Machine Elements - Module 3 PDF

Module 3: Vectors, Velocity Analysis, and Instant Centers
Module Description:
This module focuses on instantaneous velocity of points in a body or a mechanism, as well

as defining, solving, and locating instant centers.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module, the students must be able:

1. To calculate instantaneous velocities of points in a body and mechanisms.
2. To calculate and locate instant centers.
3. To execute vector operations.
4. To define terms involved in vectors and velocity.
MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 3 1

ENG’R. JULIUS JAMES D. LAURESTA
3.1 Introduction: Velocities in Machines
If the motion of a body is translation, the velocities of all particles composing the body are
equal and parallel; hence it is necessary to know the instantaneous velocity of only one particle in
order to find the instantaneous velocity of any other particle. (See Arts. 1.5 and 2.5)
However, if the body has any coplanar motion other than translation (rotation about an axis
or combination of translation and rotation about an axis), it is necessary to have enough data
(initial requirement) to determine the instantaneous velocity of two particles (step, sometimes
to be obtained) in order to determine the instantaneous velocity of any part of the body (to be
obtained). (See Arts. 1.5 and 2.5)
On the other hand, if you have more than enough data, you may find yourself analyzing a
deformable body or a mechanism. (See Art. 1.6)
Disclaimer: The classification of the motion of the points and/of the body will never be
known, unless a second state (displacement) is given or mechanism is described. (See Module 1
and 2)
This module will only focus on the instantaneous velocities of the points in a rigid body,
as well as the instantaneous motions of rigid bodies, having any coplanar motion other than
translation, utilized in analyzing the instantaneous velocities of points in mechanisms.

In analyzing the velocity of a rigid body, or a group of such bodies, the words point and
particle will be used interchangeably. The principal cases which occur are the following:
1. Two or more points on the same body;

2. Points on two or more bodies connected by pin joints;
3. Points on bodies in rolling contact; and
4. Points on bodies in sliding contact.
Velocities and accelerations in machines may be determined analytically or graphically.

Often, an analytical analysis becomes quite complicated and, in some cases, impossible. The
graphical analyses are more direct, less complicatedm and usually sufficiently accurate.
4 Graphical Methods for Obtaining Velocities
1. Resolution and Composition

2. Instantaneous Axis of Velocity
3. Instant Centers
4. Relative Velocity or Velocity Polygon
Each method has its advantages. Some problems may be solved by any or all the methods
listed, whereas other problems can be solved more readily by one particular method.
Many problems may best be solved by a combination of the methods. As a general rule,
methods 1 and 2 give the quickest solution. Method 2 is a simplified version of method 3. Method
4 can be used in the solution of practically all problems and is probably the most desirable method.

3.2 Review: Vectors
A scalar quantity has magnitude only, such as 1 ft, 2 lb. A vector quantity has magnitude,
direction, and sense, such as force, velocity, acceleration.
A vector is a line that represents a vector quantity. The length of the line, drawn at any
convenient scale, shows the magnitude; the direction of the line is parallel to the direction in which
the quantity acts; and an arrowhead or some other suitable convention indicates the sense of the
quantity.
The initial end of the line is the origin or tail, and the other end is the terminus or head.
The sense of the quantity is from the origin to the terminus, and often an arrowhead is placed at
the terminus.
Figure 3.2.01 Example of a vector
A vector is shown in Fig. 3.2.01, where A is the point of the application, length Aa
represents the magnitude of the quantity to some scale, line Aa represents the direction, and the
arrowhead shows the sense. If the sense is as shown, the vector is read Aa, but if the sense is
opposite, the vector is read aA.
It is often convenient to give the direction and sense of a vector by stating the angle made
by the vector with some reference line. In this text, the reference line will be a horizontal line and
the angle will be measured in a counterclockwise direction. In Fig. 3.2.01, the vector Aa has a
direction-sense of 135°.

3.3 Review: Vector Operations
The sum of two vector quantities is a quantity whose effect is the same as the combined
effect of the two original quantities. Consequently, the sum of two vectors is a vector representing
the sum of the two quantities shown by the vectors themselves. Similarly, a vector may be drawn
representing the sum of any number of vector quantities. The sum of the quantities is called their
resultant, and its vector, the resultant vector. The quantities added together to obtain the resultant
are its components, and the corresponding vectors are the component vectors.
i. The sum of two vectors is the closing side of a triangle whose other two sides
are formed by using the head of one of the component vectors as the tail for
the second. The sense of the resultant vector is toward the head of second
component vector.
Figure 3.3.01 Visualization of

resultant and components vectors
In Fig. 3.3.01, the vector Aa is the sum or the resultant of the vectors Aa1 and a1a. This
process is expressed by the equation
𝐴𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑎
Equation 3.3.1

ii. The sum of any number of vectors is the closing side of a polygon if which the
component vectors form the sides.

resultant and multiple
components vectors
In Fig. 3.3.02, the vector Aa is the sum or the resultant of the vectors Aa1, a1a2, a2a3, and
a3a and may be expressed in equation form
𝐴𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑎3 + 𝑎3 𝑎 = 𝐴𝑎
Equation 3.3.2
Figures 3.3.01 and 3.3.02 are called vector polygons.
iii. The difference between two vectors is the closing side of a triangle whose other
two sides are formed by placing the two vectors tail to tail. The sense of the
vector representing the difference is toward the vector quantity from which
the other vector quantity is subtracted.
In Fig. 3.3.01, the vector Aa1 is subtracted from the vector Aa and the difference is a1a.
This process is expressed by the equation
𝐴𝑎 − 𝐴𝑎1 = 𝑎1 𝑎
Equation 3.3.3
If it is desired to subtract vector Aa from Aa1, the difference would be aa1, that is, the vector
would have the same length and direction but the sense would be opposite.

3.4 Review: Vector Composition and Resolution
A vector quantity may be resolved into two components parallel to lines making any
desired angle with each other. In any case, the resultant or original vector will be the diagonal of
a parallelogram obtained with the components forming two of the sides. The same result is
obtained by making the components two sides of a triangle and the resultant or original vector the
closing side as used in vector addition (See Art. 3.3)
The process obtaining the resultant of any number of vectors is called vector composition,
and the reversed process of breaking up a vector into components is called vector resolution.

vector resolution
In Fig. 3.4.01, the vector Aa is resolved into components Aa1 and Aa2. This same vector
may be broken up into any number of sets of components. Another set, Aa3 and Aa4, is shown.
Note that in each case, Aa is the resultant of each set of components.

3.5 Considerations: Scales
In the graphical solution of problems, it is necessary to draw the machine full scale, to a
smaller scale, or to a larger scale. This space scale is expressed in three ways:
1. Proportionate size, e.g., one-fourth size (1/4 scale) or twice size (double scale);
2. The number of inches on the drawing equal to 1 foot on the machine, e.g., 3 inches
equal 1 foot (3 in. = 1 ft) or 24 inches equal 1 foot (24 in. = 1 ft)
3. 1 inch on the drawing equals so many feet, e.g., 1 inch equals 1/3 foot (1 in. = 1/3 ft)
or 1 inch equals 1/24 foot (1 in. = 1/24 ft).
The space scale is designated Ks.
The velocity scale, designated Kv, is defined as the linear velocity in distance units per unit
of time represented by 1 in. on the drawing.
If the linear velocity of a point is 5 fps and the Kv scale is 5, then a line 1 in. long would
represent a linear velocity of 5 fps and would be written Kv = 5 fps.
The acceleration scale, designated Ka, is defined as the linear acceleration in distance units
per unit of time per unit of time represented by 1 in. on the drawing.
If the linear acceleration of a point is 100 ft/sec 2 and the Ka scale is 100, then the line 1 in.
long would represent a linear acceleration of 100 ft/sec 2, and would be written Ka = 100 ft/sec2.

3.6 Review and Considerations: Rotating and Oscillating Cranks
The magnitude of the instantaneous linear velocity of a point on a revolving body, rotating
crank, or oscillating crank is proportional to the distance of that point from the axis of rotation of
the body or crank (See Art. 2.5 and Equation 2.5.3). The direction of the velocity is perpendicular
to a line joining the point whose velocity is considered and the axis of rotation (See Art. 2.8). The
sense of the linear velocity is the same as that of the angular velocity of the body, that is, right-
handed if clockwise rotation and left-handed if counterclockwise rotation (See Art. 2.1).
Figure 3.6.01 A vector visualization of Art. 2.5 and Equation 2.5.3
Figure 3.6.01 represents an irregularly shaped crank m turning about the fixed axis Q with
an instantaneous angular velocity N producing the linear velocity of A represented to a scale by
the line Aa. The magnitude of the velocities of B and C are proportional to Va as their respective
distance from Q (See Art. 2.5 and Equation 2.5.3). By the use of similar triangles, the magnitudes
are obtained as shown. In each case, the direction is perpendicular to AQ, BQ, and CQ (See Art.
2.8), and the sense of each linear velocity is consistent with the clockwise angular velocity of m
(See Art. 2.1).
Qa is often called the line of proportionality, proportionality line, or simply,

proportional line.

3.7 Method 1: Resolution and Composition
If the velocity of one point and the direction of the velocity of any other point on a
body are known (initial requirement, see Art. 3.1), the velocity of any other point on that body
may be obtained (to be obtained, see Art. 3.1) by resolving the known velocity vector into
components along and perpendicular (consideration) (See Art. 3.4) to the line joining these points
and making one of the components of the velocity of the other point equal to the component along
the line (step) (See Art. 3.4). The other component of this velocity will be perpendicular to the
line (step) (See Art. 3.4).
However, if velocities of two points in a body are given, or initial requirement exceeds as
to how it is described (direction only of the other point should be given), you may find yourself
analyzing a deformable body or a mechanism. (See Art. 3.1)
The validity of this procedure is apparent when it is realized that, in a rigid body, the
distance between the two points remains constant and the velocity component along the line
joining these points must be the same at each point (principle).
For deeper understanding, watch:

Velocity Analysis | Theory of Machines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzNik6PEKG8&t=30s
Method Consideration: In the following discussion, the components will be referred to

as the component along the line or link and the component perpendicular to the line or link, or
simply along and perpendicular components, in accordance to Art. 3.3 and 3.4.

Case A: Obtaining the Velocity of Another Point in a Rigid Body – Utilizing Resolution and
Composition
Figure 3.7.01 Two points in a rigid body

having different velocities
Description: In Fig. 3.7.01, A and B represent two points on the rigid body m.
Initial Requirement: The velocity of A, Va, is completely known and the direction of the
velocity of B is along BM as shown in Fig. 3.7.02.
Figure 3.7.02 The velocity of one point and

the direction of another point should be
known to obtain the velocity of any point
in a body.
To Be Obtained: Velocity of B.
Principle: Since this is a rigid body, the distance AB is constant and the component along
AB of the velocity of B is equal to the component along AB of the velocity of A (Refer to the video
Velocity Analysis | Theory of Machines and Method Consideration). Figure 3.7.03 shows the
straight line AB.
Figure 3.7.03 Points A and B can be

assumed points in a straight line AB.

Step 1: Resolve Va into components along and perpendicular to AB as shown in Fig. 3.7.04.
(Method Consideration)
Figure 3.7.04 Vector resolution is done to

Va with components along and
perpendicular to AB – an application of
Method Consideration
Then, any point on AB must have a component along AB of velocity equal to Aa, the
component along AB of the velocity A (principle).
Step 2: Extend AB and lay off Bb equal to Aa. Now, Bb is one component of the velocity
of B (according to the principle). (See Fig. 3.7.05)
Figure 3.7.05 Aa is equal to Bb according

to the principle.
Step 3: Draw bb1 perpendicular to AB, cutting BM at b1 as shown in Fig. 3.7.06. (Method
Consideration)
Figure 3.7.06 BM dictates the length of bb1

according to Method Consideration
bb1 is the perpendicular component of the velocity of B, according to the Method

Consideration,

Obtained: and Bb1 is the absolute or total velocity of B having Bb and bb1 as its
components along and perpendicular to AB, respectively, as shown in Fig. 3.7.07. (Method
Consideration)
Figure 3.7.07 Velocity of B, Vb, is obtained.
Case B: Obtaining the Velocities of Two Other Points in a Rigid Body – Utilizing
Simultaneous Resolution and Composition
Figure 3.7.08 Three points in a rigid body having

different velocities
Description: In Fig. 3.7.08, A, B, and C are points on the rigid body m.
velocity of B is along BM as shown in Fig. 3.7.09.
Figure 3.7.09 The velocity of one point and the direction

of another point should be known to obtain the velocity
of any point in a body.

To Be Obtained: Neither the magnitude nor the direction-sense of the velocity of C is
known.
Additional Principle: According to Art. 3.4, resultant can be resolved into different sets
of components.
As shown in Fig. 3.7.10, Vc can have different sets of components along and perpendicular
to lines AC and BC, no matter what its magnitude and direction-sense are. (See Art. 3.4 and Method
Consideration)
Figure 3.7.10 An application of Art. 3.4 and Method

Consideration.
This generation of different sets of along and perpendicular components is possible since
lines AC and BC are not along, nor parallel. (basic geometry)
As visualized in Fig. 3.7.10, in accordance to Art. 3.4 and Method Consideration, Vc can
be obtained by the graphical solution of the following vector equations:
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐴𝐶
Equation 3.7.1
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶
Equation 3.7.2
Case A is utilized to find those sets of components.

Step 1: Obtain the velocity Vb of B as in Case A. Result shown by Fig.3.7.11
Figure 3.7.11 Velocity of B can be obtained by following

the steps of Case A.
Step 2: Resolve Va into components along and perpendicular to AC as shown in Fig. 3.7.12
(also an application of Case A, since A and C are two points in a straight line AC, and Case B’s
additional principle, since this generated a different set of components for Va other than
components along and perpendicular to AB).
Figure 3.7.12 Resolution of Va into components along and

perpendicular to AC (application of Case A and Case B’s
additional principle)
Step 3: Lay off Cc equal to Aa as shown in Fig. 3.7.13. (according to Case A’s principle)
Figure 3.7.13 According to the principle of Case A, Aa is

equal to Cc.
Cc is the velocity of C along AC, and is written Vc along AC (belongs to the first set of
components of Vc, resolved as part of the application of Case B’s additional principle).

Step 4: Draw a line perpendicular to AC from c as shown in Fig. 3.7.14.
Figure 3.7.14 This perpendicular line represents the

direction of the component of Vc perpendicular to AC,
according to Case B’s additional principle.
This line represents the direction of the velocity of C perpendicular to AC and is written Vc
perpendicular to AC (belongs to the first set of components of Vc, resolved as part of the application of
Case B’s additional principle).
Step 5: Resolve Vb into components along and perpendicular to BC as shown in Fig. 3.7.15
(also an application of Case A since B and C are two points in a straight line BC, and Case B’s
additional principle, since this generated a different set of components for Vb other than
components along and perpendicular to AB).
Figure 3.7.15 Resolution of Vb into components along and

perpendicular to BC (application of Case A and Case B’s
additional principle).

Step 6: Lay off Cc1, the velocity of C along BC, equal to Bb, as shown in Fig. 3.7.16.
(according to Case A principle).
Figure 3.7.16 According to the principle of Case A, Bb is

equal to Cc1.
Cc1 is the velocity of C along BC, and is written Vc along AC (belongs to the second set of
components of Vc, resolved as part of the application of Case B’s additional principle).
Step 7: Draw a line perpendicular to BC from c1 as shown in Fig. 3.7.17.
Figure 3.7.17 This perpendicular line represents the

direction of the component of Vc perpendicular to BC,
according to Case B’s additional principle.
This line represents the direction of the velocity of C perpendicular to BC and is written Vc
perpendicular to BC (belongs to the second set of components of Vc, resolved as part of the application
of Case B’s additional principle).

The intersection of the perpendicular line drawn from c and c1 locates c2 as shown in Fig.
3.7.18.
Figure 3.7.18 c2 is the intersection of lines cc2 and c1c2.
Obtained: Then Cc2 is the velocity of C, according to the principle (additional) of Case
B. (See Fig. 3.7.19)
Figure 3.7.19 Velocity of C, Vc, is obtained.
Velocity of C has 2 different sets of components. Cc and cc2 are its components along and
perpendicular to AC, respectively. While Cc1 and c1c2 are components along and perpendicular to
BC, respectively. All resolved for the application of Case B’s additional principle.
This method of solving simultaneous vector equations is very useful.

Case C: Obtaining the Velocities of Two Other Points that Forms a Straight Line with a
Point in a Rigid Body – Utilizing a Proportional Line from Resolution and Composition
Figure 3.7.20 Three points in a rigid body forming a

straight line and having different velocities
Description: In Fig. 3.7.20, A, B, and C are points on the rigid body m. Since C is located
in a straight line from A to B, the method used in finding the velocity of C in Case B cannot be
used (basic geometry). (See Case B’s additional principle)
velocity of B is along BM, as shown in Fig. 3.7.21.
Figure 3.7.21 The velocity of one point and the direction of

another point should be known to obtain the velocity of
any point in a body.
To Be Obtained: Neither the magnitude nor the direction-sense of the velocity of C is

known.

Additional Principle: However, a ready solution for the velocities of B and C may be had
when it is realized that m has angular motion (See Art. 3.1) about an axis of rotation.
Since it has an angular motion, according to Art. 3.6, the velocity components
perpendicular to AB are proportional to each other with respect to their distance from the axis of
rotation (See Art. 3.6 and Method Consideration).
Therefore, we can conclude that all perpendicular velocity components are tangential
velocity due to rotation about an axis. (See Art. 3.6 and Method Consideration)
Axes of rotation is explained further in Case D also rooting from Art. 3.6 and Method
Consideration.
Figure 3.7.22 shows possible positions of proportional lines generated and dependent on
by some perpendicular components, specifically, of A and B.
Figure 3.7.22 Possible positions of proportional lines

generated by and depended on perpendicular
components of two points. This will dictate the
magnitude of the perpendicular component of other
points along the straight line generated by the points,
according to Case C’s principle (additional).
Step 1: Obtain the velocity Vb of B as in Case A. Result is shown in Fig. 3.7.23.
Figure 3.7.23 Velocity of B can be obtained by following

the steps of Case A.

Step 2: Resolve Va into components along and perpendicular to AC (an application of
Case A since A and C are two points in a straight line AC).
Since AC is along and covered by AB, this step is already included in Step 1, but now,
you’re more focused on C.
This part what makes it different to Case B since, it does not generate new sets of
components for A (Case B’s additional principle is not applied), because A, C, and B are in one
straight line, having only one line joining them and does not require further resolution of A and B
with C (Case B’s Step 5).
Step 3: Lay off Cc, the component of Vc along ACB, equal to Aa and Bb (according to Case
A’s principle, since A and C are in a straight line AB) as shown in Fig. 3.7.24.
Figure 3.7.24 According to the principle of Case A, Aa is

equal to Cc.
Cc is the velocity of C along ACB, and is written Vc along ACB. (See Method Consideration)

Step 4: Obtain the proportional lengths of all perpendicular components by joining a1 and
b1 as shown in Fig. 2.7.25
Figure 3.7.25 Generating a proportional line – application

of Case C’s principle (additional).
This proportional line will dictate the magnitude of the perpendicular components of other
points along the straight line generated by the points, since those perpendicular components are
proportional.
This is the application of Case C’s principle (additional).
Step 5: From c, draw the perpendicular component of the velocity of C, cc1, or Vc perpendicular
to ACB (since according to Case C’s principle (additional), cc1 is proportional with aa1 and bb1). See
Fig. 3.7.26.
Figure 3.7.26 cc1 being proportional with aa1 and bb1

according to Case C’s principle (additional)

Obtained: Then Cc1 is the velocity of C having Cc its component along AC and cc1 as its
component perpendicular to AC as shown in Fig. 3.7.27. (See Method Consideration)
Figure 3.7.27 Velocity of C, V c, is obtained.
In this case, locating an axis of rotation Q is not yet a necessity for velocities can be
obtained without it.
Case D will describe further about axes of rotation, why you would need and how to locate
one, referring to Art. 3.6, Method Consideration, and Case A’s principle.
Case D: Obtaining the Velocities of Various Points in a Rigid Body – Utilizing a Translating
Axis from Resolution and Composition
Figure 3.7.28 Various points in a body, with

some forming a straight line, having different
velocities
Description: Case D shows a combination of the methods developed in Art. 3.6 and Case
C. A, B, C, and D are points on the body m, with A, B, and D forming a straight line.

Initial Requirement: The velocity of A, Va, is completely known. The direction of Vb is
known. (See Fig. 3.7.29)
Figure 3.7.29 The velocity of one point and the

direction of another point should be known to
obtain the velocity of any point in a body.
To Be Obtained: Vb, Vd, and Vc are to be obtained.
Step 1: Obtain Vb and Vd by the use of Case C as shown in Fig. 3.7.30.
Figure 3.7.30 Velocities of points in a straight

line can be obtained by the use of Case C.
Additional Principle 1: Since the motion of m may be considered as made up of a

translation in the direction of AB and a rotation about an axis Q (See Art. 3.1), a point on the body
or in space (not necessarily a pin joint), it should be noted that Q also has a linear velocity that is
equal to the velocity components along AB (See Case A’s principle), hence a translating axis.
Figure 3.7.31 shows possible locations of a translating axis Q.
Figure 3.7.31 Partial visualization of Case D’s

additional principle 1.

Additional Principle 2 (More About Axes): Since the whole body m has a rotating motion
about a translating axis Q (as stated in Case D’s 1st additional principle),
therefore, all the points within the body m is also rotating about the same axis (See Art.
2.4), simultaneously, while having the same translational motion as Q (See Case D’s 1st additional
principle)
and it can be concluded that, the resultant velocities of these points are composed of the
translational (due to translation) velocity as the component along AB, and the instantaneous
tangential (due to rotation) velocity as the perpendicular component (See Case C’s additional
principle), and can be expressed by the vector equation,
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐴𝐵
or,
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Equation 3.7.3
These points can be assumed connected to Q with their own respective straight lines (See
Art. 3.6), where their respective tangential velocity is always perpendicular with (See Case C’s
Additional Principle 3 (Utilization of an Axis):
Since, the instantaneous tangential velocities along these points due to rotation is always
perpendicular to the line connecting these points to the axis (See Case D’s 2nd additional principle),
and, these instantaneous tangential velocities of points are in proportion to their respective
distance from Q (See Case C’s additional principle).

Therefore, knowing these will provide the points their respective perpendicular
components (tangential velocity due to rotation about Q), along individual points, already in
proportion to their distance from Q, assuming all the points are aligned and forms a straight line
along with each other (in accordance to Case C’s additional principle and Case D’s 2nd additional
principle).
If points or some of the points are not aligned along AB, Q helps align all the points by
partially revolving them about Q, maintaining the same distance, until the points form a straight
line AB along with each point. (swinging the lines described in Case D’s 2 nd additional principle
as shown in Fig. 3.6.01)
Additional Principle 4 (Location of an Axis): Since Q possesses no tangential velocity

(velocity, along Q and perpendicular to line AB, See Case D’s 3rd additional principle), Q can be
located where the proportional line, generated by the perpendicular components (tangential
velocities due to rotation about Q) along individual points, intersects with line AB. (See Art. 3.6)
This is satisfied by and satisfies Equation 3.7.3 in Case D’s 2 nd additional principle, where
zero tangential velocity component will give a resultant equal only to translational velocity
component. The only velocity Q possess.
This also obeys the proportionality stated in Case D’s 3rd additional principle. Since Q is
at the intersection, where it has zero distance from Q, Q also has to have zero tangential magnitude,
for the distance between the proportional line and line AB at their intersection reflects the
perpendicular (tangential due to rotation) magnitude, which is also zero, as shown in Fig. 3.6.01.

Locating an axis of rotation Q (in accordance with Case D’s 4th additional principle):
Step 2A: Draw the perpendicular components of A, D, and B along the points, as shown in
Fig. 3.7.32.
Figure 3.7.32 Perpendicular components are

aligned along their corresponding points, in
accordance with Case D’s 4th additional
principle.
Step 3A: Lay off proportional line pp’, the proportional line generated by the perpendicular
(tangential, due to rotation only) components and along individual points, as shown in Fig. 3.7.33.
Figure 3.7.33 Proportional line pp’
Step 4A: Locate the point Q at the intersection of the proportional line pp’ and AB
extended, as shown in Fig. 3.7.34.
Figure 3.7.34 Location of Q in accordance with

Case D’s 4th additional principle.

Additional Principle 5 (More with Proportional Lines):
(Part 1) Since all components along the line AB are equal (See Case D’s 2nd additional
principle), we can assume that proportional line a1b1 also only reflects the proportionality of
perpendicular (tangential due to rotation about Q) components, as proportional line pp’ is
described in Case D’s 4th additional principle. It’s just that, it was moved in the direction of the
translation, at a distance reflecting the translation’s magnitude (in consideration of the translation,
See Case D’s 2nd additional principle).
(Part 2) And since proportional line a1b1 represents the proportionality of the points’
perpendicular velocity components, passing through the resultant vectors’ heads, while having a
consistent magnitude of components along the line AB, and all resultant vector’s tails are subjected
along that same line, you can only imagine two things you’ll see at the intersection of this
proportional line a1b1 and the line AB:
(1) tail of a resultant vector of just another point possessing both along and perpendicular
components, which we have no interest with, and
(2) head of a resultant vector of a point, that lays along the line AB, indicating it only
possesses a velocity component along (translation) the line AB, describing the axis Q
(See Case D’s 4th additional principle).

(Part 3) Therefore, the intersection of proportional line a1b1 and line AB locates the vector
head of Q’s translation’s velocity, all points’ (including Q’s) translation velocity component along
AB. (See Case D’s 5th additional principle part 2)
(Part 4) Therefore, Q can also be located as follows;
(1) where this proportional line a1b1 intersects the line AB, if this proportional line a1b1 is
readjusted back at a distance reflecting the magnitude of the translation velocity,
(disregarding the translation, since axes, in nature, are solely concerned by rotation),
hence, describing the proportional line pp’, laid off in Case D’s Step 3A as shown in
Fig. 3.7.33, generated solely by perpendicular (tangential) components along
individual points and described in Case D’s 4th additional principle, (considering Case
D’s 5th additional principle Part 1)
(2) where the resultant velocity of the point lays along the straight line (by graphical
simulation of resultant of each individual point along the straight line generated by the
given points or utilizing Equation 3.7.3, where 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0 or
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (considering Case D’s 5th additional principle Part
2),
(3) or, by just simply tracing back the tail of the vector along the line AB at a distance
reflecting the magnitude of translation velocity, starting from the resultant velocity
head described in Case D’s 5th additional principle Part 3
Having this new perspective, and knowing the difference between the two proportional
lines a1b1 and pp’, Cases C and D are reevaluated at the end of this case.

Q may also be located as follows in accordance with Case D’s 5th additional principle part
4:
Step 2B: Draw the proportional line a1b1, through the vector heads representing the
velocities A and B, as the proportional line a1b1 was drawn in Fig. 3.7.25 (See Case C’s Step 4),
where a1b1 is the proportional line of velocities, along (due to translation) and perpendicular (due
to rotation) combined.
This step is already done in Step 1 since A, B, and D were obtained using the steps of Case
C, utilizing proportional line a1b1, as shown in Fig. 3.7.30.
Step 3B: Extend a1b1 to q, the intersection with AB extended, as shown in Fig. 3.7.35.
Figure 3.7.35 Vector head of Q’s translation

velocity is located at q as described in Case D’s
5th additional principle part 3.
q reveals the vector head for Q’s translation velocity, as described in Case D’s 5th additional
principle Part 3.
Step 4B: Lay off qQ equal to Aa, Bb, and Dd, in accordance with Case D’s 5th additional
principle Part 4, as shown in Fig. 3.7.36.
Figure 3.7.36 Q located in accordance with

Case D’s 5th additional principle part 4.
This represent the translational velocity of the axis Q and of the body m, as described in
Case D’s 1st additional principle and its tail locates Q as stated in Case D’s 5th additional principle
Part 4.

The proportional lines a1b1 and pp’ are parallel since they are being connected with parallel
lines having the same length representing the velocity component along BC (basic geometry), as
shown in Fig. 3.37.
Vc is obtained as follows:
Step 5: With Q as a center and radius QC, draw arc Ce. This represents the partial
revolution of C about Q, where Ce is represents the swung QC aligned with other points (described
in Case D’s 3rd additional principle), as shown in Fig. 3.7.38.
Figure 3.7.38 Swinging QC to align C with other

points in AB, maintaining its distance from Q.
Step 6: Lay off ef perpendicular to AB, the representation of the magnitude of the velocity
of C about Q or the tangential velocity of C due to the rotation of m about Q (described in Case
D’s 1st additional principle), proportioned with other perpendicular (tangential, due to rotation)
components (in accordance with Case D’s 3rd additional principle), as shown in Fig. 3.7.39.
Figure 3.7.39 C’s perpendicular component is

now known by projecting it perpendicular to AB
and acquiring its proportion (utilizing
proportional line pp’) based on its distance
from Q.

Step 7: Lay off Cc1 equal to ef and perpendicular to CQ (perpendicular component
provided as described in Case D’s 3rd additional principle), as shown in Fig. 3.7.40.
Figure 3.7.40 C’s perpendicular component is

now provided by swinging it back to its original
position.
Step 8: Lay off Cc, the component of Vc along AB, equal to Aa, Dd, Bb, and Qq, and is
parallel to AB (in accordance to Case D’s 2nd additional principle), as shown in Fig. 3.7.41.
Figure 3.7.41 Cc representing the translation

vector of C equal to other points’.
This is due to the translation of m in a direction along AB, as described in Case D’s 1st
additional principle.
Obtained: Then, Vc is the resultant of the two components, the velocity of C parallel to AB
(due to translation) and the velocity of C about Q (due to rotation), as described in Case D’s 2nd
additional principle and Equation 3.7.3, as shown in Fig. 3.7.42.
Figure 3.7.42 Vc is obtained.

Case C Reevaluation (Extended): Case C can also be solved in a way that involves an
axis Q by following the ideas of Case D’s Steps 2A to 4A (and applying Case D’s 3rd additional
principle to obtain Vd), which involves the proportional line generated solely by perpendicular
(tangential only) component, which are along individual points, in replacement with Case C’s
Steps 4 and 5, which involves the proportional line generated by along (due to translation) and
perpendicular (tangential, due to rotation) components (See Case D’s 5th additional principle).
It’s just that, Case C’s steps will give the quickest solution for that particular Case, for to
be obtained is not as demanding as Case D. But, if asked about the location of an axis Q or, if
one/some of the velocities to be obtained is/are of point/s that does/do not belong to a straight line
AB along with others (starts to be demanding as in Case D), shortened Case D (See Case D
Reevaluation) will give the quickest result.
Case D Reevaluation (Shortened): Case D’s Step 1 is not necessary and you can
simultaneously obtain D and locate axis Q, by obtaining B and projecting perpendicular
components along individual points A and B, generating a proportional line generated solely by
perpendicular (tangential, due to rotation only) components. (See Case D’s 5th additional principle)
This reveals the perpendicular magnitude of D along its point at the same time, locating Q
where this proportional line, generated solely by perpendicular (tangential, due to rotation only)
components, intersects with the straight line (generated by the points), shortening Case D’s
procedure. But for the sake of the wrapping it all up to obtain Vb and Vd in one step, and to show
connection between Cases, Case C was utilized.
This is the combination of the methods developed in Art. 3.6 and Case C as stated in Case
D’s description.

Case E: Obtaining the Velocity of a Coincident Point in a Mechanism – Utilizing Resolution
and Composition
Figure 3.7.43 A coincident point can be found in a mechanism.
Description: Figure 3.7.43 shows another application of the method of resolution and
composition. The crank 2, with the block 4 pinned to it at A, turns counterclockwise and drives
crank 3. The block 4 slides along the straight portion BC of crank 3 and turns on the pin A
connecting 4 to crank 2. The point A may be considered to be on crank 2, on crank 3 and on block
4; it is known as a coincident point.
Given: Angular velocity N of 2 about Q2
To Be Obtained: Va sliding or the sliding velocity of A.
Additional Principle 1: The instantaneous tangential velocity of A on 2 (due to rotation

about Q2), Va on 2, is perpendicular to Q2A, and the instantaneous tangential velocity of A on 3 (due
to rotation about Q3), Va on 3, is perpendicular to Q3A (See Case D’s 3rd additional principle). The
sliding velocity of crank 4, which also contains A, is along BC. (See Case E’s Description)

Initial Requirement: Velocity of A on crank 2, Va on 2, can be completely known (See Art.
2.5 and Case E’s 1st additional principle).
The direction of velocity of A on crank 3 can be known (perpendicular to Q3A due to

rotation about Q3) (See Case E’s 1st additional principle). Sense can be observed and later on
proven.
The direction of the sliding velocity of crank 4, which also contains A, can be observed.
Sense of the sliding velocity of crank 4, which also contains A, can be observed, and later on
proven.
Case E’s given and 1st additional principle provides enough data to acquire Case E’s initial
requirements (See Art. 3.1), as shown in Fig. 3.7.44.

another point should be known to obtain the velocity of any point
in a body.
Velocity of A on crank 2, Va on 2, is represented by the vector Aa2, and direction of velocity

of A on crank 3 is perpendicular to Q3A.

Additional Principle 2: Since any rotational motion of A on 2 about Q2 results to a
corresponding and simultaneous rotational motion of A on 3 about Q3 while sliding with block 4
along BC (See Case E’s description), we can say that the rotational motion of A on 2 about Q2 is
equal to the combined rotational motion of A on 3 about Q3 and the sliding motion of block 4
(which also contains A) along BC. This is also true if viewed in another perspective, such that, a
combination of rotational motion of A on 3 about Q3 and sliding motion of block 4 (which also
contains A) along BC is equal or results to a corresponding rotational motion of A on 2 about Q2.
Therefore, the velocity Va on 2 has the two combined velocity components Va on 3 and the
velocity component of sliding, parallel to BC, of the block 4 along BC, generating a vector polygon,
in the form of a triangle (See Art. 3.3 and Fig. 3.3.01). In accordance with Art. 3.3, this relationship
is expressed by the velocity vector equation
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 + 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Equation 3.7.4
Additional Principle 3: Since A is a point along BC possessing an instantaneous tangential

velocity of A on 3 (due to rotation about Q3), Va on 3, perpendicular to Q3A (See Case E’s 1st
additional principle),
and Q3A is a line not along nor parallel with BC, as shown in Fig. 3.7.43 (See Case E’s
description),
therefore, Va on 3 can be resolved into components along and perpendicular to BC (See Case
B’s additional principle).
The velocity vector Va on 3 perpendicular to BC is the vector component perpendicular to BC of Va

on 3 and the velocity vector Va on 3 along BC is the vector component along BC of Va on 3. In accordance
with Case B’s additional principle, this relationship may be expressed
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶
Equation 3.7.5

Additional Principle 4: Since A is a point along BC also possessing an instantaneous
tangential velocity of A on 2 (due to rotation about Q2), Va on 2, perpendicular to Q2A (See Case E’s
1st additional principle),
and Q2A is a line not along nor parallel with BC, as shown in Fig. 3.7.43 (See Case E’s
description),
therefore, Va on 2 can also be resolved into components along and perpendicular to BC (See
Case E’s 3rd additional principle).
The velocity vector Va on 2 perpendicular to BC is the vector component perpendicular to BC of Va

on 2 and the velocity vector Va on 2 along BC is the vector component along BC of Va on 2. In accordance
with Case B’s additional principle 3, this relationship may be expressed
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶
Equation 3.7.6
Additional Principle 5:
(Part 1) Analyzing the velocities of A along BC, it can be observed that Va on 2 along BC and
Va on 3 along BC though have the same direction (along BC), they are headed in different (opposite)
senses (supported by Case E’s 3rd and 4th additional principle and Equations 3.7.5 and 3.7.6). These
velocities are colinear vectors.
(Part 2) In order for A to have enough magnitude of Va on 2 along BC (desired to satisfy Va on 2),
enough magnitude of sliding velocity, that will counter, cover, dominate, and overrun the influence
of the presence of opposing velocity Va on 3 along BC, is needed as compensation. And to know the
compensation is to know how much is lacking. To know how much is lacking is to know the
difference between the two; the desired velocity (Va on 2 along BC) and the present velocity (Va on 3 along
BC).

(Part 3) An analogy reinforcing colinear velocity vectors using rectilinear motion.
A ship is desired have a velocity of 60 km/hr due north to arrive on time. But the current
of the water it’s sailing on has a velocity of 20 km/hr due south, reducing the velocity of the ship.
The velocity of the current can also be viewed as – 20 km/hr due north. Knowing the difference
between the two velocities will determine the compensation needed to have the desired velocity as
the result despite the presence of an opposing velocity. This is done by subtracting what is present
from what you desire as a result, leaving only what is left to compensate. Giving us
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 60 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ − (−20 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ) = 80 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
This means that the ship needs to travel 80 km/hr due north, against the water’s current that
has a velocity of 20 km/hr due south, in order to compensate for the decrease in velocity that the
current brings, to have the desired resultant velocity of 60 km/hr due north.
This also means that the sliding velocity compensates the velocity needed in order to have
a desired resultant velocity Va on 2 along BC despite the presence of an opposing velocity Va on 3 along BC
can be solved as follows:
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶
Equation 3.7.7
as described in Case E’s additional principle part 2.

(Part 4) Case E’s 5th additional principle part 2 can also be viewed as Va on 2 along BC being
the resultant of two parallel, along, and opposing components Va on 3 along BC and velocity of sliding.
As Va on 2 along BC being the sum of Va on 3 along BC and velocity of sliding, we can visualize the vector
representing the velocity of sliding has its tail on the vector Va on 3 along BC’s head, where the resultant
Va on 2 along BC has its vector’s tail on Va on 3 along BC’s tail and its head on the sliding velocity’s vector
head, describing a very flat triangular vector polygon in accordance with Art 3.3 i.
It can also be said that, Va on 2 is the resultant of velocities Va on 3 and the sliding velocity,
considering all the components along and perpendicular to BC (the combined statement of Case
E’s 2nd, 3rd, and 4th additional principle and Equations 3.7.4, 3.7.5, and 3.7.6), as to Va on 2 along BC is
the resultant of Va on 3 along BC and the sliding velocity, considering only the components along BC.
These statements can be expressed as
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
which is just a transposed Equation 3.7.7, getting supported by Case E’s 5th additional
principle part 3.
(Part 5) From Equation 3.7.4,
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 + 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
substituting Equation 3.7.7,
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 + 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶

transposing,
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶 + 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶
Therefore,
𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 2 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝑎 𝑜𝑛 3 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐶
Equation 3.7.8
which is just the way it should be. Since Va on 2, Va on 3, and the sliding velocity generates a
vector polygon in the form of a triangle (See Case E’s 2nd additional principle),
because any two vectors, of any triangular vector polygon, have the same magnitude of
their components perpendicular to the third (See Fig. 3.3.01) as how two sides of any triangle have
the same altitude perpendicular to the third (basic geometry),
and if the third vector is a component, the perpendicular components will have the same
sense. If it is the resultant, perpendicular components shall have opposing senses. Both cases have
perpendicular components possessing the same magnitude.
Knowing this shall enable us to reversibly derive this whole principle and acquire Equation
3.7.7 utilizing Equations 3.7.8, 3.7.6, 3.7.5 and 3.7.4.
Step 2: Resolve Va on 2 into components along and perpendicular to BC (Refer to Case E’s
4th additional principle and Equation 3.7.6), as shown in Fig. 3.7.45.
Figure 3.7.45 Resolving Va on 2 into components along and

perpendicular to BC.
Vectors xa2 and Ax represent Va on 2 along BC and Va on 2 perpendicular to BC, respectively.
Step 3: Since Va on 2 perpendicular to BC is also Va on 3 perpendicular to BC (vector Ax) (See Case E’s 5th
additional principle part 5) and knowing the direction of Va on 3 (See Case E’s Initial Requirement),
lay off Va on 3 along BC (vector xa3) starting from where it intersects and perpendicular to Va on 3
perpendicular to BC (vector Ax) by extending along vector xa2 Va on 2 along BC, since they are colinear (See
Case E’s 5th additional principle part 1), until it intersects the direction of Va on 3 on a3 (See E’s 3rd
additional principle and Equation 3.7.5).
Va on 3 and Va on 3 along BC (and sliding velocity) are simultaneously obtained and represented
by Aa3 and xa3, respectively, as shown in Fig. 3.7.46.

Figure 3.7.46 Case E in a nutshell.
Obtained: a3a2 represents the sliding velocity.
The difference between vectors xa2 Va on 2 along BC being the resultant and xa3 Va on 3 along BC
being a component, reveals the other component the sliding velocity a3a2 as described in Case E’s
5th additional principle part 4, as shown in Fig. 3.7.46.
Since vector xa3 Va on 3 along BC runs towards opposing (negative) sense of vector xa2 Va on 2
along BC, difference is obtained by adding their magnitude (See Case E’s 5 th additional principle part
3), or by measuring how great their difference is (from one vector’s head to another).
And since a3a2 is also the vector that connects the resultant Aa2 Va on 2 and the component
Aa3 Va on 3, where this vector has its head on the head of the resultant at a2, and its tail on the head
of another component at a3, and being parallel to BC, a3a2 is the other component sliding velocity
along BC , as shown in Fig. 3.7.46. (See Case E’s 2nd additional principle and Equation 3.7.4)

3.8 Method 2: Instantaneous Axis of Velocity
Each member of a machine is either about a fixed axis or about a moving axis. (See Arts.
3.6 and 3.7) Instantaneously, this moving axis may be thought of as a stationary axis with
properties similar to a fixed axis. In other words, the cranks of a machine rotate or oscillates about
their respective fixed axes and the floating link (i.e., connecting rod) rotates with an absolute
angular velocity about an instantaneous axis of velocity. (Principle 1) The absolute
instantaneous linear velocities of points on the link are perpendicular to the lines connecting the
points to the instantaneous axis (Principle 2) and, proportional to the distance of the points from
the instantaneous axis (Principle 3). See Art. 3.6.
Case A: Obtaining the Velocity of Another Point in a Rigid Body – Utilizing Instantaneous
Axis of Velocity
Figure 3.8.01 A floating link having translation and rotational

motion
Description: Figure 3.8.01 represents an irregularly shaped floating link.

Initial Requirement: The absolute linear velocity of A is known in magnitude and
direction-sense. Another point B on this body has a velocity in the direction-sense of BX, as shown
in Fig. 3.8.02. (See Art. 3.1)

another point should be known to obtain the velocity of any point
in a body.
To Be Obtained: Vb
Step 1: The instantaneous axis of velocity, Q, may be found by locating the intersection of
the lines perpendicular to the directions of the velocities of A and B, as shown in Fig. 3.8.03 (See
Principle 2)
Figure 3.8.03 Location of the instantaneous axis Q
At the instant under consideration, all points in the body are tending to rotate about Q. (See
Principle 1)

Step 2: Make a representation of A and its velocity partially revolved about Q, aligned with
Q and B, and distance from Q maintained. The direction of the velocity partially revolved stays
perpendicular to the line connecting the instantaneous axis and the point, in accordance with
Principle 2. These are all shown in Fig. 3.8.04.
Figure 3.8.04 Swing taymah. Point A is aligned with points B and

Q
This somehow “swinging” of a point is demonstrated in Method 1’s Case D’s Step 5
(shown in Fig. 3.7.38), in accordance with Art. 3.6.
Principle 3: Instantaneously, the velocities of all points in the body are proportional to
their distances from Q. It should be clearly understood that:
(1) there is one instantaneous axis of velocity for each floating link in a machine
(2) there is not one common instantaneous axis of velocity for all links in a machine
(3) the instantaneous axis of velocity changes position as the link moves.

Step 3: Generate proportional line using the velocity head of partially revolved A and
connecting it to the instantaneous axis, for Principle 3’s application, as shown in Fig. 3.8.05.
Figure 3.8.05 Since instantaneous velocities are always

perpendicular to the instantaneous axis, proportional line
generated is both generated by resultants’ and perpendicular
components’ vector heads. (See the difference in Method 1 Case
D’s 5th additional principle)
Obtained: The magnitude of the velocity of B can be obtained when the magnitude of the
velocity of A is known by the use of similar triangles as shown, or following the proportionality in
accordance with Principle 3, as shown in Fig. 3.8.06.
Figure 3.8.06 Vb is obtained.
Note 1: The instantaneous axis of velocity can be located whenever the directions of the
velocities of two points on the link are known. It is only the magnitude of the velocity of one point
that dictates the others. (See Step 1 and Principle 2)
Note 2: The instantaneous axis of velocity is not an instantaneous axis of acceleration. The
instantaneous axis of velocity is a moving axis and may have an actual acceleration; it does not
necessarily have zero acceleration as does a fixed center of rotation.

BONUS: Previous Cases in Method 1: Resolution and Composition (See Art. 3.7) solved
using Method 2 as demonstrated in its Case A.
Figure 3.8.07 Resolving Method 1 Case A
Figure 3.8.08 Resolving Method 1 Case B

Figure 3.8.09 Resolving Method 1 Case C

Figure 3.8.10 Resolving Method 1 Case D

Case B: Obtaining Angular Velocity of a Floating Link
Figure 3.8.11 A four-bar linkage with floating link 3
Description: The following is method for obtaining the instantaneous absolute angular
velocity of a floating link 3, as shown in Fig. 3.8.11.
Given: Angular velocity N of 2.
Initial Requirement: Magnitude of Va can be obtained (See Art. 2.5), and the direction is
perpendicular to Q2A. Direction-sense of C can also be observed, as shown in Fig. 3.8.12 (See
Case A’s 2nd principle). Given and figure describing the mechanism give us enough data to acquire
the initial requirements, as described in Art. 3.1.
Figure 3.8.12 Initial requirements acquired
To Be Obtained: Angular velocity of link 3

Additional Principle 1: From Art. 2.5 and Equation 2.5.2,
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝜔𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝜔=
𝑅
Additional Principle 2: The line connecting two points in a rigid body rotating or
revolving about an axis has the same angular velocity with the lines connecting these points to the
axis.
Being a rigid body, angles between these lines connecting the points to the axis is constant,
therefore, these lines have equal angular velocity about the axis, as a rigid body is supposed to
have between its points. (See Art. 2.4)
Step 1A: The instantaneous axis of link 3, Q3, is located by drawing lines perpendicular to
the velocities of A and C. (See Case A’s 2nd Principle)
Since these velocities A and C are respectively perpendicular to cranks 2 and 4, Q3 may be
located by extending the lines Q2A and Q4C until the lines intersect, as shown in Fig. 3.8.13. (basic
geometry)
Figure 3.8.13 Instantaneous axis Q3 located

Since A is a point on the floating rigid link 3 as well as on the crank 2, and since link 3 is
instantaneously turning about Q3, the angular velocity of 3 about an instantaneous axis Q3 is equal
to the angular velocity of A, a point on 3, about the same axis (See Case B’s 2nd additional principle)
Obtained: which is equal to the linear velocity of A divided by distance Q3A (See Case
B’s 1st additional principle). Expressed in equation form,
𝑉𝑎
𝜔3 =
𝑄3 𝐴
Equation 3.8.1
Additional Principle 3: The angular velocity of link 3 might be obtained without finding
the instantaneous axis Q3, using Method 1’s Resolution and Composition, since the floating link,
without having a fixed axis, can also be analyzed as a body having a combination of translation
and rotation about a translating axis. (See Art. 3.1)
The angular velocity of a floating link may be obtained as follows, referring to Method 1:
Step 1B: By the method used in Method 1’s Case A, obtain velocity of C, as shown in Fig.
3.8.14.
Figure 3.8.14 Velocity of C obtained.

Step 2B: By the method used in Method 1’s Case D (Steps 2A to 4A), locate B, a point on
link 3 which has a velocity along AB but none perpendicular to AB, as shown in Fig. 3.8.15.
Figure 3.8.15 B locates a translating axis as described in Method’s

1 Case D’s 1st and 4th additional principle.
Additional Principle 4: Since B has no perpendicular component but has a component

along AB, described in Method 1’s Case D’s 4th additional principle, B locates a translating axis, a
point in link 3 with a translational velocity (along component) but without having a tangential
velocity (perpendicular component) despite of the body having a rotational motion (See Case B’s
3rd additional principle) because axes don’t rotate. Axes are points or lines where the rest of the
points in a rigid body rotate or revolve about, which can also translate at equal velocity with all
the rest of the points. (See Method 1’s Case D’s 4th additional principle)
Therefore, in general, axes have the least velocities and depends only on the translating
(along) component. Fixed and instantaneous ones have the very least having zero. (See Method
1’s Case D’s 4th additional principle)
According to Method 1’s Case D’s 4th additional principle;
𝑉𝑏 = 𝐵𝑏1 = 𝐴𝑎1
Equation 3.8.2

Step 3B: Draw a line connecting any point whose linear velocity is known and the point
on this link with the least velocity.
The point on this line or link with the least velocity is that point with a total velocity equal
to the velocity component along this line and, therefore, has no component perpendicular to this
line, describing the translating axis B. (See Case B’s 4th additional principle)
This can be done with either A or C. And since link 3, AC, is already extended to B, these
lines were already generated and the step is done, as shown in Fig. 3.8.15.
Additional Principle 5: Since B is a translating axis of link 3, it can be observed and

assumed that all points on link 3, and link 3 itself, rotate about B while having a translation along
ACB. The tangential velocities of points generated by rotation about B are all perpendicular to the
line ACB that connects the points to axis B. (See Case B’s 4th additional principle)
Both tangential and angular velocities are product of rotation and, referring to Art. 2.5 and
Equation 2.5.2, their relationship can be expressed as
𝑉
𝑅
Equation 3.8.3
These tangential velocities are represented by the perpendicular components to the same
line, as shown in Fig. 3.8.15. From Equation 3.8.3,
𝑎1 𝑎 = 𝜔𝑎 𝐴𝐵
Equation 3.8.4
𝑐1𝑐 = 𝜔𝑐 𝐶𝐵
Equation 3.8.5

Additional Principle 6: The tangential (perpendicular) velocities are proportioned with
the points’ distances from the axis B (See Method 1’s Case D’s 3rd and 4th additional principle) so
that all the points’ angular velocities are equal with each other (See Art. 2.5), for they are all part
of a rigid body rotating/revolving about the same axis, adapting its angular velocity (See Art. 2.4).
Referring from Equations 3.8.4 and 3.8.5, this can be expressed as
𝑎1 𝑎 𝑐1 𝑐
𝜔𝑎 = 𝜔𝑐 = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐵
Equation 3.8.6
Obtained: Therefore, the angular velocities of these points about B are equal for being in
a rigid body, and also equal to the angular velocity, as being parts, of the rigid body link 3 (See
Case B’s 6th additional principle). From Equation 3.8.6, this can be expressed as
𝑎1 𝑎 𝑐1𝑐
𝜔3 = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐵
Equation 3.8.7
a1a and c1c are the perpendicular components of the velocity of A and C, respectively, and must
be expressed in the same linear units as AB and CB, and time units as ω3.

Note 1: Referring to the line connecting any point with known velocity to the point with
the least velocity (See Step 3B), the angular velocity in radians per second of the link is equal to
the component, perpendicular to this line, of the linear velocity in feet per second of the point
whose velocity is known divided by the distance in feet between these two points. The sense of
the angular velocity is consistent with the sense of the perpendicular component. (See Equation
3.8.7)
Note 2: It should be noted that the velocity of B, the point on ACB with the least velocity,
is perpendicular to Q3B and is, therefore, the nearest point on ACB to Q3, the instantaneous axis,
and is the point on ACB with the least velocity, namely, velocity along ACB. See Fig. 3.8.16.
Figure 3.8.16 Referring about the axis Q3, B still have the least
velocity

Case C: Instantaneous Axis of Rolling Bodies
Figure 3.8.17 A rolling wheel along the surface XX

without slipping
If a wheel, as in Fig. 3.8.17, rolls along the surface XX without slipping (See Art. 6.7), the
point of contact Q of the wheel and the surface is the instantaneous axis of velocity and the entire
wheel acts as if it were a crank rotating about the axis Q. Then magnitudes of the velocities of
points on the wheel are proportional to their respective distances from Q and are perpendicular to
lines joining the points with Q. If Aa represents the velocity of A, the center of the wheel, then by
similar triangles, Bb represents the velocity of B.
Proof: By using Resolution and Composition, as shown in Fig. 3.8.18.
Figure 3.8.18 The instantaneous tangential velocity of

a point at the edge of the wheel is equal to the linear
velocity of the whole wheel, specifically, the center A.
Tangential velocity of B is proportioned with this
accordingly to its distance from A.
This can also be taken as a wheel rotating about its

center while translating along XX with the same linear
velocity (no slipping).
Or imagine XX as a surface of a point.

3.9 Method 3: Instant Centers
As previously stated, the instantaneous axis of velocity method of obtaining velocities is a

simplified version of the centro method and can be used in obtaining velocities when the
instantaneous axis can be located (See Art. 3.1). In many mechanisms, the instantaneous axis of
rotation cannot be located, since the directions of the motion of two points on the link may not be
known. By using the methods of centros, velocities in all mechanisms can be obtained.
Principle 1: Defining Centro
(Part 1) A centro may be defined as
(1) a point common to two bodies having the same velocity in each;
(2) a point in one body about which another body actually turn; and
(3) a point in one body about which another body tends to turn.
(Part 2) The last definition is also the definition of an instantaneous axis of velocity (See
Art. 3.8). Definitions (2) and (3) satisfy definition (1) in that the velocities are the same, namely,
zero (See Arts. 3.6 and 3.8). It should be noted that a centro satisfying the second definition is
permanently fixed and would be a point in the frame of the machine about which a crank turns
(See Art. 3.6). A centro as defined by the first definition may be either a point actually in the two
bodies and at the geometric center of the pair of the two bodies, therefore, a permanent center but
movable (joins two bodies having different absolute motion e.g., floating link and crank, See Case
A’s 3rd and 4th Centros (23 and 24) Obtained), or a point in space, not actually in either body, but
a point assumed to be in both links and, therefore, movable but not permanent (See Principle 3
part 3 and Case A’s 5th centro (24) obtained)

Method Consideration: Notation of Centros
All links, including the frame, are numbered as 1, 2, 3, and so on. The centro has a double
number as 12, 13, 23, and so on. The centro 23 (called two-three) is in both links 2 and 3 and may
be notated as 32, but for consistency the smaller number will be written first. (See Principle 1)
Principle 2: Number of Centros
The number of centros in a mechanism is the number of possible combinations of the links
taken two at a time (See Method Consideration). It may be obtained by the equation
𝑁 (𝑁 − 1)
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠 = = 𝑁𝐶𝑟 = 𝑁𝐶2
2
Equation 3.9.1
where N = the number of links, including the frame, in the mechanism.
Principle 3: Location of Centros
(Part 1) In accordance with Principle 1, Centros are located by
(1) observation and

(2) the application of Kennedy’s theorem (See Principle 3 Part 2),
(Part 2) which states that any three bodies having plane motion relative to each other have
only three centros (See Principle 2) that are akin to each other lie along the same straight line. The
meaning of akin should be further explained. (See Principle 3 part 3).

Figure 3.9.01
(Part 3) The proof of this theorem is shown in Fig. 3.9.01.
The three bodies 1, 2, and 3 move relatively to each other. Link 2 is pinned to 1 at 12 and
link 3 is pinned to 1 at 13 (See Method Consideration); 12 and 13 are centros by observation (See
Principle 3 part 1 and definition 2). The remaining centro 23 (See Principle 2), a point common to
2 and 3 and having the same linear velocity in each (See definition 1), must be along the line
passing through 12 and 13 (See Principle 3 part 2).
Assume this centro to be located at K. The magnitude of the velocity of K, when considered
in link 2, can be equal to the magnitude of the velocity of K, when considered in link 3, but the
direction is not the same in each link because Vk in link 2 is perpendicular to K-12 and Vk in link 3
is perpendicular to K-13 (See Art. 3.6) . For the direction to be the same (to satisfy Principle 1 part
1 definition 1), K must be located along the line 12-13 (Principle 3 part 2 obeys the laws of Physics
Art. 3.6 to satisfy Principle 1 Part 1 definition 1). Therefore, the third centro 23 must be along a
straight line passing through 12 and 13 (See Principle 3 part 2), and already described in Principle
1 part 2 (See Case A’s 5th Centro (24) Obtained).
The exact location of 23 on this line cannot be determined since links 2 and 3 are not
considered to any definite relative motion.

(Part 4) Assume a four-link mechanism with the links numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. From
Equation 3.9.1, it is seen that there are six centros, namely, 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, and 34 (See Principle
2 and Method Consideration).
Centros 12, 13, and 23 are akin because, if the common number in either two is canceled,
the numbers remaining will be the name of the third centro (See Principle 3 part 3). Likewise,
centros 14, 34, and 13 are akin. Also 24, 23, and 34 are akin; and so are 14, 12, and 24. According
to Kennedy’s theorem, each of these four sets of akin centros lie on a straight line. (See Principle
3 Parts 2 and 3)
The number of sets of akin centros depends upon the number of links in the mechanism.
Case A: Locating Centros
Figure 3.9.02 A four-bar mechanism
Description: In Fig. 3.9.02, link 1 is the frame of the machine, 2 and 4 are cranks, and 3
the connecting rod.
To Be Obtained: Location of Centros

Step 1: The number and names of the centros may be obtained as shown in Fig. 3.9.03.
(See Principle 3 part 4)
Figure 3.9.03 Application of Method

Consideration and Principle 2
There are always a number of centros in each mechanism that can be located by
observation. (See Principle 3 part 1)
1st and 2nd Centros Obtained: Centros 12 and 14 are points on the frame 1, as shown in
Fig. 3.9.04, about which cranks 2 and 4 actually turn, satisfying definition (2) of Principle 1 Part
1; they are readily located by observation. (See Principle 1 Part 2)
Figure 3.9.04 Double-kill

3rd Centro Obtained: Centro 23 is the geometric center of the pair connecting links 2 and
3, as shown in Fig. 3.9.05. It, therefore, has the same velocity, whether considered in link 2 or link
3 and satisfies definition (1) of Principle 1 Part 1. (See Principle 1 Part 2)
Figure 3.9.05 Killing spree
4th Centro Obtained: In like manner as 23, 34 is obtained by observation, as shown in

Fig. 3.9.06). (See 3rd Centro Obtained)
Figure 3.9.06 Dominating
The circled centros are found by observation, as shown in Fig. 3.9.06.

The remaining centros cannot be found by observation but may be found by the
application of Kennedy’s theorem. (See Principle 3 part 1)
Additional Principle 1: In order to facilitate the use of the theorem, a centro polygon,
shown in Fig. 3.9.07, is helpful. This allows us to easily identify akin centros (Principle 3 part 4).
Step 2: Locate a point for each link as 1, 2, 3, and 4. (See Step 1 and Fig. 3.9.03)
Step 3: Whenever a centro is found by observation, connect the two points whose numbers
are the same as the centro located. (See Method Consideration, locating Centros by observation,
and Figs. 3.9.04, 3.9.05, and 3.9.06)
Thus, 1 and 2, 1 and 4, 2 and 3, and 3 and 4 are joined, as shown in Fig. 3.9.07.
Figure 3.9.07 Centro Polygon
Additional Principle 2: Using centro polygon (See 1st additional principle), whenever a
line can be drawn from two points completing two triangles, the centro whose number is the same
as the number of the points joined (See Method Consideration) can be located, as akin with centros
represented by the two other sides of both triangles, satisfying Principle 3 Part 4.

Step 4: A line joining 2 and 4 completes the triangles 124 and 234, as shown in Fig. 3.9.08.
(See 2nd additional principle).
Figure 3.9.08 Centro spotted
Step 5: In triangle 124, sides 12 and 14, representing centros 12 and 14, are already drawn
(See Step 3), as shown in Fig. 3.9.09.
In other words, centros 12 and 14 are located, and centro 24 is on a line joining these two
centros. (See 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.09 Set of akin centros

Step 6: In like manner (See Step 5), as shown in Fig. 3.9.10, triangle 234 (See Step 4) has
the sides 23 and 34 already drawn (See Step 3) and indicates that the centro 24 is on a line joining
these two centros. (See 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.10 Another set of akin centros
5th Centro Obtained: At the intersection of lines 12-14 and 23-34, the centro 24 is located,
as shown in Fig. 3.9.11. (See 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.11 Mega Kill
Note that centro 24 satisfies definition (1) of Principle 1 Part 1, a point common to 2 and
4, having the same velocity in each. (Described in Principles 1 Part 2 and 3 Part 3)

Step 7: Likewise as 24, locating centro 13. (See Steps 4 to 6)
6th Centro Obtained: Centro 13 is located at the intersection of 12-23 and 14-34. (See 2nd
Figure 3.9.12 Unstoppable
Centro 13 satisfies definition (3) of Principle 1 Part 1 and, in reality, is the instantaneous
axis of velocity of link 3. (See Principle 1 Part 2)
Instantaneous axes are fixed axes which floating links tend to rotate about. Since 13 is a
point of the stationary piece 1, it is indeed fixed as defined as instantaneous axis. A fixed point on
floating link 3 in which it rotates about, whether in space, or in its actual body.
Those found by the use of Kennedy’s theorem are underlined, as shown in Fig. 3.9.12.

Case B: Obtaining Linear Velocities in a Four-Bar Mechanism – Utilizing Centros
Figure 3.9.13 The same four-bar mechanism
Description: The centros are located and the angular velocity of 2 is known for the
mechanism shown in Fig. 3.9.13.
To be Obtained: The velocity of the point 34 in link 4 is desired.
Given: Angular velocity N of 2
Initial Requirement: As shown in Fig. 3.9.14, the velocity of the point 23 in link 2 can be
known (See Arts. 2.5, 3.6, and Equation 2.5.2), and direction-sense of V34 can be observed (See
Art. 3.6). (See Art. 3.1)

Additional Principle 1: From Art. 2.5 and Equation 2.5.2,
𝑉
𝑅
Additional Principle 2
(Part 1) Since, by definition, 24 is a point common to both 2, which has a point with known
velocity (23, See Initial Requirement), and 4 (See Case A’s 5th Centro (24) Obtained), the
determination of the velocity of 24 (in proportion with V23, See Art. 3.6 and Case B’s 3rd additional
principle) would solve the problem for 34 is also a point on 4 (velocity of 34 is in proportion with
V24, See Art. 3.6, Case B’s To Be Obtained and 5th additional principle).
(Part 2) The determination of the velocity of 24 (See Case B’s 2nd additional principle part
1) resembles obtaining linear velocity of another point in the same body (See Art. 3.1), thus
initially requiring a known velocity of a point (V23, enough data provided, See Case B’s Initial
Requirements) and direction-sense of the other (24, enough data provided, See Case B’s Step 1).
Step 1: Since, by definition, 24 is a point common to both 2 and 4 and has the same velocity
in each (See Case A’s 5th Centro (24) Obtained), direction of V24 can be assumed in accordance
with Principle 3 part 3.
This completes our “tentative” requirements to obtain V24, as shown in Fig. 3.9.15. (See
Case B’s 2nd additional principle part 2)
Figure 3.9.15 Direction-sense of 24 acquired

Additional Principle 3: All point in link 2 actually rotate around the centro 12. Since 23
is a point in 2, 24 is a point in 2 (See Case B’s 2nd additional principle), both are revolving about
centro 12 having the same angular velocity as 2 (See Art. 2.4). Therefore, from Case B’s 1st
additional principle
𝑉24 𝑉23
𝜔2 = =
12 − 24 12 − 23
or,
12 − 24
𝑉24 = 𝑉23 ( )
12 − 23
showing proportionality described in Art. 3.6 and Case B’s 2nd additional principle Part 1.
Step 2: Make a representation of 23 and its velocity partially revolved about 12, aligned
with 12 and 24, and distance from 12 maintained. The direction of the velocity partially revolved
stays perpendicular to the line connecting 12 and 23, in accordance with Art. 3.6, as shown in Fig.
3.9.16. (in preparation for the application of Case B’s 3rd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.16 Swing taymah
(shown in Fig. 3.7.38) and Method 2’s Case A’s Step 2 (show in Fig. 3.8.04), in accordance with
Art. 3.6.

Step 3: Instantaneously, the velocities of all points in the body are proportional to their
distances from 12 (See Case B’s 3rd additional principle).
Generate proportional line using the velocity head of partially revolved 23 and connecting
it to 12, as shown in Fig. 3.9.17. (application of Case B’s 3rd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.17 Proportional line generated
Step 4: Extend proportional line until it intersects with the direction-sense of 24, as shown
in Fig. 3.9.18. By the construction of similar triangles, following the proportionality (application
of Case B’s 3rd additional principle), V24 is obtained. (See Case B’s 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.18 V24 obtained

The method for finding the linear velocity of centro 34 follows.
Additional Principle 4:
(Part 1) Since, by definition, 24 is a point common to both 2 and 4 and has the same velocity
in each (See Case A’s 5th Centro (24) Obtained). Now, the velocity of 24, a point in 4, is known,
and the velocity of 34, another point in 4, is desired. (See Case B’s 2nd additional principle part 1)
(Part 2) The determination of the velocity of 34 resembles obtaining linear velocity of

another point in the same body (See Art. 3.1), again (See Case B’s 2nd additional principle part 2),
thus initially requiring a known velocity of a point (V24, enough data provided, See Case B’s 3rd
additional principle and Steps ) and direction-sense of the other (34, enough data provided, See
Case B’s Initial Requirements).
Direction-sense of 34 is already determined, as shown in Fig. 3.9.14. (See Case B’s Initial
Requirements)
Additional Principle 5: All point in link 4 actually rotate around the centro 14. Since 24
is a point in 4, 34 is a point in 4 (See Case B’s 4th additional principle), both are revolving about
centro 14 having the same angular velocity as 4 (See Art. 2.4). Therefore, from Case B’s 1st
additional principle
𝑉34 𝑉24
𝜔4 = =
14 − 34 14 − 24
or,
14 − 34
𝑉34 = 𝑉24 ( )
14 − 24
showing proportionality described in Art. 3.6 and Case B’s 2nd additional principle Part 1.

distances from 14 (See Case B’s 5th additional principle).
Generate proportional line using the velocity head of 24 and connecting it to 14, as shown
in Fig. 3.9.19. (preparation for the application of Case B’s 5th additional principle)
Figure 3.9.19 Another proportional line

generated
Step 6: Make a representation of 34 and its velocity’s direction-sense partially revolved

about 14, aligned with 14 and 24, and distance from 14 maintained. The direction-sense of the
velocity partially revolved stays perpendicular to the line connecting 14 and 34, in accordance with
Art. 3.6, as shown in Fig. 3.9.20. (application of Case B’s 5th additional principle)
Figure 3.9.20 You know what time it is.
(shown in Fig. 3.7.38), Method 2’s Case A’s Step 2 (shown in Fig. 3.8.04), and Method 3’s Case
B’s Step 2 (shown in Fig. 3.9.16) in accordance with Art. 3.6).

Obtained: Proportional line reveals the magnitude of V34 (See Case B’s 5th additional
principle) that’s always perpendicular to crank 4 (See Case B’s 4th additional principle part 2).
Link 4 rotates about the centro 14, which both points 24 and 34 are part of and also revolve
about. So, by similar triangles, as shown in Fig. 3.9.21. (application of Case B’s 5th additional
principle)
Figure 3.9.21 V34 obtained
These all satisfy Case B’s 2nd additional principle part 1 and 4th additional principle.
Case C: Obtaining Linear Velocities of a Four-Bar Mechanism with a Sliding Member –

Utilizing Centros
Figure 3.9.22 A wild sliding member appears
Description: Figure 3.9.22 is a slider-crank mechanism.
Given: The angular velocity of crank 2 is known.
To Be Obtained: sliding velocity of the block 4

Initial Requirement: As shown in Fig. 3.9.23, the velocity of the point 23 in link 2 can be
known (See Arts. 2.5, 3.6, and Equation 2.5.2), and direction-sense of V34 can be observed (See
Art. 1.8). (See Art. 3.1)
Figure 3.9.23 V23 and direction of sliding

acquired
Additional Principle 1: There are 6 centros namely, 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, and 34. (See
Method Consideration and Principle 2)
Step 1: Obtain Centros 12, 23, and 34 by observation, as shown in Fig. 3.9.24. (See
Principle 1 and Case A’s 1st (12), 3rd (23), and 4th (34) Centros Obtained)
Figure 3.9.24 Triple Kill
Additional Principle 2: The centro 34 evidently has the same motion that it would have
were it guided by a crank of length 34-14 turning about a point 14, an infinite distance away. 14 is
connected to centro 12 by line of centers parallel to infinite crank 4. (See Art. 1.8)
Step 2: Obtain 14, which by observation, located where the line of centers and the infinite
crank 4 intersects for parallel lines intersect at the end of infinity, as shown in Fig. 3.9.25 (See
Principle 1 and Case C’s 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.25 Centro spotted

Step 3: Obtain 24, akin with Centros 12 and 14, and also with Centros 23 and 34, based on
the application of Kennedy’s Theorem. At the intersection of lines 12-14 and 23-34, the centro
24 is located, as shown in Fig. 3.9.26. (See Case A’s 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.26 Note that centro 24 satisfies

definition (1) of Principle 1 Part 1, a point
common to 2 and 4, having the same velocity in
each. (Described in Principles 1 Part 2 and 3
Part 3)
Step 4: Likewise as 24, locating centro 13. (See Step 3). Obtain centro 13 located at the
intersection of 12-23 and 14-34, based on the application of Kennedy’s Theorem, as shown in
Fig. 3.9.27. (See Case A’s 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.27 Centro 13 satisfies definition (3) of

Principle 1 Part 1 and, in reality, is the
instantaneous axis of velocity of link 3. (See
Principle 1 Part 2)

Step 5: Since, by definition, Figure 3.9.28 Direction-sense of 24
24 is a point common to both 2 and

4 and has the same velocity in each
(See Case B’s Step 3), direction of
V24 can be assumed in accordance
with Principle 3 part 3.
This completes our

“tentative” requirements to obtain
V24, as shown in Fig. 3.9.28. (See
Case B’s 2nd additional principle
part 2)
Step 6: Make a
representation of 23 and its velocity
partially revolved about 12, aligned
with 12 and 24, and distance from
12 maintained. The direction of the
velocity partially revolved stays
perpendicular to the line connecting
12 and 23, in accordance with Art.
3.6, as shown in Fig. 3.9.29. (in
preparation for the application of
Case B’s 3rd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.29 Swinga jamma taymah

Step 7: Instantaneously, the Figure 3.9.30 V24 obtained
velocities of all points in the body

are proportional to their distances
from 12 (See Case B’s 3rd
Generate proportional line
using the velocity head of partially
revolved 23 and connecting it to 12,
as shown in Fig. 3.9.30.
(application of Case B’s 3rd
By the construction of
similar triangles, following the
proportionality (application of Case
B’s 3rd additional principle), V24 is
obtained. (See Case B’s 2nd
Step 8: Make a
representation of 24 and its velocity
partially revolved about 14, aligned
with 14 and 24, and distance from
14 maintained. The direction-sense
of the velocity partially revolved
stays perpendicular to the line
connecting 14 and 24, in
accordance with Art. 3.6, as shown
in Fig. 3.9.31. (in preparation for
the application of Case B’s 5th
Figure 3.9.31 Infinity swing

Since 14 is at an infinite distance away from 24 (See Case C’s 2nd additional principle),
“swinging” 24 generated a straight path, making its velocity parallel with 34’s.
distances from 14 (See Case B’s 5th additional principle), which in both points 24 and 34 is infinite
(See Case C’s 2nd additional principle).
Generate proportional line using the velocity head of 24 and connecting it to 14, with an
infinite distance away, generating a line parallel with 34-14, as shown in Fig. 3.9.32. (application
of Case B’s 5th additional principle)
Proportional line would be parallel to lines 34-14, and 24-14, for they would all intersect
in 14 at an infinite distance from 24 and 34. (See Case C’s 2nd additional principle)
Figure 3.9.32 Another proportional line

generated

Obtained: Proportional line reveals the magnitude of V34 (See Case B’s 5th additional
principle) that’s always perpendicular to crank 4 (See Case B’s 4th additional principle part 2).
Infinite crank 4 rotates about the centro 14, which both points 24 and 34 are part of and
also revolve about. So, by similar triangles, as shown in Fig. 3.9.33. (application of Case B’s 5th
Figure 3.9.33 V34 or the sliding velocity

obtained
These all satisfy Case B’s 2nd additional principle part 1 and 4th additional principle.
Note: With all centros located and the linear velocity of 23 known, the method of finding
the linear velocity of the centro 34, the same as the velocity of the block 4, is shown. Note that the
centro 14 is located at infinity, on a line perpendicular to the path of travel of the block 4. 𝑉24 =
12−24
𝑉23 (12−23) and is equal to V34, since 24 and 34 are moving in the same direction and the velocity
of any point common to the block is the velocity of the block. The construction shows the
correctness of this statement.

Case D: Obtaining Angular Velocity of Links – Utilizing Centros
The method of centros affords an excellent manner for determining the instantaneous
angular velocity ratio of any two links and the instantaneous absolute angular velocity of any link
when the instantaneous absolute angular velocity of one link in a mechanism is known.
Additional Principle 1: Referring to Fig. 3.9.34, considering centro 24 to be in link 2,

from Case B’s 1st and 3rd additional principles,
Figure 3.9.34 24 as a point in link 2
𝑉24 = 𝜔2 (24 − 12)
Additional Principle 2: Referring to Fig. 3.9.35, when 24 is considered to be in link 4,

from Case B’s 1st and 5th additional principle,
Figure 3.9.35 24 as a point in link 4
𝑉24 = 𝜔4 (24 − 14)

Additional Principle 3: But the velocity of 24 is the same in each link, as shown in Fig.
3.9.36. (See Case B)
Figure 3.9.36 At this instant, 24 is both a point

in links 2 and 4 as described in Principle 3 Part 3
Therefore, from Case D’s 1st and 2nd additional principles,
𝜔4 (24 − 14) = 𝜔2 (24 − 12)
or
𝜔4 24 − 12
=
𝜔2 24 − 14
Equation 3.9.2
Additional Principle 4: Stated in words: the instantaneous angular velocities of two

links are inversely as the distances from their common centro to the centers about which
they are turning or tending to turn. By applying this principle, the angular velocity of link 3 is
23 − 12
𝜔3 = 𝜔2 ( )
23 − 13
The sense of rotation is obtained by giving the wanted link’s angular velocity a direction
corresponding to the sense of the linear velocity of the common centro, as shown in Fig. 3.9.37.

Figure 3.9.37 Application of Case D for ω3 in a
nut shell
The above method of obtaining the angular velocities of links in a mechanism may be
applied regardless of the number of links in the mechanism.
Note: It should be pointed out that when the mechanism is a four-bar linkage, the centro
24 is always located at the intersection of the center line of the connecting rod, 23-34, and the line
of centers, 12-14. Therefore, the angular speeds of the two cranks of a four-bar linkage are
inversely as the distances from the fixed centers to the point of intersection of the center line
of the connecting rod and the line of centers (extended if necessary).

3.10 Method 4: Relative Velocity or Velocity Polygon
All motions, strictly speaking, are relative motions in that some arbitrary set of axes or
planes must be established in order that the motion may be defined. It is customary to assume that
the earth is a fixed reference plane when analyzing the velocities and motions of machine
members, and to refer to such motions as absolute motion. A crank, in a machine, rotating
about an axis fixed to the machine frame which is attached to a foundation in the earth has absolute
motion. A floating link, the connecting rod of a machine, has motion relative to the crank. The
floating link also has absolute motion or motion with respect to the earth.
A very common example is a brakeman (rail transport) walking on the top of a box car (rail
transport) as the car runs along the track. The car has absolute motion, the brakeman has motion
relative to the car, and the brakeman has absolute motion. The absolute motion of the brakeman is
equal to the motion of the car plus the motion of the brakeman relative to the car. Expressed in
equation form
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑐 + 𝐷𝑚𝑐
Equation 3.10.1
where Dm = absolute motion of the man, Dc = the absolute motion of the car, and Dmc = the motion
of the man relative to the car.
If the time rate of change for the above three displacements are considered, the relationship
for velocities may be written
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑚𝑐
Equation 3.10.2
where Vm = the absolute velocity of the man (resultant), Vc = the absolute velocity of the car, and
Vmc = the velocity of the man relative to the car.

This equation shows that the absolute velocity of the man (resultant) is equivalent to the
velocity of the car plus the velocity of the man relative to the car.
By rewriting Equation 3.10.2,
𝑉𝑚𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑐
Equation 3.10.3
Principle 1: It may be stated that the velocity of one point relative to a second point is
equal to the absolute velocity of the first point minus the absolute velocity of the second point.
If the brakeman is walking on top of the car with the same direction-sense as the car, the
absolute velocity of the brakeman will be the algebraic sum of the absolute velocity of the car and
the velocity of the brakeman relative to the car. However, if the direction-sense of the velocity of
the brakeman relative to the car is not the same as the direction-sense of the absolute velocity of
the car, the absolute velocity of the brakeman may be obtained by Equation 3.10.2 and vectors as
shown in Fig. 3.10.01.
Figure 3.10.01 Vector Operation

can be very handy
For deeper understanding, watch:

Relative Motion and Inertial Reference Frames
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wD7C4V9smG4

Consider the velocities of points on a crank rotating about the fixed axis Q with an angular
velocity of ω as shown in Fig. 3.10.02.
Figure 3.10.02 Another principle straight

ahead
The velocity of A, 𝑉𝑎 = 𝜔 𝑄𝐴, the velocity of C, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝜔 𝑄𝐶, and the velocity of B, 𝑉𝑏 =

𝜔 𝑄𝐵.(See Art. 2.5)
From Equation 3.10.3,
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐
Equation 3.10.4
In the polygon, draw qa equal and parallel to Va. Vc (qc) is on qa, since the direction of both Va
and Vc are perpendicular to QA. By using the lengths of the lines in the polygon, Equation 3.10.4
may be written
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑞𝑎 − 𝑞𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎
Equation 3.10.5
Equation 3.10.4 may also be written
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔 𝑄𝐴 − 𝜔 𝑄𝐶 = 𝜔 (𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐶 ) = 𝜔 𝐶𝐴
Equation 3.10.6

Principle 2: Stated in words: Equations 3.10.5 and 3.10.6 show that the velocity of one
point on a body, relative to another point of the body, is the difference between their absolute
velocities and is equal to the absolute angular velocity of the body multiplied by the linear
distance between the two points.
Considering points A and B,
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
In the polygon, draw qb equal and parallel to Vb. Then ab equals Vab and the direction-
sense of Vab is as shown. It should be noted that, in the polygon, qa is perpendicular to QA, qb is
perpendicular to QB, and ab is perpendicular to AB. This is as expected since the direction of the
linear velocity of a point is perpendicular to a line joining the point and the axis about which the
point is rotating or tending to rotate (See Art. 3.6).
Principle 3: The velocity of A relative to B in reality is the velocity of A with respect to B

or the velocity of A about B. Reasoning in this manner shows that the velocity of one point relative
to another point is perpendicular to the line joining the two points and has a magnitude equal to
the angular velocity of the body multiplied by the linear distance between the points. As previously
pointed out, the velocity of A is not an absolute velocity but is the velocity of A relative to the earth
or velocity of A relative to Q. There is no question about Va being perpendicular to QA and equal
in magnitude to ω QA. With this idea in mind, it may be more easily understood that the velocity
of A relative to B is perpendicular to AB and equal to ω AB. The angular velocity ω used in
obtaining the relative velocity is the absolute angular velocity of the link as is shown in the
consideration of Fig. 3.10.02.

Figure 3.10.03 Principle coming right up
Figure 3.10.03 represents any body m with an angular velocity ω, as shown. It is assumed
that Va and Vb are known in magnitude and direction-sense. The instantaneous axis of velocity of
m is located at Q. In the velocity polygon, obtain ab by drawing qa equal and parallel to Va and qb
equal and parallel to Vb. The vector ab is the velocity of B relative to A. Note that qa is
perpendicular to QA, qb is perpendicular to QB, and ab is perpendicular to AB. Then triangles
AQB, and aqb are similar and
𝑄𝐴 𝐴𝐵
=
𝑞𝑎 𝑎𝑏
But
𝑞𝑎 = 𝑉𝑎 = 𝜔 𝑄𝐴
Then
𝑄𝐴 𝐴𝐵
=
𝜔 𝑄𝐴 𝑎𝑏
or
𝑎𝑏 = 𝜔 𝐴𝐵
But
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑎

Therefore
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝜔 𝐴𝐵
It may now be definitely stated that
Principle 1: the absolute linear velocity of one point on a body is equal to the
absolute linear velocity of a second point on the body plus the velocity of the first
point relative to the second point;
Principle 2: the velocity of one point on a body relative to a second point on the
body is equal to the product of the absolute angular velocity of the body and the
linear distance between the two points;
Principle 3: the direction of this relative velocity is perpendicular to a line joining

the points; and
Principle 4: the sense of this relative velocity is such as to be consistent with the
sense of the absolute angular velocity.

Bonus 1: Resolving Method 2’s Case B (In Replacement with Steps 2B and 3B)
The angular velocity of link 3 may be obtained by using relative velocity from resolution
and composition. In Fig. 3.10.04,
Figure 3.10.04 Go see Fig. 3.8.14
From Principles 1, 2 and 4,
𝑉𝑐𝑎 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐 𝐴𝑎 − 𝐶𝑐
𝜔3 = = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
But from Method 1’s Consideration,
𝑉𝑎 = 𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑎
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶𝑐1 + 𝑐1 𝑐

Substituting,
( 𝐴𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑎) − ( 𝐶𝑐1 + 𝑐1𝑐 ) 𝐴𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑎 − 𝐶𝑐1 − 𝑐1 𝑐

𝜔3 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
And according to Method 1’s Principle,
𝐴𝑎1 = 𝐶𝑐1
Therefore,
𝐴𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑎 − 𝐶𝑐1 − 𝑐1 𝑐
𝜔3 =
𝐴𝐶
Leaving us,
𝑎1 𝑎 − 𝑐1 𝑐
𝜔3 = =
𝐴𝐶
Equation 3.10.7
Note: a1a is the perpendicular component of the velocity of A, and c1c is the perpendicular
component of the velocity of C (in accordance with Method 1’s Consideration). The vector
difference a1a – c1c is the velocity of C relative to A (satisfying both Method 1’s Consideration
and Method 4’s Principles) and must be expressed in the same linear units as AC and the time units
as ω3. In Fig. 3.10.04, the sense of both vectors is the same and the vectors are subtracted; however,
if the sense of these vectors is opposite, the vectors would be added.

Obtaining Linear and Angular Velocities – Utilizing Relative Velocity
Figure 3.10.05 Angular velocity of 2 is known
Description: The principles (See Principles 1 – 4) discussed afford a useful method of

obtaining the instantaneous angular velocities of the members in a machine and the instantaneous
linear velocities of points on these members.
Given: In Fig. 3.10.05, the angular velocity of 2 is known.
To be Obtained: Vb, Vc, and ω3
Initial Requirements: The direction of Vb is perpendicular to Q4B (See Art 3.6). Both the
magnitude and direction-sense of Va can be obtained (See Art. 2.5), as shown in Fig. 3.10.06.
The procedure for obtaining the linear velocities of B and C and the angular velocity of the
connecting link 3 follows:

Additional Principle 1: The direction of Vba is perpendicular to AB. (See Principle 3)
And from Principle 1,
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑎
The magnitude of Vba cannot be obtained at present because the angular velocity of link 3
is unknown (See Principle 2).
Step 1: The equation is solved graphically by drawing qa equal and parallel to Va, as shown
in Fig. 3.10.07 (See Principle 1);
Figure 3.10.07 Start of construction of velocity

polygon
Step 2: drawing from q a line, representing the direction of Vb, perpendicular to Q4B, as
shown in Fig. 3.10.08 (See Initial Requirement and Principle 1);
Figure 3.10.08 Direction-sense of B

Step 3: and drawing from a a line, representing the direction of Vba, perpendicular to AB,
as shown in Fig. 3.10.09 (See 1st additional principle).
Figure 3.10.09 Direction of relative velocity

between A and B
Step 4: Locate b at the intersection of the last two lines drawn, as shown in Fig. 3.10.10.
Figure 3.10.10 b located
Obtained: Then Vb = qb and Vba = ab, as shown in Fig. 3.10.11. (satisfying Initial
Requirements and 1st additional principle)
Figure 3.10.11 Vb obtained
The senses of these velocities are indicated by arrows. After becoming familiar with the
method, the arrows are not needed.

Now obtain Vc.
Additional Principle 2: Utilizing Principle 1,
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑐𝑎
The velocity of C can also be expressed by the equation
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐𝑏
Neither of these two quantities can be solved independently but the two equations can be
solved simultaneously by
Step 5: drawing a line, representing the direction Vca, from a, perpendicular to CA, as
shown in Fig. 3.10.12 (See Principle 3),

between A and C
Step 6: and another line, representing the direction of Vcb, from b, perpendicular to CB, as
shown in Fig. 3.10.13 (See Principle 3).

between B and C

Step 7: Notate the intersection of these lines by c, as shown in Fig. 3.10.14
Figure 3.10.14 c located
Obtained: Then Vca = ac, Vcb = cb, and Vc = qc, as shown in Fig. 3.10.15 (satisfying 2nd
Figure 3.10.15 Vc obtained
Obtained: The absolute angular velocity of link 3, ω3, may be obtained by either of the
following relations (See Principle 2 and 1st additional principle):
𝑉𝑏𝑎 𝑉𝑐𝑎 𝑉𝑐𝑏

𝜔3 = = =
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐵
Note 1: The proper dimensional relationship must be observed. If it is desired to obtain ω

in radians per second, the linear velocity should be in feet per second, and the length of the link,
the actual length in feet on the machine.

Figure 3.10.16 Velocity polygon
Note 2: Referring to Fig. 3.10.16, the polygon qacb is called the velocity polygon. It
should be noted that all absolute velocities originate at the pole q and relative velocities originate
and terminate at points other than q. All lines in a velocity polygon are perpendicular to the
corresponding lettered links (e.g., aq is perpendicular to AQ2, ab is perpendicular to AB, etc.). Each
line in the polygon is an image of the parent line in the sketch (e.g., aq is the image of AQ2, ab is
the image of AB, etc.). The entire triangle abc is the image link ABC. The velocity image is always
perpendicular to the parent link and may be larger or smaller than the parent link, depending upon
the scales chosen. Conceive the velocity image as being the image obtained by placing the sketch
in front of a mirror whose properties are such as to cause
(1) all lines in the image to be perpendicular to lines in the sketch,

(2) all lines in the image to be proportional to the parent lines in the sketch, and
(3) all points on the sketch to be proportionally located in the image.
Figure 3.10.17 You might be wondering at to

what line Vc is perpendicular with. Like every
other point, perpendicular to the line
connecting the points to a point of the same
body fix to Earth (See Principles 1, 2, and 3),
because those are their absolute velocities.
Just like axes Q2 and Q4 which are stationary
pairs (See Art. 1.7), the instantaneous axis of
velocity is a point on the link in which the link
rotates about. An axis that is fixed to Earth at
that instant (See Art. 3.8).

Note 3: However, the proportionality existing between the image of one link and its parent
link is not the same as the proportionality existing between the image of another link on the same
diagram and its parent link.
The velocity image is useful in obtaining the linear velocity of points in a link. If the
velocity of a point D on Q4B is desired, locate d on the velocity image qb (See Principle 1) by the
proportion
𝑞𝑑 𝑞𝑏
=
𝑄4 𝐷 𝑄4 𝐵
In this proportion Q4D and Q4B are known from the location of D on the sketch and qb is
measured on the velocity image. Calculate qd and locate d on the image qb. Then Vd = qd, as
shown in Fig. 3.10.18.
Figure 3.10.18 Vd obtained
If the linear velocity of the midpoint M of BC is wanted, locate m, the midpoint of the
velocity image bc. Then Vm = qm, as shown in Fig. 3.10.19.
Figure 3.10.19 Vm obtained

Review Questions
1. The instantaneous angular velocity of the crank Q2A is 100 rpm counterclockwise. Q2A is
24 in. long and the other members are drawn to the same scale as Q2A. Ks: 1 in. = 1 ft. Kv
= 10 fps. Find Va, Vb, Vc, Vd, and Ve.
Va = 20.94 fps, Vb = 13 fps, Vc = 21 fps, Vd = 14.2 fps, and Ve = 6.7 fps

2. The instantaneous angular velocity of the crank QA is 203.72 rpm counterclockwise. QA
is 14 1/16 in. long and the other members are drawn to the same scale as QA. Ks: 1 in. = ¾
ft. Kv = 25 fps. Find the linear velocity of A, B, C, and, D.
Va = 25 fps, Vb = 28.1 fps, Vc = 39.1 fps, and Vd = 24.2 fps

3. The instantaneous angular velocity of the crank Q2A is 17.57 rpm counterclockwise. Q2A
is 58 ½ in. long and the other members are drawn to the same scale as Q2A. Ks: 1 in. = 3 ft.
Kv = 7 fps. Find the sliding velocity of A and the absolute linear velocities of B and C.
Sliding velocity of A = 3.3 fps, Vb = 4.6 fps, and Vc = 6.3 fps

4. The angular velocity N of crank 2 is 1042 rpm. Q2A is 11 in. long and the other members
are drawn to the same scale as Q2A. Ks: 1 in. = 8 in. Kv = 100 fps. Determine the linear
velocity of A, B, C, and D on link 3 by the instantaneous axis method and the angular
velocity of link 3.
Va = 100 fps, Vb = 62.5 fps, Vc = 75 fps, Vd = 87 fps, and ω3 = 347 rpm

5. The angular velocity N of crank 2 is 364.8 rad per sec. Q2A is 1 9/16 in. long and the other
members are drawn to the same scale as Q2A and Kv = 40 fps. It is required to find the
linear velocity of the slide D and the angular velocity of link 4.
Vd = 17.5 fps and ω3 = 285 rad per sec

6. The wheel whose center is at C rolls along the horizontal plane without slipping. The length
and angular velocity of Q2A is 1 9/16 in. and 1192 rpm, respectively. Find the velocity of
C, the center of the wheel, and D, the top of the wheel.
Vc = 3.1 fps and Vd = 6.25 fps

7. The figure below represents a shaper mechanism. Crank 2, with block 3 attached to it, turns
counterclockwise at a speed of 100 rpm and has an actual length of 9 in. The length of each
link is known. For the position of the crank shown, it is required to find the instantaneous
linear velocity of the block or cutting tool 6 and the angular velocities of the guiding arm
4 and the connecting link 5.
V56 = 5.46 fps, ω4 = 31.6 rpm counterclockwise, and ω5 = 17.15 rpm counterclockwise

8. A non-parallel equal crank mechanism is drawn to an original scale of 1 ½ in. = 1 ft. The
crank Q2A is 9 in. long and is rotating with a uniform angular velocity of 60 rpm
counterclockwise. The connecting rod AB is 3 ft 4 in. long. By means of the relative
velocity method, determine the absolute instantaneous linear velocities of the slide D and
the point P, located 1 ft from A on AB, and the absolute instantaneous angular velocity of
AB.
Va = 4.71 fps, Vd = 4.5 fps, Vp = 4.7 fps, and ωab =1.23 rad/sec

Assessment
1. Drum d is 2 in. in diameter and is attached to the wheel k which is 3 in. in diameter. Wheel
k rolls without slipping on the straight track g. The cord is attached to and wound around
the drum d and pulled parallel to g as shown with a velocity of 1 fps. What is the velocity
of the axis C? At what angle with Q would the cord need to be pulled in order that the
velocity of C be reversed in sense?
2. Assuming no slipping between the disks and the surface velocity of disk A is represented
by a vector 1 in. long, find the velocity of the center of disk C.

3. The slotted piece 4 slides in the fixed guides 1. Crank Q2B is 1 in. long and makes an angle
of 30° with XX. The velocity vector for B, the axis of the pin that connects the crank 2 to
the block 3, is 1 in. long, toward the left. Find the velocity vector for a point on 4.
4. The crank 2 is turning counterclockwise at the instant, with an angular speed of 0.5 rad/min.
Block 4 slides in fixed guides and forms a bearing for the wheel 5. The wheel 5 rolls
without slipping on the fixed track 1. The pin E is attached to 5 and is connected to crank
2 by the rod 3. Find the velocity vector for the axis of the pin C.

5. The velocity of pin P connecting crank 2 to block 5, is represented by a line 1 ¼ in. long.
Find the velocity of H.
6. The block 3 slides along the straight slot in wheel 4. The pin A is fixed to block 3 and slides
along the guides of circular crank 2. The block 5 slides along the circular slot in wheel 4.
The pin B is fixed to block 5 and slides along the guides of crank 2. Ks, 1 in. = 1 ft; Kv =
100 fpm. If wheel 4 turns clockwise at 10 rpm, find (1) the instantaneous linear velocities
in feet per minute of the centers of pins A, B, and C; and (2) the instantaneous angular
velocities in radians per minute of crank 2 and connecting rod 6. Q2Q4 = 5 ft.

References
Asin, R. (1985). Kinematics of Machines (A Reviewer/Text). Manila, PH. MERRIAM &
WEBSTER, INC
Doughtie, V.L., & James, W.H. (1954). Elements of Mechanism. NY. John Wiley & Son, Inc.
Learn Engineering. (2013, April 9). Velocity Analysis | Theory of Machines [Video]. Youtube.
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jzNik6PEKG8
Professor Dave Explains. (2017, February 11). Relative Motion and Inertial Reference Frames
[Video]. Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wD7C4V9smG4


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Module 3: Vectors, Velocity Analysis, and Instant Centers

This module focuses on instantaneous velocity of points in a body or a mechanism, as well

At the end of this module, the students must be able:

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 3 1

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 3 2

1. Two or more points on the same body;

Velocities and accelerations in machines may be determined analytically or graphically.

4 Graphical Methods for Obtaining Velocities

1. Resolution and Composition

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 3 3

Figure 3.2.01 Example of a vector

MACHINE ELEMENTS/ Module 3 4

Figure 3.3.01 Visualization of

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Figure 3.3.02 Visualization of

Figures 3.3.01 and 3.3.02 are called vector polygons.

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Figure 3.4.01 Visualization of

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The space scale is designated Ks.

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Figure 3.6.01 A vector visualization of Art. 2.5 and Equation 2.5.3

Qa is often called the line of proportionality, proportionality line, or simply,

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For deeper understanding, watch:

Method Consideration: In the following discussion, the components will be referred to

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Figure 3.7.01 Two points in a rigid body

Figure 3.7.02 The velocity of one point and

Figure 3.7.03 Points A and B can be

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Figure 3.7.04 Vector resolution is done to

Figure 3.7.05 Aa is equal to Bb according

Figure 3.7.06 BM dictates the length of bb1

bb1 is the perpendicular component of the velocity of B, according to the Method

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Figure 3.7.07 Velocity of B, Vb, is obtained.

Figure 3.7.08 Three points in a rigid body having

Description: In Fig. 3.7.08, A, B, and C are points on the rigid body m.

Figure 3.7.09 The velocity of one point and the direction

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Figure 3.7.10 An application of Art. 3.4 and Method

Case A is utilized to find those sets of components.

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Figure 3.7.11 Velocity of B can be obtained by following

Figure 3.7.12 Resolution of Va into components along and

Figure 3.7.13 According to the principle of Case A, Aa is

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Figure 3.7.14 This perpendicular line represents the

Figure 3.7.15 Resolution of Vb into components along and

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Figure 3.7.16 According to the principle of Case A, Bb is

Step 7: Draw a line perpendicular to BC from c1 as shown in Fig. 3.7.17.

Figure 3.7.17 This perpendicular line represents the

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Figure 3.7.18 c2 is the intersection of lines cc2 and c1c2.

Figure 3.7.19 Velocity of C, Vc, is obtained.

This method of solving simultaneous vector equations is very useful.

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Figure 3.7.20 Three points in a rigid body forming a

Figure 3.7.21 The velocity of one point and the direction of

To Be Obtained: Neither the magnitude nor the direction-sense of the velocity of C is

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