Lab Manual Physics (Dec 2016) - 1

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES &
TECHNOLOGY
Department of Humanities & Basic Sciences
Military College of Signals

LAB MANUAL
PHY 101 - APPLIED PHYSICS
Name:_________________________
Class:_________________________
Group:________________________
1
Goals and objectives associated with the undergraduate
physics laboratory
The American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT 1997), however,

has published a list of five common goals for lab instructions which bring together
earlier perspectives. These are as follows:
1. The art of experimentation: the lab should engage each student in significant experiences
with experimental processes.
2. Experimental and analytical skills: the lab should help students develop a broad array of
basic skills and tools of experimental physics and data analysis.
3. Conceptual learning: the lab should help students master basic physics concepts.
4. Understanding basic knowledge of physics: the lab should help students understand the
role of direct observation in physics.
5. Developing collaborative learning skills: the lab should help students develop
collaborative learning.
2
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT 01 – INTRODUCTION DIGITAL MULTIMETER........................................................10

EXPERIMENT 02 – INTRODUCTION TO HEATHKIT/LAB TRAINER.....................................................13
EXPERIMENT 03 – INTRODUCTION TO SERIES, PARALLEL AND SERIES PARALLEL
COMBINATION CIRCUIT...................................................................................................16
EXPERIMENT 04 – INTRODUCTION TO OSCILLOSCOPE..................................................................21
EXPERIMENT 05 – DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS...................................................................................27
EXPERIMENT 06 – PHOTO VOLTIC CELL AND LDR............................................................................34
EXPERIMENT 07 – CARRY FOSTER BRIDGE............................................................................................40
EXPERIMENT 08 – POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE..............................45
EXPERIMENT 09 – NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE...........................49
EXPERIMENT 10 – MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR...............53
EXPERIMENT 11– SPEED OF LIGHT..............................................................................................................58
EXPERIMENT 12– I-H CURVE FOR A MATERIAL..................................................................................63
EXPERIMENT 13– e/m RATIO............................................................................................................................69
EXPERIMENT 14 – DETERMINE RESOLVING POWER OF DIFFRACTION GRATING.........75
PREPARED BY
Engr.Kamran Khan under the supervision of
Head of Department
Dr.Col Muhammad Ashiq
in year 2017.
3
Applied Physics Lab- Marks of Week-Wise Exp
Max
Exp Date Title of Experiment Mark Marks Instructor
No s Obtained Sign
1. Introduction to Digital Multimeter 10
2. Introduction to Heathkit/lab Trainer 10
Introduction to Series, parallel and series

3.
parallel combination circuit 10
4. Introduction to Oscilloscope 10
5. To study diode application in rectification 10
To study variation of Photo Electric Current

6.
with intensity of Light incident 10
To determine unknown low resistance by

7.
using Carry Foster Bridge 10
To study the Positive temperature

8.
coefficient of resistance 10
To study the Negative temperature

9.
coefficient of resistance 10
To study the magnetic force on current

10.
carrying conductor 10
To plot I-H curve for a material by a

11.
magnetometer 10
To observe the speed of light through an

12
Optical Fiber 10
Measure the ratio of charge of an electron to

13.
it mass 10
To determine the resolving power of

14.
diffraction grating 10
4
INTRODUCTION
This handout discusses aspects of the experimental lab work that you will perform in Applied
Physics Lab. It' begins with a discussion of good lab practice, and ends with a discussion of lab
safety. You should pay special Attention to the Electrical Safety Notice attached to the end of
this handout.
LAB NOTEBOOK
Your lab notebook should become a complete and permanent record of the experiments you
perform during the semester. This notebook itself should be a bound hard cover notebook. Since
your lab notebook should contain your raw experimental data, you should never copy data into
your lab notebook from some other paper. If you don‘t have your lab notebook with you when you
record your data, you should staple the page of raw data into your lab notebook. Copying data into
your lab 'notebook after completing an experiment .risks beautifying your lab notebook with
copying errors.
Like any lab notebook, your Applied Physics lab notebook should contain three distinct
sections for each experiment performed
(1) The design, analysis and prediction~ you complete before your experimental work:
(2) The data and observations you record during you/experimental work;
(3) And the analysis and interpretations you complete after your experimental work
If your lab notebook is, organized in this manner, then anyone, including yourself, should be able to
pick up your lab notebook at a later time and follow your preliminary analysis, reconstruct the
experiments you, performed, reproduce your raw data, an~ reach equivalent conclusions.
Since your lab work is only useful if it can be explained to and reproduced by others,
your lab notebook must be more than analyses and numbers with no context. The following
guidelines should help you produce more consistent lab records with clear distinctions between
your expectations: your actual data, and your Analysis of the data.
Pre-Lab Work
Pre-lab work is designed to motivate and define your experiments and thus prepare you for
your in-lab work. Pre-lab work should be treated like a small homework, and should be written up
in your lab notebook. The questions asked in the pre-lab assignments are indicative of. The type of
questions you should ask when examining a scientific or engineering hypothesis. Your analysis of
these questions should motivate and guide the experiments you will perform, and suggest how the
experimental results will confirm or refute the hypothesis under examination.
The pre-lab assignments will generally analyze and predict the performance of an Physics circuit;
and result in predictions for the data you will record during your in-lab work. As you work through
type assignments, you should think about how you could experimentally determine whether your
analysis is correct. If you do not see how the in-lab work seeks to verify your pre-lab work then I}
either effort is of value even if both are correctly performed. Finally, as you
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work on the pre-lab assignments, you would take the time to draw the circuits you will build
during your in-lab work, and to prepare any graphs and tables necessary to organize data
recording.
In-Lab Work
(1) The notes you take during your in -lab work are simply a record of what you did and what
you observed. A minimal record includes at least the following.
(2)A labeled circuit diagram in your lab notebook adjacent to the recorded data. The diagram
should include voltage and current source amplitudes and frequencies: resistor, capacitor, and
inductor values; semiconductor and integrated circuit names; oscilloscope and multi-meter. How
connections you think are important to circuit operation such as shielding, component
temperature and so on. You should also note or sketch your predictions before you take a
measurement.
(3) A record of your specific procedures and measurements. This should include key
oscilloscope and multi-meter settings, source adjustment made while recording data, small
component changes and so on. You should record raw data in your notebook and interpret it
later, even if later means only a few minutes later before you move on to the next experiment:
For example, if you use voltage drop across a resistor to measure a current you should record the
measured voltages in your lab notebook and convert these measurements to current later. If any
data is unexpectedly large or small, or noisy or free, for example, or some adjustment is
particularly large or sensitive, you should note this in your lab notebook as part of the data.
Finally, included in your notebook should. Be all comments necessary to recreate your
experimental procedure.
(4)Waveforms sketched directly from the oscilloscope warrant a few additional guidelines.
Never make a rough sketch that you will copy into your lab notebook later: each time data is
copied from one medium to another, new errors and interpretations creep silently into the data.
Rather, neatly sketch the waveform directly into your lab notebook as accurately as possible.
Such sketches should be at least as large as the oscilloscope screen, and are most accurate if you
let the ruled squares of your notebook graph paper correspond to the ruled gratitude on the
oscilloscope screen.
(5) Commentary about inaccuracies in your data. Record and plot precisely what you see as
accurately as possible; do not record what you expect to see. Related to the accurate recording of
data is the issue of precision. You must indicate in your data how precise your readings are. Such
an indication can be as simple as an estimate of the noise in the measurement. When sketching
oscilloscope data be sure to indicate the trace-width and any other relevant features of the
waveform.
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Post-Lab Work
Post-lab work concerns your interpretation of your results in terms of the analysis and prediction
of your pre-lab work. It is the time to discuss not only what the data tells you about the circuit
operation but also whetl,1er the data answers your questions from the pre-lab, and supports or
refutes any hypothesis you have made. Important questions to ask and answer in the notebook
include at least the following. .
(1) Did this data match the predictions? Why or why not?
(2) What does the data say about the theories used to drive the predictions? Under what
conditions do the theories apply and why? Where those conditions met during the in-lab work?
(3) What factors could be generating what appear to be bad data? How might the pre-lab
analysis be modified to make more accurate predictions in the future? How could the
experiments be modified to obtain more accurate data?
The post-lab work is also the time to combine data from different experiments in order to
reach more general conclusions. .
SAFETY
Safety is a very important component of good lab practice. According, please read, and
follows the attached Electrical Safety Notice .As indicated, it is necessary to sign the last page
of the notice and return it to the PHYSICS LAB Instrument Desk in order for you to pick up
your lab kit.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
For Staff and Students in the Lab '"

NEVER WORK ALONE
If you are working with energized circuit~ or equipment over 50 volts peak, make sure that at
least one other person can see you and hear you, In case of emergency notify the Lab
Assistant on duty.
VOLTAGE RULES
All Physics lab Instrument voltages are below 50 volts peak.
If you intend to work on a project using power sources over 50 volts peak, you must secure
permission and receive specific training from your Instructor, TA, or Lab Technical
Personnel before any work on the project begins.
.
PREVENT ACCIDENTS: FOLLOW THIS ADVICE
 Never hurry. Work deliberately and carefully.
 Connect to the power source LAST
 If you are working with a lab .Instrument that has internal power supplies, turn the main: power
switch OFF before you begin work on the circuits. Wait a few second for power supply
capacitors to discharge. These steps will also help prevent damage to circuits.
 If-you are working with a circuit that will be connected to an external power supply turn the
power switch of the external supply OFF before you begin work on the circuit.
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 Check circuit power supply voltages for proper value and for type (DC, AC, frequency)
before energizing the Circuit.
 Remove conductive watch bands or chains, finger rings wrist watches, etc. and do not use
metallic pencils, metal or metal edge rulers, etc~ when working with exposed
 When breaking an inductive circuit open the switch with your left hand and turn your
face away to avoid danger from any arc which may occur across the switch terminals.
 When using large electrolytic capacitors be sure to wan long enough (approximately five
times constants) for the capacitors to discharge before working on the circuit.
 All conducting surfaces intended to be at ground potential should be connected together.
ADDITIONAL CAUTIONS
 The Physics Lab is equipped with circuit breakers. Check for leakage path to ground
when breakers trip repeatedly and the problem is not due to an overload.
 Any equipment used in the laboratories must be equipped with a standard three-prong 
 AC plug or a two-pronged polarized plug. 

 Allexposed non-current-carrying metal parts of fixed and portable equipment that may accidentally
become energized should be grounded. 
 All electrical equipment or apparatus that may require frequent maintenance must be capable of
being completely disconnected from the power source. 
 Do not bring into the lab or use in the lab equipment that does not conform to these 
QUESTIONS ABOUT WORK/LAB SAFTELY

Any questions about work or lab safety should be brought to the attention. of your
immediate supervisor or instructor. If problems arise- that cannot be solved at this level,
you should contact the Lab Engineer / Lab OIC.
BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRACTICES
The Physics Lab requires everyone who uses electrical equipment to understand these safety
Precautions. The following safe work practices an prevent electrical shock. Contact your
Supervisor for additional safety training if your job involves repairing, installing or working on
energized parts.
A. Safe Work Practices
1. Turn off and unplug equipment (instead of relying on interlocks that can fail) before removing the
protective cover to clear a jam, replace a part, adjust or troubleshoot. Ask a qualified person to do the
work if it involves opening equipment and creating an exposure to energized parts operating at 50 volts
or more.
2. Don‘t use an electrical outlet or switch if the protective cover is ajar cracked or missing Inform Lab
Assistant and Lab Engineer to get it fixed.
3. Only use DRY hands and tools and stand on a DRY surface. When using electrical
equipment, plugging in an electric cord etc.
4. Never put conductive metal objects into energized equipment. .
5. Always pick up and carry portable equipment by the handle and/or base. Carrying equipment
by the cord damages the cord's insulation.
6. Unplug cords from electrical outlets by pulling on the plug instead of pulling on the cord.
7. Use extension cords temporarily. The cord should be appropriately rated for the job.
8. Use extension cords with 3 prong plugs to ensure that equipment is grounded.
9. Never remove the grounding post from a 3 prong plug so you can plug it into a 2 prong, wall Outlet
or extension cord.
8
10. Re-route electrical cords or extension cords so they aren't run across the floor, under rugs or through
doorways, etc. Stepping on, pinching or-rolling over a cord will break down the insulation and will
create shock and fire hazards.
11. Don't overload extension cords, multi-outlet strips and wall outlets.
12. Heed the warning signs, barricades and/or guards that are posted when equipment or wiring is
being repaired or installed or if electrical componel1ts are exposed.
B. Check for Unsafe Conditions (either before or while you're using equipment :)
1. Is the cord's insulation 'frayed, cracked or damaged, exposing the internal wiring?
2. Are the plug's prongs bent, broken or missing, especially the third prong? 0
3. Is the plug or outlet blackened by arcing?
4. Was liquid spilled on or around the equipment?
5. Are any protective parts (or covers) broken, cracked or missing?
6. Do you feel a slight shock when you use the equipment?
7. Does the equipment or the cord overheat when it is running?
8. Does the equipment spark when it is plugged in or when switches or contr91s are used?
C. If you-observe any of these unsafe conditions:

1. Don't use (or stop using) the equipment.
2. Tag/label the equipment UNSAFE--DO NOT USE and describe the problem.
3. Notify your supervisor, Lab-Assistant or Lab Engineer as appropriate.
Electrical safety is for everyone because even contact with the standard low voltage electrical
circuits which we constantly use, 'can be lethal under certain conditions. .
9
The Physics Laboratory
LAB – 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL MULTIMETER
1. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 How to use DMM (Digital Multimeter) to measure (AC-DC) Voltage and Current,
Resistance, Diode, Frequency and Capacitance.
1.2 How use Bread board.
2. APPRATUS REQUIRED
a. DMM (Digital Multi-meter)

b. Resistor
c. Wires
d. Power supply
3. SAFETY PRECATIONS:
1. De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or disconnecting a
multimeter.
2. Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with a multimeter.
3. Connect the multimeter in series with the circuit for current measurements and in parallel
for voltage measurements.
4. Be certain the multimeter is switched to ac before attempting to measure ac circuits.
5. Observe proper dc polarity when measuring dc.
6. When you are finished with a multimeter, switch it to the OFF position, if available. If
there is no OFF position, switch the multimeter to the highest ac voltage position.
7. Always start with the highest voltage or current range.
8. Select a final range that allows a reading near the middle of the scale. The frequency of
oscilloscope should be so adjusted that the waveform may appear to be static and few
waves are completely observed on screen.
4. WHAT IS DIGITAL MULTIMETER?
A Multimeter is a device used to measure Voltage, Current and Resistance, Diode, Frequency and
Capacitance depending upon the function selected.
  A Voltmeter is used to measure voltage across a component or circuit. 
 An Ammeter is used to measure current through a circuit. 
 An Ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. 
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4.1 How to measure Voltage?
 Select voltage function scale.

 To measure AC voltage selects AC function scale.
 To measure DC voltage selects DC function scale.
 Connect DMM probes in parallel to desire component or circuit.
4.2 How to measure Current?

 Select Current function scale.
 To measure AC Current selects AC function scale.
 To measure DC Current selects DC function scale. 
 Connect DMM probes in series to desire component or circuit.
4.3 How to measure Resistance?
 Select Resistance function scale.

 Remove power if necessary and isolate the component from the
circuit under test.
4.4 How to check Diode?

 Select Diode function scale. 
 Isolate the component from the circuit under test.
 Connect DMM probes in parallel to Diode and see
reading.
 If DMM show 0.7v then diode pin which is connected
with red probe is anode and other diode pin is cathode.
 If DMM show OL its mean that diode is reverse biased.
 If for both steps DMM show reading 0.7v or OL it means
that diode is faulty.
4.5 How to measure Frequency?
 Select Frequency function scale. 

 Connect DMM probes to the circuit.
 Read the measurement on the display.
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4.6 How to measure Capacitance?
 Select Capacitance function scale.

 Read the measurement on the display
4.7 How to measure Capacitance?

 Select Continuity function scale.
 Connect DMM probes in parallel to desire point or circuit.
 Read the measurement on the display
 If continuity exists, the beeper sounds continuously.
 If continuity not exists, the no beeper sounds.
CONCLUSION:
DMM:______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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LAB – 2 INTRODUCTION TO HEATHKIT/LAB TRAINER
3. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 How to use DC and AC Power supply.

1.2 How to use Generator.
1.3 How to use Variable Resistor.
1.4 How use Bread board.

b. Wires
1. Switch off electrical appliances which do not need to be left on when equipment is not in
use.
2. When assembling or disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.
6. WHAT IS HEATHKIT/LAB TRAINER?
A Heathkit/Lab Trainer is a device used for supplying AC and DC power, function generator,
variable resistor and brad board for making circuit.
AC Power Supply
On/Off Button 15V and 30V
Signal
Generator
DC Power
Supply 1-15V
Variable Resistor
1K and 100k
Brad Board
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4.1 How to use DC Voltage?
 Positive DC voltage varies from 1v to 15v.

 Inset positive connecting wire in POS and ground wire in GND point.
 Using DMM select the voltage desired voltage with variable switch.
 Connect power supply with circuit.
 Same procedure is used for negative power supply but only replace POS point with NEG
point.
4.2 How to use AC Voltage?
 You see three connecting points in verticals, and pairs of upper 2 or lower 2 provide 15V AC.
 Same as top and bottom connecting pair provide 30V AC.
4.8 How to use variable Resistors?
 Three connecting points are used for variable resistor.

 Resistance varies between 1 and 2 number points and between 2 and 3 number points.
 Here two types of resistor available. One is varies between 0 to 1 kilo ohms and second varies
between 0 to 100 kilo ohms.
4.9 How to use bread board
Following the bread boarding practice outlined below will generally help guarantee
that your circuit will work as well as possible.
1. Lay the circuit out as neatly as possible. Having the

component locations correspond to the circuit diagram
will aid in Iodating test points. Such, a layout is also
easiest to check for wiring errors.
2. Make all wires and leads as short as possible. Long

wires and leads increase stray capacitance and
inductance which can be significant in high-frequency
circuits.
3. Take care when inserting and removing integrated circuits, to

and from the breadboard so as to avoid bending the pins. To
remove a DIP, insert a screwdriver or other thin object under
the package and pry up gently. It is best to pry a little on
alternate sides so the pins are not bent in any direction. Never
pull out an integrated circuit or other circuit element with the
power connected.
4. If your circuit exhibits significant noise, significant distortion, or

poor high-frequency or performance, try by-passing the power
supplies by placing 0.1µf capacitors across the positive supplies.
Also, place the capacitors across the power supply terminals of
all integrated circuits.
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CONCLUSION:
Heathkit/Lab Trainer:_________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. Set +5 voltage using DMM.

2. Set -7 voltage using DMM.
3. Measure and verify Line frequency and voltage.
4. Set 10 kilo hz sin wave frequency using DMM.
5. Set 7 kilo hz sin wave frequency using DMM.
6. Set 7.5 kilo hz square wave frequency using DMM.
7. Set 5 kilo hz square wave frequency using DMM.
8. Set 9 kilo hz square wave frequency using DMM.
9. Set 54 kilo ohm resistor value using DMM.(0-100kΩ)
10. Set 670 ohm resistor value using DMM. (0-1kΩ)
15
LAB – 3 INTRODUCTION TO SERIES, PARALLEL AND SERIES PARALLEL

COMBINATION CIRCUIT
1. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 Make series resistor circuit and measure current, voltage and resistance.
1.2 Make parallel resistor circuit and measure current, voltage and resistance.
1.3 Make series parallel combination resistor circuit and measure current, voltage and
resistance.

b. Wires
c. Resistor
d. Trainer
1. Switch off electrical appliances which do not need to be left on when equipment is not in
use.
2. When assembling or disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.
4. HOW TO MAKE CIRCUITS?
4.1. Series Circuits Defined
Two components are in series if they share a common

node and if the same current flows through them.
Here’s an example circuit with three series resistors:
There’s only one way for the current to flow in the

above circuit. Starting from the positive terminal of
the battery, current flow will first encounter R1. From
there the current will flow straight to R2, then to R3,
and finally back to the negative terminal of the
battery. Note that there is only one path for current to follow. These components are in series.
16
4.2. Parallel Circuits Defined
If components share two common nodes, they are in

parallel. Here’s an example schematic of three resistors
in parallel with a battery:
From the positive battery terminal, current flows to R1…

and R2, and R3. The node that connects the battery to R1
is also connected to the other resistors. The other ends of
these resistors are similarly tied together, and then tied
back to the negative terminal of the battery. There are
three distinct paths that current can take before returning
to the battery, and the associated resistors are said to be
in parallel.
Where series components all have equal currents running through them, parallel components all
have the same voltage drop across them.
4.3. Series and Parallel Circuits Working Together
From there we can mix and match. In the next picture, we again
see three resistors and a battery. From the positive battery
terminal, current first encounters R1. But, at the other side of R1
the node splits, and current can go to both R2 and R3. The
current paths through R2 and R3 are then tied together again,
and current goes back to the negative terminal of the battery.
In this example, R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, and

R1 is in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3.
4.4. Calculating Equivalent Resistances in Series Circuits
Here’s some information that may be of some more practical

use to you. When we put resistors together like this, in series and
parallel, we change the way current flows through them. For example,
if we have a 10V supply across a 10kΩ resistor, Ohm’s law says we’ve
got 1mA of current flowing.
If we then put another 10kΩ resistor in series with the first and leave the
supply unchanged, we’ve cut the current in half because the resistance is
doubled.
In other words, there’s still only one path for current to take and we just
made it even harder for current to flow. How much harder? 10kΩ +
10kΩ = 20kΩ. And, that’s how we calculate resistors in series – just add
their values.
To put this equation more generally: the total resistance of N – some arbitrary number of –
resistors is their total sum.
17
4.5. Calculating Equivalent Resistances In Parallel Circuits
What about parallel resistors? That’s a bit more

complicated, but not by much. Consider the last example
where we started with a 10V supply and a 10kΩ resistor,
but this time we add another 10kΩ in parallel instead of
series. Now there are two paths for current to take. Since
the supply voltage didn’t change, Ohm’s Law says the
first resistor is still going to draw 1mA. But, so is the
second resistor, and we now have a total of 2mA coming
from the supply, doubling the original 1mA. This implies
that we’ve cut the total resistance in half.
While we can say that 10kΩ || 10kΩ = 5kΩ (“||” roughly translates to “in parallel with”), we’re
not always going to have 2 identical resistors. What then?
The equation for adding an arbitrary number of resistors in parallel is:
If reciprocals aren’t your thing, we can also use a method called “product over sum” when we
have two resistors in parallel:
However, this method is only good for two resistors in one calculation. We can combine more
than 2 resistors with this method by taking the result of R1 || R2 and calculating that value in
parallel with a third resistor (again as product over sum), but the reciprocal method may be less
work.
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. Calculate total resistance of given circuits theoretically and practically.

R1=1K
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R2=5K
R3=10K
Parallel circuit Series Circuit Series parallel combination

Theoretically: Theoretically: Theoretically:
Practically Parallel circuit Practically Series Circuit

R1 R2 R1 R2
R3 Total R3 Total
Practically Series Parallel combination circuit
R1 R2
R3 Total
Parallel Circuit Series Circuit
2. Calculate current and voltage.
Parallel circuit Series Circuit

Resistor Current Voltage Resistor Current Voltage
19
R1 R1
R2 R2
R3 R3
Total Total
Series Parallel Combination circuit
Resistor Current Voltage
R1
R2
R3
Total
CONCLUSION:
Series Circuit:_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Parallel Circuit________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Series Parallel Combination Circuit:______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
20
LAB – 4 INTRODUCTION TO OSCILLOSCOPE
1. OBJECTIVES:-
1.4 To become familiar with the function of controls of an Oscilloscope.

1.5 To use it to measure Frequency and Voltage.
a. Oscilloscope
b. Wires
1. The frequency of oscilloscope should be so adjusted that the waveform may appear to be
static and few waves are completely observed on screen.
2. The amplitude of waveform on screen should neither be too small to be hardly visible
nor too big to make the signal go beyond screen.
3. Make sure the BNC input voltage does not exceed 300V peak.
4. Never connect a hazardous live voltage to the ground side of the BNC connectors. It
might lead to fire and electric shock.
5. Do not place heavy objects on the oscilloscope.
6. Avoid severe impact or rough handling that may damage the oscilloscope.
7. Avoid discharges of static electricity on or near the oscilloscope.
8. Use only mating connectors, not bare wires, for the terminals.
9. Do not block the cooling fan vent.
10. The oscilloscope should only be disassembled by a qualified technician.
4. INTRODUCTION:
An oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument for observing electrical signals and is an essential

tool for anyone designing or repairing Physics equipment. The primary advantage of using an
oscilloscope instead of a digital voltmeter is that the signal can be viewed directly on a
screen, facilitating direct measurement of AC characteristics such as frequency, peak to peak
(p-p) voltage and phase angle.
21
Fig. 1 Two-channel, portable digital oscilloscope for electronics applications such as product
design, assembly lines, repair and servicing, and electrical engineering education
4.1 FUNCION OF CONTROLS:
Before turning this instrument ON, familiarize yourself with the major controls.
22
The following descriptions are keyed to the items called out in Fig1.
23
How to measure Frequency?
1. Position to wave so that the beginning lines up with one
of the vertical division markers.
2. Count the number of divisions until the beginning of the
24
next wave.
Period T= (Time/Division)*(Numbers of Division)
Frequency f = 1/Period (T)
4.3. How to measure Voltage?
1. Using the CH1 position dial, move the wave until the
bottom line up with one of the division lines.
2. Measure the number of divisions from the bottom to the
top.
Peak to Peak Voltage = (Volts/Division)*(Numbers of Division)
Amplitude V= (1/2)* Peak to Peak Voltage
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. Generate 15V peak-peak Signal with 1 kHz.
2. Generate 15V peak-peak Sine-wave with frequency of 2 kHz.
25
3. Generate 15V peak-peak Square-wave with frequency of 1.7 kHz
CONCLUSION:
1.Oscilloscope:________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
26
LAB 5– DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
1. OBJECTIVE:-
1.1 To study Diode application in rectification.
Half Wave and Full Wave rectifiers
1.2 To study how capacitor work as a filter.
a. Training Kit.

b. Dual – Trace Oscilloscope and probes.

c. Multimeter.

d. Function Generator.
e. Resistors: 1KΩ, 10KΩ, and 100KΩ.

f. Capacitors: 1µF, 2.2µF.

g. 1N4001 Diode
a) In circuit shown in fig (2) p-regions diodes D1 and D2 should be connected to
terminals of secondary of transformer through keys where as their n-regions
should be connected to a common terminal.
b) The centre tap ‗C‘ taken from secondary should be grounded.
c) The frequency of inbuilt (sweep) generator of oscilloscope should be nearly equal
or comparable to frequency of input signal (50Hz if input is drawn from A.C
mains through step down transformer.)
d) The frequency of oscilloscope should be so adjusted that the waveform may
appear to be static and few waves are completely observed on screen.
e) The amplitude of waveform on screen should neither be too small to be hardly
visible nor too big to make the signal go beyond screen.
4. INTRODUCTION
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
4.1 What is Half wave Rectification?
In half wave rectification, during the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and
it conducts and hence a current flow through the load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the
27
diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through the load
resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in half wave
rectification.
Fig. 1: Half wave rectifier
4.2 What is Full wave Rectification?
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating
DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a center tapped
transformer (Fig 2), or four diodes in a bridge configuration (fig 3) and any AC source (including a
transformer without center tap), are needed.
Fig.3: Center Tapped Transformer Rectifier
Fig.2: Bridge Rectifier
28
5(a). PROCEDURE:
Half wave Rectification
a. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

b. Give the input signal as specified.
c. Switch on the power supply.
d. Note down the value of AC and DC voltages from the Oscilloscope.
e. Draw the necessary waveforms on the graph sheet.
Oscilloscope
Fig.4
Fig.5
OBSERVATIONS:
Vin(p-p) Vin(r.m.s) Vout (CRO) Vout (DMM)

5.0
7.0
10.0
12.0
15.0
Table 1: Half wave Rectifier with Resistive Load
29
5(b). PROCEDURE:
Full wave Rectification
a. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

b. Give the input signal as specified.
c. Switch on the power supply.
d. Note down the value of AC and DC voltages from the Oscilloscope.
e. Draw the necessary waveforms on the graph sheet.
Oscilloscope
Fig.6
OBSERVATION
Vin(p-p) Vin(r.m.s) Vout (CRO) Vout (DMM)

5.0
7.0
10.0
12.0
15.0
Table 2: Full wave Rectifier with Resistive Load
30
LAB ACTIVITIES:
Draw Input and Output wave of half wave rectifier.
1: For 5.0V
2: For 12.0V
3: For 10.0V
4: For 12.0V
5: For 15.0V
31
Draw Input and Output wave of full wave rectifier.
1: For 5.0V
2: For 12.0V
3: For 10.0V
4: For 12.0V
5: For 15.0V
32
CONCLUSION:
1.Half Wave Rectifier:_________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2.Full Wave Rectifier:__________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
33
LAB -6: TO PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL & LIGHT DEPANDENT

RESISTOR (LDR)
1.OBJECTIVE:
1.1 To study variation of photo-electric current with intensity of light incident on

photo-cell*(photo-voltaic cell).
2. APPARATUS REQUIRED:
a. A photo-cell (consisting of rectangular box having a photo-cell or photo-voltaic cell
affixed with inner wall at one end of the box.
b. A sliding lamp with bulb
c. A meter rod on top face of box to read position of bulb
d. A micro-ammeter
e. A battery(in case of photo-cell)
f. Connecting wires
g. A.C mains Supply
3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make sure all circuit connections are correct, and not shorted wires exist.
2. Adjust the power supply to the proper voltage before connecting it to the circuit.
4. INTRODUCTION:
Photo-resistor
A Photo-resistor or Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity.
A Photo-resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device
is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons
enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole
partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
34
Symbols:
Photo Voltaic cell
Photo voltaic are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to
convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light
exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric
current.
DIAGRAM:
(a)
35
(b)
(c)
(d)
36
FORMULA USED:
2
Photo electric current (I) = 1/d
5. PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the photo cell to a battery through micro-ammeter. [If a photo-voltaic cell is
fitted in the apparatus instead of photo cell then there is no need to connect battery in the
circuit. Just connect the micro-ammeter across terminals of photo-voltaic cell.]
2. Switch on bulb of the lamp. Light will fall on the cell and micro-ammeter will show some
deflection. If pointer of micro-ammeter id deflected in reverse direction from its zero
position, interchange micro-ammeter connection connections.
3. Bring the lamp to position closest to the photo cell or photo-voltaic cell. Measure
distance between cell and filament of bulb on meter scale and current I in micro-
ammeter.
4. Now move the lamp away from the cell in even steps (say of 10 cm) and note
corresponding reading of current in micro-ammeter. Take at least 6 such readings.
5. Now decrease the distance ‗d‘ and again take reading of micro-ammeter at same values
2
of ‗d‘ as in step (4). Find out mean value of current I and 1/d for each reading.
2 2
6. Plot a graph between ‗I‘ and ‗1/d ‘ (1/d on x-axis and I on y-axis) which should be a
straight line. [if all plotted points do not lie on straight line then draw line through them
i.e. draw line in such a way that deviations of points on either side of line are equal.
6. OBSERVATIONS:
LEAST COUNT OF MICRO-AMMETER= µA.
Sr. Distance of filament Photo-electric current ‗I‘ in µA 1/d

-2
No. of bulb of lamp from Distance Distance Mean ‗I‘ cm
photo cell (or photo- increasing decreasing
voltaic cell) in cm.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
37
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What is photo electric effect?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is photon?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What is photo resistor?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is photo voltaic cell?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Is there any other name of photo voltaic cell?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
38
CONCLUSION:
1.Photo Resistor(LDR): _________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2.Photo Voltaic Cell:____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
39
LAB-7: CAREY FOSTER BRIDGE
1. OBJECTIVE:
1.1 To determine resistance of wire per unit length 'σ'.
1.2 To determine unknown low resistance by using a Carey foster bridge.
2. APPARATUS:
a. Carey foster bridge
b. Two resistance boxes
c. A fractional resistance box
d. Unknown low resistance (a piece of thick eureka wire) thick copper strip
e. Power supply
f. Galvanometer
g. Key
h. Jockey
i. Connecting wires
1. All connection should be tight and clean, because a loose connection is itself a
resistance.
2. Current in the circuit should be switched on only when reading are taken and should be
switched off after taking each reading.
3. The jockey should be simply touched with wire at different points to locate balance
point. It should neither be pressed hard on wire nor should be slided over the wire.
4. Length should always be measured from left end of wire in each case.
4. INTRODUCTION:
The Carey Foster Bridge is an electrical circuit that can be used to measure very small
resistances. It works on the same principle as Wheat stone‘s bridge, which consists of four
resistances, P, Q, R and S that are connected to each other as shown in the circuit diagram in
Figure 1. In this circuit, G is a galvanometer, E is a lead accumulator, and K1 and K are the
galvanometer key and the battery key respectively. If the values of the resistances are adjusted so
that no current flows through the galvanometer, then if any three of the resistances P, Q, R and S
are known, the fourth unknown resistance can be determined by using the relationship
40
While performing this experiment you will balance the Carey Foster bridge by a null
deflection method using a galvanometer. You will first determine the resistance per unit length of
the material used for the bridge wire, and will then determine the value of an unknown resistance.
DIAGRAM:
Fig 2
Fig 3
41
Fig 4
Fig 5
FORMULA USED:
X=Q + (L3 – L4) σ …………… (1)
Where σ= P ………………. (2)
(L2 – L1)
Or X=Q + (L3 – L4) P
(L2– L1)
Where 'σ‘ is resistance of wire per unit length, L1 is balancing length of wire from its
left end when there is a small resistance ‗P‘ in extreme left gap and copper strip in extreme right
gap. L2 is balancing length of wire from its left end when position of resistance ‗P‘ and copper
strip are interchanged. L3 is balancing length of wire from its left end when there is unknown
resistance ‗X‘ in extreme right gap and a nearly equal known resistance Q in extreme left gap and
L4 is balancing length from left end of wire when positions of X end Q are interchanged.
42
5. PROCEDURE:
1. Make connections as shown in figure (2) and a find position of jockey on wire of
Carey foster bridge when there is no deflection in galvanometer. Measure its
distance L1 from left end ‗Y‘ of wire. Here ‗P‘ should be about 0.1 Ω(or any
other suitable value) and a fractional resistance box (FRB) should be connected
in this gap for putting suitable value of ‗P‘ in the circuit. Equal resistance (e.g.
10 Ω or 20 ) should be used as R1 and
R2 with the help of two resistance boxes.
2. Now interchange position of copper strip and show in figure (3) and put same
resistance ‗P‘ in the circuit by FRB as in step (1). Again find null points on the
wire and measure its distance L2 from left end ‗Y‘ of the wire. R1 and R2
should remain unchanged.
3. Connect unknown (low) resistance ‗X‘ as shown in figure (4) in extreme right
gap and FRB in extreme left gap and put a suitable resistance ‗Q‘ (e.g. 0.1 Ω) by
FRB in the circuit R1 and R2 should remain unchanged. Determine position of
null position of wire and measure its length L3 from left end ‗Y‘ of wire.
4. Interchange position of ‗X‘ and ‗Q‘ on the bridge as shown in figure (5) without
changing values of R1 and R2 and ‗Q‘ and location null point on the wire.
Measure distance L4 of null point from left end ‗Y‘ of wire.
5. Find out resistance per unit length ‗σ‘ by putting values of P,L1 and L2 in
equation (2) and then calculate resistance ‗x‘ by putting values of L3, L4, σ and
Q in equation (1).
6. Repeat steps (1) to (5) for second suitable values of P and Q and find value of
‗X‘ at least three times and then find mean value of ‗X‘.
6. OBSERVATIONS:
Sr. Resistances Distance of balance point σ=( P ) X=Q+(L3 – L4) σ

No from left end to wire (L2– L1) Ω
L L L L
R1 R2 P Q 1 2 3 4 Ω/cm
Ω Ω Ω Ω [fig (1)] [fig (2)] [fig (3)] [fig(4)]
cm cm cm cm
1. 10 10
2. 10 10
3. 20 20
Mean value of X=________________Ω

35
43
RESULT:
Given unknown resistance is determining to be ____________________Ω.
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. For what purpose Carey Foster bridge is designed?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is different between Carey Foster and wheat stone bridge?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What is Ohm‘s law?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Why does a conductor offer resistance to flow of current?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION:
1. Carey Foster Bridge:_________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
44
LAB : 8 TO STUDY THE POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF

RESISTANCE
1. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 To determine positive temperature coefficient (α) of Tungsten wire.

c. Calculate the resistance of the Tungsten.
d. Plot a graph of resistance against temperature.
a. Thermistor
b. Tungsten wire
c. Beaker
d. Water
e. Electric Kettle
f. Multimeter
g. Digital Thermometer
1. All connection should be tight and clean, because a loose connection is itself a resistance.
2. Reading at boiling point of water should be noted after there is no further rise in
temperature of water.
4. INTRODUCTION
4.1. Tungsten wire:

Tungsten is a type of material whose resistance varies significantly
with temperature. When temperature increases then resistance of that material increases
and vice versa. These are used in electrical devices such as thermometers and
thermostats that measure, monitor, or regulate temperature.
45
5(a). PROCEDURE:
1. First measure the resistance Ro of thermistor at room temperature T0.

2. Connect the circuit according the diagram in Fig. 2.
3. Fill the beaker with hot water , and dip the probes of thermistor and thermometer into water.
4. Reading of Ohm meter (Resistance R) at boiling point of water should be noted after there is
no further rise in temperature T1 of water.
o
5. Note down readings of Ohm meter, after every 10 C decreases of temperature.
6. Plot a graph of temperature against resistance and also calculate Temperature coefficient
(α) using equation 1.
Temperature coefficient (α) = R - Ro ………………..… Eq (1)

Ro ∆T
Where
∆T =T1 - To
Fig (2)
OBSERVATIONS:
46
Tungsten Wire:
o
Room temperature To=………………….. C
Resistance at room Temperature Ro=………………Ω.
0
S/No T1( C) Resistance (Ω) ∆T =T1 - To Temperature coefficient (α)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
47
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What is temperature coefficient and its unit?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. How the resistance of a conducting material affected by rising its temperature?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION:
1. Positive Temperature
Coefficient:____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
48
LAB : 9 TO STUDY THE NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF

RESISTANCE
2. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 To determine negative temperature coefficient (α) of Thermistor.
a. Calculate the resistance of the Thermistor .
b. Plot a graph of resistance against temperature .
h. Thermistor
i. Tungsten wire
j. Beaker
k. Water
l. Electric Kettle
m. Multimeter
n. Digital Thermometer
2. Reading at boiling point of water should be noted after there is no further rise
in temperature of water.
6. INTRODUCTION
4.1. Thermistor:
This is a type of resistor is made from a sintered semi conductor material which has
a resistance that changes with temperature.
The NTC is the type most often used in experiments. The increasing temperature produces
more free electrons and so the resistance falls. These electrons are able to 'jump' from the
valence band to the conduction band. This increase in conduction electrons masks the effect
due to the increase thermal motion of the atoms and electrons.
At low temperature its resistance is large (thousands of ohms), at high temperature its
resistance is small (tens of ohms). Very little current will flow through it when it is cold.
This means that its resistance increases as the temperature falls. These are used as
temperature sensors in thermostats in ovens and irons, in fire alarms and on the wing of
a plane to detect when the temperature falls low.
49
Fig (1). Temperature Vs Resistance curve
5. PROCEDURE:
1. First measure the resistance Ro of thermistor at room temperature T0.

3. Fill the beaker with hot water , and dip the probes of thermistor and thermometer into
water.
4. Reading of Ohm meter (Resistance R) at boiling point of water should be noted after there
is no further rise in temperature T1 of water.
o
5. Note down readings of Ohm meter, after every 10 C decreases of temperature.
6. Plot a graph of temperature against resistance and also calculate Temperature coefficient
(α) using equation 1.
Temperature coefficient (α) = R - Ro ………………..… Eq (1)

Ro ∆T
Where
∆T =T1 - To
50
Fig (2)
OBSERVATIONS:
Thermistor:
o
Room temperature To=………………….. C
Resistance at room Temperature Ro=………………Ω.
0
S/No T1( C) Resistance (Ω) ∆T =T1 - To Temperature coefficient (α)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
51
52
LAB ACTIVITIES:
a. What is difference between resistance and resistivity?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. What is difference between NTC and PTC?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION:
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient:_____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
53
LAB:10 TO STUDY THE MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTCARRYING

CONDUCTOR
1. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 To learn about the effect of a magnetic field on a current-carrying wire.
1.2 How it varies with current, length, magnetic field and angle (θ).
a. Ammeter
b. Rheostat
c. Stand
d. U magnet
e. Electric balance machine
f. DC Power supply
g. Connecting wires
h. Calculator
2. Turn off fans when performing the practical.
3. TELSA meter is sensitive instrument, don‘t try to play it.
4. Don‘t try to measure weight more than 300gms on Physics weight balancer machine.
4. INTRODUCTION:
Current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field will experience a force (known as
Lorentz force).
(Note current is not parallel to magnetic field)
F=BxIL sin θ
F: Lorentz force on current carrying conductor.
B: Magnetic field strength
I: Current in conductor
L: Length of conductor
θ: Angle between B&I
54
Newton‟s Third Law:
If two bodies interact, the force exerted on body 1 by body 2 is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the force exerted on body 2 by body 1.
F12 = -F21.
Thus, if a magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying wire, the current-carrying
wire (or, more accurately, the B-field created by the current) exerts a force back on the
original magnetic field (or, more accurately, the magnets, current-carrying wire to be
producing the magnetic field). Instead of measuring the force exerted on the wire, we
will measure the force exerted on a small bank of magnets, knowing with full
confidence that these two forces are equal in magnitude.
55
55
5. PROCEDURE:
1. Set first Physics weight balancer machine to zero scale by putting U magnet on it.
3. Now, take Rheostat and decrease its resistance at different values, and after then note
down the values of current ‘I‘ and magnetic force ‗F‘.
4. Calculate magnetic field by using formula,
F=BIL sinθ
o
θ =90 then sin θ=1
Where F= mg and
2
g=9.8m/s B=F/IxL
5. Also measured magnetic field by using Tesla meter.

6. Calculate percentage error.
Fig. (1)
56
56
6.OBSERVATIONS:
S/No F=mg Magnetic %age

field B error
Resistance Current Length of Mass here
2 (m/t)
(Ω) “I” conductor g=9.8m/s
(Kg)
(amp) “L”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What is Lorentz force?
Ans._______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What will be the direction of force? If we change the direction of current.

Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. What will effect on magnetic field ? If we increase the length of conductor.
Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. What will effect of magnetic field on conductor? If conductor parallel with magnetic
field.
Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
57
57
CONCLUSION:
1. Magnetic field on a current-carrying Conductor:________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
58
58
LAB: 11 SPEED OF LIGHT
1. OBJECTIVES:-
1.1 To observe the propagation of light through an optical fiber .

1.2 To get experience measuring a very short time interval with an oscilloscope.
1.3 To calculate the speed of light in an optical fiber.
a. Dual channel oscilloscope with two oscilloscope probes,
b. Pulse generating circuit board with AC adapter,
c. 20 m optical fiber,
d. 15 cm optical fiber
3. INTRODUCTION
To measure the speed of anything you need two things: a distance and a time. If
something is traveling very fast (like light) you are either going to be measuring a very
short interval of time or a very long distance.
The other thing that we need to consider is that light will travel through a thin fiber of glass or
plastic even when the fiber is not straight. This is because as the light travels down the optical fiber
it is repeatedly reflected off of the walls of the fiber as shown in the above diagram. This is
referred to as total internal reflection. We will send our light through such a fiber so that it won‘t
spread out and become too weak to detect by the time it arrives at its destination. We will use 20 m
of fiber wound loosely in a coil so that it will fit nicely on your desktop. In order to determine the
speed of light as it travels down the fiber we need to know how long it takes for the light to travel
the 20 m length. Since this is a very short amount of time, we will do the timing Physicsally with
the use of an oscilloscope. An oscilloscope is useful whenever we want to look at an electrical
signal (voltage) that is repetitive and changes rapidly with time. The basic idea behind the
measurement is that we use a light emitting diode (LED) to produce and send a series of very short
light pulses (light on, light off, light on, light off, ...) into the fiber and observe when they arrive at
the other end of the fiber.
59
Since the oscilloscope produces a graph of voltage Vs time it is a simple matter of reading
the graph to determine the time delay between when the light pulse enters the fiber at one
end and when it leaves at the other end.
4. PROCEDURE
1. Just to get an idea of what sort of time we are trying to measure, calculate the time
that it takes light to travel 20 m through empty space (vacuum). You can look up the
speed of light in vacuum in your text. (Of course, in our experiment, the time interval
will be a little longer because the light is slowed down when it travels through the
plastic material that makes up the fiber.) Show your calculations here:
2. Your instructor will help you make the initial settings and connections between
the circuit board that produces the light pulses and the oscilloscope. Please treat
this equipment with respect. It is expensive!
3. The first thing that you need to see on the oscilloscope is the reference pulse that is
produced by the LED on the circuit board. In order to do this, connect the Channel
One probe to the blue test point marked ―Reference‖ on the circuit board. Connect
the ground alligator clip on the probe to the ground just below the Reference test
point. Similarly, connect the Channel Two probe from the oscilloscope to the blue
―Delay‖ test point and its alligator clip to the ground just below this test point. See
Figure 1.
4. Plug in the power adaptor into the wall (220 volts AC) and connect its output to the left
side of the circuit board thus providing the DC power that runs the circuit board. At this
point you should be able to see the red light produced by the LED by looking into the right
side of the circuit board at the point marked ―D3‖. Loosen the nuts on LED D3 and
detector D8 (marked on the circuit board) and gently slide each end of the short 15 cm
60
length of optical fiber completely into those locations. Hands tighten the nuts to secure
the fiber. You will use this very short path as a way to calibrate your equipment. The time
for light to travel through 15 cm is so short that we will treat it as zero and thus use this
as a means of comparison when we send the light through the longer 20 m fiber. With the
help of your instructor, observe the pulse when it leaves the LED (on Channel 1 of the
oscilloscope) and simultaneously observe the pulse when it arrives at the detector (on
Channel 2 of the oscilloscope). Adjust the volts per division for each channel and the
seconds/div setting on the oscilloscope until the screen displays something like what is
shown in Figure 2a. Remember that this figure shows a graph of light intensity versus
time.
5. Turn the ―Calibration Delay‖ knob on the circuit board until the peak of the arriving
pulse occurs at the same time as the departing pulse. See Figure 2b. This calibrates
your apparatus so that the two pulses appear to happen at the same time. This is very
closely true since it takes very little time for the light pulse to travel through the 15 cm
of optical fiber.
Figure 2a—Uncalibrated Pulses Figure 2b—Calibrated Pulses
6. Adjust the seconds/div knob on the oscilloscope so that the display has a scale of
25 ns/div.
7. Now that your apparatus is calibrated, it times to do the real measurement. Carefully
remove the 15 cm optical fiber from its connections on the circuit board and return it to the
plastic pouch. Put the 20 m long fiber in its place and gently tighten the nuts on the fiber
as you previously did with the short fiber. Now you will measure the travel time of the
light pulse as it travels through 20 m of the optical fiber. You should see the two pulses on
the oscilloscope screen, but now they should be distinctly separated in time.
Make a sketch of the appearance of your two pulses here. Be sure to put a scale on each
axis of the graph.
61
Using the time (horizontal) scale determine the time between the peaks of the departing
pulse and the arriving pulse in nanoseconds. Record that time in the space provided. Be sure
to include the units.
Time Interval between peaks =
Now it is time to calculate the speed of light from the equation for speed. Fill in the numbers
and do the calculation with units:
62
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What is a fiber optic?
Ans._________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is fiber optic made off?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. (a) Comment on the accuracy of your method for determining the speed of light in
an optical fiber.
(b) What were sources of error in your experiment?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Can you deduce the speed of light in vacuum from the number that you have found?
Do a little background research and see if you can come with a good answer for this.
Hint: Treat the fiber as being made of glass (silicon dioxide)
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION:
1. Speed of Light:______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
63
LAB:12 I-H Curve for a material
1. OBJECTIVE:
1.1 To plot I- H curve for a material by a magnetometer. Also to determine magnetic constants
for that material.
a. Magnetometer
b. Two identical Solenoids
c. Commutator (reversing key)
d. Accumulator (or power supply 5A,12 V)
e. Rheostat
f. Ammeter (0-5A)
g. Specimen of given material in the form of thin rod (e.g. steel)
h. venire calipers
i. Key
j. Connection wires
1. Current in solenoid should not be increased beyond some safe limit; otherwise its turns
will become very hot and may be burn.
2. When magnetization of specimen becomes maximum (at C in graph) current should

not be further increased. Initially the specimen should be magnetized.
3. Position of pointer should be read by bringing eye vertically above so that its image in the
mirror below its not visible.
64
DIAGRAM:
FORMULA USED:
I= __M_____
V
2 22
M= 4*π*µo *Ho*(d -L ) *Tan θ___ …………
(1) 2d
2
V=2*π*r *L
H= Ni (in Am-1) …………………………… (2)
L
Where ‗I‘ is intensity of magnetization of the specimen, ‗H o‘ is horizontal components
of strength of earth‘s magnetic field, ‗d‘ is distance of center of solenoid from center of
magnetometer needle of magnetometer, ‗L‘ is half length or ‗2L‘ is full length and ‗r‘ is radius
of specimen (rod) of given material (steel) and ‗θ‘ is angle of deflection in presence of specimen
-7
in equation (1). ‗µo‘ is known as permeability of free space ‗µo‘=4π*10 Weber/Am, ‗V‘ is
volume of specimen and ‗M‘ is magnetic moment of dipole.
4. DISCRAPTION OF APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of two solenoid ‗S1‘ and ‗S2‘ having equal number of turns.
They are wound on hollow wooden cylinders which are placed co-axially (side by side) with a
gap between them for magnetometer. Positions of solenoids are adjustable and distance of centre
of each solenoid from centre of needle of magnetometer can be measured on meter scale attached
to the base of apparatus. The turns of two solenoids are wound in opposite directions and same
current is passed in them by a battery. Hence magnetic fields produced by them will be in
opposite direction and should cancel each other completely at centre of magnetometer. If it were
65
not so then their positions are adjusted to get this result. Thus solenoid ‗B‘ acts as a
compensating coil. Current in solenoid is measured by an ammeter in series with battery and
direction of current can be reversed with the help of commutator (reversing key).
5. PROCEDURE:
1. Measure length ‗2L‘ and radius ‗r‘ of given thin steel rod with the help of venire
calipers. Also measure length ‗L‘ of solenoid ‗S1‘ and its total no of turns.
2. Place magnetometer in the gap made for its on wooden base such that arms of the base
are along east-west direction and pointer of magnetometer (which is at right angle to
magnetic needle) is parallel to the base. To do this rotates the base of magnetometer so
that pointer is at 0-0 position of circular scale of magnetometer.
3. Put solenoids ‗S1‘ and ‗S2‘ on the two arms of the base and insert key ‗K‘ to switch
on the current. Fix position of ‗S1‘ and adjust position of ‗S2‘ in such way that there
is no deflection in magnetometer for any amount of current in solenoid./ now fix
position of ‗S2‘ also.
4. Switch off the current by taken ‗K‘ off its slot and put the given specimen (thin rod)
coil inside solenoid ‗S1‘ along its axis. Measure distance ‗d‘ of center of the
specimen from center and center of needle of magnetometer.
5. Again switch on the current. Increase it slowly with the help of rheostat from in steps
of 0.2A. For each step note deflection in magnetometer. Continue this process until
there is no appreciable increase in deflection of magnetometer for rise in current.
However cheek the temperature of solenoid. If it becomes sufficiently warm then stop
increasing current immediately.
6. After attaining maximum value (about 2 amp) of current start decreasing current
in same steps as in (5) and again note deflection in magnetometer for each step till
current become zero. There will still be some deflection in magnetometer.
7. Now reverse direction of current by Commutator (reversing key). Deflection in

magnetometer will first be come zero and then in opposite direction. Proceed as in step
(5) and then in (6).
8. Again reverse direction of current and take readings in steps of 0.2 amp till the
deflection in magnetometer becomes zero and then maximum in initial direction.
9. Calculate magnetic moment ‗M‘ for each deflection from the relation (1) and strength –
‗H‘ of magnetic field for current in each step. Determine intensity of magnetization for
each step relation I=M /V. Then plot a graph between I (on y-axis) and H (on x-
61
66
axis) to get I-H curve OCDEFGC [fig (3)]. Determine various quantities from
graph as given in result.
6. OBSERVATION:
Venire constant of venire calipers = ……………………mm =……………..m

Total number of turns of each solenoid =……………………
Length of each solenoid =L=…………………….cm =………………m
Distance between center of magnetometer and center
of specimen rod in solenoid =d=……………………..cm =………………m
Length of the specimen rod =2L=……………………..cm =………………m Or
2L=……………………..cm =………………m
Diameter of specimen rod
(i) …………….cm (ii) …………….cm (iii) …………….cm
Mean diameter of specimen rod =D=……………………cm
Mean radius of specimen rod =r= D =………..=………………..cm
2 2
Horizontal component of earth‘s
magnetic field at place of experiment= Ho= …………………….Oersted
3 -1
At Rawalpindi Ho= 0.32 oerested = 0.32*10 =21 Am
4π
2 3
Volume of specimen =2πr L =………………..cm
3
=…………………m
Sr. Segmen Current Deflection Tan H= Magnetic dipole moment Intensity of
No t of I-H „I‟ in of θ Ni__ M= 4*π*µ *H *(d2-L2)2*Tan θ
o o
magnetization
curve solenoid magnetic L 2d I= __M__
- V
amp needle θ Am
-1
degrees
1. 0-C
2. C-D
3. D-E
4. E-F
5. F-G
6. G-C
67
RESULTS:
The I-H curve has been shown in graph. From graph

Relentivty of material=OD=……………..Amp/m
Coericvity of material=OE=..……………Amp/m
Susceptibility of material=I/H=…………..(at C in graph)
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What is µo ?
Ans._______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is retentivity?
Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
68
3. What is coercivity?
Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Is this I-H curve same for all ferromagnetic materials?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION:
1. I-H Curve for a material:______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
69
LAB: 13 e/m RATIO
1. OBJECTIVE
1.1 To measure the ratio of the charge of an electron to its mass.
a. e/m apparatus
1. Handle Lorentz force tube with care, because it is fragile and expensive.
2. To extend the lifetime of Lorentz force tube, set the accelerated voltage to minimum.
3. Before the operation of the experiment set the magnetizing current ―I‖ to zero.
4. When experiment is to finish, turn the power switch to OFF.
4. INTRODUCTION:
Electrons can be freed in a vacuum tube from a hot filament. Electrons, once
accelerated across a voltage difference due to an electric field will gain kinetic energy by
the following relationship
½ mv2=ev (1)
Where m is the electron mass, v is the electron‘s speed and e is the magnitude of the charge
associated with an electron. Then, using magnetic fields, these free electrons can be focused.
As an electron travels through the magnetic field B with velocity v it fells a force given by the
equation
F=-e (v x B) (2)
This magnetic force, because it is a cross product of two vectors (v and B), will be perpendicular
to both the velocity and magnetic field. As a result, an electron that moves with a constant speed,
v perpendicular to the magnetic field will travel in a circular trajectory that has a radius of R.
70
Fig 1.
Because, the magnitude of the magnetic force is evB, this force can then be applied to Newton‘s second law as
follows
2
evB = mv /R (3)
Rearranging equations (1) and (3) , we can obtain an expression for e/m
2
e/m = 2v/(BR)
5. PROCEDURE:
1. Turn the main power on. The unit will perform a self test lasting no more than 30s. Do
not do anything with the unit during the self test. When it is finished, the coil current
display will be stabilized and indicate ―000‖. Then unit is now ready to use, but note that
there is a 2 minute warm-up time before you should take final measurements. You can go
ahead and proceed with the reminder of this procedure.
2. Look in the center of the Helmholtz coils for the glass tube. The tube is extremely fragile,
and the wires sticking out from the tube have current and voltage, so be very careful. This
71
evacuated glass tube has helium vapor inside. The electrons will follow circular orbits
inside this tube.
3. Locate the grid and anode inside the glass tube. It is the pair of vertically oriented metal
cylinders with a gap between them. At its top and center is the filament or cathode that
will be heated by a current to emit the electrons.
4. There are three separate electrical circuits (see fig 6) :

1) To heat the filament/cathode (over which you have no control)
2) To apply a voltage between cathode and anode (denoted as Accelerating voltage on
the unit)
3) To supply the current (denoted as coil current) for the Helmholtz coils.
5. Measure the diameter of the Helmholtz coils in several places and take the average.
Record the mean radius R below.
Radius R ____________
Fig.3
6. Measure the mean separation d between the coils. You may want to average several
measurements here also.
72
Coil separation d ______________
Verify that d~=R (Note: we have found they may not quite agree.)
7. The manufacturer states that there are 150 turns in each coil.
8. Calculate the ―constant of proportionality‖ between the current passing through the
Helmholtz coils and magnetic field produced. You will need the above parameters to do
this, look at fig 3.
B Helmholtz (Tesla) = ____________× I (amps)
Turn up the voltage adjust knob to voltage of 100 V. Look for the electron beam, which
should be pointing down. Turn up the current adjust knob and look at the path of the
electron beam.
You should now be able to see the filament (two wires that are orange due to being
heated).
Turn the current adjust control up and observe the circular deflection of the beam. When
the current is high enough, the beam will form a circle. The diameter of the electron path
in the magnetic field can be measured using the scale. Vary the current adjust and note
the electron beam striking several of the centimeter scale markings. You should also be
able to see a vertical line indicating the half-centimeter mark. The scale number fluoresce
when the beam hits them. Set the beam on the 11 cm mark.
Set the coil current to 1.7 A. Adjust the accelerating voltage while looking at the electron
beam path, Do not exceed 350 V.
While the electron beam is somewhere near the middle of your vertical targets, use the
bar magnet to see how it affects the electron beam.
6. OBSERVATION:
Radius of Helmholtz coils R=_____________ (cm).____________ (m).
Number of turns of Helmholtz coils N=______________.
73
Where
S/No Voltage Current Diameter d Radius r=d/2 Magnetic field e/m (c/kg)
V(volts) I(amp) (cm) (cm) B(Tesla)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What is µo ?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is intensity of magnetization?

Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What is magnetic field?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Is this I-H curve same for all ferromagnetic materials?
Ans.__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
74
CONCLUSION:
1. Ratio of the charge of an electron:______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
75
LAB: 14 To determine resolving power of diffraction grating .
1. OBJECTIVE:
st nd
1.1 To determine 1 order & 2 order spectral lines of sodium lamp.
a. Spectrometer
b. Sodium lamp
c. Diffraction grating
d. A slit of variable width
e. Iron stand with clamp
f. Travelling microscope
1. All adjustments of spectrometer should be made carefully before beginning the
experiment.
2. Position of slit of adjustable width should be so adjusted that beam of light from lens of
collimator passed through it.
3. Width of slit should be decreased or increased slowly and its width should not be further
change when a change in observed i.e. when one line splits into two lines on opening it or
two lines merge into one on closing.
4. The diffraction grating should be exactly vertical with its ruled ace towards telescope of
spectrometer.
5. The plane of slit of adjustable width should be parallel to grating (i.e. it should also be
exactly vertical).
6. The slit should be removed carefully (for measurement of its width) so that other
adjustments of apparatus are not disturbed.
76
DIAGRAM:
FORMULA USED:
Resolving power =R= mN= mnW

Where ‗m‘ is order of diffraction grating, ‗N‘ is total number of illuminated slits
(lines) of diffraction grating
N=nW
‗n‘ is number of lines per cm of grating and W is width of variable slit in cm.
4. PROCEDURE:
4.1 Adjustment of spectrometer:
1. Look into eye-piece of telescope of spectrometer. A cross wire ⨁ will be visible. If it

is not clearly visible adjust eye-piece to see it clearly.
2. Focus telescope of spectrometer on a distant object (outside lab) and adjust position of
eye-piece relative to object with the help of screw, so that a clear (inverted) image of
that object is observed through eye-piece. Now telescope is ready to receive parallel
rays.
3. Bring spectrometer near Sodium lamp, with slit of collimator facing Sodium lamp.
The slit of collimator should be made narrow. Adjust telescope behind collimator and
see image of illuminated slit of collimator in the eye-piece of telescope. If the edges of
image are not sharp adjust distance between slit and lens of collimator with the help of
screw of collimator unless a sharp image is observed.
66
77
4. Level surface of base of spectrometer, telescope and collimator to be horizontal. The
surface of turn table should also be made horizontal with the help of its screws and
should be checked with spirit level.
4.2 Adjustment of diffraction grating for normal incidence:
5. Decrease width of slit of collimator, so that a sharp bright line is observed on cross
wire in the field of view of eye-piece of telescope. Note reading of telescope on the
o
scale of spectrometer. Then rotate telescope by exactly 90 and fix it with the help of
screw in its base.
6. Mount the diffraction grating in vertical position in its frame on turn table such that its
ruled surface is toward you. Rotate the turn table, till reflected image of illuminated
slit of collimator is observed on cross wire of eye-piece of telescope. Note reading on
the scale.
o
7. Now rotate the turn table by exactly 45 .then rays of light from collimator will be
incident normally on the grating fix the table with screw.
After performing these steps proceed as follows:
1. Rotate the telescope towards right to see first order spectral line in its field of view.
Two very closely spaced orange lines with dark separation between them should be
visible. If only one spectral line is observed, then slightly adjust width of slit of
collimator till two lines are seen.
2. Now introduced sharp edged slit of variable width between collimator and diffraction
grating and clamp it in iron stand. The slit should be exactly vertical (parallel to the
line of diffraction grating). It should be so adjusted that beam of light from collimator
also through it.
3. Open the slit sufficiently. Two separate lines will still be seen in field of view of the
telescope. Now slowly decrease width of slit while looking continuously in the eye-
piece of telescope. At one stage the dark separation between the two closely spaced
lines will disappear and only one spectral line will be observed. Then stop closing the
slit at once. Remove it from stand and measure its width ‗w 1‘ by travelling
microscope.
4. Now close the slit and again mount it in iron stand and start opening it slowly while
looking continuously in the eye-piece of telescope. First only one line will be seen
then two lines will be observed stop opening with dark separation between. As soon as
two lines are observed stop opening the slit. Again remove the slit from stand and
measure its width ‗w2‘ by travelling microscope.
67
78
5. Find mean width of ‗w‘ of slit. By putting its values along with that of m and N in
formula used. Calculation resolving power ‗R‘ in first order.
6. Now rotate telescope toward left of direct image position till first order spectral
lines are observed in the fields of view of telescope. Repeat steps (1) to (5) and
calculate resolving power in first order. Find mean value of ‗R‘.
nd
7. Repeat above steps for 2 order diffraction maxima on both sides of direct image
nd
and calculate mean resolving power in 2 order diffraction also.
5. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:
No. of lines per cm of grating=n=……………………..

Venire constant of scale of traveling microscope=……………………..mm =…………………..cm
Order of Side of Width of slit when two spectral lines Resolving

spectrum spectrum power
relative to Just merge Just Mean width
direct image (unresolved) resolved W2 W=W1+W2
W1 cm cm 2
right
First order
m=1
left
right
Second
order m=2
left
RESULT:
Mean resolving power of the given plane diffraction
Grating are found to be
R1=__________________m in first order
R2=__________________m in second order or diffraction.
68
79
LAB ACTIVITIES:
1. What do you mean by resolving power of diffraction grating?

Ans._______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is relation for resolving power of diffraction grating?

Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. What are units of resolving power?
Ans.________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Why we use sodium lamp to determine resolving power of diffraction grating?

Ans.___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION:
1. Resolving power of diffraction grating:___________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
69
80
Military College of
Signals
81
70
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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES &

Department of Humanities & Basic Sciences

Military College of Signals

PHY 101 - APPLIED PHYSICS

The American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT 1997), however,

EXPERIMENT 01 – INTRODUCTION DIGITAL MULTIMETER........................................................10

1. Introduction to Digital Multimeter 10

2. Introduction to Heathkit/lab Trainer 10

Introduction to Series, parallel and series

5. To study diode application in rectification 10

To study variation of Photo Electric Current

To determine unknown low resistance by

To study the Positive temperature

To study the Negative temperature

To study the magnetic force on current

To plot I-H curve for a material by a

To observe the speed of light through an

Measure the ratio of charge of an electron to

To determine the resolving power of

For Staff and Students in the Lab '"

QUESTIONS ABOUT WORK/LAB SAFTELY

C. If you-observe any of these unsafe conditions:

LAB – 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL MULTIMETER

a. DMM (Digital Multi-meter)

4. WHAT IS DIGITAL MULTIMETER?

 Select voltage function scale.

4.2 How to measure Current?

4.3 How to measure Resistance?

 Select Resistance function scale.

4.4 How to check Diode?

4.5 How to measure Frequency?

 Select Frequency function scale. 

 Select Capacitance function scale.

4.7 How to measure Capacitance?

LAB – 2 INTRODUCTION TO HEATHKIT/LAB TRAINER

1.1 How to use DC and AC Power supply.

a. DMM (Digital Multi-meter)

6. WHAT IS HEATHKIT/LAB TRAINER?

 Positive DC voltage varies from 1v to 15v.

4.2 How to use AC Voltage?

4.8 How to use variable Resistors?

 Three connecting points are used for variable resistor.

4.9 How to use bread board

1. Lay the circuit out as neatly as possible. Having the

2. Make all wires and leads as short as possible. Long

3. Take care when inserting and removing integrated circuits, to

4. If your circuit exhibits significant noise, significant distortion, or

1. Set +5 voltage using DMM.

LAB – 3 INTRODUCTION TO SERIES, PARALLEL AND SERIES PARALLEL

a. DMM (Digital Multi-meter)

4. HOW TO MAKE CIRCUITS?

4.1. Series Circuits Defined

Two components are in series if they share a common

There’s only one way for the current to flow in the

If components share two common nodes, they are in

From the positive battery terminal, current flows to R1…

4.3. Series and Parallel Circuits Working Together

In this example, R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, and

4.4. Calculating Equivalent Resistances in Series Circuits

Here’s some information that may be of some more practical

What about parallel resistors? That’s a bit more

The equation for adding an arbitrary number of resistors in parallel is:

1. Calculate total resistance of given circuits theoretically and practically.