Literary Figures of Speech

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Literary Figures of Speech

1. Irony

Irony is a statement, action, or situation that is the opposite of what it normally means or
what is expected. There are three types in irony

Verbal irony

Mean say the opposite of what is meant

Situational irony

Mean something happens that is the opposite of what is expected

Dramatic irony

The reader knows something a character doesn’t know

Example

In the short story the savage there was a verbal irony when the old lady insults the
gentleman who helps her.

In the short story open it there was a Situation irony when the volunteer find Sakina but
then she was found at the train station unconscious.

In the short story a pair of jeans there was a situation irony when they break the
engagement.

2. Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a Greek word meaning "excess that uses extreme exaggeration to make a

point or show emphasis. It is the opposite of understatement.

Example

I am so hungry I could eat a horse.

I have a million things to do today.
He's as skinny as a toothpick.

3. Euphemism
A euphemism is a polite expression used in place of words or phrases that might otherwise be
considered harsh or unpleasant. These phrases are used regularly, and there are many
examples of euphemisms in everyday language.
Example
 Passed away instead of died.
 Dearly departed instead of died.
 Ethnic cleansing instead of genocide.
 Negative patient outcome instead of died.

4. Alliteration
Alliteration is used to show the repetition of consonant sound.

Example

In poem Kalyan-I
thyself in praise prostrate
Why would you then obeisance make
Srecret of love's sorrow must be
by poison sweet, drink more and more;
If you a draught desire
Thy head do sever, and that head
care and concern has none;

In poem Briefing Bulleh

Every female from near and afar
When I put the petty ones in their place

In poem Sachal’s poetry

rip the veil from you face.
Neither did l roll rosary, nor did I ponder and pray,
You by yourself, know what is in your form!
We are, what are we?
We know not, what we are!
Now we declare ‘we don’t exist’

5. Metaphor
Metaphor is used to show comparison of tow unlike thing not using the words like or as.
Example
In robot frost poem birches
Shattering and avalanching on the snow crust—
Such heaps of broken glass to sweep away

In Emily Dickson poem Success is counted sweetest

To comprehend a nectar
Requires sorest need.
In Emily Dickson poem This is my letter to the World
The simple news that Nature told,
With tender majesty.

In Ezra pound poetry Portrait d’une Femme

Your mind and you are our Sargasso Sea

6. Simile
Simile is used to show a comparison of two unlike thing using the words like or as.
Example
In poem Kalyan-I by Shah Abdul Latif
Accepts Mohammad as 'guide'
In poem Sachal’s poetry by Sachal Sarmast
Sachal regarded love as the path to spirituality:
In poem Mending Wall in Robert frost
In each hand, like an old-stone savage armed

7. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is used to show those words that mimic the sounds they describe.

Example

Machine noises—honk, beep, vroom, clang, zap, boing.

Animal names—cuckoo, whip-poor-will, whooping crane, chickadee.
Impact sounds—boom, crash, whack, thump, bang.
Sounds of the voice—shush, giggle, growl, whine, murmur, blurt, 

8. Oxymoron
An oxymoron occurs when two contradictory words are together in one phrase. In fact,
oxymoron translates from the Greek words oxy meaning sharp, and moron, which means
dull. Thus, the word itself is two contradictory words pushed together
Example

'sweet sorrow

Only choice

Same difference

Friendly fire
9. Personification
Personification is when an animal o object is given human qualities.

Example

Justice is blind.
Her heart skipped a beat.
The sun smiled down on them.

10. Synecdoche ?
Synecdoche a word or phrase that refers to a part of something is substituted to stand in for
the whole, or vice versa.

Example

Boots on the ground—refers to soldiers.

New wheels—refers to a new car.
Ask for her hand—refers to asking a woman to marry.

11. Understatement ?
 Understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally
make a situation seem less important than it really is.
Example

 Deserts are sometimes hot, dry, and sandy.” – Describing deserts of the world.
 “He is not too thin.” – Describing an obese person.
 “It rained a bit more than usual.” – Describing an area being flooded by heavy rainfall.

12. Pun ?
A pun is a joke based on the interplay of homophones — words with the same
pronunciation but different meanings. It can also play with words that sound similar, but
not exactly the same. The joke’s humor (if any) comes from the confusion of the two
meanings.
Examples
 The tallest building in town is the library- it has thousands of stories!
A pun on the difference between stories in books and stories (floors) in a building.
 I can’t remember which state my wife wanted to visit for our next vacation- it’s ok Alaska.
Read the joke out loud;”Alaska” sound like “I’ll ask her”.
 Why do amphibians take the bus? Because their casa are always getting toad.
“Toad” vs. “towed”
13. Stereotype
Stereotyping is assuming that “they’re all alike.” It’s looking at a whole group of people
and assuming that they all share certain qualities. Any time you grouping races or
individuals together and make a judgment about them without knowing them.
Example

Gender Profiling
Men are strong and do all the work.
Cultures
All people who live in England have bad teeth.

14. Rhetoric ?
Rhetoric is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written
form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince,
influence, or please an audience.
Example

 Now the trumpet summons us again — not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need;
not as a call to battle, though embattled we are — but a call to bear the burden of a long
twilight struggle, year in and year out, “rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation” — a
struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself.” –
John F. Kennedy, Inauguration speech
 “Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. And so even
though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream
deeply rooted in the American dream.”—Martin Luther King, Jr., I Have a Dream speech

15. Sarcasm
Sarcasm is a literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock, often with satirical or
ironic remarks, with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone, or some section of society,
simultaneously
Example

 Mending Walls (By Robert Frost)

“Good fences make good neighbors.”

This line points out, in a sarcastic way, two neighbors who have made a wall between them.
However, this wall falls apart every winter, therefore the neighbors meet and mend it, hence
spending more time together in this way.
  Road not taken (By Robert Frost)

“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I,

I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference.”

The poet is talking about two roads, one is not traveled often by people, and the other one is
chosen by the majority of people. He had taken the less-traveled road. Frost uses a sarcastic
remark, that he feels regret for having chosen this path or road which made a difference.

16. Satire
Satire is a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an
individual or a society, by using humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule. A writer in a satire
uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption.
Example
 In the rape of the lock written by Alexander pop satire his society upper class and their
marriage.
 The famous comic strip Calvin & Hobbes was renowned for its satire. The comic takes
on everything from politics and science to parenting. Calvin himself satirizes selfish,
lazy, media-saturated Americans, while his father satirizes the opposite extreme.

17. Soliliquy

A soliloquy is a speech that a character makes in a work of drama only to him or herself. The
soliloquy is presented for the audience to understand the character’s inner thoughts and
feelings as though they were not being spoken at all.

Example

Soliloquy in Shakespeare

Soliloquy in King Lear

Only because King Lear speaks through soliloquy (as he does here in Act 2, Scene 4) does
the audience understand just how much his daughters' betrayal has devastated him.

"[...]Stain my cheeks! No, you unnatural hags,

I will have such revenges on you both,
That all the world shall—I will do such things,—
What they are, yet I know not: but they shall be
The terror of the earth. You think I'll weep
No, I'll not weep [...]"
Modern Soliloquies

Soliloquy in House of Cards

In the television show, Frank Underwood occasionally directly addresses soliloquies to the
camera after other characters have gone off screen. In these soliloquies, Frank reveals his
thoughts on life and power, and his plans for gaining power for himself. Frank's soliloquies
are reminiscent of Iago's in Othello, in that both characters relish their ability to manipulate
and understand situations better than others, and they share that enthusiasm directly with the
audience. Their soliloquies therefore create dramatic irony, as the audience knows what
Frank and Iago are thinking and planning while the other characters don't. But the soliloquies
also serve to make the audience complicit with Frank and Iago; even as the audience might
judge Frank's power-hungry schemes, it relishes those schemes right along with him.

Finally, House of Cards is certainly aware of the similarity between Frank's soliloquies and
Iago's, and the show's use of soliloquy is a purposeful effort to include Frank among the
tradition of great schemers of which Iago is such a huge part.

18. Symbol

A symbol is literary device that contains several layers of meaning, often concealed at first
sight, and is representative of several other aspects, concepts or traits than those that are
visible in the literal translation alone. Symbol is using an object or action that means
something more than its literal meaning.

Example

 In the poem road not taken by robot frost

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood

Yellow mean light, hope, his bight futue

Wood mean image of quiet, deseted place whee the speake is left alone to decide.

 In the poem This is my letter to the World by Emily Dickenson

Literally, a letter is a written message which conveys information or news to a person or

group of people. It's possible to interpret this "letter," however, as a symbol for poetry
itself. Just like a letter, a poem communicates. It gives "News," This understanding of
poetry is reflected in Dickinson's own practices as a writer: she often circulated her poems
in letters to specific friends or would write poems directly addressed to them, in response to
major events in their lives.
 In the shot story A Pair of Jeans by Qaisra Shahraz symbol is Jeans that show tradition

19. Subtext
The subtext is the unspoken or less obvious meaning or message in a literary composition,
drama, speech, or conversation. The subtext comes to be known by the reader or audience
over time, as it is not immediately or purposefully revealed by the story itself.
Example

She smiled when she heard someone else had won, but knowing what she was thinking, the
smile was a façade which covered her true disappointment at having lost the election.
The subtext in the situation is the reality that what is below the surface—disappointment—
does not match the surface—happiness and congratulations.

20. Tone

Tone is the writes attitude toward a subject, character, or audience (the way feelings are
expressed). The definition of "tone" in literature is the way the author expresses his attitude
through his writing. The tone can change very quickly or may remain the same throughout
the story.

Example

 In the poem Mending Wall by Robert Frost the tone was confuse (who is baking the
wall), and surprised (to see the reaction of his neighbor).
 In the poem The Road Not Taken tell by Robert Frost the tone was confused (that which
take ) and sorry (he cant take the other).
 In the poem Birches by Robert Frost the tone is Imagism, Happiness, Past, Nostalgia,
Optimism, Despair, Annoyance, Sadness, Shock, and Longing.

21. Trgaedy
Tragedy is a genre of story in which a hero is brought down by his/her own flaws, usually
by ordinary human flaws – flaws like greed, over-ambition, or even an excess of love,
honor, or loyalty.
Example

 Thorin Oakenshield from The Hobbit is a great tragic hero. Though he’s living in exile,
he’s still the king of the Dwarves and a great warrior. His quest is to restore the Dwarves to
their kingdom under the mountain, and he is utterly committed to that quest – so
committed, in fact, that he gradually isolates himself from his supporters and friends,
 believing he can trust no one. Take note, though! Thorin might be a tragic hero, but The
Hobbit is no tragedy! It has a happy ending, after all.

 Marlowe was the first English dramatist worthy of the tradition of Greek tragedy. The
characters of his tragedies are the great men of history, who became victims of their own
fate.

 Tamburlaine
 Doctor Faustus
 The Jew of Malta
 Edward III

22. Comedy
Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in
its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. This dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant
circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or successful conclusion.
Type
Romantic Comedy
Comedy of humors
Comedy of manners
Example

 : A Midsummer Night’s Dream (By William Shakespeare)

William Shakespeare’s play, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, is a good example of a

romantic comedy, presenting young lovers falling comically in and out of love for a brief
period. Their real world problems get resolved magically, enemies reconcile, and true
lovers unite in the end.

23. Verisimilitude
In a literary work, verisimilitude is likeness to the truth, such as the resemblance of a
fictitious work to a real event, even if it is a far-fetched one. Verisimilitude means that
events should be plausible to the extent that readers consider them credible enough to be
able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real life.
Example

 A typically kind character says “I’m so very sorry! It was an accident!” after accidentally
tripping someone on the bus.
In this example, the story has verisimilitude because a character who is known for being kind
would, predictably, apologize after accidentally tripping someone.
 The sky is dark and cloudy at the beginning of a story. By the end of the day in the story, it
has begun to rain.
This is a simple yet important example of verisimilitude: if you are writing a story and mention
storm clouds, a storm must follow. Even the smallest details are of the utmost importance when
it comes to creating a believably realistic story.

24. Wit
It is a literary device used to make the readers laugh. Over the years, its meanings have
kept changing. Today, it is associated with laughter and comedy.
Example

 The following story is probably the single most frequently cited example of wit: Winston
Churchill was once at a party, apparently quite drunk, when he had an encounter with a
high-class socialite from another political party. The woman turned her nose up at
Churchill and said with disdain, “You, sir, are drunk.” Churchill, not missing a beat,
responded in a dry tone of voice, “You, madam, are ugly, and in the morning I shall be
sober.”

25. Wordplay
Wordplay  involves using literary devices and techniques like consonance, assonance,
spelling, alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme, acronym, pun, and slang (to name a few) to
form amusing and often humorous written and oral expressions.

Examples

 Antanaclasis
"Your argument is sound, nothing but sound." - playing on the dual meaning of "sound" as
a noun signifying something audible and as an adjective meaning "logical" or "well-
reasoned."
(Benjamin Franklin)
 Double Entendre
"I used to be Snow White, but I drifted." - playing on "drift" being a verb of motion as well
as a noun denoting a snowbank.
(Mae West)
 Malaphor
"Senator McCain suggests that somehow, you know, I'm green behind the ears." - mixing
two metaphors: "wet behind the ears" and "green," both of which signify inexperience.
(Senator Barack Obama, Oct. 2008)
 26. Pathetic Fallacy
As a literary device, pathetic fallacy refers to giving human emotions and actions to
animals, plants, and other parts of nature. Examples of this type of attribution include cats
that think devious thoughts, a brook that seems happy, and trees that are worried.
Example

Example
 KING LEAR: Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks! Rage, blow!
You cataracts and hurricanes, spout
Till you have drenched our steeples, drowned the cocks!
You sulfurous and thought-executing fires,
Vaunt-couriers of oak-cleaving thunderbolts,
Singe my white head! And thou, all-shaking thunder,
Smite flat the thick rotundity o’ th’ world,
Crack nature’s molds, all germens spill at once
That make ingrateful man!
(King Lear  by William Shakespeare)
William Shakespeare used many examples of pathetic fallacy in his poems and plays. In
this example, King Lear is viewing the upcoming storm in a dramatic way. He employs the
common image of the wind as being blown by an indeterminate face, and instructs the
winds to “crack your cheeks.” The fires are “sulfurous and thought-executing,” while the
“all-shaking thunder” is able to “smite flat the thick rotundity o’ th’ world.” This storm
occurs in the second scene of Act 3, while Lear is in the midst of personal despair and
hopelessness, and responds to the storm as though it will end the world. Lear, indeed, feels
his world coming to an end.

27. Paradox?
A paradox is a statement that contradicts itself, or that must be both true and untrue at the
same time. Paradoxes are quirks in logic that demonstrate how our thinking sometimes
goes haywire, even when we use perfectly logical reasoning to get there.
Example
 Nobody goes to Murphy’s Bar anymore — it’s too crowded.
If the bar is crowded, then lots of people are going. But if so many people are going, it
makes no sense to say “nobody goes” there anymore. (It’s possible, though , that this
paradox can be escaped by suggesting that by “nobody” the speaker just means “none of
our friends.”)
 Animal Farm (By George Orwell)

In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, one part of the cardinal rule is this statement:

“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.”

This statement seems to not make any sense. However, on closer examination, it becomes
clear that Orwell points out a political truth. The government in the novel claims that
everyone is equal, but it has never treated everyone equally. It is the concept of equality
stated in this paradox that is opposite to the common belief of equality.

28. Palindrome
It is defined as a number, a word, a sentence, a symbol, or even signs that can be read
forward as well as backward, or in reverse order with the same effects and meanings.

Example
 The Funny Side of English (By O. A. Booty)

“Lewd did I live & evil I did dwel.”

This is the first sentence using a palindrome that appeared in the English language, back in
1614. In this sentence, the words read the same forward and backward.

 The Life of a Poet (By W. H. Auden)

“T. Eliot, top bard, notes putrid tang emanating, is sad. I’d assign it a name: gnat dirt upset
on drab pot-toilet.”

Palindrome can be seen in this sentence where the same names are given to T. Eliot in the
beginning, “putrid tang,” and also at the end of the sentence “gnat dirt upset on drab pot-
toilet.”

29. Nostalgia?
Nostalgia is remembering the past in a rosy, positive light, even though the true past is
more complicated. It’s a sentimental or wishful emotion that makes us reminisce, or recall
past times.

Example
 Dublin keeps on changin’ and nothing seems the same…My mind’s too full of memories,
too old to hear new chimes. I’m a part of what was Dublin in the rare old times.
(Irish Folk Song)
 The Rare Old Times  is an Irish folk song from the 1970s, written about the way that Dublin
changed in the 20th century from a relatively small, traditional city into a glass-and-steel
global capital. The narrator is an old Dubliner who tells a sad story of losing everything he
knew in his hometown. The punk band Flogging Molly took the song and recorded  this
ironic high-energy cover:
Flogging molly- the rare old times

 The Daffodils, lines 18-24 (By William Wordsworth)

“For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.”

This stanza is a good example of Romantic nostalgic poetry. This is the last stanza of The
Daffodils, by William Wordsworth. The poet, having seen beautiful daffodils somewhere,
now often sits alone on his couch, recalling the same scene, which brings him pleasure.
This is an apt example of pleasure in nostalgia, because the poet experienced tranquility
and peace of mind in the company of the flowers, and he still feels the same afterward,
when he is alone at home.

30. Nemesis

Nemesis is a literary device that refers to a situation of poetic justice, where the good
characters are rewarded for their virtues, and the evil characters are punished for their
vices.

The term nemesis comes from Nemesis – the goddess of revenge in Greek mythology – and
divine retribution sought against the people guilty of hubris.
Example

 In Game of Thrones, there are dozens of nemesis pairs. One of the most visible is Gregor
Clegane (“The Mountain”) vs. Oberyn Martell (“The Red Viper”), even though these are
both fairly minor characters. The Mountain is a bitter, cruel and glowering loner while
Oberyn is a pleasure-loving prince with many friends. In the final battle between them,
their fighting styles are also balanced – Oberyn fights with agility and finesse, while
Gregor has a plodding style based on sheer strength alone.
31. Mystery
Mystery is a genre of literature whose stories focus on a puzzling crime, situation, or
circumstance that needs to be solved. Many mystery stories involve what is called a
“whodunit” scenario, meaning the mystery revolves around the uncovering a culprit or
criminal.
Example

I stared down at the corpse, whose face was covered by a ski mask. Next to the body was a
pile of money. The biggest pile of money I had ever seen. Attached to the body was a note. I
tore it from the dead man’s jacket, and read it slowly, over and over, trying to take in its
words: Get rid of this and the money is yours—I will deliver the other half after the job is
done. Sincerely, F.  What I did next was something I would grow to regret for the rest of
my life.
The passage above sets up a mysterious situation for the audience to follow. It begins with
a crime—a murder—and ends with an ominous hint to the audience. However, the passage
does not at all reveal what the narrator chose to do and would later come to regret. A book
featuring this passage would likely end with the solving of the murder and the revealing of
the true circumstances of the narrator’s decision.

32. Monologue
A monologue is a speech that one character delivers aloud to express his or her inner
thoughts. Characters generally present their monologues either to another character or to
the audience in the understanding that other characters are able to hear them.
Example

 We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans,
we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend
our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the
landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills;
we shall never surrender…
—Winston Churchill, “We Shall Fight on the Beaches” speech, June 4, 1940
 Fans, for the past two weeks you have been reading about the bad break I got. Yet today I
consider myself the luckiest man on the face of this earth. I have been in ballparks for 17
years and have never received anything but kindness and encouragement from you
fans….So I close in saying that I may have had a tough break, but I have an awful lot to
live for.
—Lou Gehrig, “Luckiest Man” speech, July 4, 1939
33. Melodrama
Melodrama is a subgenre of drama, which is an exaggerated form of this genre.
Melodramas deal with sensational and romantic topics that appeal to the emotions of the
common audience.

Originally, it made use of melody and music, while modern melodramas may not contain
any music at all. In fact, a melodrama gives preference to a detailed characterization where
characters are simply drawn, one-dimensional, or stereotyped. Typically, melodrama uses
stock characters including a heroes, heroines, and villains.
Example

 Still Life, Brief Encounter  (By Noel Coward)

Noel Coward’s heartbreaking drama Still Life, Brief Encounter, tells the story of two
people who seemed destined to be unhappy. In the film, a leading role and married woman,
Laura Jesson, encounters a doctor, Alec Harvey, in a train station. They decide to meet
once in a week at the same station. Soon they begin to feel delighted in each other’s
company and share everything. Eventually they come to realize that they are in love with
each other. Their realization, however, leads to a tragic notion that they cannot leave their
families, which finally ends up in unrequited love, with their lives doomed into
despondency

 Kitty Foyle (By Christopher Morley)

Christopher Morley’s novel, Kitty Foyle, has been adapted to film, in which the author
narrates the story in the form of a melodrama. The film stars Kitty as a saleswoman who
desires to make her living on her own. Nevertheless, she marries Wyn Strafford, then due
to class differences, the couple separates very soon. Kitty then engages in a relationship
with a doctor, Mark Eisen, but their relationship could not be successful. She again decides
to marry Wyn when he comes back. Though the class difference remains, he wishes to live
with Kitty. Kitty suffers a lot and returns to her sales job. Thus, the audience sees many ups
and downs in Kitty’s life through this classic melodrama.

34. Jargon
Jargon is a specialized set of terms and language that is used in a particular context
and setting. It is especially common to find jargon in an industry, such as in law, medicine,
academia, or an art or sport.

People who are not a part of this industry or group may not be able to understand the jargon
used, as the words are either obscure terms or have different definitions than the regular
usage of the word.
 Jargon is used to provide more efficient communication between members of a certain
group, though at times it can also be used to exclude others who are not part of the group or
to show one’s own belonging to the group.

Some jargon that is used enough in a group can become more widely understood and
adopted into common usage, such as technological terms like “byte” and “RAM,” or
nautical phrases like “anchor’s aweigh” and “all hands on deck.”
Example

 Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)

Historical Legal Jargon

HAMLET to HORATIO:
“Why, may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be his quiddities now, his quillities,
his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? Why does he suffer this mad knave now to knock him
about the sconce with a dirty shovel, and will not tell him of his action of battery? Hum!
This fellow might be in’s time a great buyer of land, with his statutes, his recognizances,
his fines, his double vouchers, his recoveries: is this the fine of his fines, and the recovery
of his recoveries, to have his fine pate full of fine dirt? Will his vouchers vouch him no
more of his purchases and double ones too, than the length and breadth of a pair of
indentures? The very conveyances of his lands will scarcely lie in this box; and must the
inheritor himself have no more, ha?”

Here, you can see the use of words specifically related to the field of law, marked in bold.
These are legal words used at the time of Shakespeare.

35. Hamartia
Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist’s personality, which brings about his tragic
downfall in a tragedy. This defect in a hero’s personality is also known as a “tragic flaw.”

Example
 Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)

Prince Hamlet’s tragic flaw, in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, determines his tragic downfall.

Hamlet’s hamartia is his indecisiveness. He cannot make up his mind about the dilemmas
he confronts. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the
play:

“Tor be, or not to be — that is the question:

Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune
 Or to take arms against a sea of troubles
And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”

Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius, but instead ruins his life by delaying
action, as he looks for proof to justify the act. In the process, he spoils his relationship with
his mother, and sends Ophelia into such a state of depression that she commits suicide. This
indecision got almost everyone killed at the end of the play. He killed Claudius by assuming
fake madness because of his indecisiveness in action so that he will not be asked for any
justification.

 Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)

Among the hamartia examples in literature, one of the best can be found in Christopher
Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus. The tragic flaw of Faustus was his ambitious nature. Despite
being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract, with his blood,
for achieving ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world.

He learns the art of black magic and defies Christianity. We see a tragic conflict where
Faustus thinks about repenting, but it is all too late. Finally, the devils takes his soul away
to Hell and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition.

36. Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is a literary device in which the author gives clues about events that will
happen later in the story. Often these clues are fairly subtle so that they can only be noticed
or fully understood upon a second reading.
Example

 BENVOLIO: Tut man, one fire burns out another’s burning.

One pain is lessened by another’s anguish.
Turn giddy, and be helped by backward turning.
One desperate grief cures with another’s languish.
Take thou some new infection to thy eye,
And the rank poison of the old will die.
(Romeo and Juliet  by William Shakespeare)
At this point in the play, Romeo is still completely in love with a character named Rosaline.
His friend Benvolio advises him to fall in love with someone else—only then will Romeo be
able to get over this all-consuming love. The last two lines foreshadow Romeo’s upcoming
infatuation with Juliet and also his death. Though Benvolio uses the term “rank poison” to
refer to Romeo’s love for Rosaline, drinking poison is also the manner in which Romeo will
die at the end of the play, making this a very notable foreshadowing example.
37. Haiku
A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, and the middle
line has seven. The pattern in this Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name for a
sound unit, which is like a syllable, though there is a difference.
Example
 Ezra Pound poetry The River-Merchant’s Wife: A Letter

While my hair was still cut straight across my forehead

I played about the front gate, pulling flowers.
You came by on bamboo stilts, playing horse,
You walked about my seat, playing with blue plums.
And we went on living in the village of Chōkan:
Two small people, without dislike or suspicion.
At fourteen I married My Lord you.
I never laughed, being bashful.
Lowering my head, I looked at the wall.
Called to, a thousand times, I never looked back.

At fifteen I stopped scowling,

I desired my dust to be mingled with yours
Forever and forever, and forever.
Why should I climb the look out?

At sixteen you departed

You went into far Ku-tō-en, by the river of swirling eddies,
And you have been gone five months.
The monkeys make sorrowful noise overhead.

You dragged your feet when you went out.

By the gate now, the moss is grown, the different mosses,
Too deep to clear them away!
The leaves fall early this autumn, in wind.
The paired butterflies are already yellow with August
Over the grass in the West garden;
They hurt me.
I grow older.
If you are coming down through the narrows of the river Kiang,
Please let me know beforehand,
And I will come out to meet you
As far as Chō-fū-Sa.
38. Genre
Genre means a type of art, literature, or music characterized by a specific form, content,
and style.

Types of Genre

There are five types of genres in literature, which include:

Poetry

Poetry is the first major literary genre. All types of poetry share specific characteristics. In
fact, poetry is a form of text that follows a meter and rhythm, with each line and syllable. It
is further subdivided into different genres, such an epic poem, narrative, romantic,
dramatic, and lyric. Dramatic poetry includes melodrama, tragedy, and comedy, while
other poems includes ode, sonnet, elegy, ballad, song, and epic.

Popular examples of epic poems include Paradise Lost, by John Milton, The Iliad and The

Odyssey, by Homer. Examples of romantic poems include Red Red Rose, by Robert
Burns. All these poetic forms share specific features, such as they do not follow paragraphs
or sentences; they use stanzas and lines instead. Some forms follow very strict rules of
length, and number of stanzas and lines, such as villanelle, sonnet, and haiku. Others may
be free-form, like Feelings, Now, by Katherine Foreman, which is devoid of any regular
meter and rhyme scheme. Besides that, often poetry uses figurative language, such
as metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, hyperbole, and alliteration to create heightened effect.

Drama

Drama is a form of text that is performed in front of an audience. It is also called a play. Its
written text contains dialogues, and stage directions. This genre has further categories such
as comedy, tragedy, and tragicomedy. William Shakespeare is known as the father of
English drama. His well-known plays include Taming of the Shrew, Romeo & Juliet,
and  Hamlet.  Greek playwrights were the pioneers in this field, such as Sophocles’
masterpiece Oedipus Rex, and Antigone, while modern dramas include Death of a
Salesman, by Arthur Miller.

Prose

This type of written text is different from poetry in that it has complete sentences organized
into paragraphs. Unlike poetry, prose focuses on characters and plot, rather than focusing on
sounds. It includes short stories and novels, while fiction and non-fiction are its sub genres.
Prose is further categorized into essays, speeches, sermons, and interpretations.

Fiction

Fiction has three categories that are, realistic, non-realistic, and semi-fiction. Usually, fiction
work is not real and therefore, authors can use complex figurative language to touch readers’
imaginations. Unlike poetry, it is more structured, follows proper grammatical pattern, and
correct mechanics. A fictional work may incorporate fantastical and imaginary ideas from
everyday life. It comprises some important elements such as
plot, exposition, foreshadowing, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Popular
examples of literary fiction include, James Joyce’s novel A Portrait of an Artist as a Young
Man,  Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, Jane Austen’s Pride and
Prejudice, and Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird.

Non-Fiction

Non-fiction is a vast category that also has sub-genres; it could be creative like a
personal essay, or factual, like a scientific paper. It may also use figurative language,
however, not unlike poetry, or fiction has. Sometimes, non-fiction may tell a story, like
an autobiography, or sometimes it may convey information to readers.

Other examples of non-fiction include biographies, diaries, memoirs, journals, fantasies,

mysteries, and romances. A popular example of non-fiction genre is Michael Pollan’s highly
celebrated book, The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, which is an
account of the eating habits of Americans.

39. Antithesis
Antithesis literally means “opposite”. it is usually the opposite of a statement, concept, or
idea. In literary analysis, an antithesis is a pair of statements or images in which the one
reverses the other. The pair is written with similar grammatical structures to show more contrast.

Example

 That’s one  small step  for a man – one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong, 1969)
In this example, Armstrong is referring to man walking on the moon. Although taking a
step is an ordinary activity for most people, taking a step on the moon, in outer space, is a
major achievement for all humanity.

 To err  is human; to forgive, divine. (Alexander Pope)

This example is used to point out that humans possess both worldly and godly qualities;
they can all make mistakes, but they also have the power to free others from blame.

40. Aphorism
Aphorism is a short statement of a general truth, insight, or good advice.
Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The
term is often applied to philosophical, moral, and literary principles.
Example

o Various Works (By Sir Francis Bacon)

 Sir Francis Bacon excels in the aphoristic style of writing. Possibly, his sayings are the
most quoted of all. Consider the following examples:

 “Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability.” (Of Studies)
 “To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is wearisome, to use none at
all, is Blunt.” (Of  Discourse)
 “Praise is the reflection of the virtue. But it is the reflection glass or body which giveth
the reflection.” (Of Praise)

41. Antecedent?
Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase, or word to which a pronoun, noun, or another word
refers. Broadly speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a
line or sentence refers to an earlier word

Example
 Ode to Autumn (By John Keats)

“And still more, later flowers for the bees,

Until they think warm days will never cease,
For Summer has o’er-brimmed their clammy cell.”

In the above lines, bees are used as antecedent, and the pronouns “they” and “their” refer to
this noun used earlier. See that the antecedent and its pronouns are italicized. If we remove
the pronouns, these lines will have an entirely different and confusing impression, and the
meaning will change.

 A Poison Tree (By William Blake)

“… I was angry with my foe:

I told it not, my wrath  did grow.

And I watered it in fears,

Night and morning with my tears;
And I sunned it with smiles …”

This poem presents a very good example of antecedent, in which the speaker uses the noun
“foe” as antecedent, and replaces it with the pronoun “it” in the very next line. Similarly, he
again makes use of “wrath” as an antecedent, and replaces it with “it.”
42. Catharsis

When used in literature, catharsis is the the release of emotions such as pity, sadness, and
fear through witnessing art. Catharsis involves the change of extreme emotion to lead to
internal restoration and renewal. 
Example

 OTHELLO: I pray you, in your letters,

When you shall these unlucky deeds relate,
Speak of me as I am. Nothing extenuate,
Nor set down aught in malice. Then must you speak
Of one that loved not wisely, but too well.
Of one not easily jealous, but being wrought,
Perplexed in the extreme. Of one whose hand,
Like the base Indian, threw a pearl away
Richer than all his tribe.
…
I took by the throat the circumcisèd dog,
And smote him, thus.
(Othello  by William Shakespeare)
At the end of William Shakespeare’s Othello, just as in every other tragedy that
Shakespeare wrote, many characters die. The true tragedy of Othello is not just the deaths
of the characters Desdemona and Othello, but that Othello realizes his mistake too late. He
understands only after he has killed Desdemona that Iago has led him astray. Therefore, his
catharsis must come in the form of suicide, and he stabs himself after his final line. The
catharsis for the audience comes in the fear of being betrayed by a friend, feeling that
intense remorse on Othello’s behalf, and witnessing his death, perhaps with a pledge never
to be so taken in themselves by a friend’s reassurances and stories.

43. Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound or diphthong in non-rhyming words. To
qualify as assonance, the words must be close enough for the repetition of the sound to be
noticeable.
Example
 In poem birches by robot frost

One by one he subdued his father’s trees

By riding them down over and over again

 In the poem Portrait d’une Femme by Ezra pound

Ideas, old gossip, oddments of all things,

 One average mind —   with one thought less, each year

 in poem Briefing Bulleh by Hazrat Baba Bulleh Shah

My caste? I’ve none; I’m just a man

44. Diction
Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of words
by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often separates good writing from bad
writing. It depends on a number of factors.

Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to
the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the
listener or reader understands easily.
Example

 Ode on a Grecian Urn (By John Keats)

John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect.
He says:

“Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard

Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on …”

Notice the use of the formal “ye,” instead of the informal “you.” The formality here is due
to the respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says:

“Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed

Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu.”

It is more formal to use “adieu” than to say “goodbye.”

 The Sun Rising (By John Donne)

In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem The Sun Rising:

“Busy old fool, unruly Sun,

Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on us?
Must to thy motions lovers’ seasons run?
Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide. “

Treating the sun as a real human being in this excerpt, the poet speaks to the sun in an
informal way, using colloquial expressions. He rebukes the sun because it has appeared
 to spoil the good time he is having with his beloved. Further, he orders the “saucy
pedantic sun” to go away.

45. Doppelganger
Doppelganger (DOPP-el-gang-er) comes from a German word meaning “double-walker.”
It’s a twin or double of some character, usually in the form of an evil twin. A doppelgänger
is a person who is a look-alike to another person, and is often a foil in literature.
Example

 GHOST: I am thy father’s spirit,

Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night
And for the day confined to fast in fires
Till the foul crimes done in my days of nature
Are burnt and purged away.
(Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
Hamlet’s father, the king, has been murdered just before the William Shakespeare’s play
begins. Hamlet is confronted by the ghost of his father, who is a more literal example of
doppelgänger than the other examples here. This ghost possesses King Hamlet’s memories
and bears a strong physical resemblance to him. Yet, of course, he is a ghost and is bent on
revenge, asking Hamlet to carry it out for him. Hamlet is one of Shakespeare’s most
supernatural plays, with an emphasis on the witches and the king’s ghost, and their
influence on the “natural” world. The ghost also brings into question Hamlet’s mental
soundness, a theme that will continue throughout the rest of the tragedy.
 I cannot better describe the sensation which oppressed me than by saying that I could
with difficulty shake off the belief of my having been acquainted with the being who
stood before me, at some epoch very long ago—some point of the past even infinitely
remote. The delusion, however, faded rapidly as it came; and I mention it at all but to
define the day of the last conversation I there held with my singular namesake.
(“William Wilson” by Edgar Allen Poe)
Edgar Allen Poe is a famous Gothic writer, meaning that his stories and poems often dealt
with supernatural and dark themes. His story “William Wilson” is one of the best
doppelgänger examples in all of literature. The narrator meets his double, and this
doppelgänger slowly begins to take over his entire identity. In the above excerpt, the
narrator describes the uncanny nature of feeling like he has met his doppelgänger long ago,
even in perhaps a past lifetime. The worry that the narrator has is that he will cease to exist
because his doppelgänger will subsume his life.
46. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or
event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is
usually written between the sentences as a series of three dots, like this:  “…”
Example

 To the Lighthouse (By Virginia Woolf)

Among the famous examples of ellipsis in literature, the best would be Virginia

Woolf’s novel To the Lighthouse. This book involves two parts, one before the World War
I was fought and won, and the latter accounts for the events occurring afterwards. All the
events that occurred in between have not been mentioned in the book. Rather, it has left to
the readers to deduce the events from the notable changes that have occurred in the
characters’ lives.

47. Epiphany?
Epiphany is a moment in which there is a sudden realization that leads to a new perspective
that clarifies a problem or situation. A character may have an epiphany, or it may also
occur in the narration such that the reader has the epiphany.
Example

 EMILIA: O thou dull Moor! That handkerchief thou speak’st of

I found by fortune and did give my husband.
For often, with a solemn earnestness—
More than indeed belonged to such a trifle—
He begged of me to steal it.
(Othello  by William Shakespeare)
The above speech is an important epiphany example from William Shakespeare’s Othello.
In it, Emilia reveals in a moment of dramatic irony what the audience has known all along
—Desdemona’s handkerchief was given to Cassio by Emilia, thus clearing Desdemona of
guilt. Unfortunately, this epiphany comes too late for Othello. He has already murdered
his wife, and the realization that she was innocent is enough to make Othello take his own
life.

48. Eulogy
A eulogy is a commemorative speech or piece of writing in praise of someone who has
recently died, or someone who is leaving, such as a retiree. Eulogies are a common part of
funeral services around the world, and can also be found in retirement celebrations or
farewell parties.
 Example

 On Mr. Wm. Shakespeare, he died in April 1616 (By William Basse)

“Renowned Spenser, lie a thought more nigh

To learned Chaucer, and rare Beaumont lie
A little nearer Spenser to make room
For Shakespeare in your threefold, fourfold tomb.
Betwixt this day and that by fate be slain…
Sleep rare tragedian Shakespeare, sleep alone,
That unto us and others it may be
Honor hereafter to be laid by thee.”

Basse has dedicated this eulogy to William Shakespeare 25 years after his death. He
suggests that his grave should have been next to Spenser, Chaucer, and Beaumont in
Westminster Abbey.

 After Thought (By William Wordsworth)

“I thought of Thee, my partner and my guide,

As being past away.—Vain sympathies! …

Still glides the Stream, and shall for ever glide;

The Form remains, the Function never dies;
While we, the brave, the mighty, and the wise,
We Men, who in our morn of youth defied
The elements, must vanish;—be it so! …”
Through love, through hope, and faith’s transcendent dower,
We feel that we are greater than we know.”

Wordsworth has written this eulogy in honor of his close friend. The speaker is recalling
his deceased friend’s memories in that, though he is physically no more with him, his noble
deeds will never die.

49. Fable
The word fable is derived from the Latin word fibula, which means “a story,” and a
derivative of the word fari, which means “to speak.” Fable is a literary device that can be
defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end.
Example

 The Fox and the Crow (By Aesop’s Fables)

“A crow was sitting on a branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her beak when a fox
observed her and set his wits to work to discover some way of getting the cheese. Coming
and standing under the tree he looked up and said, ‘What a noble bird I see above me!
 Her beauty is without equal…’ Down came the cheese, of course, and the Fox, snatching it
up, said, ‘You have a voice, madam, I see: what you want is wits.'”

Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables
put emphasis on the social communications of human beings, and hence the morals he
draws deal with realities of life. In this excerpt, Aesop gives a moral lesson that flatterers
must not be trusted.

 Animal Farm (By George Orwell)

“Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are
miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep
the breath in our bodies … and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end …
No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No
animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery …”

Here, old Major is speaking to other animals. It is presented as the story of the development
and emergence of Soviet communism, through an animal fable. He advises the animals to
struggle against the humans, telling them that rebellion is the only feasible way out of their
miserable situation.

50. Foil
foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another
character. The objerctive is to highlight the traits of the other character.

Example

 Paradise Lost (By John Milton)

Milton’s Paradise Lost, Book I, is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters:

God and Satan. Satan, in the entire work, appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of
Satan and the positive traits of God are frequently compared, which consequently brings to
the surface not only the contrast between the two characters, but also “justify the ways of
God…” We reach a conclusion that it is only just for Satan to be expelled from the paradise
because of his refusal to give in to the will of God.

51. Fallacy
A fallacy is a display of faulty reasoning that makes an argument invalid, or a faulty belief
based on an unsound argument. Many fallacies are deceptive in that they may appear to be
based on sound reasoning and seem to follow good logic
 Example

 PRINCE OF MOROCCO: “Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.”
Why, that’s the lady. All the world desires her.
From the four corners of the earth they come
To kiss this shrine, this mortal breathing saint.
(The Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare)
There are interesting fallacy examples in William Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of
Venice. One of the central pieces of drama is the riddle of the three caskets. Princes from
around the world come to try to win the hand of Portia; they must do so by choosing the
correct of three caskets. The first two princes reason incorrectly and choose the wrong
caskets. Here we see the Prince of Morocco choose the golden casket by way of an
unwarranted assumption. He reads the clue, proclaiming that inside the golden casket it
“what many men desire,” and thus must be Portia’s portrait. He is disproved when he opens
the casket and reads the famous line, “All that glisters is not gold.”

52. Imagery

Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such
a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Usually it is thought that imagery makes use
of particular words that create visual representation of ideas in our minds. 

Example
 Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)

Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.

Consider an example from Act I, Scene V:

“O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!

It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night
Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope’s ear …”

Romeo praises Juliet by saying that she appears more radiant than the brightly lit torches
in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a bright jewel shining against the
dark skin of an African. Through the contrasting images of light and dark, Romeo
portrays Juliet’s beauty.

 To Autumn (By John Keats)

John Keats’ To Autumn is an ode rich with auditory imagery examples. In the last five
lines of his ode he says:

“Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;

And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
 The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft,
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.”

The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of hearing. We

hear the lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the whistles of the redbreast
robin and the twitters of swallows in the skies. Keats call these sounds the song of
autumn.

53. Innuendo
An innuendo (pronounced in-yu-EN-do) is when you say something which is polite and
innocent on the surface, but indirectly hints at an insult or rude comment,  a dirty joke, or
even social or political criticism. 
Example

 You come to fetch me from my work to-night

When supper’s on the table, and we’ll see
If I can leave off burying the white
Soft petals fallen from the apple tree.
(Soft petals, yes, but not so barren quite,
Mingled with these, smooth bean and wrinkled pea;)
And go along with you ere you lose sight
Of what you came for and become like me,
Slave to a springtime passion for the earth.
How Love burns through the Putting in the Seed
On through the watching for that early birth
When, just as the soil tarnishes with weed,
 

The sturdy seedling with arched body comes

Shouldering its way and shedding the earth crumbs.
(“Putting in the Seed” by Robert Frost)
Robert Frost’s entire poem “Putting in the Seed” is one long innuendo that can also be
considered a conceit. While one innocent reading of this poem is that the narrator is simply
thinking about gardening, clearly there is another deeper meaning at play here. Frost uses
suggestive words and images like “smooth bean and wrinkled pea,” “sturdy seedling with
arched body,” and, of course, the eponymous “How Love burns through the Putting in the
Seed.” This is a highly sexual poem in nature, and Frost makes his point through many
innuendo examples.
54. Pathos
Pathos is a quality of an experience in life, or a work of art, that stirs up emotions of
pity, sympathy, and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures, or even with
gestures of the body.
Example

 Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen)

Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” is well known for its pathos. Mr. Collins’ confession
to Elizabeth that he wants her to be his future partner evokes feelings of sympathy in
readers, as they feel an emotional intensity in his proposal.

Believe me, my dear Miss Elizabeth, that your modesty adds to your other perfections. But
you can hardly doubt the object of my discourse, however your feminine delicacy may lead
you to dissemble. For, as almost as soon as I entered the house, I singled you out as the
companion of my future life!

55. Parody
A parody is a work that’s created by imitating an existing original work in order to make
fun of or comment on an aspect of the original. Parodies can target celebrities, politicians,
authors, a style or trend, or any other interesting subject.

Example
 Gulliver’s Travels (By Jonathan Swift)

Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels is a parody of travel narratives, as well as a satire on

contemporary England. As the empire of England spread to far off lands, it became a center
of navigation and exploration. Adventure and travel narratives telling stories of strange
lands became popular.

 Robinson Crusoe (By Daniel Defoe)

Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe was a travel narrative. Swift adopted a similar mode to

describe Gulliver’s travels to the strange land of Lilliput, and other such places where he
meets “Lilliputians,” and the giant “Brobdingnagians.” He also meets other strange
creatures like “Laputians” and “Houyhnhnms,” and the “Yahoos”. The parody for Swift
was intended as a satire on English society.
56. Poetic justice
poetic justice is an ideal form of justice, in which the good characters are rewarded and the
bad characters are punished, by an ironic twist of fate. It is a strong literary view that all
forms of literature must convey moral lessons.
Example

 In Shakespeare’s King Lear  we see the evil characters – Goneril, Regan, Oswald, and
Edmund – thrive throughout the play. The good characters – Lear, Gloucester, Kent,
Cordelia, and Edgar – suffer long and hard. We see the good characters turn to gods,
but they are rarely answered. Lear, in Act 2, Scene 4 calls upon heaven in a most
pitiful manner:

 “… O heavens!
If you do love old men, if your sweet sway
Show obedience, if you yourselves are old,
Make it your cause. Send down, and take my part!”

Lear loses his kingdom by the conspiracies of his daughters Goneril and Regan, who are
supported by Edmund. At Dover, Edmund-led English troops defeat the Cordelia-led
French troops, and Cordelia and Lear are imprisoned.

Cordelia is executed in the prison, and Lear dies of grief at his daughter’s death. Despite all
the suffering that good undergoes, the evil is punished. Goneril poisons her sister Regan
due to jealousy over Edmund. Later, she kills herself when her disloyalty is exposed to
Albany. In a climactic scene, Edgar kills Edmund. In Act 5, Scene 3 he says:

“My name is Edgar, and thy father’s son.

The gods are just, and of our pleasant vices
Make instruments to plague us.
The dark and vicious place where thee he got
Cost him his eyes.”

Here, “The gods are just” because they punish the evil for their evil actions.

57. Tragic flaw

Tragic flaw is a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his
downfall, and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the
lack of self-knowledge, lack of judgment, and often it is hubris (pride).
 Example

 Dr. Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe)

Faustus:
“But Faustus’ offense can ne’er be pardoned;
The serpent that tempted Eve may be saved,
But not Faustus … God forbade it indeed but Faustus hath done it. For
the vain pleasure of four and twenty years hath Faustus
lost eternal joy and felicity … Fair nature’s eye, rise, rise again and make
Perpetual day. Or let this hour be but a year,
A month, a week, a natural day,
That Faustus may repent and save his soul
O mercy, heaven! Look not so fierce on me … I’ll burn my books.”

The character of Dr. Faustus is also one of the best examples of tragic flaw. The tragic flaw
of Dr. Faustus is his ambitious nature to learn. He made a contract with Lucifer and sold his
soul in this connection. Finally, his soul is taken to hell, and then he realizes his sin and
repents but it was too late.

58. Utopia?
Its define as a illusionary place that projects the notion of a perfect society to the reader.
Here, the “perfect society” refers to ideal conditions achieved within the material world, as
opposed to the expected idealism of afterlife in Christianity or other religions. A utopian
society is one where all social evils have been cured.
Example

The examples quoted below portray various scenarios of utopia:

1. Description of the Republic of Christianopolis, by Johannes Valentinus Andreae,

1619
2. The City of the Sun, by Tommaso Campanella, 1602
3. New Atlantis, by Francis Bacon, 1627
4.

59. Theme
Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may
be stated directly or indirectly.
Example

In the poem mending wall by obet fost the theme ae

 Barriers and connections

  Hrypocrisy

 Tradition and Custom

 Man’s Relationship with the Natural World

 Lack of Communication

 Human Labor

 Change and Modernity

 Man with man

 Natural unity

In Emily Dickenson poem Success is counted sweetest the them ae

 Desire.
 Pain and suffering
 Loneness

60. Cliché?
Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original
meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events that are predictable
because of some previous events.
Example

 In describing time, the following expressions have turned into cliché:

 in the nick of time – to happen just in time

 only time will tell – to become clear over time
 a matter of time – to happen sooner or later

 In describing people, these expressions have turned into cliché:

 as brave as a lion – describes a very brave person

 as clever as a fox – describes a very clever person
 as old as the hills – describes an old person or idea
 In describing various sentiments, a number of expressions have turned into cliché:

 frightened to death – to be too frightened

 scared out of one’s wits – to be too frightened
 all is fair in love and war – to go to any extent to claim somebody’s love
 all is well that ends well – a happy ending reduces the severity of problems that come in
one’s way
 every cloud has a silver lining – problems also have something good in them
 the writing on the wall – something clear and already understood
 time heals all wounds – pain and miseries get will heal, with the passage of time
 haste makes waste – people make mistakes when rushing