ISSN 2255-8713 (online)

Materials Science and Applied Chemistry ISSN 1407-7353 (print)

May 2017, vol. 34, pp. 69–74
doi: 10.1515/msac-2017-0011
https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/msac

Clay Ceramic Filter for Water Treatment

Enyew Amare Zereffa1*, Tesfaye Betela Bekalo2
1
Chemistry Program, School of Applied Natural Science, Adama Science and Technology University, Ethiopia
2
Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Science, Dilla University, Ethiopia

Abstract – Ceramic water filters were prepared from different Thus, the purpose of this study was to fabricate ceramic filters
proportions of kaolin and soft wood and sintered at 900 °C, 950 °C, on laboratory scale and to investigate their removal efficiency
and 1000 °C. The flow rate, conductivity, pH of filtered water and
of microbial content, turbidity, water hardness agents, nitrites,
removal efficiency (microbial, water hardness agent’s, nitrite and
turbidity) were analysed. The ceramic filter with 15 % saw dust, to improve pH and conductivity of water and to optimize their
80 % clay and 5 % grog that was fired at temperature of 950 °C performance using various firing temperatures and
or 1000 °C showed the best removal efficiency. Statistical ANOVA compositions of clay and saw dust.
tests showed a significant difference between ceramic filters with
various compositions in their removal efficiencies. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Keywords – Clay, ceramic filter, porosity, sintering. Equipment used in this study: mortar, pestle, 0.5 mm sieve,
portable Millipore membrane filter, stainless steel filter holder,
muffle furnace, CL52 D nephelometer, conductivity-meter
I. INTRODUCTION 4310 JENWAY, pH-016 pH-meter , ZEISS scanning electron
microscope EVO-50 and EVO-18, single beam UV-Visible
Every year 1.6 million children die from diarrheal diseases spectrophotometer (XP-1000P, China, number 2000 to 8004).
[1], and many of these deaths can be attributed to unsafe Analytical grade reagents were used. Saw dust, grog and clay
drinking water. Lack of access to drinking water and exposure were the raw materials used for the production of ceramic
to waterborne diseases from unsafe drinking water are a filters. Grog is non-plastic material that was used to reduce
problem for many people in the developing countries. Nearly shrinkage and to control porosity of the ceramic filter. Saw dust
all water-related diseases are caused due to the lack of provision was from soft wood; it was a burn out additive. Clay soil for
of sufficiently clean water for the community [2]. It is estimated this work was collected from Kofe pottery makers. The clay soil
that over 780 million people are still without access to improved consists of mainly kaolin called Dumina, Ache, and Bula by
sources of drinking water [3]. Developing countries possess their local names (Fig. 1).
plenty of surface water such as rivers, lakes, non-protected
springs and ponds. Most of this surface water is contaminated
because societies near to the water use it for washing clothes,
bathing, and animal watering [4]. For this reason more than
50 % of the population suffer from water-borne and water
related diseases [3]. This burdens developing countries with
enormous financial and social costs as they have to take care of
large number of people suffering from these devastating
infections. Low scale water treatment techniques, boiling,
chlorination, solar water disinfection, natural coagulation and
bio-sand filtration are used to remove water related disease
causing microorganisms. Bio-sand filter can remove protozoa
up to 100 % [5]. Some of these techniques reduce the quality of
water, and the side-products have an adverse effect on
consumer health. Chlorine in water combines with natural
organic compounds to yield substances such as
trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, and chlorophenols that Fig. 1. Kofe: area where clay was collected.
exhibit potentially carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic
activities [6]. Ceramic water filtration is the process of passing Clay, sawdust and grog were crushed in a large wooden
water through a porous ceramic material. It is a promising way mortar and pestle and sieved after drying in the sun for a week.
to reduce the burden of water-borne diseases; it is affordable in The average particle size of raw materials that passed through
terms of cost and made from local resources [7]. Ceramic filters the sieve was 0.36 mm. Sieved clay powder, grog and
can be designed in shape of a flower pot, disc, and candle [8]. combustible materials were taken in the required proportion and

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: enyewama@yahoo.com

©2017 Enyew Amare Zereffa, Tesfaye Betela Bekalo.

This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License
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mixed dry, then wetted by adding water, then wedged and rolled standard calcium carbonate solution complex [12]. EBT
to get a smooth homogeneous mixture. Clay mixtures were solution was prepared by dissolving 0.2 g of EBT indicator in
moulded into shape of a flower pot in a plastic cup. The pressed 15 mL ammonia solution and 5 mL absolute ethanol. Buffer
filter materials were dried in air at average high temperature solution of pH = 10 was prepared by adding 17 g of NH4Cl to
25 °C, average low temperature 19 °C and average humidity 142 mL concentrated ammonia solution (specific gravity 0.9)
59 % in a dry place for 15 days. and diluting to 250 mL with distilled water in a conical flask.
Batches of pressed dry ceramic filters were placed into a The concentration of magnesium and calcium was measured in
muffle furnace and sintered at 900 °C, 950 °C and 1000 °C with ppm separately after filtration with ceramic filters.
10 °C∙min−1 heating and cooling rate and 6 h dwell time. Filters
C70-900, C75-900 and C80-900 were fired at maximum of
900 °C, while filters C70-950, C75-950 and C80-950 were fired
at 950 °C. Filters C70-1000, C75-1000 and C80-1000 were
fired at 1000 °C temperature (Table I). The manufactured filter
elements were 11.80 cm in height, 8.0 cm in width, and had
1.0 cm wall thickness.
TABLE I
THE COMPOSITION OF CLAY, SAWDUST, GROG AND SINTERING
TEMPERATURE
Clay, Saw dust, Grog, Sintering
Filter code
wt.% wt.% wt.% temperature, °C
C70-900 70 25 5 900
C70-950 70 25 5 950
C70-1000 70 25 5 1000
C75-900 75 20 5 900
C75-950 75 20 5 950
Fig. 2. Water sampling point (Kabena River).
C75-1000 75 20 5 1000
C80-900 80 15 5 900 Iron removal efficiency of the ceramic water filters was
tested with UV-visible spectrophotometer for water sample
C80-950 80 15 5 950
taken from the river. To determine the amount of iron, stock
C80-1000 80 15 5 1000 solution of Mohr’s salt [Fe(NH4)2(SO4)26H2O] 1000 ppm was
prepared by dissolving 6.97 g of the salt in 1000 mL volumetric
Water samples were collected from Kabena River (Fig. 2) flask and filled to the mark with distilled water. Standard
using purposeful sampling techniques and cleaned sterile solutions at different concentrations (100 ppm, 10 ppm, 8 ppm,
plastic container. Container was filled with water, transported 6 ppm, 4 ppm and 2 ppm) were prepared from stock solution
to the laboratory and refrigerated [9]. There is a high risk of for the calibration of UV-visible spectrophotometer
microorganism, organic and inorganic chemical contamination instrument. Before UV-visible spectrophotometry 1 mL HCl,
in Kabena River due to the intensive discharge of different 5 mL hydroxyl ammine, 3 mL sodium acetate, 5 mL
waste on river side [10]. Flow rate of water was tested by 1,10-phenantroline were added by taking 10 mL solution from
measuring the amount of water that percolated after one hour. each of the standard solution, influent and effluent water and
The water that passed through the filter pots was collected in blank solution. Then the solutions were filled up to mark with
polyethylene plastic cup. Elapsed time and discharged water distilled water in 100 mL volumetric flask. The UV-visible
were recorded on the filter log [11]. The contaminated river spectrophotometer instrument was calibrated with standard
water was diluted with sterilize water (sterilized at 120 °C) in solution of different concentrations and blank solution, then the
1:1000 ratio by taking 1 mL of river water and diluting it with absorbance of the water before and after filtration was measured
999 mL of sterile water. A membrane filtration technique was and the concentration was calculated in ppm based on the
used to detect and enumerate total coliform and E. coli from equation of the standard solution from the calibration graph at
both source water and filtered water samples to determine the 510 nm.
removal efficiency of filters. Nitrite removal efficiency of the ceramic filters was
Water hardness agent removal efficiency of the ceramic investigated with the prepared solution of 0.01 M NaNO2 that
filters were evaluated with complexation titration using EDTA, percolated through the ceramic filter elements. Stock solution
erichrom black T and buffer solution of pH = 10. The solution of 1000 ppm was prepared by dissolving 1.456 g sodium nitrite
of 0.0227 M magnesium chloride and 0.01 M of calcium in 1000 mL volumetric flask. Standard solutions (100 ppm,
chloride were prepared separately in 1000 mL volumetric 10 ppm, 8 ppm, 6 ppm, 4 ppm and 2 ppm) were prepared from
flasks. An approximately 0.01 M solution of EDTA was stock solution for standardization of the instrument. Solutions
prepared by dissolving 3.7224 g EDTA in distilled water and of 0.025 M paranitroaniline and 0.025 M 1-naphthol were
diluted to 1 L. The solution was metrically standardized with

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prepared separately in 1000 mL volumetric flask. The
calibration graph was made by plotting the absorbance of nitrite
versus the concentration of the standard solutions. The amount
of nitrite ions present in the water solution before and after
filtration was computed from the calibration equation in ppm.
For conductivity test, standard solution of KCl was prepared
with concentration and conductivity of 0.7455 ppm
(1330 µs∙cm−1), 0.0746 ppm (133 µs∙cm−1) and 0.0149 ppm
(26.6 µs∙cm−1) to confirm the suitability of the instrument. The
pH value of 4 and 8 buffer solutions were used to sustain the
measurement of pH of the source and filtered water.
Surface morphology and microstructure of filter materials
were studied by using ZEISS scanning electron microscope
EVO-50 and EVO-18 after a thin layer of gold was coated on
the samples using Auto Fine Coated for 90 seconds. To
determine porosity of the ceramic filters, samples were dry
weighed in air then saturated in distilled water at room
temperature. Samples were then boiled for about two hours and
allowed to cool to room temperature. The soaked samples were
weighed under distilled water. Then the porosity of the filters
was calculated.
58.62 % to 89.65 %. ANOVA statistical analysis of microbial
and turbidity removal efficiency indicated a significance
difference in microbial and turbidity removal efficiency of the
ceramic filters having different percentage composition of clay
to saw dust (p < 0.05). Ceramic filters with high percentage
composition of saw dust (C70-900, C70-950, C70-1000)
greatly differed from ceramic filters C75-900, C75-950,
C75-1000 and C80-900, C80-950, C80-1000 in microbial and
turbidity removal efficiency.
Porosity of the ceramic filter is the basis for removal of
particles in micro-size level resulting from physical processes
such as clogging, inertia, and adsorption. Fig. 4 also displays
the relationship between E. coli and total coliform removal
efficiency and porosity of the ceramic filters. It is indicated that
less porous ceramic filters could remove microorganisms
efficiently. The pore sizes of ceramic water filters determine the
ability to remove particles and pathogens from water [14]. As
indicated in Fig. 4, ceramic filters with similar percentage of
clay but fired at different temperatures have different porosity.
100

90
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Removal efficiency(%)

The microbial removal efficiency of ceramic filters ranged 80

from 80.00 % to 97.50 %. As it can be seen from Fig. 3, the
70
microbial and turbidity removal efficiency of the ceramic filters
total coliform
increase with the increase of the percentage of clay in the 60
composition. The least removal efficiency registered 80.00 % E.coli
50
total coliform and 85.00 % E.coli for ceramic water filter turbidity
C70-1000 (Fig. 3). This might be due to the high porosity of the 40
filter elements that resulted from the higher percentage of burn-
out material in the composition. Ceramic water filters with
relatively low porosity have good efficiency in removing
microbial pollution from contaminated water sources [13]. The
turbidity of the source water used for analysis was 58.00 NTU, Fig. 3. Total coliform, E.coli and turbidity removal efficiency of ceramic filters
while the turbidity removal efficiency of the filters varied from C70-900 − C80-1000.

TABLE IIA
SUMMARY OF FLOW RATE, TOTAL COLIFORM, E. COLI, AND TURBIDITY REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF THE FILTERS
Turbidity
Ceramic Flow rate Total coliform E. coli removal
removal Porosity (%)
code (Ml/H) efficiency (%) efficiency (%)
efficiency (%)
C70-900 400.00 ± 2.64 80.00 ± 1.00 83.78 ± 1.73 58.62 ± 1.00 65.43 ± 2.04
C70-950 340.00 ± 1.73 83.75 ± 2.64 89.18 ± 1.00 65.62 ± 2.64 52.65 ± 1.42
C70-1000 300.00 ± 5.29 87.50 ± 2.64 86.48 ± 1.00 67.25 ± 1.00 53.71 ± 1.86
C75-900 300.00 ± 1.00 88.75 ± 1.73 89.18 ± 2.00 70.68 ± 1.00 58.61 ± 0.91
C75-950 250.00 ± 1.73 91.25 ± 1.00 94.59 ± 1.00 89.65 ± 1.73 50.55 ± 1.84
C75-1000 250.00 ± 1.73 93.7 5± 1.00 93.24 ± 0.00 84.48 ± 1.00 50.62 ± 3.22
C80-900 250.00 ± 2.00 90.00 ± 1.00 91.89 ± 1.73 79.31 ± 1.73 60.74 ± 2.11
C80-950 200.00 ± 1.73 93.75 ± 1.73 95.94 ± 1.73 81.31 ± 1.00 49.43 ± 1.55
C80-1000 200.00 ± 2.64 96.25 ± 1.73 97.50 ± 1.73 87.93 ± 1.73 49.13 ± 0.98

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TABLE IIB
400 900oC
SUMMARY OF POROSITY, MAGNESIUM, IRON AND NITRITE REMOVAL
950oC
EFFICIENCY OF FILTERS

Flow rate(mL/h)
300 1000oC
Mg2+ Ca2+ Iron Nitrite
Ceramic removal removal removal removal 200
code efficiency efficiency efficiency efficiency
(%) (%) (%) (%)
100
C70-900 45.05 ± 1.32 38.79 ± 0.50 79.08 ± 0.70 43.86 ± 0.42
C70-950 50.54 ± 1.80 16.32 ± 1.44 80.70 ± 0.18 58.34 ± 1.80 0
C70-900 C70-950 C75-900 C75-950 C80-900 C80-
C70-1000 68.86 ± 2.64 56.71 ± 0.86 73.98 ± 0.18 53.27 ± 1.04
C70-1000 C75-1000 950C80-1000
C75-900 69.59 ± 1.73 57.73 ± 1.32 79.08 ± 0.10 61.17 ± 0.82 Ceramic code

C75-950 69.75 ± 0.60 57.96 ± 0.10 79.30 ± 0.02 71.03 ± 0.66 Fig. 5. Flow rate of ceramic filter elements.
C75-1000 64.85 ± 0.50 64.35 ± 1.32 79.08 ± 0.06 70.56 ± 1.04
Fig. 6 shows the effect of firing temperature on the porosity
C80-900 60.43 ± 1.32 45.00 ± 1.32 66.74 ± 0.02 71.94 ± 0.56
of ceramic filter elements. From C75-900, C75-950 and
C80-950 63.15 ± 1.00 51.62 ± 1.73 78.60 ± 0.13 73.69 ± 0.56 C75-1000 more efficient filters in removing turbidity and
C80-1000 54.30 ± 2.64 63.08 ± 0.91 72.77 ± 0.02 70.56 ± 0.32 microbial pollution were achieved by sintering at 950 °C and
1000 °C. Ceramic filters sintered at lower temperature showed
the highest flow rate and low removal efficiency [16]. Turbidity
100 and microbial removal efficiency of the ceramic filters fired at
T.coliform 950 °C and 1000 °C were comparable. Statistical ANOVA
Removal efficiency(%)

analysis indicates that ceramic filters C70-900, C75-900 and

E.coli
95 C80-900 (fired at 900 °C) differ significantly in porosity from
ceramics C70-950, C75-950, C80-950 and C70-1000,
C75-1000, C80-1000 fired at 950 °C and 1000 °C (p < 0.05).
90
60

85
porosity(%)

49,13 49,43
Porosity
Fig. 4. Total coliform and E. coli removal efficiency vs. porosity of ceramics
C80-1000, C80-950 and C80-900.
The pots were small in size and had 231.9 cm of internal
surface area. Flow rates from ceramic filters C70-900 to
C80-1000 per surface area were 1.72 mL·cm−2·h−1,
1.46 mL·cm−2·h−1, 1.29 mL·cm−2·h−1, 1.29 mL·cm−2·h−1,
1.07 mL·cm−2·h−1, 1.07 mL·cm−2·h−1, 1.07 mL·cm−2·h−1, 0.86
mL·cm−2·h−1 and 0.86 mL·cm−2·h−1, respectively. As it can be
seen from Fig. 5, the flow rate increased with the increase of the
content of combustible material. The flow rate of C80-900
ceramic filter that was fired at 900 °C temperature was
surprisingly high. This might be due to the low density of the
filter element at such low sintering temperature. Filters with
larger number of pores per surface area have a greater flow rate,
whereas filters with small pore number per surface area have
lower flow rates [15]. Flow rates of ceramic filters C75-900,
C75-950, C75-1000 and C80-900, C80-950, C80-1000 did not
differ significantly, while C70-900, C70-950, C70-1000 were
significantly different from C75-900, C75-950, C75-1000 and
C80-900, C80-950, C80-1000 filters (p < 0.05).
55
60,74
50
45
2 900 950 1000
Firing temperature(oC)
Fig. 6. Porosity vs. firing temperature of C75-900, C75-950 and C75-1000 filter
elements.
As indicated on Fig. 7, most of the developed ceramic filters
could remove cations (Mg2+, Ca2+, and Fe2+) and nitrite ions
with more than 50.00 % efficiency from water. The removal of
cations and anions might be due to the ion exchange on the
ceramic surface, formation of precipitate as oxides and
hydroxides of the ions, and adsorption on activated carbon
media formed in the ceramic body from combustible material.
The central cations in clay structure, aluminium and silicon,
with higher charge might be replaced with lower charge ions
such as magnesium and calcium by leaving net negative charge.
A ceramic filter made from saw dust, snail shell, glass and clay
that was fired at 850 °C temperature could remove 50.80 % of
hardness and 96.00 % of iron from stream water [17].

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90 160 8

80 140 7,8
120

Conductivity (µs∙cm-1)
70 7,6
Removal efficiency (%)

pH
60 100
7,4
50 80
7,2
40 60
Magnesium 7
30 40
cond
Calcium 6,8
20 20
Iron pH
10 0 6,6
Nitrite
0

Fig. 7. Removal efficiency of magnesium, calcium, iron, and nitrite ions.
Ceramic filters were evaluated for conductivity and pH
changes after filtration, and all ceramic filters reduced
conductivity and pH of source water. Electrical conductivity is
directly related to the amount of ions present in a given solution
[18]. The pH value of the source water was relatively high and
it was decreased after filtration through all ceramic filters
(Fig. 8). Higher pH conditions might enhance adsorption of
positively charged ions. There was no significant difference in
conductivity of water filtered through ceramic filters made from
different composition of clay to sawdust (p > 0.05).
Fig. 8. Conductivity and pH of water after filtration with the ceramic filters.
Conductivity and pH of source water were 157 µs∙cm-1 and 8.2, respectively.
Fig. 9 depicts the typical microstructure of the fracture
surface of ceramic filters made with 80 % clay, 15 % saw dust
and 5 % grog and sintered at 900 °C, 950 °C and 1000 °C for
6 h as observed by scanning electron microscopy. These images
confirmed the variation of microstructures within C80-900,
C80-950, and C80-1000. The two ceramics have dense
microstructure with porosity less than 10 % of that of C80-900.
The gradual decrease in grain size in C80-950 and C80-1000
might be due to the increase of sintering temperature. These
differences in microstructure could be the cause of flow rate and
removal efficiency variability between filters [19].

Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of C80-900, C80-950, and C80-1000 fractured surfaces; the ceramics were sintered at 900 °C, 950 °C and 1000 °C, respectively.

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IV. CONCLUSION
Ceramic water filtration is one of the recent low cost water
treatment methods from local materials. According to this study
the ceramic filters manufactured from 15 % saw dust, 80 % clay
and 5 % grog that were fired at 950 °C or 1000 °C showed
better microbial and ion removal efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to acknowledge Addis Ababa University,
Center for Environments and Chemistry Department of Dilla
University for their support.
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Enyew Amare Zereffa obtained his BSc & MSc degrees from the University
of Addis Ababa in Chemistry. He worked as a chemistry teacher for four years
in Catholic Mission School after his first degree and as a Lecturer in Dilla
University for four years after MSc. He has completed his PhD from Andhra
University in chemistry and worked in the same university as an Assistant
Professor and the Leader of Thematic Research on “Developing Low Cost
Quality Ceramic Materials for the Development of Innovative Small Scale
Production Enterprises”. Presently he is working in Adama Science and
Technology University in the School of Applied Natural Science in the applied
chemistry program.
Email: enyewama@yahoo.com
Tesfaye Betela Bekalo obtained BSc and MSc degrees in Chemistry from Dilla
University and is working as a chemistry teacher and a researcher.
Email: tesfishmahilet@gmail.com
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