1 ρ̃1
d⃗r dS̃    
=⇒ =  ρ̃2  = S̃Ω  ρ̃2  (1.82)
dt dt
ρ̃3 ρ̃3

dri
ui = = S̃ij Ωjk ρ̃k (1.83)
dt

⃗v 2 = S̃ij Ωjk ρ̃k S̃im Ωmn ρ̃n (1.84)

= ρ̃T ΩT S̃ T S ∗ Ωρ̃ (1.85)

= ρ̃T ΩT Ωρ̃ (1.86)

⃗×ω
=| ρ̃ ⃗ |2 (1.87)

⃗×ω
=⇒ ⃗v =| ρ̃ ⃗ |=| ρ̃
⃗ || ω
⃗ | sinθ (1.88)
=⇒| ω ⃗ | is also the magnitude of the angular velocity.
=⇒ω1 , ω2 , ω3 are the components of the instantaneous angular velocity along 1, 2,and 3
directions.
Knowledge of ω ⃗ (t) i.e Ω(t)−→Captures the qualitative features of the motion of the top.
Conserved Quantities
θ1 , θ2 , θ3 : Coordinates say.
Suppose δθi = ϵf i (θ) ⃗

∂ S̃ ∂ S̃ ⃗ ∂ S̃ T i
δ S̃ ≡ δθi = ϵ fi (θ) ≡ εΦ =⇒ δ S̃ T = δθ = ϵΦ (1.89)
∂θi ∂θi ∂θi

where Φ + ΦT = 0 (1.90)

( )
1 dSe dSeT
T = Tr Kd (1.91)
2 dt dt
( )
1 dSe dθk dSeT dθj
=⇒ T = T r Kd (1.92)
2 dθk dt dθj dt

( ) ( )
∂T 1 dSe eT
⃗ d dS dθj 1 dSe dθk dSeT
Q= δθi = T r fk (θ)K + Tr Kd fj (θ) (1.93)
∂ θ̇i 2 dθk dθj dt 2 dθk dt dθj
( )
1 dSeT dSe T
= T r ΦKd + Kd Φ (1.94)
2 dt dt

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

eT eT
Transpose of ΦKd ddt
S
= dS
dt Kd ΦT
( ) ( )
dSeT ( )
−1 dS̃
=⇒ Q = T r Kd ΦT = T r S̃ T
Kd Φ S̃ = T r ΩKd ΦT S̃ (1.95)
dt dt

S̃ −→ U S̃ (T a )ij = ϵaij

U = (1 + ϵa T a ) (1.96)

=⇒ δ S̃ = ϵa T a S̃ = ϵa Φa (1.97)

ϵa are independent =⇒ For each a there is a conserved charge.

Φa = T a S̃ (1.98)

( )
=⇒ Qa = T r ΩKd S̃ T (T a )T S̃ (1.99)

( )
= −T r ΩKd S̃ −1 (T a ) S̃ (1.100)

=⇒Three Components of angular momenta.

S̃ −→ S̃V

V = (1 + η a T a ) (1.101)

a
=⇒ δ S̃ = η a S̃T a ≡ η a Φ (1.102)

Conserved Charges:
( ) ( )
Qa = T r ΩKd (T a )T S̃ = T r ΩKd (T a )T S̃ T S̃ (1.103)

= −T r (ΩKd T a ) (1.104)

A free asymmetric Rigid body

( )
1 ⃗˙ 2 1 dSe dSeT
T = MR + Tr Kd (1.105)
2 2 dt dt

⃗˙ = 0
Use Centre of Mass Frame R
( )
1 dSe dSeT
=⇒ T = T r Kd (1.106)
2 dt dt

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Symmetries: S̃ −→ U S̃
=⇒Conserved charges
( ) dS̃
Qa = −T r ΩKd S̃ −1 (T a ) S̃ Ω ≡ S̃ −1 (1.107)
dt
Time translation:

S̃ −→ S̃ + ϵ∂t S̃ (1.108)
Conserved Charge : H = T

{H, Qa } = 0 (1.109)
But { }
Qa , Qb ̸= 0 (1.110)
since the corresponding infinitesimal transformation do not commute.
{ }
In fact we can find out Qa , Qb from the commutator of the corresponding transformations.
{ } { } { }
S̃ + ϵa S̃, Qa = (1 + ϵa T a ) S̃ where S̃, Qa = S̃ij , Qa (1.111)
ij

{ }
=⇒ S̃, Qa = T a S̃ (T a )ij = ϵaij , ϵ123 = 1 (1.112)

{{ } } { }
S̃, Qa , Qb = T a S̃, Qb = T a T b S̃ (1.113)

{{ } } {{ } } ( )
S̃, Qa , Qb − S̃, Qb , Qa = T a T b − T b T a S̃ = −ϵabc T c S̃ (1.114)

{{ } } { }
=⇒ − Qa , Qb , S̃ = −ϵabc S̃, Qc (1.115)

{ } ( )
=⇒ Qa , Qb = −ϵabc Qc + fab θ⃗ (1.116)
Qa : Contains 1 time derivative =⇒Linear in momenta.
{ , } removes one power of momenta.

⃗ =0
=⇒ f (θ) (1.117)
Consider the quantity :
∑
Q= Qa Qb (1.118)
a
{ } ∑{ }
Q, Qb = Qa Qa , Qb (1.119)
a

{AB, C} = {A, C} B + A {B, C} (1.120)

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it follows from definition o f Poission Bracket .

{ } ∑{ }
Q, Qb = −2 Qa , Qb Qa (1.121)
a
∑
= −2 ϵabc Qc Qa = 0 (1.122)
a
=⇒We can take the 3 conserved quantities to be ,

H, Q, Q3 (1.123)
−→Mutually vanishing Poission Bracket.
=⇒The System has 3 degrees of freedom.
=⇒it is integrable.
We do not need to completly integrate the equations of motion in order to study the Qual-
itative features of the motion.
Conserved quantities in terms of R
( )
1 dSe dSeT
H = Tr Kd (1.124)
2 dt dt
( )
1 d e dSeT
S
= T r S̃ −1 Kd S̃ (1.125)
2 dt dt
1 ( )
= T r ΩKd ΩT (1.126)
2
 
0 ω3 −ω2
 
Ω =  −ω3 0 ω1  (1.127)
ω2 −ω1 0
 
λ1
 
Kd =  λ2  (1.128)
λ3
1{ }
H= (λ1 + λ2 ) ω32 + (λ2 + λ3 ) ω12 + (λ1 + λ3 ) ω22 (1.129)
2

Id = (T rKα ) 1 − Kd (1.130)

   
100 λ1
   
= (λ1 + λ2 + λ3 )  0 1 0  −  λ2  (1.131)
001 λ3
   
λ2 + λ3 I1
   
= λ1 + λ3  =  I2  (1.132)
λ2 + λ1 I3

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1( )
H= I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32 (1.133)
2
( )
Q3 = −T r ΩKd S̃ −1 T 3 S̃ (1.134)

−→Involves Ω and S̃ both, not just Ω.

∑
Q= Qa Qa (1.135)
a
∑ ( ) ( )
= T r ΩKd S̃ T T a S̃ T r ΩKd S̃ T T a S̃ (1.136)
a
∑( ) ( )
= S̃ΩKd S̃ T Tjia S̃ΩKd S̃ T (T a )lk (1.137)
ij kl
a
∑ ∑
= Tjia Tlk
a
= ϵaji ϵalk (1.138)
a a

= δjl δik − δil δjk (1.139)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=⇒ Q = S̃ΩKd S̃ T S̃ΩKd S̃ T − S̃ΩKd S̃ T S̃ΩKd S̃ T (1.140)
ij ij ij ji

( ) ( )
= T r S̃ΩKd S̃ T S̃(−Ω)Kd S̃ T − T r S̃ΩKd S̃ T S̃ΩKd S̃ T (1.141)

( )
= −T r ΩKd2 Ω − T r (ΩKd ΩKd ) = I12 ω12 + I22 ω22 + I32 ω32 (1.142)
Thus we have
I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32 = C1 (1.143)

I12 ω12 + I22 ω22 + I32 ω32 = C2 (1.144)

Intersection of two ellipsoids−→a closed wire ω
⃗ lies on that closed curve.
If we want further information about hoe ω
⃗ evolves in time ,we need to look at the equations
of motion.
Free asymmetric Rigid body
( )
1 dSe dSeT
L = Tr Kd (1.145)
2 dt dt
Conserved quantities :

1( )
E= I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32 (1.146)
2
( )
Q = I12 ω12 + I22 ω22 + I32 ω32 (1.147)

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

Q3 : Function of ω ⃗ and S̃ −→not useful if we are interested just in studying the dynamics
of ω
⃗.
In the (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) space, the intersection of E = E0 , Q = Q0 defines a curve.
ω
⃗ lies on that curve during the motion of the rigid body.
In order to see how ω ⃗ evloves on that curve, we need to study the equations of motion.
Equation of motion :
Extrimise
( )
1 dSe dSeT
A = dt T r Kd (1.148)
2 dt dt

S̃ −→ S̃ + δ S̃ (1.149)

( )( )
S̃ T + δ S̃ T S̃ + δ S̃ = 1 (1.150)

=⇒ S̃ T δ S̃ + δ S̃ T S̃ = 0 (1.151)

  ( )   ( ) 
d δ e
S e T e d δ eT
S
1 dS  dS
δA = dt T r  Kd + T r  Kd  (1.152)
2 dt dt dt dt
[ ( ) ( )]
1 d2 S̃ T d2 S̃
= − dt T r δ S̃Kd 2 + Tr Kd δ S̃ T
(1.153)
2 dt dt2
( )
d2 S̃
= −dt T r Kd δ S̃ T (1.154)
dt2
( )
2
−1 d S̃
= −dt T r S̃ T
Kd δ S̃ S̃ (1.155)
dt2

LetS̃ −1 ddtS̃2 Kd = B
2

( )
= −dt Bij δ S̃ T S̃ (1.156)
ji

δ S̃ T S̃ not independent but constrained,i.e. antisymmetric

=⇒It is enough for antisymmetric part of B to vanish.

Bij − Bji = 0 (1.157)

d2 S̃ d2 S̃ T
=⇒ S̃ T K d − Kd =0 (1.158)
dt2 dt2

dS̃ dS̃
S̃ −1 = Ω =⇒ = S̃Ω (1.159)
dt dt

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

( )
T
d S̃Ω d ( T) T
=⇒ S̃ Kd + Kd ΩS̃ S̃ = 0 (1.160)
dt dt

dS̃ dΩ dΩ dS̃ T
=⇒ S̃ T ΩKd + Kd + Kd + Kd Ω S̃ = 0 (1.161)
dt dt dt dt

dΩ dΩ
=⇒ Ω2 Kd + Kd + Kd − K d Ω2 = 0 (1.162)
dt dt

dΩ dΩ
Kd + Kd = Kd Ω2 − Ω2 Kd (1.163)
dt dt
   
0 ω̇3 −ω̇2 λ1 0 0
dΩ    
=  −ω̇3 0 ω̇1  , Kd =  0 λ2 0  (1.164)
dt
ω̇2 −ω̇1 0 0 0 λ3

(λ1 + λ2 ) ω̇3 = (λ1 − λ2 ) ω1 ω2 (1.165)

(λ1 + λ3 ) ω̇2 = (λ3 − λ1 ) ω3 ω1 (1.166)

(λ2 + λ3 ) ω̇1 = (λ2 − λ3 ) ω2 ω3 (1.167)

I1 = λ2 + λ3 , I2 = λ1 + λ3 , I3 = λ1 + λ2 (1.168)

I3 ω̇3 = (I2 − I1 ) ω2 ω1 (1.169)

I2 ω̇2 = (I1 − I3 ) ω1 ω3 (1.170)

I1 ω̇1 = (I3 − I2 ) ω3 ω2 (1.171)

Example. Verify Conservation laaws of H and Q directly.
opposite of Goldstain=⇒⃗ω −→−⃗ ω is necessary to have notations compatible to that of Gold-
stain.
Treat this as a dynamical system of 3 variables ω1 , ω2 , ω3 since S has dissapeared.

1( )
E= I1 ω12 + I2 ω22 + I3 ω32 (1.172)
2
( )
Q = I12 ω12 + I22 ω22 + I32 ω32 (1.173)
Can find ω2 and ω3 as a function of ω1

=⇒ I1 ω̇1 = f (ω1 ) (1.174)

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

−→ Can be integrated.
Qualitative features :
(0)
Fixed points: ω2 , ω3 = 0 ω1 = ω1 ̸= 0
Permutations of 1, 2, 3
=⇒The body is spinning about the 1 axis with uniform angular velocity.
Stability: Coincides:

(0)
e 1 , ω2 = ω
ω1 = ω1 + ω e 2 , ω3 = ω
e3 (1.175)

(0)
I3 ω̃˙ 3 = (I2 − I1 ) ω1 ω̃2 (1.176)

(0)
I2 ˜˙ω2 = (I1 − I3 ) ω1 ω̃3 (1.177)

I1 ω̃˙ 1 = 0 (1.178)

  0 0 0
 
˙ω̃3 ω̃
˙    
(0) 3
(I1 −I3 )ω1
 ω̃3  = 

0 (
0 ) I2
  ω̃3 
 (1.179)
(0)
˙ω̃3 (I2 −I1 )ω1 ω̃3
0 I3 0
√
(0) (I1 − I3 ) (I2 − I1 )
λ = 0, ±ω1 (1.180)
I3
Case I :
I1 is in between I2 &I3
=⇒ Eigenvalues are real.
1Negative and 1 Positive.
=⇒Hyperbolic fixed point,unstable.
Slight disturbance will take the body away from the fixed point.
Case II:
I1 > I2 , I3 or I1 < I2 , I3
√
(0) (I1 − I3 ) (I2 − I1 )
λ= ±iω1 = ±iω0 (1.181)
I3
=⇒Elliptic fixed point −→Stable.
The axis of rotation spans a cone around the 1 axis.
Period :

2π 2π I3
= (0) √ (1.182)
ω0 ω1 (I1 − I3 ) (I2 − I1 )
Follows from:

ω̃1 = A cos (ω0 t + θ) (1.183)

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

ω̃2 = A′ sin (ω0 t + θ) (1.184)

Case III :
Two Eigenvalues equal

I2 = I3 =⇒ Case II (1.185)

I1 = I2 (1.186)

(I1 − I3 ) (0)
˜˙ω1 = 0, ˜˙ω2 = ω1 ω̃3 (1.187)
I2

(0) (I1 − I3 ) (0) (0)

ω̃˙ 3 = 0 =⇒ ω̃3 = ω̃3 =⇒ ω̃2 = ω1 ω̃3 ω̃ (1.188)
I2
Symmetrical rigid body under gravity, and fixed at a point on the axis of symmetry:
( )
1 dSe dSeT
T = Tr Kd (1.189)
2 dt dt
 
λ1
 
Take Kd =  λ1 
λ3
∑
V = m(a) gz(a) (1.190)
a
where Z component of the point a in space fixed coordinate.

⃗ + S̃⃗
⃗r = R ρ (1.191)

=⇒ z = S̃3i ρ(a)i + z (1.192)

∑ ( )
=⇒ V = m(a) g z + S̃3i ρ(a)i (1.193)
a
∑ ∑
= M gz + g S̃3i m(a) ρ(a)i where ⃗(0)
m(a) ρ(a) = M ρ (1.194)
a a

⃗(0) :Coordinate of the centre of mass in the body fixed system.

ρ
=⇒Directed along the 3 axis (by symmetry).

=⇒ V = M g S̃3i ρ(0) δi3 = M gρ(0) S̃33 (1.195)

( )
1 dSe dSeT
L = Tr Kd − Mg ρ(0) S̃33 (1.196)
2 dt dt

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

Symmetries
S̃ −→ S̃V , V T V = 1, [V, Kd ] = 0

=⇒ V = 1 + ηT 3 (1.197)
Is the P.F. invarient?
( ) ( )
S̃33 −→ S̃V = S̃33 + η S̃T3 (1.198)
33 33

= S̃33 + ηS3i (T3 )i3 (1.199)

 
0 10
 
T3 =  −1 0 0  =⇒ (T3 )i3 = 0 (1.200)
0 00

=⇒ S̃33 −→ S̃33 =⇒ P.E. remains invarient.

=⇒Conserved charge Q̄3
S̃ −→ U S̃ U T U = 1

U = 1 + ϵa T a (1.201)

( )
=⇒ S̃33 −→ (1 + ϵa T a ) S̃ (1.202)
33

= S̃33 + ϵa (T a )3i S̃i3 (1.203)

       
0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 10 0 ϵ3 −ϵ2
       
ϵa T a = ϵ1  0 0 1  + ϵ2  0 0 0  + ϵ3  −1 0 0  =  −ϵ3 0 ϵ1  (1.204)
0 −1 0 10 0 0 00 ϵ2 −ϵ1 0

ϵa (T a )3i = 0 (1.205)
=⇒3rd row must vanish.

=⇒ ϵ1 = ϵ2 = 0 (1.206)

U = 1 + ϵ3 T 3 (1.207)
=⇒ Conservedcharge Q3
=⇒Three conserved charges :

Q3 , Q̄3 , H (1.208)
=⇒The system is integrable.

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

Choice of Coordinates :
Action Angle Variables :

p̃α , q̃ α (1.209)
p̃α generates symmetry transformations :

δ p̃β = 0, δ q̃ β = ϵδαβ (1.210)

If we can choose coordinates such that under a specific symmetry transformations

δq α = ϵ f or α = α0 (1.211)

= 0 otherwise (1.212)
Then q α automatically becomes one of the angle variables.
Lagrangian Invarient under q α0 −→ q α0 + ϵ
Then q α −→ Cyclic Coordinates.
( )
d ∂L ∂L
= =0 (1.213)
dt ∂ q̇ α0 ∂q α0
=⇒pα0 is conserved.
Thus presence of cyclic coordinates simplify the analysis of the problem.
How do we choose coordinates such that some of them are already cyclic?

S̃ −→ U S̃V (1.214)
V, U −→ Rotation about 2
 
cos θ sin θ 0
 
R3 (θ) ≡  − sin θ cos θ 0  (1.215)
0 0 1
 
1 0 0
 
R1 (θ) =  0 cos θ sin θ  (1.216)
0 − sin cos θ
 
cos θ 0 − sin θ
 
R1 (θ) =  0 0  (1.217)
sin θ 0 cos θ
For θ small

Ra (θ) = 1 + θT a (1.218)

Ra (θ)Ra (ϕ) = Ra (θ + ϕ) (1.219)

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Classical Mechanics III: Ashoke Sen Padakshep Open Teaching Project

S̃ −→ R3 (ϵ)S̃R3 (η) (1.220)

Can be expressed as a product

Ri (θ1 )Rj (θ2 )Rk (θ3 ) i ̸= j, j ̸= k.

How do we choose i,j?
We want simple transformation Laws for θi

S̃ = R3 (ϕ)R1 (θ)R2 (ψ) (1.221)

S̃ −→ U S̃V

= R3 (ϕ + ϵ)R1 (θ)R2 (ψ + η) (1.222)

=⇒ ϕ −→ ϕ + ϵ, ψ −→ ψ + η, θ −→ θ (1.223)
=⇒ϕ and ψ becomes cyclic coordinates.
This the way we shall choose our coordinates system.
Physical interpretation of (θ, ϕ)  
0
 
The direction cosines in the body fixed frame: 0 
1
=⇒Direction cosines of the symmetry axis in the space fixed frame
 
0
 
R3 (ϕ)R1 (θ)R2 (ψ)  0  (1.224)
1
  
1 0 0 0
  
= R3 (ϕ)  0 cos θ sin θ   0  (1.225)
0 − sin cos θ 1
    
cos ϕ sin ϕ 0 0 sin ϕ sin θ
    
=  − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0   sin θ  =  cos ϕ sin θ  (1.226)
0 0 1 cos θ cos θ
=⇒ (θ, ϕ) are the polar and azimuthal angles of the symmetry axis in the space fixed frame.

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