Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Thesis
By
Konstantinos Alexiou
MASTER OF ARTS
June 2011
"Excellence" is not a gift, but a skill that takes practice.
We do not act "rightly" because we are "excellent",
in fact we achieve "excellence" by acting "rightly"."
— Plato
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Bruce Hays for donating a licence of Orca 3D for this project and
his persistent assistance in technical matters, and Frederik Hyttel for answering my
several technical questions during the project.
Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 2
Basic Ship Theory………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7
Basic naval architecture……………………………………………………………………………………………………….7
The geometry of the ship……………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Ship dimensions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
Representing the hull form………………………………………………………………………………………….10
Coefficients of form…………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
Basic mechanics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..15
Hull design……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......18
Chapter 3
The Evolution of the Hull Design of the European Sailing Vessel up to the 17th century….20
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...20
The roots of the sailing ship…………………………………………………………………………………………………….21
Evaluating the type- and evolution-concepts in maritime archaeology……………………………………..22
Ancient ships, around 3000 BC – 1000 BC………………………………………………………………………………..25
The Aegean craft……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….27
The Cretan vessels…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….28
The Levant vessels…………………………………………………………………………………………………………....29
Eastern Mediterranean, 1000 – 500 BC……………………………………………………………………………………30
Homeric seafaring…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32
Ancient Merchantmen……………………………………………………………………………………………………….32
Merchant galleys……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….33
Sailing ships………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34
Hulls on the seafloor, evidence of technical details……………………………………………………………..35
In the North……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………36
Ship Evolution, around 1000 – 1650 AD…………………………………………………………………………………..37
Viking boats by 1000 AD…………………………………………………………………………………………………...37
The Cog, a cargo sailship……………………………………………………………………………………………………40
The ships from Mediterranean…………………………………………………………………………………………..42
Carracks, caravels, galleons……………………………………………………………………………………………….44
A specialist cargo vessel, the fluit………………………………………………………………………………………46
Chapter 4
The Two Ships……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….50
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….50
Merchantman Scheurrak SO1………………………………………………………………………………………………………51
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The wreck……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..51
Construction of the Scheurrak SO1……………………………………………………………………………………………….53
Description of hull remains…………………………………………………………………………………………………….53
Interpretation of construction………………………………………………………………………………………………..56
Cargo and other artefacts……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..58
Gresham ship (Princess Channel wreck)……………………………………………………………………………………….59
The wreck……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...59
Construction of Gresham ship……………………………………………………………………………………………………….62
Description of hull remains……………………………………………………………………………………………………..62
Interpretation of construction…………………………………………………………………………………………………63
Cargo and other artefacts………………………………………………………………………………………………………………67
Chapter 5
Methodology I………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..68
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...68
Modelling in Maritime Archaeology....................................................................................................................................68
DELFTship.......................................................................................................................................................................................70
Rhinoceros.......................................................................................................................................................................................70
Modelling the Scheurrak SO1 in DELFTship....................................................................................................................71
Modelling the Gresham ship in DELFTship.......................................................................................................................89
Methodology II………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..98
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................98
Modelling the Scheurrak SO1 in Rhinoceros.....................................................................................................................98
Hydrostatic analysis – Modeling in Orca 3D…………………………………………………………………………………..171
Modelling the Gresham ship in Rhinoceros.....................................................................................................................174
Hydrostatic analysis – Modeling in Orca 3D…………………………………………………………………………………..204
Chapter 6
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….206
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..206
Comparison of the ships
Scheurrak SO1 – Resulting model attitude and hydrostatic properties.....................................................208
Gresham ship – Resulting model attitude and hydrostatic properties........................................................208
Interpretation of the hydrostatic analysis........................................................................................................................209
Comparison of the two softwares........................................................................................................................................215
Chapter 7
Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................................224
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Chapter 8
Summary................................................................................................................................................................227
References.............................................................................................................................................................230
Appendix................................................................................................................................................................235
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Introduction
Netherlands and England have been competing maritime powers. From the 14th century,
Amsterdam flourished largely because of the developed trade network within the
Hanseatic League. The geography of the Netherlands has been the means to its fortune
as the country is located where important river channels of western Europe meet the
sea. This caused an increase in trading activities that grew from local to international
level (State 2008, xxiii). From the 16th century European vessels started sailing to Asian
markets and after 1595 the Dutch became a significant trading power in Asia. Especially
in the 17th century, Amsterdam was the wealthiest city in the world and this era is the
so‐called Golden Age of the Netherlands. It was then, when ships started sailing from the
Netherlands to the Baltic countries, North‐America and Africa, as well as, India, Sri
Lanka and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide network. Companies like the Dutch
East India Company and the Dutch West India Company prove the solid establishment of
the Netherlands as the main worldwide power. The fifty percent of the European vessels
that passed the Cape of Good Hope belonged to the Dutch merchant fleet (Parthesious
2010, p.11).
England is in a favourable geographical location too; an island with a long coast line,
numerous harbours and river bodies. These factors placed England amongst the most
important shipping communities of that era (Kirkaldy 1970, pp.4‐27). In the beginning
of the 16th century ship expeditions were carried out to China to look for trade routes
(Parthesious 2010, p.11). One century later the development of English shipping
developed and on the 31 December 1600 the East India Company is being formed to
pursue trade with the East Indies; by 1614 the East India Company owns twenty‐four
ships. The company concentrates its interest in India due to the competition with the
Dutch. In the 16th and 17th centuries England makes efforts to establish secure footholds,
colonies and trade network, along the coast of America (British shipping: its history,
organization and importance (Kirkaldy 1970, pp.4‐27).
The most important and efficient tool used by the Netherlands and England for the
growing economic trade and colonization was the ocean‐going vessel. Social changes in
both the countries and specifically the process of continuous improvement and the
desire of power beyond the ocean caused a technological development regarding the
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shipbuilding activities. Different ship building traditions, both in ship size and type
occurred, and the author of the thesis will try to locate these differences. For this
purpose, two case studies, one Dutch ship, ‘Scheurrak SO1’, and an English ship from
Thames estuary, the ‘Gresham ship’, both from the 16th century, will be analyzed.
Dutch and English shipping, 14001700
In the 15th and 16th centuries the southern Netherlands were an important trading
centre with the coastal provinces of Zealand, Holland and Friesland not having
developed a significant trading network yet. The trade growth of the Golden century,
17th century, was already laid down around 1500. Shipping was the fundamental factor
on which the Netherlands economy blossomed. The shipbuilding industry was one of
the cornerstones of the economic affluence, combined with the profitable geographical
location of the Netherlands. Both inland with the large number of rivers, lakes, or
waterways, as well as offshore, the Netherlands found itself well placed in the
international supply market (Unger 1997, VIII pp.1) .
Dutch shipbuilders adopted a specialized way of ship construction. In the 15th century
Dutch shipbuilding was not that developed, but by 1600 they were the dominant force in
the European market, selling their products and promoting their building techniques
from the Baltic to Adriatic Sea. By the end of the 16th century they realized that the
specialized ship design makes a vessel more efficient, durable and profitable. The most
characteristic division is the one between a carrier and a warship (Unger 1994, p.123).
Towards the middle of the 15th century north European shipbuilders started to abandon
the clinker way of shipbuilding, where the planks overlap each other along their edges.
The new method to be introduced is the carvel method according to which the planks
are put against each other edge to edge. The first vessel was built in this manner in
Holland or Zeeland in 1459. The new type of laying the planks was imported from the
Mediterranean via Portugal, Bordeaux, and Brittany. The Dutch shipwrights developed a
unique form of constructing carvel built hulls. This is referred to in recent archaeological
literature as “Dutch flush” shipbuilding tradition (Hocker & Ward 2004, p.82). Important
shipwrights, like Nicholaas Witsen (1671) and Cornelius van IJk (1697) are essential
sources for the study of the 17th century shipbuilding. In the 17th century, shipbuilding
becomes more scientific, although, it does not become a basic requirement for the boat
builders to hold mathematical and geometrical skills.
2
England’s trading network between the 13th and 16th centuries was very effective and
wide, even though the country was not as wealthy and densely inhabited as some of its
European neighbours. England had established a trading system with Scandinavian and
Mediterranean countries (Friel 1995, p.131). When Elizabeth came to the throne the
royal fleet was already effective and operational. The “merchant” ships of that era had a
diverse role, as they could serve both for trading and naval warfare purposes. In the 15th
century much of England’s foreign trade was carried out with the assistance of foreign
merchant fleets, as those from Flanders and Holland, but in the later Middle Ages this
situation changed with England taking over a larger share of the English trading
activities (Bolton 1988, pp.274‐275, 287‐389). The major hull change in the ship design
in English dockyards occurred in 1509 when Henry VIII introduced carvel edge‐to‐edge
planking into ships (Marsden 1996, p.31). The English ships in the 16th century were
mostly carvel built. Around that time the technical sources become quite numerous,
before that there are several accounts and inventories, which provide proof about
technical terminology and dating of features, but not enough technical design material
(Barker 1991, p.62). Around the 1570s the Elizabethan royal master shipwright Mathew
Baker composed a technical manuscript on aspects of ship design. This manuscript was
christened Fragments of ancient English shipwrightry and it is one of the most important
technical texts on shipbuilding that point out the importance of mathematics and
geometry in shipbuilding (Barker 1991, p. 61)
Scheurrak SO1 wreck
Amsterdam was a significant market for all kinds of goods within Europe, however, the
shallow waters in this area made it impossible for large ocean‐going vessels to enter its
harbour safely. A solution was to load and unload the ships on the Texel Roads, in the
Wadden Sea, north of Holland. It was usually sheltered on the Texel Roads, but not
always safe for the anchored ships. There was a famous storm on the Texel Roads on the
24th of December 1593, during which 150 ships were waiting to set sail. Some ships lost
their anchorage and rammed into other ships. Forty four merchant ships were lost and
over 1,000 of crew members drowned. Perhaps one of these ships was the Scheurrak
SO1‐wreck (Manders 2002). The Scheurrak SOl shipwreck was discovered in 1984 in
the Wadden Sea and was excavated by the Netherlands Institute for Ship and
Underwater Archaeology (ROB/ NISA) between 1989 and 1997. The wreck turned out
to be a merchant vessel for the Baltic trade. Several artefacts found on the ship date it to
the early 1590s, e.g., a trumpet engraved with "Lissandro Milanese Fecit Genoa 1589",
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and a linstock engraved with a poem signed by a gunner named Comelis Claeszoon from
Westblokker in the year 1590 (Manders 2003, p.324). Most of the lower starboard hull
up to the turn of the bilge is well‐preserved, as well the bottom planking and parts of the
bow and stern. Part of the hull's starboard side, although separated from the lower hull,
is preserved up to the bulwarks. The total length of the vessel is more than 30 m (105
Amsterdam feet), which indicates the remains of a large merchantman. The hull of the
Scheurrak SOl ship consists of a double layer of oak planking. In the vessel were also
found several types of weaponry, including four iron cannons and five small carriages
(Manders 2001). The specific ship presents an indisputable archaeological and historical
significance; the Scheurrak SO1 provides important information about the Dutch flush
shipbuilding tradition and specifically the Double Dutch flushplanking solution of
shipbuilding. There was a lack of archaeological and historical information about
shipbuilding methods in the Netherlands during the end of the 16th century prior to its
excavation (Maarleveld 1994, p.154).
Princes Channel wreck (Gresham Ship)
In 2003, the Port of London Authority uncovered part of a ship while clearing the
Princes Channel, in the River Thames. Working with the PLA, maritime archaeologists
from Wessex Archaeology recorded substantial sections of the vessel, and recovered a
number of artefacts associated with it. In April 2003 the wreck was identified by the
Port of London Authority after a magnetometer survey that was undertaken in the area
of Princes Channel c. 17km from Whitstable. Reconnaissance dives showed that on the
sea floor there was laying a wreck of a wooden ship. Two months later the first finds
were recovered and with the assistance of a grab barge, several timbers, iron bars, an
anchor and cannon (gun) were brought to the surface. The attempts of monitoring the
wreck didn’t stop until an inspection dive by a PLA diver, established the existence of
some wooden wreckage. A coherent piece of hull structure was located on the sea
bottom and then recovered, as it was believed to be a hazard for navigation. The lifting
operations took place in November 2003. During that phase the structure came apart
and two structural elements remained on the sea bed. An excavation had to be carried
out for the recovery of the two remaining structural elements (August‐October 2004).
Diving tasks prior to the main excavation consisted of the tagging of all timbers and the
preparation of a pre‐disturbance plan. All the recovered pieces were recorded with the
assistance of a total station and the data was entered and processed in CAD software
4
packages, creating a data base of 3D‐digital images (WA, Phase III Summary Report,
2005).
The vessel was constructed ‘frame‐first’ similar to the Mediterranean or Iberian method
of ship construction. It was subjected to a double framing treatment during the initial
construction process, a method not fully understood, until the explanation of the term
furring was found. This makes the Gresham Ship an indicative wreck. From
archaeological evidence it is derived that it was a merchantman, able to operate in the
ocean. The lowest deck in the ship, the orlop deck, also served as a gun deck. It’s still
unknown what caused the sinking of the ship, as the historical sources do not provide
the researchers with strong evidence. Dendro‐samples were taken from the framing
timbers and the results of the dendrochronological analysis suggested that the oak used
belonged to trees felled down in the area of East Anglia or Essex, it also showed that the
vessel was constructed soon after 1574 (Auer & Firth 2007).
Methodology
Two case studies, a Dutch wreck and a wreck from England, both from 16th century, will
be studied. Using the exisiting linesplan drawings of the two ships the author will create
their hull form in 3D environment. The linesplan of the Gresham ship was created by
Christian Thomsen, student of the Maritime Archaeology Programme in the University
of Southern Denmark, as part of his Master Dissertation. The linesplan drawing of the
Scheurrak SO1 was drawn by Simon Dil of Haarlem University. Two different software
packages were used; DELFTship, a 3D hull form modelling program, and Rhinoceros, an
engineering software application. After the hull forms are made with both the softwares,
the basic hydrostatics, e.g., overall and water plane dimensions, volume, displacement,
hull form coefficients, will be calculated. For the models created in Rhinoceros, a marine
plug‐in will be used for the computation of the hydrostatics called Orca 3D. Afterwards,
a comparison of the two ships will be conducted. All the modelling steps will be
described thoroughly one by one providing with illustrations for better understanding.
An overview of the two software packages will be given, indicating positive and weak
points of them, while processing the data.
5
Aims, significance and expected outcomes
Initially, the two wrecks will be compared in terms of their basic hydrostatics. In that
capacity, conclusions will be derived regarding their fineness and fullness of their hull.
Then, the two different software packages will be evaluated. The author will describe
the different steps during the modelling process, and he will evaluate the necessity of
software applications like those in Maritime Archaeology. A comparison, also, between
the two software packages will be carried out.
In summary the thesis will:
1. Compare the two digital designs in terms of hydrostatic properties and hull
form, after they are modelled. The similarities and differences will be identified
and the result will be compared with existing general statements in literature –
e.g., “Dutch shipwrights used to build slow‐moving box‐like vessels” (Unger
1994, p.124).
2. How marine engineering software packages can be applied to Maritime
Archaeology and in what degree can they assist with the gaining of knowledge.
The thesis will benefit the maritime archaeology community in several ways. The hull
body of both the ships includes construction features that have an archaeological
significance. Their construction sequence will be studied based on literature research.
However, the study mainly focuses on their hull shape. An overview of the evolution of
the hull design of the European sailing vessel from the ancient times up to the 17th
century will be given. The different stages of the hull form evolution will be given based
on archaeological evidence from literature. The hull form of the two case studies wrecks
will be digitised. The whole modelling process will be made in that way so it can serve as
a guide for somebody who wants to carry out similar process in the future. Finally, it will
be shown how marine engineering software applications can expand our knowledge of
hull form and ship performance, while modelling and analysing them in a 3D
environment.
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Basic Ship Theory
"Naval architecture was born in the mountains of Peru, in the mind of a French
astronomer named Pierre Bouguer who never built a ship in his life." (Ferreiro 2007)
Introduction
As mentioned before, the author will model the 3D hull forms of his two case studies, the
Dutch ship Sheurrak SO1 and the English ship Princes Channel, both from the 16th
century. He will use two different software packages, the DELFTship and Rhinoceros, to
model their hull. The specific softwares have marine design applications and they are
considered to be valuable tools in the marine engineering community for hull
construction and interpretation of the respective results, as they can carry out a
hydrostatic analysis and generate the linesplan drawings.
Before understanding a ship’s structure it is important to get familiar with basic
terminologies that refer to a ship’s structure. These terminologies are used to describe a
ship and give the first impression of a ship’s worth. These terminologies are known as
the language of naval architecture. Naval architecture is a discipline of Engineering that
is dealing with the design, construction and repair of marine vehicles or even marine
structures. It is not the objective of the thesis to provide a deep knowledge of it, but
essential features and elements of it, which will help in the interpretation of a ship’s
structure. The definitions and terminology of Naval Architecture is specialized and the
main source of the current chapter was the Introduction to Naval Architecture by Eric
Tupper (Tupper 1996), which the author considers a very reliable source on basic naval
architecture knowledge.
Basic naval architecture
The geometry of a ship
The main body of a ship is called a hull. The foremost part is called bow, the rearmost
part is the stern and amidships is the part between the bow and the stern. The hull is
symmetrical to the centreline plane. Being onboard the ship, main deck or just deck, and
facing towards the bow the left side is the port side of the ship and the right side is
referred to as the starboard side. For any type of ship the geometry of its hull
determines the stability and the strength characteristics.
7
A ship is a three‐dimensional object so it is important to introduce a system that enables
us to locate points on it. In that concept we introduce the reference planes and lines
respectively, as following:
Centerplane: The vertical plane passing fore and aft down the centre of a ship. This
plane is the plane of symmetry for most hull forms.
Design waterplane: The horizontal plane at which the hull is designed to float, when
the ship is fully loaded.
Baseplane: The horizontal plane passes through the intersection of the centerplane and
the amidships plane, and it is usually level with the keel.
The intersections of the planes create reference lines and points:
Forward perpendicular (FP): A vertical line through the intersection of the forward
side of the stem the design waterline (DWL).
After perpendicular (AP): A vertical line through the intersection of the stern or near
the stern and the design waterline (DWL), when there is a rudder post on the ship. In the
case that there is no rudder post, the AP is located at the intersection through the stern
and the rudder stock.
Midship section (MS): An intersection of the midship plane with the moulded hull.
Centerline (CL): The projection of the centerplane of the hull.
Baseline (BL): The projection of the baseplane of the hull.
The position of any point in the ship can be described by its relative position on the
hull’s body:
Height above the baseline or keel
Athwartships position relative to the centerplane
Longitudinal position relative to the midship section or to one of the
perpendiculars.
8
Ship dimensions
Now we will provide the reader with important terminologies essential from the
dimensioning point of view:
Length between the perpendiculars (LBP or ): the horizontal distance between
the forward and the aft perpendiculars. In general this is the same with the length L.
This distance is measured along the design water line (DWL). The length of the ship on
the waterline, length on waterline (LWL), may not be the same with LBP, depending on
the location of the perpendiculars. Another length dimension is the length overall (LOA),
which is the maximum length of the ship including extensions beyond the
perpendiculars.
Beam or breadth (B): The distance measured at the amidships. It is the distance
between the two sides at the greatest width.
Draft or draught (T): It is the vertical distance between the deepest of the ship and the
waterline at any point along the width. Moulded draft is measured from the inside of the
keel plating.
Freeboard: The vertical distance between the waterline and the upper watertight deck.
It’s an important factor defining the stability of a ship.
Depth (D): The vertical distance between the bottom of the keel to the upper deck. It is
measured usually at the amidships. Moulded depth is measured from the top of the
outer keel to the underside of the main or freeboard deck at the side.
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Figure 1. Principal ship dimensions (Tupper 1996, p.6).
Figure 2. Breadth measurements (Tupper 1996, p.7).
Representing the hull form
A ship’s hull is a complex geometric shape and in order to define it we use the lines
drawing (the lines or linesplan) of the ship. The linesplan is a tool to locate points on the
ship and in the current project they were the source and map on which the 3D
reconstructed hull forms were based. To illustrate the hull we map its surface in a three‐
dimensional orthogonal coordinate system. We use the Cartesian coordinate system
where each reference line is called coordinate axis or axis. Usually, we set Z‐axis to be
vertical, the X‐axis longitudinal and the Y‐axis athwartships. The result of this is a series
of curves formed by the intersection of the three mutually perpendicular set of planes.
For this projection different scales can be used.
10
On this linesplan drawing three different views of the hull are provided. The first one is
the profile or sheer plan‐view which shows the hull form intersected by the centeplane‐
a vertical plane on the ships centreline‐and by the buttocks which are parallel planes to
it. The centerplane intersection shows the profile of the ship starting from the bow and
going towards the stern. Below that view is the half‐breadth plan, which shows the ship
from above. To be more specific it provides the intersection of the hull form with planes
parallel (waterlines) to the horizontal baseplane, which is called base line. Waterline is
the line where the hull meets the water surface. Finally, the third view is called the body
plan view, which illustrates the shapes of sections defined by planes perpendicular to
the buttocks and waterlines.
Figure 3. Linesplan drawing of the Kyrenia ship, a small Greek merchantman which sank off the
north coast of Cyprus late in the 4th century BC. (Steffy 1985, pp.100).
Coefficients of form
The coefficients of forms are introduced to Naval Architecture to define the ship’s
performance more accurately. They are dimensionless geometric quantities which
estimate and express how fine a ship’s body is constructed. By having those coefficients
we can compare different hull forms, displacements and dimensions. These geometric
ratios are derived by the linesplan drawing and can yield important conclusions about
the stability and the resistance of a ship.
Block coefficient ( ): This is the ratio of the immersed hull volume ( ) at a
particular draft to that of a rectangular prism of the same length, breadth, and draft as
the ship:
11
where:
B: moulded breadth at amidships, expressed in length units.
L: length between the perpendiculars, expressed in length units.
T: draft, expressed in length units.
Figure 4. The block coefficient relationship (US Nany Strandings and Harbor Clearance Manual,
Revision 1, p. 41).
Midship coefficient ( ): This is the ratio of the immersed area of midship section,
( ) at a particular draft to that of a rectangle of the same breadth and draft as the
ship.
AM
where:
12
AM : the immersed are of midship section, expressed in lenght units.
B: moulded breadth at amidships, expressed in length units.
T: draft, expressed in length units.
Figure 5. The midship coefficient relationship (US Nany Strandings and Harbor Clearance
Manual, Revision 1, p. 42).
Prismatic coefficient ( ): This is the ratio between the immersed volume of the hull
to the volume of a prism whose length equals to the length of the ship, and whose cross
section equals to the midship section area.
AM
where:
B: moulded breadth at amidships, expressed in length units.
L: length between the perpendiculars, expressed in length units.
T: draft, expressed in length units.
13
: Block coefficient.
: Midship coefficient.
Figure 6. Prismatic coefficient relationship (Hoc 2009).
area of a rectangle of the same length and breadth as the ship.
AWP
B
where:
B: molded breadth at amidships, expressed in length units.
L: length at the waterline, expressed in length units.
14
Figure 7. The waterplane coefficient relationship (US Nany Strandings and Harbor Clearance
Manual, Revision 1, p.42).
Basic mechanics
It was always a challenge for humans to build the ideal vessel that can float on the water
and can travel across lakes, rivers and open oceans in order to fulfil a variety of activities
that intrigued the human mind, such as exploration, transport of people or goods,
fishing, warfare. But, how is it feasible of such large vessels to float on the water without
sinking? To follow is an overview of the basic naval mechanics that define the
construction of these structures, from the ancient raft to the large ocean going vessels.
The author will, simply, explain the affection of gravity, buoyancy and stability,
fundamental parameters in the ship’s performance.
Archimedes discovered the principle of buoyancy, however the existence of large
vessels, successfully crossing the water body, indicate that the builders were aware of
the principle, at least in a premature and instinctive way. Archimedes with his
calculations and experiments gave the scientific fundamentals on how an object can
float. Simply stated, any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is acted upwards
by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. So, an upthrust force
acts upon the ship, which is always equal to the weight of the water it displaces (Steffy
1994, pp. 8‐9).
A ship and its cargo are pushed vertically downward by a force which is distributed
along its hull and is called gravity. The average location of the weight on the ship is the
centre of gravity, G. On the immersed surface of the hull the force of buoyancy acts and
15
participates in the flotation process. The buoyant force acts vertically upward through
the centre of buoyancy, B (Steffy 1994, p.9)
Figure 8. The forces acting upon a floating body (Tupper 1996, pg 31).
In nature an object is considered to be in equilibrium when all the forces and moments
of inertia acting upon it are in balance. This is the ideal situation of stable equilibrium,
where the ship rests, with or without list and trim. As soon as this equilibrium is
disturbed (external forces acting on the ship, e.g. waves, or wind) then we have an
unstable situation. When the ship rests the gravity forces (weights), having a downward
direction, and the buoyant forces, having an upward direction are of equal magnitude
and are applied in the same vertical line. The waves, the wind, and other forces cause
the disturbance of this equilibrium, which provokes the motion of the ship in a three‐
dimensional way. The change of the relative location of the center of gravity and center
of buoyancy makes the hull unstable (Steffy 1994, p.9).
The tendency of a listing ship to return to its original position (upright) after a force
caused the disturbance of its equilibrium rolling it to one side, it is called stability. This
tendency is closely related to the differently located centres of gravity and buoyancy on
the ship every moment. The metacentre, M, is located where an imaginary vertical line
passing through the centre of buoyancy meets the centreline of the hull. If that point is
above the centre of gravity, G, then the ship returns always to its upright position after a
disturbance, and we called this situation positive stability. When after the action of the
external force the ship continues in the direction of the force, then we have negative
stability, and the metacentre is below the centre of gravity. Finally, when the points G
and M are located on the same spot then the ships settles in the orientation it was given
by the force, and we refer to this situation as neutral stability (Steffy 1994, p.9).
16
Figure 9. Postive (left) and negative stability (right) (United States Navy, stability and
buoyancy lessons).
.
Figure 10. Neutral stability (United States Navy, stability and buoyancy lessons).
When the principles of gravity, buoyancy and stability were taken in consideration
during the shipbuilding process, then the strength of the ship was the next issue to be
evaluated. The movement of the cargo, the tolerance of the ship walls under heavy
storms and equipment, were some of the factors that could harm a ship’s body. Features
like frames were put to withstand the effects of rolling, wales to prevent from distortion,
keelsons and stringers to resist internal longitudinal stresses (Steffy 1994, p.10).
17
Hull design
Richard Steffy divides the watercraft into four major groups: the cargo transport vessel
(passenger, food, and animals’ carriers), warships, fishing vessels and utility vessels
(Steffy 1994, p.10). The ship was an important way for humankind to bridge territories
divided by sea and establish his dominance across the ocean. This act of dominance had
many faces; it could be for transporting, trading, or even for naval operations. We all
agree that the ship gave power to its owner, individuals or nations.
For this reason the hull form of the ships differed depending on the reason it was used
and on the route it had to cross. Basic naval architecture principles did not exist in the
first ship building constructions; stability, hull rigidity, decorations and rigging were of
secondary importance (Steffy 1994, pp.10‐12). Experience, interest and instinct, and last
but not least economical factors were the primary tools of the ship builder. In 1580,
father Fernando Oliveira in his Livro da fábrica das naus, and specifically in the prologue
to the Book of Shipbuilding, points out:
“The instruments that are most necessary for the art of navigation are the ships, without
which this art cannot be practiced: nor can it be thought of , as there have never been
navigation without ships, be they ever so imperfect and not so well finished as they are at
present. For there is no art that possessed perfect instruments when it began: nor were the
ships perfect at their beginning: but, the more men use them, the more they understand the
shortcomings in them and keep correcting them: as they do with all the arts and their
instruments.” (Oliveira 1580)
Merchant ships needed to be designed with a big cargo area and the rest as small as
possible. Fancy decorations were not essential, unless the owner wanted to add them in
the bow and stern area, usually, to improve his business image. The ends of the ships
were the accommodation areas. The bows and the sterns were the hearts and minds of
the ships that is why the structure of the ship there is impressive and the best
shipwrightery was required there. The naval ships, during the early modern period,
were gun platforms, sometimes multi‐decked to place the guns onboard and lower class
crew. Again the fore and aft parts of the ships, like in the merchants vessels, could be
decorated and “heavily” constructed to accommodate the higher military personnel,
even royals in some cases. The difference with the merchant vessels is that the design of
the warship was more demanding, because the ship builder had to consider how to
place the rams and the guns on the deck and the rest of the heavy equipment. The
18
stability of the ship was affected in a great degree by those features and was a challenge
that the shipwright had to overcome (Steffy 1994, pp.10‐12).
Fredrick Chapman, the first known naval architect to use scientific principles in his ship
designs, wrote in his Tractat om SkeppsByggeriet (A Treatise on Shipbuilding), 1775,
that ships of all nations are divided into categories; all small vessels that were used for
short voyages and narrow waters and the larger ships which were meant to be ocean
going vessels The first ones were used for coasting trade and commerce with
neighbouring countries. Their design was based on the extent and depth of the seas, the
climate and economic circumstances. However, when we consider the large ships for
distant voyages out in the sea, we shall find that most of their design principles and
parts were similar, even though they represented different nations. As to their
proportions, their breadth is between one‐third or one‐fourth of the ship’s length, the
maximum breadth being located a little before the middle. Their draught is something
greater or less than the half breadth and it is usually greater in the aft than in the
forward. The height out of the water depends on the particular destination of the ship.
The accommodations in those ships, among all nations, have great similarities and all of
them were built so they are convenient for the purpose they were used (Chapman
1775).
19
The Evolution of the Hull Design of
the European Sailing Vessel up to
the 17th century
Introduction
Wonders are many on earth, and the greatest of these
Is man, who rides the ocean and takes his way
Through the deeps, through windswept valleys of perilous seas
That surge and sway – Sophocles, Antigone
To follow is a description on the evolution of the sailing vessel from the ancient times to
the 17th century. The author will present how the hull form of the floating vessels
developed in different nations in Europe. Mostly, the chapter is focusing in the
development and the innovations made in the hull form of the merchant ships, since his
two case studies are merchant vessels. Of course, there will be several references in the
hull form of warships and armed vessels; the warship being the tool to ensure
dominance and maritime power was the platform that several technical improvements
took place on, and then applied to the merchant vessels.
Since the ancient years the man was attracted by the endless Ocean and the new places
on its other side. It has been always a challenge for the restless and creative spirit of the
humans to cross the open Sea. The new and exotic was waiting to be discovered. The
two‐thirds of the globe is covered by water, the seas. The remaining third includes lakes,
rivers, or any kind of water ways. These water bodies are vital arteries connecting‐
separating human societies with each one of them having different cultural roots.
Almost all significant water ways were crossed at remarkably early times. The coastlines
have undergone short‐ and long‐term changes depending on the environmental changes
that occurred in each period. Even at times with low water levels there was still the
barrier of deep water areas between continents. Archaeological evidence suggests that
man came to Australia from south‐east Asia as early as 60,000 BC, crossing 600 nautical
miles of water. The American continent was occupied by people from Asia through the
way that now is the Bering Strait; Alaska was reached by people from Siberia in the era
20
between 40,000 to 12,000 BC. In the southern Europe, Mediterranean territory, around
10,000 BC man could safely undertake a trip from the coastal Greece to the islands of the
Aegean Sea. Deep‐water fish remains from 7,000 BC found in the Mediterranean and
northern, up to Ireland, indicate that people had invented floating structures that
enabled them to undertake fishing activities, which naturally led to the establishment of
trading opportunities (McGrail 2006, p.8).
It is clear that no waterway was inaccessible to humans. Man was always well adjusted
to his surrounding environment and succeeded in overcoming difficulties which kept
him away from his main objective, to explore the Ocean and discover new land unknown
to him till then. Before domesticating animals, developing his agriculture and pottery
skills, and constructing megaliths, man had achieved the building and using of water
transport (McGrail 2006, p.8). The Sea venture had begun.
The author’s opinion is that an introduction to the evolution of the sailing vessel from
the ancient world to the 17th century will provide the reader with an overview of the
changes that occurred to the vessels; how from inflated skins used for carrying goods up
to waterways or rivers, the large merchantmen ships appeared with the introduction of
the three mast full‐rigged ships. The archaeological evidence will be the main source in
the writing of the specific chapter.
The roots of the sailing ship
According to Greenhill (1995) it can be hypothesized that the origins of the boat are four
principal kinds from which boats developed independently in the different parts of the
world. Of course, there was an interaction of different boatbuilding traditions and this
affected the shape and the structure of the boat during its evolution. The boats started in
the following ways:
The raft
Usually it was made by inflated skin, and it used to provide with adequate buoyancy
because of the material it was made of. It was ideal floating structure for people and
carrying cargo (Greenhill 1995, p.74).
21
The skin boat
A framework consisting of wood or bone was made first on which animal skin or fabric
was sewn. The frame structure form could have a variety of shape, from long and
narrow to round like a bowl (Greenhill 1995, p.74).
The bark boat
The bark of a tree was the initial material. Then, they used to stripe it, giving it a boat
shape. The ends are sealed and internal support frames are maintaining the shape and
adding to its strength (Greenhill 1995, p.74).
The logboat
The logboat is made of wooden timber, by hollowing out a log. It is a rigid structure with
a basic boat structure and form, watertight enough and able to sustain a weight equal to
the weight of wood cut out (Greenhill 1995, p.74).
Evaluating the type and evolutionconcepts in maritime archaeology
“This tool is designed for the reconstruction of culture history in time and space. This is the
beginning and not the end of the archaeologist’s responsibility” – James Ford 1
When presenting the growth that occurred in the sailing vessels from 1000‐1650 AD
special types and names are given to the different vessels; a classification of the several
ships is provided such as “cog”, “carrack”, “caravel”, “galleon”, “hulk”, and “fluit”. It is
necessary to explain the specific type‐concept and why it is provided for the description
of the vessels from the 10th‐17th centuries. It is the author’s opinion that at first glance it
seems practical‐and it is, indeed‐to classify such complex artifacts like ships and boats,
but the relentless and dogmatic identification of them may be problematic and inflexible
for expanding the archaeological knowledge.
Archaeologists, of course, are not alone in facing difficulties with classification: scientific
fields as anthropology, biology, mathematics, history, sociology, philosophy, and others
deal with the same quandary (Doran & Hodson 1975, p.158). Analytic classification
consists of establishing classes, referring to different attributes of the artifacts.
Taxonomic classification is defined as the process of formulating a single set of classes,
one for each kind of artifact. For the analytic classification the archaeologist is focusing
on the different attributes (modes) of the artifacts, such as the technique of
1
(W. Y. Adams & E. W. Adams 2008, p.9)
22
manufacture, the shape, the decoration, or the material used by the artisan. Taxonomic
classification differentiates the artifacts according to type. Types, then, consist of
selected modes. If two archaeologists analyze the same collection of artifacts and do a
fairly good job, they will produce the same modes (Taylor 1948, pp.129‐130). Two
archaeologists defining different diagnostic modes, for whatever reason, they will
produce different types (Brew 1946, p.46). The mode is a natural unit of the cultural
study, and the type is an arbitrary one. Different diagnostic modes produce different
types (Rouse 1960, pp.313‐318). Rouse (1960) describes in detail the process of
classification in archaeology.
The study of technical details in shipbuilding is the optimum way of gathering
archaeological knowledge of the past human societies. The interpretation of a shipwreck
provides us with several conclusions regarding the shipbuilding traditions of different
cultural groups. The same time the technical features of a ship reveal economic and
social factors that led the shipwrights to the specific type of construction. The homo
faber concept is greatly reflected on the boat and ship structures (Maarleveld 1995, p.4).
The influence of Darwin’s evolution theory on the development of archaeology is
undeniable. Of course, there is an analogy with biological evolutionary theory. Artefacts,
with no doubt, represent patterns of change overtime, or they descend with
modifications as biological organisms do. The main objective of evolutionary
archaeology is to establish a framework through which the archaeologists will be able to
explain the relation of artefacts to one another. In that concept they borrow scientific
terms from biology, such as evolution, population, heritability, family, and ancestry. O’
Brien (O'Brien 2005, p.30) claims that in archaeology the population consists of
artefacts. According to O’ Brien (2005) the fact that the humans evolve through natural
selection, makes the Darwinian Theory relevant to the artefacts which are technological
products of the human societies. But, the biological evolution describes populations of
humans, not artefacts (Gabora 2006). How consistent is it to interpret cultural evolution
with biological laws? Brew (1946) had written (Leonard 2001, p.71):
“we still are faced with the fact that, with the exception of skeletal material, the objects
and concepts of archaeology are not living organisms. Consequently, their development
is not properly represented by a classificatory technique based upon the genetic
relationships of living organisms.”
Opposing to Brew’s statement, Leonard (2001) with George T. Jones at a public
presentation in Chicago, they stated (Leonard 2001, p.72):
23
“…the objects of archaeology were part of living organisms. Behavior and technology are
components of the human phenotype. This fact is undeniable, and the recognition of it is
an important part of bringing Darwinian Theory to archaeology. To deny it takes us out
of the scientific evolution game completely…”
Maarleveld (1995) suggests that the introduction of biological‐related terms to describe
boats or ships as artefacts indicates thinking about developments of ship types as
autonomous rather than being the functions and products of human minds regarding
the changes and adaptations that occurred to them overtime (Maarleveld 1995, p.4).
Gabora (2006) supports that the mechanisms underlying the biological evolution of
humans and the cultural evolutions of artefacts are different (Gabora 2006). Augustus
Pitt‐Rivers (1827‐1900) was one of the most distinguished archaeological Darwinists
and his work was responsible for the development of the methodology of the
archaeological excavations. He was the first to use the term “typology” and his
typological ideology was based on Darwinism and the paradigm of biological evolution.
He considered the evolution of types of Australian weapons (boomerang, shield, mace,
etc) from a simple stick. This extremely evolutionistic idea was not coherent enough
since it was not based on the functional analysis of artefacts – a stick is not a boomerang,
nor a shield a stick (Palavestra & Porčić 2008, p.85). However, the archaeological
material owes a lot to the primitive works based on biological theory. In maritime
archaeology the use of evolutionary concepts is problematic. Even though the
theoretical literature is more than adequate it refers to closed classifications made by
individuals. The flexibility and the rigidity of the classifications provided by literature
are not based on a common scientific truth, but they are mostly closed systems
(Maarleveld 1995, p.4). We cannot speak of the concepts, but for our concepts. We can
only talk about type‐concepts in subjective terms (W. Y. Adams & E. W. Adams 2008,
p.5). It is not possible in that way to create types of ships that combine both internal
coherence and external isolation from other ship‐types. How can this classification be
objective?
A reflection of Maarlaveld’s (1995) and Adams’ (2008) theses can be found in Tim
Weski’s thoughts on Hanseatic cogs, where he writes (Weski 1999, p.361):
“In 1972, Ellmers had noted that the bottom of the Bremen cog was only flat amidships
and V‐shaped fore and aft. Later he ignored this fact and regarded the cog as completely
flat‐bottomed. As a result he looked upon any flat‐bottomed boat with clinker sides as a
variant of the cog scheme.”
24
This was adopted by other scholars and an inconsistency in the typological system was
caused; a vessel depicted on a clay bowl of the 2nd century BC from Bremen was called
an early cog by Ellmers, and on the other hand a Welsh river boat of the 18th century AD
is believed to be built in the cog tradition (Weski 1999, p.361).
This does not mean in any way that Ellmers and the other scholars provided with invalid
archaeological literature, since their work was, certainly, more than beneficial to the
archaeological community. But, the evolutionary approach used caused explanatory
problems while classifying the ship type. Ellmers’ (1994) archaeological proof was used
by the author for the specific chapter, because his work clearly revealed and explained a
ship type.
The author adopted in his chapter names as “cog”, “carrack”, “caravel”, “galleon”, “hulk”,
and “fluit” in order to present easier the archaeological material to the reader and create
an efficient joint between him and the voluminous theoretical data on different ships.
They are used as tools for communication and not as archaeological laws (W. Y. Adams
& E. W. Adams 2008, p.5), and they will be valuable and beneficial as long as they remain
tools rather than gospel and general scientific fact (Maarleveld 1995, p.6).
Ancient ships, around 3000 BC – 1000 BC
“I built you ships, freight ships, arched ships with rigging, plying the Big Green (the sea). I
manned them with archers, captains and innumerable sailors, to bring the goods of the
Land of Tyre and the foreign countries at the end of the world to your storage rooms at
Thebes the Victorious.” – Ramses III2
The Mediterranean is a sea where the sails of a sailing vessel would not be so effective
because there the wind is not always sufficient to provide with the necessary thrust
force the ship. A vessel with oars would be more autonomous; able to cross the smooth
waters of the Mediterranean Sea with coasts and islands everywhere to offer her a
shelter in case of bad weather and rough seas. Therefore, the oars present the solution
to that offering adequate mechanical force to cause the movement of the vessel on the
sea; the arrangement of the oars was a major problem in shipbuilding. As the
Mediterranean nations dominated Western Europe, oar‐vessels were built in the
northern coasts, even though there was enough wind for the sails and too much wave
for oars. Afterwards the shipbuilding traditions of the Western Europe were transferred
in the Mediterranean area, and soon the oars were replaced by the sails (Torr 1894, p.1).
2
Ramses’s “report” to Amen
25
The art of rowing can first be located in Egypt, where the slow flow of river Nile was
ideal for transportation and fishing. The Egyptians started building boats and the sailors
were the main sailing force using the oars. The importance of these boats in everyday
life is significant and it is reflected in the role they played in religion and mythology.
Archaeologists found Egyptian depictions, dating from 2500 BC, illustrating boats with
oars where some sailors are paddling with their faces towards the bow and others the
crews are paddling with their faces towards the stern. Hieroglyphs were found
(hieroglyphs were invented in the earliest ages) proving that paddling is certainly the
oldest practice. One of them shows two arms grasping an oar in the attitude of paddling.
Monuments from 1250 BC depict around 20 rowers on a vessel built for the crossing of
Nile and thirty in vessels to sail in Red Sea. From a sculptured artwork, a naval battle in
the Mediterranean about 1000 BC is represented; the rowers in the Egyptian warships
are from twelve to twenty two. Of course, in many reliefs the requirements of the
sculptor was the main factor to determine the number of the rowers (Torr 1894, p.2).
Figure 11. The earliest representation of a sail, on an Egyptian vase of around c3500 BC (Casson
1996, p.39)
The mainstream of the ancient nautical seafaring arose not in the river‐centered
civilizations of Mesopotamia or Egypt, but in the open waters of eastern Mediterranean,
in Crete, one of the Aegean islands, along the Greek coasts. The Minoans of Crete during
the half millennium 2000 – 1500 BC developed significant navy and merchant marine.
This can be derived from the total absence of military fortifications around their cities
and archaeological evidence of cultural interaction between the Minoan land and
neighboring places. From 1500 – 1200 BC the Myceneans or Aegeans (Greeks of the
Bronze Age 1600 ‐110 BC) were the main maritime power in the eastern Mediterranean
(Casson 1995, p.30).
26
The Aegean craft
Terra‐cotta from the Greek island of Syros from the third millennium BC reveals traces
of nautical evolution in the Greek islands. It is incised with the earliest ship‐pictures of
the age, where profile views of galleys propelled by multiple oars. The hull is slender,
straight, and low; the stem post is high‐rising and on its top there is a fish‐symbol; the
stern is finished off equally sharply, much lower than the upper point of the stempost,
with a vertical transom, and a needle‐like projection at the level of the waterline. We
cannot determine the exact amount of oars, even though a good number of them. The
double‐ended design found in the Egyptian vessels is s absent and it is indisputable
according to Casson (Casson 1995) that its root is the dugout craft. He supports that by
emphasizing in the "swift" size of the galley form and the "absence of curves". The
supplies in timber were adequate in the Bronze Age Greece. This typecast of craft
reappears in a similar way in Graffiti found on Malta, ca. 1600 B.C, and from Cyprus,
1200‐1100 B.C. The one in Cyprus reproduces all the basic features of the one from
Syros with one new element added; an impression of a sail at the higher fore end. The
same kind of hull is represented on a seal from 1400 BC found on Crete, with some
valuable additional information; the number of oars is 10, same as the number of oars
carried by transport galleys of the Homeric Age, around 1000 BC. More archaeological
evidence comes from the Mycenaean Age, where on clay boxes and vases there are
representations of hull forms. The basic hull characteristics are the straight lines with
angled ends and the straight lofty prow. In some cases there is a short sternpost fitted
and bulkwards on the ships illustrations. The low straight hull and a high stem rising
from it at a distinct angle remain in illustrations till 1000 BC. In general, these very early
depictions of the Aegean crafts are the prototypes of the merchant crafts warships that
were used later by the Greeks and the Romans (Casson 1995, pp.30‐32).
Figure 12. Terracotta depicting the so‐called "frying pan" craft from Syros, before 2000BC (left)
and from Cyprus, 1200‐1100 B.C (right) (Casson 1995, Fig.22,27).
27
The Cretan vessels
There is enough information about the Minoan vessels from portrayals on seals
belonging to the earliest period, before 1600 BC or so. The details on the ship depictions
are not so clear, but their hull form can be easily described. The shipwrights of the time
were constructing round‐based hulls, different built comparing to those of the Aegean
versions with the straight‐lined hulls and sharp ends. The prow area was rounded (a
three‐pronged or an arrow‐shaped device was mounted on the top end of the prow),
and the stern was finished off with an appendage or bifurcation. This last feature is still
a puzzle waiting to be solved when more evidence is provided. Later, both ends of the
hull were rounded. After 1500 BC there is more archaeological evidence on the Cretan
vessel from engraved seals. We can be sure of the hull form of the Cretan vessels by
examining these early depictions. The hull is slender and rounded with prominent prow
and stern, both devoid of any ornamental device. The rig consists of a pole mast
supported by stays fore and aft, carrying, relatively high, a single square sail. Other ships
depicted on seals from 1400 BC represent similar constructed ships, but with two main
differences. First, the prow is finished off with a pronged ornament; this is a typical
traditional Cretan device, it is found on ships around 1600 BC, as well as in 1400 BC and
later. The rounded stern area is not clearly illustrated; we cannot suggest anything
about its decoration. Secondly, these vessels instead of featuring a mast and a broad
square sail, they have some apparatus which is represented by two poles, sometimes
three, poles linked by cross‐hatching. Claiming that the ships were two‐ or three‐masted
is not right, because all the evidence provided points to single masts only. Perhaps, it
was an artistic way to draw a vessel carrying a single mast and sail. With regards to the
size of the Cretan vessels the only clue we have is through the number of the oars on
them. By thoroughly looking into the seals it was derived that there were 10 or 15 oars
on each side. The validity of the specific information can be supported by the fact that
the standard types of Greek galleys of the next stage had precisely this number of
rowers. Ships so oared had a length of 15.24 and 22.86 meters respectively. Other
representations from Melos Island and Cyprus, show a projection, where the stempost
joins the keel (or in other cases where the sternpost meets the keel). This feature is
evident as early as the third millennium BC in small boats and seagoing crafts and its
function is unclear, but it bears resemblance to the stem projection at the level of the
waterline in early crafts, skin boats, dug outs, and even planked boats (Casson 1995,
pp.32‐35). A fresco from Thera Island (Santorini), dated to 1300 BC, provides with a
very clear example of a stern appendage on a ship.
28
Figure 13. The Thera ships have one other interesting feature, namely the flat projection
extending outwards from the stern just above the supposed waterline level (Casson 1975, p.3).
The Levant vessels
Archaeological evidence in an Egyptian tomb from 1400 BC shows a group of merchant
vessels of Syrian origin arriving in Egypt. They are similar to the Egyptian vessels with
well‐rounded spoon‐shaped hull, straight stemposts and with deck beams brought
through the sides. They have distinguishing overhangs fore and aft and they carry a
broad square sail. All these features can be found in the Hatshepsut’s vessels with a key
difference, though: the structural support in the Egyptian vessels was provided by rope
truss whereas in the Syrian vessels this element was absent; the strength needed to sail
in the ocean was probably provided by means of structural support. Similar rounded‐
shaped hulls can be found, as we saw before, in Crete around 1600 BC. An example
appears on a vase from ca. 1200‐1100 BC, where a merchant ship with round hull, deck
and a roomy hold is represented. It is an indication that the Syrian crafts are originally of
Cretan design. A document from the same era implies that the size of these
merchantmen was up to 450 tons load capacity. In the second millennium BC seafaring
raiders sailed into the eastern Mediterranean and attempted to invade in the Egyptian
territory. This cultural group of people is referred to as “The People of the Sea”, a name
originally given to by the Egyptians. There is archaeological evidence about the sea
battles that took place in the Nile Delta between the Egyptians and these contingents.
Both sides disposed an impressive war fleet. The Egyptians galleys bear resemblance to
the traditional Egyptian type of ship, e.g., evidence was found on Hatshepsut’s portrays.
The hull was rounded, but not spoon‐shaped. The prow is finished off to a lion’s head
and the stern has a plain sternpost. There is no deck onboard and the rowers are well
29
protected by a high bulwark, which indicates that these vessels were actual war ships.
There is no truss for additional strength, so another way of providing inner structural
integrity must have been on the vessels. The innovation in the hull construction shows a
rigid hull form with no similar till then in Egypt. The mast has a simplifying stay and a
top. Both the new hull form and the rigging suggest that these feature on the Egyptians
crafts were arose somewhere else first; Crete, Aegean, or in the Levant. The ships of the
enemies appear with no oars and no decks (the Egyptian galleys were also undecked)
with straight hull lines and angular ends like in the Aegean tradition. There is a duck‐
head figure head which reappears on a Greek vase in not so later date. However, there is
no evidence that the double‐ended crafts were an Aegean product. Perhaps, it was a
construction adds that the People of the Sea had introduced (Casson 1995, pp.35‐38).
Eastern Mediterranean, 1000 – 500 BC
The main civilizations to have a dominant role in the area of Eastern Mediterranean in
that era are the Phoenicians who have replaced the Mycenaeans and the Greeks. The
Phoenicians established trading colonies as early as 1000 BC. They were spread out over
a large area of land, but their main city center was Carthage, located in South West
Mediterranean coast, close to modern Tunis. Carthage was the leader of the Phoenician
colonies and according to the Greek historian Timaeus of Tauromenion, it was founded
in 814 or 813 BC. The city’s location made it a great power of the maritime trade. The
Greeks became also a strong and bright trade and naval power around the same time as
the Phoenicians, ca. 800 BC. It is when the Greeks spread their language and culture
across the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Both the Phoenicians and the Greeks developed
their ship building activities and they constructed merchantmen and warcrafts, for
which there is archaeological evidence on ancient artifacts. A significant report to the
Greek type of ships during that era is Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, where several
references to them can be found.
Homeric seafaring
“Then she set herself to plan the sending of the greathearted Odysseus. She gave him a
great axe, well fitted to his hands, an axe of bronze, sharpened on both sides; and in it was
a beautiful handle of olive wood, securely fastened; and thereafter she gave him a polished
adze. Then she led the way to the borders of the island where tall trees were standing,
alder and popular and fir, reaching to the skies, long dry and wellseasoned, which would
float for him lightly. But when she had shown him where the tall trees grew, Calypso, the
beautiful goddess, returned homewards, but he fell to cutting timbers, and his work went
30
forward apace. Twenty trees in all did he fell, and trimmed them with the axe; then he
cunningly smoothed them all and made them straight to the line. Meanwhile Calypso, the
beautiful goddess, brought him augers; and he bored all the pieces and fitted them to one
another, and with pegs and morticings did he hammer it together. Wide as a man well
skilled in carpentry marks out the curve of the hull of a freightship, broad of beam, even so
wide did Odysseus make his raft. And he set up the deckbeams, bolting them to the close
set ribs, and laboured on; and he finished the raft with long gunwales. In it he set a mast
and a yardarm, fitted to it, and furthermore made him a steeringoar, wherewith to steer.
Then he fenced in the whole from stem to stern with willow withes to be a defence against
the wave, and strewed much brush thereon. Meanwhile Calypso, the beautiful goddess,
brought him cloth to make him a sail, and he fashioned that too with skill. And he made
fast in the raft braces and halyards and sheets, and then with levers forced it down into the
bright sea. Now the fourth day came and all his work was done.”3
According to Homer’s descriptions the ships had low smooth hull with no deck
structure. There was a small raised platform (deck) on the fore side, serving as lookout
point on which the fighting men were standing, and a small deck on the aft, probably a
resting area for the captain or an occasional passenger. Under both the decks gear and
sailing equipment could be stored. From descriptions in Iliad and Odyssey it is derived
that their hull was very low and light. The Homeric ship or galley had a sharp black hull
with both the stern and the stem finishing off in a curve. According to Homer they were
rounded on both sides and the bow area was decorated with patches, red, purple, or
blue. The hull consists of the keel structure, the stempost and sternpost, frames serving
as the ships ribcage, planks, gunwales and beams acting as benches for the rowers, but
also providing longitudinal strength to the sides of the hull. All the above structural
elements were fastened together by means of treenails and joints. There were several
sizes of a galley, varying from 20‐oared to 50‐oared vessels. The first one was usually
used for transport and the second one was a troop transport craft. There is no reference
to the triaconter, a 30‐oared galley. From ship‐pictures on Geometric vases from, around
850‐700 BC, we have depictions of two classes of galley, one low and open, the other one
with a superstructure consisting of a deck. They fit Homer’s descriptions to a certain
extent; they have smooth made hulls and fast, and with curved stem and sternpost, they
are decorated with bow‐patches and carry a single square sail, and of course there are a
3
Vessel building passage in Book 5 of the Odyssey (Odyssey 5. 234‐253) based on Loeb’s
translation.
31
number of rowers onboard. The main difference is a new structural element that is not
mentioned by Homer: the ram. Its introduction after 1000 BC brought a revolution in
the design of warships. The ship design and construction had to be adjusted so the men‐
of‐war can withstand the great shock caused by the ramming during naval operations.
Heavy materials are added, especially in the bow area, where the ramming has a greater
impact (Casson 1995, p.49).
The open galleys –or aphract, which is their technical term – are made with lighter hull
and the element of the ram is added. They have a low rail along the sides and the bow
area is not so massive. They were stable, lacking a superstructure, faster and they did
not serve as ships of the line, but as carriers (personnel, goods, arms). The galleys with
superstructure were men‐of‐war, powerful vessels to act as man driven torpedoes
against the enemy’s ships. The superstructure was raised two feet above the line of the
rowers and consisted of a deck. The deck run the full length from the fore to aft of the
ship, but not full with from gunwale to gunwale as the planking along the sides is not
illustrated. The shipwrights used to add the deck on the galleys after the ram was
established; in that way the protection of the ship low amidships is more efficient and
the rowers have a shelter. The deck was running across the two ends of the ship, but the
vertical area between the deck level and the gunwale level was empty. This made the
ships vulnerable to the sides. In the 8th century BC heavy planking was added to reduce
the empty space, providing additional strength both to the ship and the rowers (Casson
1995, pp.50‐53). The introduction of the ram triggered the development of powerful
classes of war galleys with elaborated superstructure (deck) and screened sides. More
heavy sailing structures need to improve their speed and maneuverability, though. This
led to the invention of the two‐banked galley or bireme, around 700 BC. A raised
decking (second bank) is fitted over the centerline to offer space more rowers. Later,
600 BC, a third bank of rowers was added, the trireme was born. The Greek naval
architects created the trireme by adding an outrigger above the gunwale. Then, they
extended it beyond the gunwale to accommodate a third line of rowers. Towards the end
of the 6th century the trireme was the dominant warship (Casson 1995, p.81).
Ancient Merchantmen
The first merchant ships used in the Mediterranean must have been oar‐driven. Of
course, the development of the trading network between the nations led to large
seagoing carriers, but the merchant galley was the main ship used for transport
activities the whole of antiquity times. Especially, in the Mediterranean, where the wind
32
is not adequate and the waters not so rough, the oared ship had a leading role in the
maritime activities. The merchant galley was heavier and roomier that a warcraft with a
bigger sail and a wider hull, according to Homer’s references. From Assyrians reliefs
there are Phoenician vessels, merchant ships, represented with a bowl‐shaped hull. Clay
models from Cyprus show merchant galleys with deep and rounded hull. The hull ends
aft in a distinctive sterncastle, in which the steering oar was accommodated. The
Phoenicians built beamy and rounded hulls with straight up stern‐ and stempost
finished off in the same height. The Greeks used also rounded hull, the ends were both
curved inwards, or the sternpost was arced inwards and the stempost twisted outwards.
In Italy they had developed a type of armed merchantman. Added to the round and big
in capacity hull was a spur fitted above the waterline, comparing to the ram that it was
put on the waterline of the vessel. The main hull form of the ancient merchantmen was
the straight lines and angled ends, invented by the Greeks during the era 2000‐1000 BC.
The specific form reappears again in the 5th century BC, based on archaeological
evidence (Casson 1995, pp.67‐68).
Figure 14. Greek merchant vessel in an Etruscan Tomb, c480 BC (Casson 1996, p.43).
Merchant galleys
The merchant galleys were used to carry cargo or passengers and they depended totally
on the rowers, the sail served an auxiliary purpose. The hulls were beamier than those
of ships of the line so to provide space for cargo, with a length ratio of 5.5: 1, or 6.5: 1
instead of 10: 1. Preserved archaeological evidence enables us to single out two different
hull forms: one with rounded or straight prow, the other with concave prow ending in a
cutwater similar to ramlike point. Their size was given by defining the number of tholes
to a side, e.g., a “three‐tholed” would be a 6‐oared vessel. More is known about the
merchant galleys than the sailing ships of that time. The merchant galleys were used in
naval operations as utility vessels to carry dispatches and in that way they are part of
33
the sea warfare history that is documented. Several types can be identified by name, but
this is not the author’s objective in the specific chapter. For further details and reading
on the types of the merchant galleys see chapter eight of Ships and Seamanship in the
Ancient World, by Lionel Casson (Casson 1995, pp.157‐158).
Sailing ships
There is no plenty archaeological evidence regarding the sailing ships of that period,
however some distinctions and conclusions about their hull form can be made. The gap
in the archaeological data goes up to the first century AD, but it is assumed that there
were no great differences in the design of the sailing ship between the 6th century BC
and the previous half millennium. This permits us to say that the hull form was given a
rounded bow with sharp rounded stem and stern like crescent shape or in others a
concave prow finished off in a ramlike cutwater. The first ones could have decorated
stem‐ and sternpost or not always so rounded hull lines. Both the rounded‐shape ships
and the others that had a ramlike end on the prow, as far as we know, they had the same
function, that is to operate in the open sea carrying cargo (Casson 1995, pp.173‐174).
The size of these merchantmen was defined by their capacity in specific cargo. For
example both Greeks and Romans were estimating the size of their wine and oil carriers
ships by the number of the shipping jars or amphorae loaded. It was different when the
ships were grain ships. There is a record of the dimensions of a merchant ship employed
to carry corn from Egypt to Italy around 150 AD. So the size of the vessel is recorded by
Lucian to have a length of 54.86m, her breadth was more than a fourth of her length, and
her depth was 13.26m. The tonnage of the ancient ships could not be safely precisely
deduced of their dimensions, as so little is known about their form. But, the amount of
cargo loaded on them was occasionally recorded, and this can be approximated
generally by the talents or amphora. Both weighed a fortieth part of a ton. The ships
usually carried 10,000 talents, which is translated to a cargo capacity of 250 tons. There
is evidence for even larger vessels which were built for special purposes. About 40 AD
there was a ship; Pliny describes it as the greater vessel ever crossed the sea. She was
built to carry the Vatican obelisk and its pedestal from Egypt to Italy, the total cargo
weight was 1,300 tons. Unfortunately there is no a record about her hull form or ship
design (Torr 1894, pp.23‐27). The hull of the merchantmen was made of pine with
special care given to the timbers to be used for the keel construction. Their keel element
included a false keel made of oak, if they had to be hauled up to the shore or to be
carried overland along ship tramways like the one from Corinth to Athens. According to
Torr (Torr 1894) the outer framework of the hull consisted of a keel and ribs (frames).
34
There was not any sternpost or a stempost, unless the bow was finished off with a ram.
In both the warships and merchant ships the after part of the keel curved slowly
upwards till it reached the deck level. The merchant ships had their fore part with a
similar curve towards the bow (Torr 1894, pp.39‐40).
Hulls on the seafloor, evidence of technical details
During the Hellenistic Age (323‐30 BC) the increase in the size of states and the
expansion of their capitals caused a rapid evolution in the maritime activities. The
merchantmen crossing the water increased in proportion as they were the primary tools
to carry goods from between nations in the Mediterranean and Black Sea (Casson 1994,
p.107). Accidents happened and ships sank; these unfortunate incidents shed light upon
the ancient shipbuilding traditions. Maritime archaeologists recorded and documented
thoroughly several wrecks and their scientific reports opened new horizons in the
interpretation of ancient shipbuilding, especially. Now, the archaeologists have clear
indications of the hull construction and new technical details are revealed, as well as
fresh information about the economics by looking at the hull maintenance features and
repairs. A good example is the Kyrenia ship which sank off the north coast of Cyprus
around the year 300 BC. The hull was preserved extensively, including the entire keel,
more than half of the stem, and a big part of the outer planking. The shipwrights used to
build the hull by erecting the outer layer of the planking, “shell planking”, and joining
them by closely spaced mortise and tenon joints, each transfixed by dowels to be locked
in place. The frames were not fastened on the keel, but on the shell planking. This
method is the so‐called “shell‐first” way of shipbuilding. This method was used in
shipbuilding up to the 1st century BC, and it was realized that the big waste of wood for
achieving the ultimate shape in the planks had a major economic impact (Steffy 1985,
pp.71‐101). Things seem to change after the 1st century AD. The 4th century AD Yassi
Ada shipwreck indicates a great change in technology and an omen of some of the
developments that will occur during early Byzantine times. Mortise and tenon joints are
now made smaller and not so close spaced, the shell planking is weaker, but the internal
strength in the frame structure is increased. Like in the Kyrenia ship, the planks are
edge‐joined with mortise and tenon joints. Although the ship was shell‐based built the
hull’s strength was depended on the skeleton and internal planking (van Doorninck
1976, pp.115‐131). Finally, with the 7th century AD Yassi Ada shipwreck, it is indicated
that pure shell forms of construction are not more used by the shipwrights. The planks
are edge‐joined up to first wale, above that there are no more mortise and tenon joints.
The first strakes are fitted with mortise and tenon joints, but they are not pegged. Short
35
floors were inserted to support the planks and keep them aligned, until the first frame
timbers were mounted. The specific wreck was “shell‐first” constructed, but once half
frames are added it becomes skeletal construction (Runyan 1987, p.23).
In the North
In September 1937 the oldest planked boat of northern Europe was discovered at
Ferriby, England. It was a boat built of massive planks of oak, 16m in length and the
width around 3m. Excavations on the site revealed more than one boats, but the Ferriby
1 was the best preserved. The planks had been set edge to edge and were sewn together
with withies of yew, battens in the inside held them in place. The hull was rounded in
shape and each plank met its neighbor at an angle. The boat was propelled by paddles,
and it is estimated that it could accommodate up to nine paddlers. The boat is dated to
1400 BC; there are earlier examples of small primitive crafts in north Europe, but skills
of boatbuilding are reflected on the specific find. From the Zwammerdam boats, found
on the mouth of the Rhine near Rotterdam, a new type of construction appeared. The
planks are massive, but no longer sewn to each other; they are nailed onto the frames.
Their hull was long and narrow with flat bottoms and straight sides, they carried no sail
and were oar driven. The shipwright put the bottom planks first and then he started
laying the floor timbers across them and fastened them to each other with clenched
nails. Then, he nailed the frames on the side planks. The side planks were not edge‐
joined, as the bottom planks. The higher overlapped the lower, a construction feature
that we will meet later in the Viking ships. The earliest fully preserved clinker‐built
(strakes overlapping each other) is the Nydam (was excavated at Nydam in Schleswig,
north Germany) boat from 350‐400 AD. The hull was low, long and narrow and it
belonged to a war galley. The strakes were put overlapped and fastened to each other
with iron rivets. First the planks were out and after the shell structure was secured the
frames were put in place. Like the Mediterranean vessels it was shell‐based built. The
long and narrow lines with shallow draft and overlapping planks secured by iron rivets
and a single steering oar (the Mediterranean practice had two steering oars) are the
basic characteristic of the Viking galley. The specific boat was built for ritual purposes.
However, in 1880, a Viking galley was found at Gokstad, south Norway, dating to 850
AD. Its construction served ritual purposes again, but this ship was definitely able to sail
with rowers. It consists of a proper keel, a heavy keelson in which the mast was stepped.
The planks are riveted to each other in the usual clinker fashion. There were ports on
the sides to fit and work the oars, indication of its capability of open sea sailing. The
vessel was 23m in length, 5.1m width and 2m deep amidships, and the beam ratio of 4.5:
36
1 shows it was probably a merchantman of the age. In Denmark, Ladby, the remains of a
ship, found in a ship‐burial, with slender hull and ratio 7.1: 1 indicate a typical Viking
warship. Finally, five ships were excavated in Roskilde Fjord, Denmark, dating to around
1000 AD. The ships had been deliberately sunk in the Fjord near Skuldelev to make the
approach by sea to the town of Roskilde difficult for attackers. Two were warships with
one of them having slender hull and a length of 27m, similar to the hull lines of the
Ladby ship. The other two were merchant galleys, one for coastal trading and the bigger
one, 16.5m long, was built with heavy frames and decks fore and aft. Perhaps, it had
some oars, but it was mostly a sailing vessel like those used to carry goods to Iceland,
Greenland, America (Casson 1994, pp.141‐149)
Ship Evolution, around 1000 – 1650 AD
“Following the light of the sun, we left the Old World” – Christopher Columbus
The communication bridges between the European nations started blossoming before
1000 AD. Transportation‐trading and exploration were the main reasons that the above
occurred. Sometimes exploration was expressed by means of wars, domination and
colonization, but still these produced new links between different nations that cannot be
ignored. During the high Middle Ages and the Renaissance the communication was much
better and improved. The constant economic and demographic growth by the mid 10th
century and leading to the mid 14th century led to great trading activities among
Europeans and so more opportunities for the use of ships of different types. The sailing
vessel was the main tool for the man to step in new land and establish trading
opportunities (Unger 1980).
Viking boats by 1000 AD
The Scandinavian seafarers known as Vikings developed a remarkable system of
maritime activities that was not similar to the Roman traditions of shipbuilding and
seamanship, or to the parallel activities of the Celtics (Roberts 1994, p.11) OTP. The
Viking longship is a symbol of the Scandinavian innovation in ancient shipbuilding.
There are no Viking shipbuilding manuals found, but there is enough archaeological
proof providing a complete picture of the Viking ships and the way the shipwrights built
them. Ships and impressions of ships in burial mounds in Scandinavia and Britain have
offered valuable information about certain aspects of Viking Age shipbuilding. Sagas, sea
laws, poetry, seals, woodcarving and stone engravings, and the Bayeux Tapestry have
made the picture brighter (Graham‐Campbell 1980, p.38‐40). Archaeological evidence
37
about the use of sail by the Saxons and Vikings is represented on a small stone found in
Jutland beach near Karlby dating from the 7th century AD. The hull shape of the boat
depicted is double‐ended and propelled by a square sail. Steering was made by side
rudder. The defeat of William of Normandy by King Harold at Hastings is described in an
informative record, the Bayeux Tapestry, including details of the preparation of the
boats and of the passage of the invasion fleet across the English Channel. It was
mentioned above that five ships were recovered from the Roskilde Fjord near Skuldelev.
Their stern‐ and stemposts were curved, hollow pieces of timber were stepped and
shape to accept the strakes in a continuous way. All of them were clinker built, and these
being fastened are by means of iron clenched nails. First, the planking layer was erected
and then the framing was fastened with treenails to the strakes and not to the keel, or
the garboards. The hulls from the Bayeux Tapestry are clinker built with overlapping
planks, long, shallow hulls with portholes in the sheerstrake to accommodate oars. The
existence of oars made them independent of the wind. Some of the boats depicted had
shields hung over the side which would increase the freeboard and protect the crew
from the water spray blowing aboard. City and port seals found after the Bayeux
Tapestry provide with plentiful information on the hull form and construction. The seals
are from the 13th and the 14th centuries. It is not easy to distinguish between merchant
and warships, but the ones with armed men onboard might be the warships, however,
many merchant vessels were recruited to the warship fleets to increase the naval power.
They seem to reveal the continuation of the Viking‐style hull construction with a new
feature added, the castles fore and aft the ship. The castles were either standing free of
the hull topsides fore and aft or they were mounted on the bow and stern element (seal
from Dover, 1284). The seals of San Sebastian and Sandwich show bowsprit‐like
projections, which assisted in the sailing performance of the ship; the ship was able to
sail closer to the wind. There is also archaeological evidence in the Treasury Accounts
for the building of the English galleys, 1272‐1377. In both the seals and the Accounts the
clinker planking of the hull is confirmed in the boat‐ and shipbuilding in northern
Europe. The lands of the stakes are depicted on seals as well as the curvature at the
stern‐ and stemposts, and indications of the clinker nailing. There is description of the
timber’s dimensions for the planking, 12ft long were bought for the hull planking. In a
vessel 60ft long there might be five to six planks in most of her strakes (Roberts 1994,
pp.12, 18‐19, 24).
The Viking ship was not invented during the Viking Age, but it is the product of earlier
boat development. North European finds, including the Nydam and Kvalsund boats,
38
show early hull forms of Viking boats. The ship from Sutton Hoo from England,, although
not a Scandinavian found, represents an early example of a Viking ship. From the
Skuldelev ships we have solid proof about the hull form and construction of Viking ships
that were constructed to sail. The basic shape and structure of a Viking ship are found in
the group of the Skuldelev ships. There are differences within the group of the specific
five ships. The ships 1 and 3 are much broader than the ships 2 and 5. This probably
indicates that the first two ships were cargo carriers and the other two warships.
(Graham‐Campbell 1980, p.42). Skuldelev 1, the largest of the cargo vessels amongst the
group is about 15m long and it shows early steps towards the improving of the sailing
performance of the ships. The hull is deep; this was established by increasing the
draught and the freeboard, by fitting a heavy and large beam. The merchant ships of the
Viking Age they did not have the speed and the manoeuvrability of the long, narrow
ships. They were of deeper draught and they had broader beam to increase the cargo
capacity (Roberts 1994, p.16).
Figure 15. Skuldelev 1 was a cargo ship with a cargo‐capacity of around 24 tons (Uldum 1999)
The increased demand of the trading activities during the high Middle Ages caused the
construction of larger merchant crafts of larger volume. From the 11th to the 14th
centuries the Viking boat gave its position to larger vessels with deeper hull. Increased
depth led to greater draught and soon the side steering was replaced by a stern rudder.
The curved Viking form on the stern area was replaced by vertical or raked sternposts,
which might have been the first steps in northern Europe towards the balancing of a
ship with more sail. The “new” cargo carriers were more seaworthy with increased
stability and strength in rough waters. The main deck was now fitted well above the
39
waterline and the cargo and valuable goods were now protected by the weather. The
phenomena of piracy, by the 15th century, raised the need of fitted castles in the fore and
aft of the hull, either as free‐standing light frame structures, or built on the sternpost or
the stempost (Roberts 1994, pp.25‐26).
The Cog, a cargo sailship
A Hanse cog was discovered during dredging work in the port of Bremen in 1962. The
cog's construction was dated to the year 1380 by means of dendrochronological
analysis. Until this finding was made, virtually nothing was known about the shape and
rigging of Hanse cogs. The sole source for information on their appearance had been
illustrations on seal impressions, which provide only an approximate idea. The term
“cog” first appears in 1200 AD in written sources for ships of the Hanseatic League, but
it suddenly disappeared during the 15th century. In the Middle Ages the knowledge of
the specific vessel was not existed; people knew only the term, a term used for any
wooden vessel more than a century old. Books of that
era dealing with maritime history defined cog as a
three‐masted ship, similar to Columbus’ Santa Maria.
Later, historians looked at the issue again and
suggested that the cog is a single‐masted ship like the
Viking ships, but still they could not put a
distinguishing line between the two different types.
Finally, from a town seal from Stranslund dating to Figure 16. Lübeck town seal from
1329, Fliender (the excavator of the Hansea cog) 1280 (Ellmers 1996, p.32)
found out that the ship depicted on it is a cog. It
shows the main features of relatively short hull, straight angular stem and sternpost,
centerline stern rudder and two superstructures on the fore and aft sides of the ship.
The cog had a high box‐shaped hull and carried a single sail (Ellmers 1994, pp.29‐30).
The cog was built with a flat flush laid bottom which was ideal for the coastal islands
and rivers where it was primarily used. The hull turns up sharply at the bilge (the point
where the hull transitions from bottom to side) and rises from there in ever widening
clinker type strakes. The nails, however, were not clenched like in Viking tradition, but
merely bent over and buried in the timber. It served as a cargo carrier so it had strong
and heavy cross beams protruding through the ship’s sides supported by huge vertical
knees providing strength (Crumlin‐Pedersen 2000, pp.230‐246).
40
The earliest archaeological evidence of this type of ship is a clay model from the Iron
Age depicting a cog‐like ship. It was found at Leese, Nienburg and it is dating to 200 BC.
The representation shows a flat bottom ship with steep sides, pointed ends and straight
stem‐ and sternposts. It was not a logboat, but a marine vessel consisting of several
pieces of timber. Cog‐shaped boats served as river crafts, inland boats, from the lower
Rhine valley to the valley of the middle and lower Weser, from the pre‐Roman Iron Age
up to the present. Boats belonging to the cog family are still built and used in some lakes
of that area. An early version of the cog was the hulk. This banana‐shaped ship was the
principle vessel of the Frisian Islands and is found on many Carolingian (768‐814 AD)
period coins. Its planks are flush, butted end to end and tapered so as to draw up in the
sides and together at bow and stern. Coins for the Frisian depict a ship, which her
rounded hull (banana‐shaped) is changed to a box‐like hull of another sailing vessel with
distinctive stem‐ and sternposts. The horizontal bottom line of this ship is slightly
curved upwards at the bow and stern sides. The flat and broad keel of the Bremen cog,
550 years later, has the feature of the bent‐up ends which appears on the coins. Three
pieces of timbers make the keel element. These coins show early versions of the cog. By
the thirteenth century many constructional features of the cog had changed and altered
to different hull construction features. The cogs from the 9th century have flat bottoms
with four topside strakes and a side rudder. The hull lines from the 13th century cogs are
gently curved on the stem and stern. A construction feature observed in the Bremen cog
is the external stem‐ and sternposts that have been added outside to close the scarf
between the strakes which ended to the front of the inner posts. The inner and outer
posts are an innovation in the cog construction of the 13th century. Later, elaborated
sterncastle superstructures were constructed and put on the cogs. By the middle of the
fifteenth century the hulk appears again and replaces the cog. The hull from of the new
arrival is different; it is larger and rounder hull and was clinker built all the way to the
keel. The angular straight ends are now rounded‐shaped and the ship is more seaworthy
and stable with increased cargo carrying skills. The superstructures are now integrated
on the main hull. The cog served also as a warship in 1234 and 1239 when the city of
Lübeck armed their cogs against the King of Denmark who sought to gain control of the
city (Ellmers 1994, pp.33‐46) . We have seen that from the ancient times the merchant
vessels were recruited occasionally in the naval fleet to assist in naval warfare
operations.
41
The ships from Mediterranean
Little is known about ships from that region by the first millennium AD. There are no
records or documents describing the basic characteristics regarding the dimensions, the
hull construction, or the rigging of the sailing vessels. However, the information gained
from iconographic material and archaeological evidence has been a great step towards
the expansion of knowledge of hull design. The Mediterranean ships have a rounded hull
in both ends, they still accommodated the steering oar and carried a long triangular sail.
Their hull design differed from region to region and ranged in size from open boats with
only half decks to large merchantmen with three decks and an approximate length of
35m (Pryer 1994, p.59).
The hull remains on the seafloor excavated by maritime archaeologists are always the
optimum source of revealing the technical details of hull design and construction.
Previously, the two wrecks from the Mediterranean were mentioned, the 4th and 7th
century Yassi Ada shipwrecks, now some more wrecks from later centuries will be
presented. The 11th century Serçe Liman wreck was lost in 1024 or 1025 AD, and
excavated in the period from 1977‐1979. Even though only twenty per cent of her hull
has survived, it is an important wreck since the information on Mediterranean
shipbuilding around that era is limited. The keel and posts were set up first in the
conventional way, which was the partial frame‐first construction. The keel consisted of
42
three timbers scarfed together and curved upwards at the bow and stern (round‐shaped
hull). Then, identically shaped floor timbers were drilled and nailed onto the keel having
an upward curve at the fore and aft ends. Long arms were fitted in port and starboard
side, five frame timbers on each side and their curvature was equidistant from the keel
centerline. These were the first frame timbers to be erected before the layer of the
planking is built. The hull was 15m long on deck, 14.5m at the waterline, and its
moulded beam was 5.13m. It had deep hull lines, it was full ended ship with no deadrise
amidships and a sharp turn on the bilge, as well as a steep sheer. Its length to beam ratio
was around 3:1 and it seemed to be a stable vessel, not comfortable though. The frames
were erected first and there is an absence of mortise and tenon joints, so it is considered
a skeletal‐built vessel probably a horse carrier (Steffy 1982, pp.13‐34). The Contarina
ship from the late 13th century or early 14th century was an entirely skeleton built vessel.
The keel was set up first and it consisted of two timbers, the posts. The floor timbers
were added afterwards and nailed to the keel by spikes. Then the frames were erected,
three master fraes amidships provided the hull form of the ship. The 13th century ships
of St. Louis represent the ultimate evolution of the round sailing vessel in the
Mediterranean. They had two masts, and two or three decks (Pryer 1994, pp.62‐63).
The Mediterranean vessels in the early times, as we saw, they were shell‐first
constructed. Their hulls were raised on the keels and posts and then the outer planking
layer was erected. The strakes were edge joined by numerous, closely‐spaced and tight‐
fitting mortise and tenon joints. When the planking body was established, the frames
were mounted on the shell planking and not on the keel. The 4th century Yassi Ada
wreck indicates a turn in the shipbuilding technology. Mortise and tenon joints are now
made smaller and not so close spaced. Although the ship was shell‐based built the hull’s
strength was depended on the skeleton and internal planking. The 7th century AD Yassi
Ada shipwreck, it’s an archaeological proof that pure shell forms of construction are not
more used by the shipwrights. The planks are edge‐joined up to first wale, above that
there are no more mortise and tenon joints. The first strakes are fitted with mortise and
tenon joints, but they are not pegged. Short floors were inserted to support the planks
and keep them aligned, until the first frame timbers were mounted. The specific wreck
was “shell‐first” constructed, but once half frames are added it becomes skeletal
construction (Runyan 1987, p.23). Finally, with the Serçe Liman wreck there is a
complete change in shipbuilding in the Mediterranean vessels. Twelve frames and
timbers fitted on the keel, which was raised first with the posts, and then strakes were
laid and fastened by no means of mortise and tenon joints (Pryer 1994, p.65)
43
Carracks, caravels, galleons
The carrack was the product of the synthesis and culmination of the North European
and Mediterranean shipbuilding technology by the late 13th or early 14th centuries. Until
that time these two shipbuilding traditions were separated (Friel 1994, p.77). There was
still a difference in those two shipbuilding traditions that was triggered by the climate,
the nature of the winds and waters, and in general the different sailing conditions in the
Baltic, North Sea and along the Atlantic coast and in the Mediterranean. But, the creative
spirit of the shipbuilders, who were copying and borrowing design features and ideas
did create a variety of vessels capable of operating anywhere in the world. By the end of
the 15th century the pattern of shipbuilding methodology became general around
Europe (Unger 1980, p.203).
Specific design features of the carrack – available information on the shape and design of
the carracks is scarce – was the large hull, deep and wide hull lines ideal for a cargo
carrier, a high and rounded stem. It had a high rounded stern with the planks curving
around from the sides to the rudderpost and large aftcastle and forecastle and bowsprit
at the stem. The castle superstructures were integral part of the hull. The upward slope
of its hull form was of appreciable degree and the keel line, when visible, was straight.
The earliest surviving north European ships named as a carrack is the engraving of a
ship entitled Kraeck. The Kraeck is being dated to 1470‐80 AD because it features three‐
masted rig. It is a large, three‐masted vessel with square rigged fore and main masts,
and a lateen rigged mizzen mast. The hull seems to be skeleton‐built, with flush‐laid
planking and large longitudinal wales. The hull is deep with a considerable freeboard, it
has a high upcarving stem, elevated forecastle superstructure integrated to the hull
structure, stern rudder. A representative of a “carrack‐type” vessel was Mary Rose,
which was built in 1509 by Henry VIII and was a four‐masted carrack of 600 tons. The
ship appears to have been skeleton built and with flush‐laid planking. The Mary Rose
had a keel length of 32m and a breadth of 11.66m. Her length at the waterline is
estimated to have been 38.5m and her draught 4.6m. The weight of the vessel, when she
sank in 1512, was 700 tons (Friel 1994, p. 78‐81).
Another ship linked to the Iberian history of seafaring and shipbuilding technology is
the caravel. From the 1440 AD the caravels spread throughout the Atlantic Europe as
well as in the Mediterranean. Until the 1530 was the main workhorse vessel in Europe,
after that it was replaced by lighter vessels. Iberian caravels reappeared in the end of
the 16th century and the first half of 17th century, but only inside the Portuguese and
44
Spanish region because in the rest nations other ship types took over her. There is very
little iconography depicting caravel at any stage of its development and no remains of
such a ship have been found. It is, however, possible to trace the origin of the ship by
historical accounts, shipbuilding treatises, ethnographical and archaeological studies. Its
name is attached with a fishing vessel from the 13th century, or the term ‘caravel’ was
connected to a small ship, caravo or qārib related to Muslim Algarvian and Maghrebine
models of lateen‐rigged craft made to suit Atlantic sailing conditions. The 13th century
caravel was small of limited capacity. Regarding their hull form they had shallow
draught and low sides which indicate their usefulness as such a vessel along Atlantic and
Mediterranean coasts. However, these vessels took part in trading activities so it seems
that they might be decked. It is also conceivable that these ships were employed for
trade and, therefore, could have been fully decked at this time. The 13th‐century caravel
is guessed to have been carrying a lateen one‐or two sails, with a keel to beam ratio of
5:1 and a weight approximately 30 tons. The period from 1430‐1530 the caravel was
adopted by many maritime regions. The caravel of the 15th and 16th centuries was a
ship with a distinctive shape and admirable qualities. A gently sloping bow and single
stern castle were prominent features of this vessel. It carried a mainmast and a mizzen
mast that were generally lateen‐rigged. The hull of the caravel was of more elegant hull
lines than these of the carrack. Rather than a single sternpost, the caravel had a transom
which accommodated the stern rudder. The two sternposts gave her a squared off aft
side, a later characteristic on ships (Phillips 1994, pp.91‐96). The name “caravel” may
indicates the way of laying the planks whilst the ship’s construction, and there is nearly
no doubt that the caravel were carvel‐built (Unger 1980, p.212).
Figure 18. Columbus’ caravels La Niña and Pinta (Schwarz 2008, p.85).
45
By the mid 1500s a new larger vessel was replacing both the caravel and the carrack, the
galleon. Neither the origin of this type of vessel nor its evolution stages are clear. The
term galeones was used when referring to vessels that operated in on the southern and
eastern coasts of Iberian Peninsula during the 13th century. In addition to the oared
galleoni used by the Venetians, there were full rigged editions of the galleons used by
both Italy and Spain before 1530. The galleons were built according to the skeleton
construction, “frame‐first” shipbuilding tradition, introduced by the Mediterranean
shipwrights (Phillips 1994, pp.99‐101). Unger (Unger 1980, p.256) suggests that the
galleons had a length‐ to‐beam ratio of under 4: 1 (Unger 1980, p.256). The long low
stern castle of the caravel became an integrated raised section of deck called the
quarterdeck. The stern was transom built and it had a short aftermost deck raised above
the quarterdeck, the poop deck (Phillips 1994, p.101). It was lower than the carrack
with a beakhead below the bowsprit, to provide protection from the blown sea spray,
which indicates her relation with galleys. The galleon did not have the deep draught of
the carrack, and the fore and aft superstructures were not so extensive (Unger 1980,
p.256). The forecastle was much lower than the structures aft giving to the vessel a
crescent‐shaped hull form (Phillips 1994, p.101). The galleons developed as warships,
but they made good cargo ships. Their advantage was that they could operate in
dangerous trade routes, because they were highly defensible (Unger 1980, pp.257‐258).
Figure 19. Drawing of an English galleon by Mathew Baker, from Fragments of Ancient English
Shipwrightry ( Wessex Archaeology Phase III Summary Report ; Auer and Firth 2007, Figure 17).
A specialist cargo vessel, the fluit
In the 16th century there is an obvious specialization in ship design. By the 1600, the
cargo ships are easily distinguished from warships. Mostly the Dutch shipwrights
applied a different pattern in the shipbuilding of carriers. The Dutch so‐called “fluit
ship”, first built in the last decade of the 16th century, was constructed purely as a cargo
ship. The fluit ship was the product of design changes during the 16th century. In 1595
46
the specific vessel was invented by a Dutch ship carpenter at the town of Hoorn, north of
Amsterdam. However, many ships showing features of the fluit ship had been
constructed before that date. The dimensions of the fluit in 1595 included a length‐to‐
beam ratio of 4: 1 and reaching the 5: 1, even 6: 1 in later years (Unger 1980, p.262).
Many of the construction features on the fluit ship were included in cargo ships before
the last decade of the 16th century. One of them was related to the hull form of the ship,
to be more specific the shipwrights of the fluit ship borrowed the big ratio of length to
breadth of other big ships of the time. They decreased the elaborated superstructures at
the bow and they narrowed the castle on the aft end. Its hull form looked like a tall,
narrow glass, a flute, after which it was named possibly. The fluit had a long but shallow
hull, almost flat and straight bottom with a sharp turn on the bilges. The stem had a
sharp curve upwards and the sternpost was sharp angled too. The bow was lower than
the stern. The stern carried a single sternpost which drew the sides together giving the
hull a sharp box‐shaped form. On larger version there was a half deck and a poop deck at
the stern; they were elaborated in a way that gave the stern a fluted shape. The stern
castle above the rudder had a transom aft. According to Nicolaes Witsen (Witsen 1690)
a fluit of 28.3m long and 6.2m broad was typically of 200 tons, and one being 32.5m long
and 6.8m wide, a length‐to‐beam ratio of 5.17: 1, was rated at 400 tons (Witsen 1690,
p.178). The optimum size was between 400‐500 tons. The foremast carried a simple
square sail, the main mast carried one square sail and two in larger versions. The mizzen
mast had a lateen sail and, on larger versions, a square sail. Of particular interest here is
that the topsails were much wider in the head (taller) than on other ships of the day. As
a result, the main course was smaller and more manageable. The simple hull form with
the large cargo capacity, as well as the simple rig made it a slow sailing vessel, but it was
the builder’s primary aim to construct an effective bulk carrier with adequate handling
qualities and not a high speed vessel.
47
Figure 20. The Dutch merchant vessels referred to them as fluiten, around 1647 (Unger 1994,
p.122).
The fluit ship could not be used as a warship as the Dutch shipwrights were building her
specifically for a cargo carrier. If the trading vessels included in a convoy had to cross
through high risk routes, then the trading vessel was escorted by heavily armed
warships. The construction method of a fluit ship had a hybrid character based on
skeleton‐first shipbuilding traditions. The Dutch shipwrights were influenced by the
Mediterranean shipbuilding methods, though. The process of the fluit’s hull construction
was ignited by erecting the keel structure. The next step, instead of raising the principal
frames, was to establish a bottom layer planking which determined the hull form. When
the rigidity of the outer planking structure was established then the frames were
fastened on the planking. Modifications on the basic design of the fluit started occurring
in and after the last decade of the 17th century. The need for sufficient cargo area forced
the builders to produce a hull with a tumblehome to the sides with the width at the
waterline being greater than at the deck level; this modification made the ship easy to be
worked by the crew, but also decreased the amount of the toll charges that had to be
paid (Unger 1994, pp.121‐126).
In the specific chapter the author described the evolution on the hull design of the
sailing vessels. In the beginning the floating vessel was an inflated skin that served well
the needs of the humans, who were trading goods along river channels and coastal
waters. After the 14th century AD dramatic changes occurred in the construction and
design of the marine vessels. After centuries of technical innovations, a product of a long
period of development was introduced; the three‐masted full rigged ship appeared and
opened new possibilities in the seafaring world, and the flow of maritime history totally
48
changed. In 1600 the seagoing vessel was the major vehicle of transport for all types of
goods and cargo, crossing the open sea and taking them to the New World and India. The
superiority of the European ships both for trading activities and naval operations made
possible the domination by western nations of places in the Orient and the New World.
As we saw, from the ancient times until 1600 AD the technical improvements were
extremely large, different shipbuilding traditions produced a microcosm of technical
innovations that were reflected upon the shipwrights’ products, the well‐built and
impressive sailing vessels. By the end of the 16th century the ship design reached its
peak point. Until the late 18th century there were minor changes in the technology of
ship construction (Unger 1980, pp.21, 265, 273). In the following chapter we will see the
technological technical details and shipbuilding treatises that were born in the different
dockyards of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. We will lay emphasis on the Dutch
and English shipbuilding tradition of that time as the author’s two case studies the
Scheurrak SO1 and the Gresham ship are their products.
49
The Two Ships
“The term ship is a general one and includes anything that moves or carries something
over the water. Whether well built or clumsy, a tree trunk, a plank, a vessel in which
someone rides or which carries any load upon the water, is a ship. However, to be properly
called a ship it must have a shape that is determined by certain means, and have parts that
are fitted to one another, in due proportion and suitably.”1
Introduction
To follow is a description of the author’s two main 16th century case studies. The
merchantman Scheurrak SO1, a Dutch wreck which was discovered in 1984 in the
Wadden Sea and excavated two years later by the Netherlands Institute for Ship and
Underwater Archaeology (NISA) (Manders 2003, p.320) . The second ship is the Princes
Channel wreck (Gresham ship) that was discovered in 2003 by the Port of London
Authority (PLA) while clearing the Princes Channel, in the River Thames. Wessex
Archaeology (WA) was assigned to carry out the underwater excavation in November
2003 (Auer & Firth 2007, p.222).
Both of the ships present an indisputable archaeological and historical significance; the
Scheurrak SO1 provides important information about the Dutch flush shipbuilding
tradition and specifically the Double Dutch flushplanking solution of shipbuilding. There
was a lack of archaeological and historical information about shipbuilding methods in
the Netherlands during the end of the 16th century prior to its excavation. The Princes
Channel wreck it is a rare example of a well‐preserved structure of a small English‐built
merchant ship. In addition to that, the specific wreck provides archaeological evidence
of the building practice of furring (repairing activity on the ship to increase its breadth)2.
The main features of their construction and design will be provided, by describing their
hull remains and interpreting their building sequence. Basic information about their
cargo will be briefly offered, but it is not the objective of the thesis to go deeper in that.
However, the author believes that the cargo reveals and signifies the ship’s purpose so it
1
Definition given from Fernando Oliveira in , Livro da fábrica das naus, 1580 (Chapter 5, pg.153).
2
Conclusions derived from reading Double Dutch Solutions in FlushPlanked Shipbuilding: Continuity and
Adaptations at the Start of Modern History (Maarleveld 1994) and The ‘Gresham Ship’: an interim report on a
16thcentury wreck from Princes Channel, Thames Estuary (Auer & Firth 2007).
50
is essential to present an overview picture of it. The specialized ship construction
terminology follows the nomenclature and definition of Steffy’s book (1994) Wooden
ship building and the interpretation of shipwrecks (Steffy 1994, pp.266‐298).
Merchantman Scheurrak SO1
The wreck
“On Christmas Eve 1593, 44 merchant vessels were lost in the Texel Roads during a violent
storm. Similar events occurred many times over the centuries. The Waddenzee therefore
became a unique archaeological resource containing hundreds of shipwrecks, large and
small, dating back to about 1500. The site shows finds recovered from one of these
merchant vessels, popularly known as 'Scheurrak SO1’. The vessel was loaded with grain
3
from the Baltic and probably also disappeared on Christmas Eve 1593.”
The ship was discovered in the summer of 1984 in the Wadden Sea, and for the first
time it was excavated in August 1986 by the Netherlands Institute for Ship and
Underwater Archaeology (NISA). The wreck itself still lies on the seafloor at a depth of 6‐
10m covering an area of 40 25 . The wreck is called after the site it has been found,
SO derives from Scheurrak Omdraii, which is an area located in the Wadden Sea in the
Northern Netherlands. The underwater excavation activities on the wreck started in
1989 and were completed in 1997, with some of the ship’s hull remains still lying at the
seafloor (Manders 2003, p.320).
It sunk in the nineties of the sixteenth century, it was of a Dutch origin and it consisted
of Dutch crew. On its last voyage, the ship may have been come from Danzig (former
name of Gdańsk), Poland, with its cargo which was mainly wheat. It could have been
anchored on the Texel Roads, in the Wadden Sea, North of Holland. Amsterdam was a
significant market for all kinds of goods within Europe, however, the shallow waters in
this area made it impossible for large ocean‐going vessels to enter its harbour safely.
That is the reason that Texel Roads was the ideal for ships like SO1 to anchor. Another
option is that the ship was waiting for the right wind to continue its journey to another
trading harbour probably somewhere in the Mediterranean for higher prices. In
addition to the above conjectures about the last voyage of SO1 is that the ship was
3
Waddenzee ships graveyard,
<http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/en/collecties/verzonken_schatten/scheepskerkhof_waddenzee>
Last viewed 26th November 2010.
51
loaded with Baltic grain from the Amsterdam market and was about to sail for another
harbour to sell its cargo (Manders 2001, p.28). A spectacular maritime disaster occurred
on the Texel Roads on the 24th of December 1593, where 150 ships were waiting to set
sail. Large hurricane‐force winds battered a merchant fleet moored off the coast and 44
vessels sank, drowning about a thousand seamen. Perhaps one of these ships was the
Scheurrak SO1 wreck (Manders 2002)4.
4
BZN 10 wreck – threatened by nature? , Martijn Manders, <http://www.abc.se/~pa/publ/bzn10.htm> Last
viewed 26th November 2010. Article originally published in AIMA Bulletin 26, 2002. Published on Nordic
Underwater Archaeology by kind permission. Page publ 2003.
52
Figure 21. The wreck site of Scheurrak SO1. The wreck is lying with its starboard side on the sea
bottom on an old sand bank. Notice the features of the bottom planking, parts of bow and stern,
as well as the rudder preserved on‐site (Scheurrak SO1 excavation reports. Edited by the author
2011).
Construction of the Scheurrak SO1
Description of hull remains
The hull of the Scheurrak SO1 was constructed with double layer of oak (shell) planking,
the so‐called Double Dutch solution technique, typical in the Dutch shipyards in that era.
Both layers are rabbeted into the keel, and each one of the layers is 7cm thick with no
additional protective covering. The thickness and the breadth of the timbers are
relatively modest and they are not crossing through the hull as unitary frames, even
though some of them are butt jointed to each other (Maarleveld 1994, p.156).
53
Figure 22. The fore‐end hull of the Scheurrak SO1dismantled for research purposes (Maarleveld
1994, p.156. Edited by the author 2011).
While surveying the wreck it was obvious that the ship was built shell first: the “shell” of
the ship was constructed first, laying the framework afterwards. The shape of the lower
hull was defined by the outer planking. The Scheurrak SO1 was constructed according to
the Dutch flush shipbuilding tradition (Maarleveld 1994, p.156). The specific tradition
defined that the ships have flush‐planked bottoms and sides with overlapping strakes.
The bottom and bilge planking was assembled first and they were temporarily fixed
with clamps or cleats across the seams. The hull form was provided by shores, props,
clamps, or by any other mechanical means. When the bottom was completed the floor
timbers were attached. Once the frames were fastened to the bottom planking and put
on place, all the temporary fastenings or clamps were removed and the remaining nail‐
holes were plugged with wooden plugs, the spijkerpennen (Hocker & Ward 2004, p.82).
Van IJk (1697) in his book, De Nederlandsche ScheepsBouwKonst Open Gestelt, on 17th
century Dutch shipbuilding he describes the use of spijkerpennen: “Mitsgaders
spykerpennen, die tot het digtmaken van eenige, nu niet meer nodig Synde spijkergaten
dienen”(IJk 1697, p.41). Röding (Röding 1793) translates the term spijkerpennen as
spiles (Oosting 1991, p.73). The timbers were not put in a specific pattern and their
widths show a great variation (Maarleveld 1994, p.156).
54
It was not until a century later that systematic shipwright treatises were developed.
Probst (1994) when writing about the flushed‐planked tradition of constructing a ship
and how it expanded in Northern Europe, says that the famous Rotterdam shipbuilder
Cornelis van IJk described the main shipbuilding practice used in the southern parts of
Netherlands in the 17th century; the hull was shaped by battens (ribbands) that were
temporarily put on pre‐shaped (pre‐erected) frames. The northern method, Probst
continues, it was described by the Dutch Nicolaas Witsen and according to him the
shipwrights shape the hull by the planks alone. The southern method had “frame‐first”
elements of the Iberian way of shipbuilding, whereas the second was the shell‐first
originating back in the flushed‐planked cog bottom (Probst 1994, p.143). The Gresham
ship, as we will see later, it was frame‐first constructed. Scheurrak SO1 was shell‐
constructed.
Figure 23. Frame‐based construction method, similar to the Iberian way of ship construction,
described by Cornelis van IJk (Duivenvoorde2008, p.55)
55
Van Ijk decribed that once the keel assembly and the central spine of the vessel are
completed, then two full main frames were erected consisting of seven timbers each.
These two main frames were placed in pre‐calculated locations across the ship’s lenght,
and between them the hull shape did not change. The curvatures of the frames depended
on the beam and depth dimensions of the under consrtuction vessel, as well as on the
master builder’s judgement (Duivenvoorde2008, p.54).
Intepretation of construction
The optimum and most effective way to derive important archaeological and historical
information regarding the shipbuilding tradition and the general building sequence of a
vessel is to excavate it. By surveying it or even better by raising remains of its hull
significant construction and technical features provide the maritime archaeologist with
information about the vessel’s building technique. A small section 1 2 of the
portside lower hull, as well as the bow and the stern sections were raised from the SO1
wreck, featuring the double layer of planking, frame timbers (floors and futtocks) and
ceiling planks (Maarleveld 1994, p.159).
First the keel structure was constructed which consisted of several elements; the
foremost, horizontal, and keelscarf which was not ending more than 1.5m aft of the
stem. To be followed was the formation of the stem and sternposts and deadwoods as
well as the creation of the rabbets (double rabbeting) where the double layer (inner and
outer) of the planking was fitted (Maarleveld 1994, p.159).
Then, the garboard strake of the inner layer of planking was inserted and fastened in the
upper rabbet with nails. In that way the shell of the inner planking was erected. The
planks were connected to each other with temporary fastenings, clamps specifically
nailed both in the outside and inside (above and below the planks). When the rigidity of
the inner planking layer was established the floor and bilge timbers were added next.
The timbers were joined with inner layer of planking by means of treenails. It was when
the temporary fastenings (clamps) were removed and the resulted nail‐holes were
masked by spijkerpennen that the keelson and, later, the ceiling planks were fitted in
internal structure. The keelson was attached on the floor timbers with iron nails and the
ceiling planks with treenails which went through the timbers and the inner layer
planking. Next, the outer layer of the planking was fitted and fastened in the rabbet
56
(lower rabbet). It was nailed both in its rabbet and onto the inner layer of planking by
means of iron nails in an alternating zig‐zag‐wise pattern (Maarleveld 1994, p.159).
Finally, the whole structure was secured with treenails. The treenails were long and
wedged on the inside and dottled on the outside. Additional ceilings planks were put
and fastened with wedged treenails; in some instances those treenails were cutting
through the plank, whereas others stopped short before the outer surface of the ceiling
timber. The treenails were connecting the timbers to the inner layer of planking and the
ceiling and bilge planks to both. In the next phase the riders were added and as for the
top timbers, oplangen, the wales, the knees, beam and decking there is no sufficient
archaeological evidence (Maarleveld 1994, p.159)
The standing futtocks could be planked in the normal carvel manner with the
shipbuilder finding the most ideal and convenient way. The undeniable fact is that we
have a clear and complete picture regarding the building sequence as well as the
submerged hull form. (See in the Appendix I the schematic construction representation
of the first stages of the lower hull of the Scheurrak SO1 (Maarleveld 1994, pp.160‐
161)). Witsen, while describing about the bottom‐based construction, he mentions that
the master frame was erected after the bottom planking structure was completed. One
master floor and pair of futtocks were inserted to help the shipwright to define the the
hull’s curvature above the bottom, which was dictated by the shape of the bottom and
not by mould frame (Duivenvoorde2008, p.40).
57
Figure 24. Witsen's bottom‐based ship construction (Duivenvoorde2008, p.42)
Cargo and other artefacts
The SO1 wreck is a significant wreck since it offers basic and fundamental information
about the Dutch flush way of shipbuilding which was common especially in the northern
Nethernalds of the 16th century. During the excavation and documentation activities on
the hull remains the main focus was upon the construction of the vessel. However,
attention was given to the objects located in the wreck. The ideal preservation
conditions in the water of the Wadden Sea, lack of oxygen, raised the scientific interest
in the objects. Around 5000 objects were excavated, conserved and documented
(Manders 2001, p.25).
58
From the first days of the underwater excavation it was obvious to the archaeologists that
the ship was carrying wheat, large quantities of it were found behind the decks of the
starboard side. After thorough analysis of the seeds of weed that were found in the wreck
the specialists claimed that Poland was the origin of the wheat cargo. The wheat cargo of
the Scheurrak SO1 originated from the Vistula or Weichsel trade in the interior of Poland.
This was the main area to provide grain to the Dutch state through Amsterdam harbor
(Manders 2001, pp.25,26).
Several cask parts, like staves and head parts of casks, were found between the first and
second deck of the starboard side of the vessel. Most of the documentation of the casks
and the areas around them showed that they were filled with different kinds of goods,
such as fish (cod), meat, brooms of heather, broad beans and gunpowder. The wood that
the casks were made off was oak, and after dendrochronological analysis it is dated from
1554 to 1596 (+9 ‐6) and originated in Poland (Manders 2001, p.27)
Other finds preserved from rotting were found on the wreck, including an earthenware
pot from Iberian Peninsula and weight for Portuguese and French coins (Manders 2001,
p.28). Personal belongings located on the second deck were recovered from the wreck,
including wooden boxes, clothing and shoes, a knife with a bare text on it. The most
impressive recovered objects, however, were a trumpet and a wooden linstock. Both of
them had engraved texts on them; the trumpet was engraved with the following words:
“Lissandro Milanese Fecit Genua 1589”, a solid proof that the ship was lost in or after 1589.
On the handle of the wooden linstock a poem was engraved. After documentation it is
suggested that it was a personal belonging of Cornelis Claesz, a 23 years old gunner
(Manders 2003, p.324).
Gresham ship (Princess Channel wreck)
The wreck
“The ‘Gresham Ship’ was found in Princes Channel by the Port of London Authority in 2003.
Investigations culminated in the recovery in 2004 of the remains of a small to medium
sized armed merchant ship built soon after 1574, probably in East Anglia or Essex. The
wreck provides archaeological evidence of the documented practice of ‘furring’ (rebuilding
a ship to increase its breadth). The cargo included folded iron bars, lead ingots and tin
ingots, and amongst the four recovered guns is a rare English early castiron saker,
marked with the grasshopper motif and initials of Sir Thomas Gresham.” (Auer & Firth
2007, p.1)
59
In April 2003 the wreck was identified by the Port of London Authority after a
magnetometer survey that was undertaken in the area of Princes Channel c. 17km from
Whitstable. The site is exposed and subject to tidal currents of up to 3 knots, making the
whole survey and later the recovery processes hard to carry out. Reconnaissance dives
showed that on the sea floor there was laying a wreck of a wooden ship. Two months
later the first finds were recovered and with the assistance of a grab barge, several
timbers, iron bars, an anchor and cannon (gun) were brought to surface. The attempts of
monitoring the wreck didn’t stop until an inspection dive by a PLA diver, established the
existence of some wooden wreckage. A coherent piece of hull structure was located on
the sea bottom and then recovered, as it was believed to be a hazard for to navigation.
The lifting operations took place in November 2003. During that phase the structure
6.5 3 came apart and two structural elements were labeled as Piece 1 and Piece 2.
(WA, Phase III Summary Report, 2005)5.
Further investigation provided proof of the existence of two further structural elements
of the ship. An excavation had to be carried out for the recovery of the two remaining
structural elements (August‐October 2004). Diving tasks prior to main excavation were
the tagging of all timbers and the preparation of a pre‐disturbance plan. The whole
process got even more difficult because of the strong tidal currents and the low
visibility. Airlifts were used for the removal of the sediment that was covering the
remained elements and a salvage vessel was responsible for the lifting operation.
Finally, two pieces, Piece 4 and Piece 3, were about to be lift. The first piece, which
represents the bow section of the wreck was unproblematic, however the second piece
broke into two pieces, Piece 3a and Piece 3b. All small finds from the site were
photographed and a data base was created, containing the necessary information for a
detailed recording. Disarticulated timbers were sketched or drawn at 1:10 scale, then
photographed and recorded on paper. The three recovered pieces ‐4, 3a, 3b‐ were
recorded with the assistance of a total station and the data was entered and processed
in CAD software packages, creating a data base of 3D‐didgital images (Auer & Firth
2007, pp.224, 225).
5
Wessex Archaeology Phase III Summary Report, < http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/files/princes‐channel‐
wreck‐phase‐iii‐report‐lo‐res.pdf> Last viewed 29th November 2010
60
Figure 25. Overview plan of the preserved hull elements of the Gresham ship (Auer and Firth
2007, p.227)
After dendrochronological analysis on Pieces 1 and 2 it was showed that the vessel was
constructed soon after 1574, and the wood was oak originated in East Anglia or Essex
(Auer & Firth 2007, p.224). The ship took its name from a rare English early cast‐iron
gun that was recovered from the site and was marked with the initials of Sir Thomas
Gresham (Auer & Firth 2007, p.1). It is obvious that the name Princess Channel wreck
was given after the location it was found in.
Interpretations of the joints between floor timbers and first futtocks suggest that the
vessel was carvel built and ‘frame‐first’ constructed similar to the Iberian‐Atlantic
method of ship construction (Auer & Firth 2007, p.224). It was subjected to a double
framing treatment during the initial construction process, a method not fully
understood, until the explanation of the term ‘furring’ was found (Auer & Firth 2007,
p.227). From archaeological evidence is derived that it was a small‐ to medium‐sized
armed merchantman ship, able to operate in the ocean, having a keel length of 15‐20m.
The lowest deck in the ship, the orlop deck, also served as a gun deck. It’s still unknown
what caused the sinking of the ship, as the historical sources do not provide the
researchers with strong evidence (Auer & Firth 2007, p.234). Seafaring was intense in
Princes Channel back then, like in the present days, offering a significant passageway
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from the south into the channels of the Thames, reaching Essex and London. The
remains of the Princes Channel wreck have been deposited in Horsea Lake, Portsmouth.
Construction of Gresham ship
Description of hull remains
The preserved parts of the Gresham Ship wreck consist of five coherent hull sections.
These are the bow section of the wreck and an approximately 14m‐long run of the port
side, from above the keel to a level above the orlop deck. The hull was made of oak and
the vessel was carvel‐built; method of constructing wooden ships by fixing planks to a
frame so that the planks butt up against each other, edge to edge, gaining support from
the frame and forming a smooth hull (Auer & Firth 2007, p.225).
Figure 26. Preserved and recovered structural elements on the ship and their relative location
on the vessel (WA, Phase III Summary Report, 2005, Figure 14. Edited by the author 2011).
The bow section, termed piece 4, consists of a fragment of a keel which is attached to the
stempost with the stemson and apron (inner stempost) partly preserved. It has a height
of 4.9m and length of 2.2m. Two V‐shaped square rising floor timbers are preserved on
the inside of the section and a single futtock survives on the port side. Expressions of
62
treenails and treenail holes indicate the existence of further frames and breast hooks.
The starboard side is well preserved, as it was protected by abundant sediment,
presenting seven strakes of the outer planking. The eroded strakes from the garboard
upwards indicate the heavy erosion of the port side (Auer & Firth 2007, p.225).
Pieces 3a and 3b form the foremost part of the port side, with the first being the lower
part and the second representing the remainder of the ship’s side from just above the
turn of the bilge. The first covers a surface of 8.2 x 2.23m and on this are preserved six
strakes of outer planking. The inside view of the piece includes six survived floor
timbers joined to eleven futtocks, as also two ceiling planks. The specific piece is joined
to the piece 3b where the futtocks are broken. The piece 3b has a length of 6.3m and a
width of 3m and on the outside part of it The piece 3b has a length of 6.3m and a width
of 3m and on the outside part of it, four survived strakes of planking compose a wale,
and above it a gunport is clearly visible. The inside view of both pieces includes filling
frames, maybe used to provide strength on the curve of the bilge. We can also notice a
stringer crossing the frames from the one side to the other, used to reinforce the
structure of the ship at the level of the orlop deck, the lowest deck of a ship, served also
as a gun deck (Auer & Firth 2007, p.225).
Pieces 1 and 2 form the aftmost preserved part of the ship’s port side. The two pieces
were originally joined, with piece 2 being at the top. The first piece measures
7.48 3.34 , having on its surface eight strakes of outer planking and the second
6.11 2.29 , composed of five strakes of outer planking. Two of those strakes form the
wale (Auer & Firth 2007, p.225).
Interpretation of construction
The most important and noticeable feature in the construction of the Gresham ship is
the doubling off all framings timbers from the turn of the bilge upwards, the so‐called
“furring”. The double frames rest on a plank, triangular in section, which fills the gap
between the heel of the outer framing timber and the surface of the first futtock, in that
context a smooth surface of putting outer planks on it is being created. Prior to the
discovery of the Princes Channel wreck little was known about this method and its
purpose was not fully understood. But in Seaman’s Dictionary (ca. 16201623) by Sir
Henry Mainwaring, this term is explained: (Auer & Firth 2007, p.227)
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“The other, which is more eminent and more properly furring, is to rip off the first planks
and to put other timbers upon the first, and so to put on the planks upon these timbers. The
occasion of it is to make a ship bear a better sail, for when a ship is too narrow and her
bearing either not laid out enough or too low, then they must make her broader and lay
her bearing higher. They commonly fur some two or three strakes under water and as
much above, according as the ship requires, more or less. I think in all the world there are
not so many ships furred as are in England, and it is pity that there is no order taken either
for the punishing of those who build such ships or the preventing of it, for it is an infinite
loss to the owners and an utter spoiling and disgrace to all ships that are so handled”.
What is obtained from that is that the specific practice was known among the English
shipbuilders, and not that common to other countries. The reason this practice was
applied was to make the ship wider to lay higher in the water and set a larger sail,
increasing its breadth. In that way the location of the centre of gravity is transferred
further down. It is interesting to note that this practice is not acceptable as it is a
disgrace to the ship and a loss to the owner according to Mainwaring. The Gresham ship
it is assumed to have been furred during the construction process, or shortly after. First,
the outer layer of planking was removed to put the second layer of framing timbers.
Above the waterline, on the level of the orlop deck (the lowest deck of a ship) where
there was a space between the original frames and the added timbers (furring timbers)
chocks were fitted. In order to increase the longitudinal strength of the ship the original
wale was left as it is between original frames and the furring timbers, serving as a
stringer. The possible gapping between frame and furring timbers was covered by
triangular shaped planks. The outcome of this treatise on the ship’s hull was extra
ca.300mm in width on each side (Auer & Firth 2007, pp.227, 228).
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Figure 27. The principle of furring. Notice the furring timber on the first futtock (Auer and Firth
2007, pg 228. Edited by the author 2011).
As mentioned before, based on interpretations of the joints between floor timbers and
first futtocks it is claimed that the vessel was carvel built and “frame‐first” constructed
similar to the Mediterranean or Iberian method of ship construction. Initially, the keel,
the posts and the elements of the framing are set up and fastened before any flushed‐
laid planking is erected. The English ships of the Elizabethan period were all carvel‐built,
also referred to as skeleton construction6.
The remains of Gresham ship lacked a keel so the understanding of its construction
sequence is sort of incomplete. We are only familiar with the furring process, the form of
the lower hull and how the bow was assembled. First, the keel was assembled. It was
joined with a vertical scarf joined to the stempost, but there is no evidence for the joint
in the sternpost. The scarf joint was secured by means of treenails (four of them were
vertical protruding in the moulded side of the keel element) and iron bolts. Then the
keel and the stem rabbet were carved out, tool marks and cut treenails indicate that
rabbet angle was modified after the furring process so the hull form corresponds to the
6
From Elizabethan Merchant Ships and Shipbuilding by Dr. Ian Friel,
http://www.gresham.ac.uk/printtranscript.asp?EventId=897, Last viewed 29th November
65
change caused by the furring process. Only a small part of the keel survived, 1.82 meters
long. One end is fastened to the stem post with a flat vertical scarf joint; the other end is
broken off. Other than that the keel was heavily eroded. The keel still has a noticeable
U‐shape. The original dimensions of the moulded and sided parts appear to be c. 250–
300mm, with the rabbet in the upper 9cm. The rabbet is generally between 6‐6,5cm
deep. The surviving part of the stemson is around 3.05 meters long and is fastened on
the inside of the stem post. On an average the sided dimension on the inside is 550mm,
while the moulded is around 250mm (The outside sided is not been measured since the
wreck was not taken apart). Filling pieces was used to smooth the gap between the stem
post and the stemson. All the components of the bow are made of oak (Auer & Firth
2007, pp.228, 229).
Once the keel was assembled, then the pre‐erected (or pre‐assembled or pre‐designed)
frames were placed and bolted on the keel structure (Adams 2003). According to
Hasslöf the measurements of the main frame (midship frame) were taken from a vessel
with a good reputation or it was “modelled off”. It was put on the keel and the rest of the
frames were mounted approximately to shape (Hasslöf 1972). Similar to this, is Barker’s
opinion, suggesting that a frame shape could be used repeatedly as a mould for the
construction of other ships. Any shipyard constructing ships in a frame‐first way should
have a range of moulds or templates to use as assistance for the building of other ships.
Ribbands might have been running across the keel, from stem to stern, to adjust and
control the shape of the frames so the resulted hull is smooth (Barker 1987). The
ribbands are flexible strips of wood, temporarily fixed on the framing to ensure fairness
of the hull and to assist with the laying of the planking (Steffy 1994). The shipwright had
pre‐defined the places (the height) that the ribbands should meet the posts. Then the
rest of the frames were cut from these templates and mounted on the keel. When the
process was completed and the structure secured the planking of the hull was carried
out (Castro 2003).
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Figure 28. Mathew Baker’s drawing, from his Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry,
demostrating the frame‐first way of ship construction. The keel, stem‐ and sternpost were first
assembled and then the frame fragments were inserted (Duivenvoorde2008, p.37).
There is evidence of an orlop deck in piece 3b, below the level of the gun port. A carling,
a fore‐aft longitudinal beam, provides additional strength to the deck floor. The
mortises, the waterway above the carling and other elements show the construction of
the deck. It is suggested that the deck was reinforced with lodging knees, instead of
hanging knee. Above the orlop deck two gun ports are situated, indicating that the
Gresham ship was an armed merchant vessel (Auer & Firth 2007, pp.231, 232).
Cargo and other artefacts
The evidence shows that the cargo consisted of iron bars and ingots of lead and tin.
Probably, other cargo was onboard the ship, but there is no traces indicating specific
type of cargo. In total, four guns were recovered from the wreck. One of them was a cast‐
iron gun, was well‐preserved. After its documentation it was found that the initials “TG”
of a grasshopper and Elizabethan merchant, named Sir Thomas Gresham, were marked
on it. It is a significant find, because it is a rare example of an English saker, medium
canon developed in the beginning of 16th century and used in England. An anchor, a
fragment of a Spanish jar and other smaller artefacts were found on the wreck (Auer &
Firth 2007, pp.232, 233).
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68
Methodology I
Introduction
The main part of this thesis is the 3D modelling and analysis of his two case studies. To
follow is the process leading to the 3D reconstructed hull form of the two vessels and
the conclusions that are being extracted. The author used existing linesplan drawings
for both the Scheurrak SO1 and the Gresham ship, and based on them, he extracted their
hull form. The linesplan of the Gresham ship was created by Christian Thomsen, student
of the Maritime Archaeology Programme in the University of Southern Denmark, as part
of his Master Dissertation. The linesplan of the Scheurrak SO1 was created by Simon Dil
of Haarlem University. Two different software packages were used in this thesis;
DELFTship, a 3D hull form modelling program, and Rhinoceros a software with several
engineering applications. The Methodology part is divided in two main chapters I, II; for
the modelling in DELFTship and Rhinoceros respectively.
Modelling in Maritime Archaeology
In general there are three basic types of ship reconstructions: graphic, three‐
dimensional, and physical. The graphical reconstruction is a two‐dimensional
representation of a ship and it includes archival information, computer aid applications,
drawings and mathematical analysis accompanied by a report. The physical
reconstruction is more specialised way of building the past, as it requires well‐
preserved archaeological evidence (the wreck), it is time consuming and expensive. This
is a complex process and archival, graphic, and three‐dimensional researches are also
part of it. The three‐dimensional reconstruction, when used for less preserved wrecks
increase the research potential in the 3D environment through the added dimension.
They are similar to that of graphical reconstruction, but still more advanced because
they can recognize details and solve problems , as well as provide with more
sophisticated analysis (hydrostatics, sailing performance, etc) (Steffy 1994, pp.214‐215).
The application of computerized 3D modelling techniques is an efficient tool in
Archaeology, with which the archaeologist is able to assemble the hidden pieces of the
past and reveals valid information and conclusions. In our case, through the symmetry
analysis of the hull we can explain and identify technological processes and building
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aspects of the ships. The construction features of a wreck sometimes are not directly
observable and so are the basic sailing characteristics of it. Relying on the discipline of
Maritime Archaeology we are able to examine the archaeological evidence and build on
it. With the Computer‐Aided Design softwares (CAD) it is possible to reconstruct the
past and envision how it was.
It is common truth that the underwater environment has a heavy impact on the ship
while it lies on the sea floor, of course depending on the location and surrounding
conditions of the wreck site. It is ideal and a great wish of the maritime archaeologist to
locate a wreck standing intact on the seabed. The subject of study, underwater and
coastal settlements, or shipwrecks, is generally in partial remains. The whole process of
interpreting the archaeological evidence is challenging, reminding of a puzzle. The 3D
computer technologies, always based on the human interpretation of archaeology,
collect the different parts of the evidence and after they have formed form a unified
body of it, finally they shape it to a general conclusion. In that capacity we are able to
explain the observed data, which is complicated, and construct an efficient mesh of
archaeological knowledge. 3D computer technologies are set and well‐established in the
field of Maritime Archaeology. With their aid the study, the preservation and the
presentation of archaeological heritage to scientists and public becomes more feasible
than ever before.
The wreck of Scheurrak SO1 is lying on the sea bottom with its starboard side touching
an old sand bank. From the survey that was conducted on the site there are indications
showing that the disaster was not caused by fire or any other kind of violence. However,
there are signs of axe marks on the port site, a proof that salvage attempts were made to
rescue the sunken cargo and goods (Manders 2001, p.25). The favourable underwater
conditions, lacking in high levels of oxygen, contributed to good preservation output;
most of the lower starboard hull up to the bilge is well‐preserved, as well as the bottom
planking and the parts of bow and stern. The starboard side is separated from the lower
hull, but is preserved from the lower hull up to the bulwarks (Maarleveld 1990, pp.573‐
577). So, even though the wreck is well‐preserved, it is not intact on the seabed.
The second case, this of the Gresham ship, is more complicated and foggy. The ship’s
structural elements were scattered on the seafloor. The ship is located on the key route
into the main channels of the Thames from the south. Throughout the centuries and
prior to its location and later excavation, the human impact (traffic, dredging activities,
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etc) on the vessel’s body is estimated to have been large. Altogether, five coherent
sections of the hull structure of the Gresham ship are preserved. They consist of the bow
section and a long part of the port side, around 14m, from above the keel to a level above
the orlop deck (Auer & Firth 2007, pp. 224‐225).
It would be important and interesting, and also fascinating, to model both the vessels
based on the archaeological evidence. In a 3D environment all the different coherent hull
segments will be articulated and see how their hull form looked like. The product will be
a unified solid 3D model for each case for which the basic hydrostatics will be calculated
in order to predict their sailing performance. As mentioned before, this will be done
with two different softwares, DELFTship and Rhinoceros.
DELFTship
DELFTship was laid at the Delft University of Technology and it specializes in marine
CAD software applications. There are two versions of DELFTship and for the specific
project the DELFTship free version was used. DELFTship free is a fully functional 3D hull
form modelling program perfectly suited for anyone having an interest in ship design. It
is completely free of charge, as the name implies, and it can be downloaded from
DELFTship’s official site. It does not use conventional NURBS surfaces to represent the
3D geometry, but subdivision surfaces, which makes the modelling process rapid and
flexible even for shapes of high complexity. It is limited to hulls that are symmetrical
with respect to the centerplane. After the 3D‐hull is created the program can provide
with the traditional 2D linesplan drawings of the ship, which somebody can view and
print. An important tool is the hydrostatic and resistance calculations made for the 3d
model. The model when completed can be exported in various formats (.stl, .dxf, .obj,
.ghs, etc) (DELFTship Official Site, http://www.delftship.net/?height=415&width=1440).
Rhinoceros
Rhinoceros (Rhino) is probably better known than DELFTship because of its broad use
in engineering applications. The last years it is an important computer aid in Maritime
Archaeology. It is NURBS‐based 3D modelling tool, developed by Robert McNeel &
Associates. The software is not only used for marine design purposes, but also has
industrial engineering, architectural and reverse engineering applications. It can be even
used in multimedia and graphic design industries. Rhino can create, edit, analyze,
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document, render, animate, and translate NURBS1 curves, surfaces, and solids with no
limits on complexity, degree, or size. Special features for marine design applications
include fairing, developable surfaces, and curvature analysis. For the hydrostatic
analysis and calculations a plug‐in called Orca 3D operates within the Rhino 3D
environment. Both Rhinoceros and Orca 3D are not free applications. For the specific
project Rhinoceros was provided by the University of Southern Denmark and its marine
design plug‐in, Orca 3D, was kindly donated by Bruce Hays from DRS Defense Solutions,
LLC, developer company of Orca 3D, after author’s request (Rhinoceros Official Site,
http://www.rhino3d.com/).
Modelling the Scheurrak SO1 in DELFTship
The information needed to reconstruct the hull of Scheurrak SO1 were located in the set
of the lines made by Simon Dil, and of course this was aided and supported by the
scientific reports used in previous chapter, where there is a description of the specific
wreck. To follow is the modelling process step‐by‐step with the respective illustrations
of each step. The main source for learning the specific software is the manual provided
by DELFTship online, and practice. Definitions and terminology are specialized and
according to the DELFTship user’s manual. All the different modelling steps are followed
by the respective screenshot for an advanced understanding of the process. The original
linesplan drawings were scanned and then converted to bitmap images (.bmp).
Figure 29 . The profile and bodyplan views of the Scheurrak SO1 on the linesplan.
1 NURBS (Non‐Uniform Rational B‐Spline ) are mathematical representations of 3D geometry that
can accurately describe any shape from a simple 2D line, circle, arc, or curve to the most complex
3D organic free‐form surface or solid. They are flexible and accurate so they can be used in any
process from illustration and animation to manufacturing (Rhinoceros Official Site)
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Figure 30. The plan (top) view of the Scheurrak SO1.
From the main menu we select “File > Preference” and we choose the preferences we
wish before starting making the model.
Create a new model
We start by opening a new file (File > New) from the main menu. What it appears is the
place where we are going to enter the starting details, as shown:
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First we have to choose the units system (metres or feet) that we are going to use during
our reconstruction process. We set it as “metres” and then we enter the numerical
values of the length, beam and draft in the respective places. From the linesplan we
know that the length overall is 31.0 metres, the beam is 8.0 metres and the draft 3.0
metres. The number of the points in the longitudinal and vertical direction depends on
the user. The number of the points in the longitudinal and vertical direction that we are
going to enter depends on the size of the ship. In general, we are trying to avoid big
number of points as this makes the process more difficult. Eight points were chosen to
define the longitudinal direction and five points to specify the vertical direction. When
we fill all the numbers we press “OK”. DELFTship has three different views from our
model on the screen:
Plan (top) view
Profile (side) view
Bodyplan (front) view
Perspective view
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Project settings
In the project settings window the user can modify various project settings. There are
several tab pages each responsible for a different kind of setting. In the free version of
DELFTship used the specific project there are three tab pages: a) General, b) Main
dimensions, and c) Hydrostatics.
The first tab is used for general information about the project as it is shown in the figure
below. We choose the units system we want to work with, in our case we will use the
metric system, and then tick the option “Shade underwater”. A table with different
colours appears. From there according to our preferences we choose a colour to
illustrate the submerged part of the ship.
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The second one includes basic dimensions as shown in the illustration below:
The project length is generally the length between the perpendiculars for large ships or
the waterline length for smaller, pleasure vessels. In our case the ship is a large one so
we will enter the length overall. The aft perpendicular is assumed to be located at the
point x= 0.0, and the forward perpendicular is located at the point where the x–
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coordinate equals to the project length. The midship location for large ships is located at
half the project length, so we accept the default option “0.5 x L”.
The third tab page is about modifying the hydrostatic setting of the ship to be designed:
We enter the relative density value of the surrounding fluid. For the seawater this is
1.0250. The “Shell thickness” is 0.000, unless we want to conduct weight calculations. In
our case we do not, so we leave the default option. The “Appendage coefficient” is also
set to the default value which is generally correct for any vessel. There is also a drop
down box which is used to specify the way with which the block coefficients, such as the
prismatic and block coefficients will be calculated. For large ships it is standard to use
the dimensions defined by the project. Each time hydrostatic properties need to be
calculated, the program checks if the direction of the normals (vectors) of faces is
consistent. This, simply, means that the perpendiculars on the hull surface have to face
towards the water. In a different case the results are problematic, e.g., negative values of
volume. So, the option “Disable surface check” is not selected. Somebody can disable the
surface check, but before the hydrostatics calculations the direction of the mormals of
the faces has to be adjusted manually. And, then, we select all the hydrostatic properties
that we want to have displayed in the model.
By using the scanned image of the existing linesplan it is shown how a ship model can be
created in 3D DELFTship. The ship is a 16th century merchantman, the Scheurrak SO1,
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which was not found intact, but based on the plans and scientific reports we will try to
approximate its original hull shape.
When we finish with the project settings, we save the file by selecting “File > Save as”
and then we start creating the new model.
Inserting and moving a background image
We can assign a different background image to each one of these views apart from the
perspective view. We, then, select the window showing the profile view and we press
the right mouse button somewhere in the window area. We select “Background image >
Load” and a file browser appears. We select and upload the file we want to use. This file
will be the scanned profile view of the plan, which must be either bitmap or jpeg file.
The background image as seen below is in the wrong size and wrong place. This easily
fixed. I click on the right mouse button, and select “Background Image > Origin”. The
cursor now changes to a cross with an O indication on it. Then, I click my mouse over the
background image and press the left mouse button. While keeping it pressed, we notice
that if we move the mouse around the image is also moving. We drag it over so that the
transom lines up with the transom on the DELFTship model, and the LWL shown on the
linesplan lines up with the arbitrarily chosen load waterline on the DELFTship model.
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Scaling the background image
The background image is still the wrong size, but is in the right place. We still have to
scale it to the correct dimensions. We click on the right mouse button again and we
select “Background image > Set scale”. The cursor changes to a ruler to indicate you are
about to change the scale of the image. We click on a point of the background image of
which its coordinates are known to us. The further this point is from the origin the
better.
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We picked a point on the background image which is located on the fore perpendicular
of the ship; we know that the length overall is 31m. A window shows up and asks for the
coordinates of the selected point. We set the x – coordinate to 31.0 and we ignore the z –
coordinate, as DELFTship will take care of it automatically. The background image is
now 31m long, and lined up, fore and aft, with the DELFTship model on the screen.
It is important to note that all new background images will automatically have the same
scale applied as this one.
Setting the transparency of the background image
Sometimes the drawings (the background image) have large white areas, actually this is
often the case with a linesplan. This can be problematic if the white areas are very
dominant. To fix that we select “Background image > Transparent color” and we click on
the spot of the background image where we want it ‘cleaned’ from the white area. If the
visual clutter is still hard for the eyes we select “Background image > Blending” and we
move the slide bar that appears until we satisfied.
Adjusting the transparency tolerance of the background image
The background images are jpeg files and often the white areas on them contain many
shades of white which can confuse the eyes. So, we select “Background image >
Tolerance” and we put the appropriate value that satisfies us. It might be needed to
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experiment a bit with the value, until we are satisfied. From the DELFTship tutorials it is
recommended that a tolerance of 35 works fine for most jpeg images.
Alignment with the background image
We move to the profile view and we start dragging the DELFTship model into alignment
with the background image. We grab points on the control mesh and we pull them into
new positions. Our objective is the profile of the ship to be approximately the same as
the profile in the background image. A helpful tip that worked in the specific case is to
have the buttocks of the DELFTship model aligned, as much as possible, with the
buttocks that are indicated on the linesplan drawing.
How to move the points
It is usually better to start with the stern and move forward. By doing so, there is a
standard sequence in the process that helps you to correct and adjust possible mistakes.
In the beginning it is sure that mistakes will occur, but gradually a good level of
familiarization with the process will be succeeded. There are two ways of moving the
control points of the mesh; a. selecting a point by left click and drag it to where you
want, b. selecting a point and moving it with your cursor keys.
In the beginning, when aligning the DELFTship model with the background image it is
not necessary to be extremely precise, it is important, though, to rough in the shape.
During the reconstruction process it is needed to be flexible and work with all the
planes. For example, when the shape of the profile has a rough shape that is acceptable
by the designer it is essential to move to the body plan view (or the plan view) and
examine your shape, and if necessary correct possible imperfections. As soon as a
correction is made check all the planes for the shape of the hull form.
There is no rule regarding which is the best plane view which somebody should start
designing with. In the specific project for the 3D reconstruction of the Sheurrak SO1 in
DELFTship the author started with the profile view. It is recommended to start with the
plane view that provides with the most details. Not all the linesplans drawing are
accurate enough. There is often the case of drawings where the profile view is better
illustrated than the bodyplan or the plan view and vice versa. Especially, the older a
wreck is the worse the linesplan drawing illustration can be. The author located some
imperfections with the plan view of the linesplan drawing of the Scheurrak SO1 which
were probably caused during the scanned image that was available. The keel is not made
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straight, so it is difficult for the specific software to align the DELFTship model with the
background image. Probably, with other softwares this can be solved. That was the
reason the profile view was the first plane to start working with. Of course, throughout
the reconstruction we always checked the plan view.
After we succeeded in giving a hull form based on the profile view we moved to the
bodyplan window to see how things how things look from back and front. It is more
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likely that things will not look in place. The background image is placed on the
centreline, and dragged down so that the lowest point of the keel in the background
image lines up with the low point of the keel on our model (right click, Background
image > Origin). I also tried to align the design waterline of the background image with
the default one of the model. After that I had to find a way and set the scale. I moved to
the profile view, which already has an acceptable form, and I clicked on the uppermost
point on the bow. Automatically a box with coordinates appears and I noted down the z‐
coordinate. The cursor changes to a ruler to indicate you are about to change the scale of
the image. I click on the point of the background image of which its coordinates are
known to us (the one I took previously on the bow in the profile view). I change the z‐
coordinate to the known one. The image is automatically scaled to the correct size.
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Continue dragging points until the DELFTship model is aligned with the background
image in the bodyplan view. This takes time. Always the modeller has to be flexible and
take into consideration the other plane views and, make corrections, if necessary.
We move to the plan view and after we move and scale the image we refine and fair the
hull shape.
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To model the ship according on the plan (top) view was quite problematic because of
the problem with the not straight keel that mentioned before. The most important when
situations like these occur is to “turn on” the waterlines from the main menu so the
modeller has a good sense of how the default hull behaves in real‐time. This is the
method the author applied to counteract as much as possible the specific problem.
Sharp edges
The hull form of the Scheurrak SO1 does not have only straight lines. This is challenging
to construct on the software. There are many edges and corners, even curved shapes on
the hull. The automated "flow" generator the program has smoothes the hull and rounds
them off, instead of making the corners square. It was essential to find out how to turn it
off around these areas. There is no “turn on and turn off” option in DELFTship for the
specific situation, so in the beginning this was problematic. After experimenting with
different features and elements of the software the solution finally came. The edge that I
wanted to make sharp with corner points was selected and then creased, “Edit > Edge >
Crease”. Also, and for individual control points that were at the end of an edge, on the
bottom of the control point coordinate box x, y, z, the corner option was selected. This
resulted in sharp knuckle lines on the ship’s hull.
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Transom
To create the transom was another challenging step during the reconstruction of the
hull. After the bodyplan view was also aligned with the background image as much as
possible, then the four points, as well as the edges on the transom were selected. We
need to close the transom back to the centreline.
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After that the command “Edit > Crease > Extrude curve”. A box with the coordinates
appears. We change the y‐coordinate to 4. 00, which is half the maximum designed
beam. Automatically, the transom takes its actual shape by closing to the centreline.
Usually, the transom had a width of half the beam that is the reason it was chosen as y –
coordinate the 4. 00.
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Leak points
A leak point is a point not located on the centreline and connected to an edge with only
one face attached. The dragging of the points is a demanding process and it takes
patience and accuracy to make it successful. However, leak points may exist. They have
to be repaired because they keep the program from calculating hydrostatics as soon as
they become submerged. It is difficult to locate them so the software has a function that
once selected it only shows the leak points on the control net. We click on the respective
icon that enables this activity and then the leak points are the only ones appearing on
the screen. To repair them we click on these points and then we set the y – coordinate to
0.0.
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After this repair, we can undertake the hydrostatics calculations for the ship because the
submerged points are now fixed. The grey part symbolizes the submerged part of the
vessel; it is a straight line to the height of the design waterline. The hull form shaped as
showed in the following pictures:
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Modelling the Gresham ship in DELFTship
The reconstruction of the Gresham ship was boatbuilding project on scale in which the
author took part. It was a special subject in the Maritime Archaeology program at the
University of Southern Denmark in Esbjerg. The aim was to learn more about the
Princess Channel wreck and study its construction sequence through building two
different sized models; a 1:20 and 1:10 model. Valuable conclusions regarding the 15th‐
16th shipbuilding traditions in Atlantic Europe were derived. A 1: 10 model from wood
and cardboard was also built by Christian Thomsen as part of his Masters Dissertation.
He reconstructed the ship to the height of the gun ports. In both the cases the main
archaeological source was the data from the wreck’s survey and excavation.
The dimensions of the Gresham Ship were derived from the results of the above
projects. In this thesis, the results from Thomsen’s model will be used (Thomsen 2010,
p. 99). It is important to say that the dimensions are estimated values and it is debatable
if they are a metre longer or shorter. In the present research, the basic dimensions that
were inserted before starting reconstructing the ship are: Length: 24. 5m, Beam: 7. 0m,
and Draft: 3. 24m.
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Figure 31. The linesplan drawing from the Princes Channel wreck (Thomsen 2010).
The process for reconstructing the ship in DELFTship is the same with the one described
above for the 3D reconstruction of the Scheurrak SO1. We start by opening a new file
(File > New) from the main menu. What it appears is the place where we are going to
enter the starting details. We set it as “meters” and then we enter the numerical values
of the length, beam and draft in the respective places. Six control points were put to
specify the grid in the longitudinal direction and five in the vertical.
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In the project settings window we are doing exactly the same modifications with those
from Scheurrak SO1. After that we insert the background images for each one of the
different views (Profile, Plan and Bodyplan). We move and scale the image according to
our requirements following the process we described above.
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We move to the profile view and we start dragging the DELFTship model into alignment
with the background image. We grab points on the control mesh and we pull them into
new positions. Our objective, again, is the profile of the ship to be approximately the
same as the profile in the background image. The author found helpful to align the
buttocks of the DELFTship model, as much as possible, with the buttocks that are
indicated on the linesplan drawing.
We work again from the stern to the bow and as soon as a rough hull shape has been
given in the profile view we move on to the other views, and if necessary we make
corrections. Always be flexible and change over between the views to control at all times
the hull form which is under process.
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The 3D reconstruction of the Princes Channel wreck was easier since its hull form was
less complicated comparing to the sharp edges and not straight lines of the Scheurrak
SO1. The transom was created based on the technique that shown before from the
author by extruding a curve back to the centerline adjusting the y – coordinate to half
the beam of the ship (y= 3.5).
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Before conducting the hydrostatic calculations it is essential to check for leak points and
if are found then they should be repaired by adjusting the y – coordinate to y= 0.0.
When all the corrections are view the hull form of the ship, which has taken the
following form:
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Hydrostatic Analysis – DELFTship
After the shape of the hull for both the ships is given (the grey part is created to the
height of the design waterline) and all the necessary corrections and adjustments are
made, then it is interesting to see the design hydrostatic report made for each one of the
ships. To do that, we select “View > Design Hydrostatics” (See Appendix II for the
hydrostatic analysis reports and linesplans). It seemed a short process and quite
flexible, but there were many issues (e.g., the creation of the sharp edges and corner
points, the image with the no straight keel) which made it time consuming and
demanding. DELFTship will be evaluated in a later chapter.
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Methodology II
Introduction
The intention of the author was to model the two ships in two different marine software packages. In
that capacity the basic hydrostatic calculations will be conducted in two different ways, which gives a
scientific approach to his research topic, and a more safe and valid way to derive any conclusions
related to the ships design and performance, as well as the two marine applications as such. For the
learning purposes of the software for the present research the manual of Rhinoceros was used
(Rhinoceros Official Site), and, of course, practice. The procedure is the same regarding the
presentation of the modelling process; each modelling action is illustrated on the respective
screenshot.
Modelling the Scheurrak SO1 in Rhinoceros
To follow is the design process to model the specific ship, as it was shown before for both the ships
when they were modelled in DELFTship. When we open Rhinoceros to create a new model a table
appears, the so‐called ”Start up Template”, where we need to select the model size and units used in
the specific modelling process, a function similar to the one from DELFTship as we saw. For the
present project we pick “Large Objects – Meters” by clicking on it and then the four different views of
Rhinoceros are on the screen. The “Front view”, the “Top view” and the “Right view” have the same
function as in DELFTship but different names. The respective views in DELFTship were “Profile view”,
“Plan view” and “Bodyplan view”. It is because Rhinoceros is not strictly marine engineering software
but also it is used in industrial engineering.
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The same designing steps will be followed here too. We will use the linesplan drawings to create the
model of the ships. We will bring an image to sketch over. We click on the “Front view” and this time
we will bring the original image of the drawings by going to “View > Background Bitmap > Place”. We
locate the file we want to use and we press “Open”. The background image that we are placing can
have one of the following formats, .bmp, .tga, .jpg, .jpeg, .pcx, .png, .tif, .tiff, which makes the software
helpful and flexible. In our case we used .tiff files.
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At the bottom of the screen the “Osnap End” was turned on. Working in the “Front window”, click once
in the upper left corner of the rectangle, and then click again in the bottom right of the rectangle. This
will align the imported image with the spline guide, so that the boat to be built will be at the same scale
and position as the sample files that are used. The image that is imported contains the profile (sheer
plan) and the bodyplan drawings of the ship. On the “Top view” the same steps are followed to place
the plan view of the drawing.
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Once the image is imported on the “Command bar” we write “Grid” and press “Enter”. The grid lines
can be confusing when modelling as they meet with the lines from the background drawing image. By
clicking on the “ShowGrid=Yes” the grid lines disappear from the screen. Of course, this is a choice
depending on the individual designer and not a strict rule.
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The image is recommended to be moved to the O (0, 0, 0) point to establish a reference point. This is
really helpful when a file from Rhinoceros is imported to another CAD software. In that concept, the
geometry of the model falls into the right place when imported to different software without making
new adjustments. From “View > Background Bitmap > Move” the picture is moved to the start point of
the three axes x, y, z.
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Once the “Move” command is confirmed on the “Command” bar the program asks for “A point to move
from”. This point is where the sternpost meets the keel assemblage (personal decision and not a fixed
rule). Right‐click on the point and automatically on the “Command” bar the coordinates of the
destination point need to be inserted; these are (0, 0, 0). And, the image is moved to its reference point.
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Now the background image is located on its reference point and the tracing process can start. Before
the tracing process starts it is recommended to create a layer, which the author calls “Outline”,
representing the traced outline of the ship. By using different layers for each of the several elements of
the ship (outline, sections, stations, buttocks, waterlines, etc) the designing process becomes easier
and more effective when it comes to corrections anytime it is required. By clicking on the layer button
on the central toolbar the layer manager appears on the right side of the screen.
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Layers are a way of organizing objects so you can manipulate them all at once or keep track of
them in some way. When objects are on a layer, you can turn them all off at once, change their
wireframe display colour, and select them all with one selection. The layer dialog box gives you
tools for managing the layers in your model very easily. We name the first layer “Outline” and the
black colour is picked. All the managing actions of the layers depends on the individual and his/her
preferences. After that, we pick from the toolbar on the left the “Polyline” to start tracing the
background image. For the straight lines on the hull the “Polyline” is used and for the curved parts
of the ship the “Control Point Curve”. The author used “Osnap End on” for the tracing as this
command is useful when changing from “Polyline” tool to “Control Point Curve”. When this is
checked, the cursor snaps to the end of all objects, lines, edges, surfaces. In that way there are no
straight lines which are not connected with the curves we are drawing.
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The tracing process is very simple, actually is digitized inking of the background image. The cursor
follows the lines of the drawing and by right‐clicking or pressing “Enter” the action is accepted. The
objective is to follow the outline of the ships as accurate as possible. Saving the work throughout the
modelling process is essential so valuable data is not lost. By left‐clicking new points are created on
the screen. We right‐click or press “Enter” to save the line drawn so far, and this is always the process
(right‐click or “Enter” to save the actions on the design) from now one. To delete something that it is
not accepted there are several ways, either select the object to be deleted and then press the “Scissor”
tab from the toolbar, or press “Delete” on the keyboard, or select the object and then in the
“Command” bar write “Delete”. We start tracing from the upper left part of transom crossing through
the hull body until we reach the bow area, excluding the stempost.
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When the sharp edge of the hull with curve is reached the “Control Point Curve” is selected, and we
proceed to the curved part by connecting the new curve to the recently made line. To do that take the
cursor close to the straight line until the sign “End” appears. Start drawing from that point and it is
sure that the straight line and the curve will be connected. Since, it is a curved area more points should
be created to approximate the shape of the hull.
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When the curved part is over we switch to “Polyline” again and, this is the core idea, the use of
“Polyline” and “Control Point Curve” depending on the requirements, to trace the outline of the hull.
The image is traced all the way down to the stern‐ and stempost of the keel, excluding the keel.
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To connect the two bottom points on each side of the keel “Ortho” is turned on to ensure that the
vertical alignment to the z‐axis. This tool is very useful as it restricts the movement of the cursor to
multiples of a specified angle from the last point created, or between two points. When the tracing is
finished it is recommended to connect objects (polylines and curves on the outline) together to form a
single object, by writing on the “Command” bar “Join”. Select the objects to be joined by left‐clinking on
them (they turn yellow), and press “Enter”. The outline has been created and it is a single object. With
the same command we are able to transform lines into polylines, curves into polycurves, surfaces and
polysurfaces into polysurfaces or solids. A single object is easier to be treated (move, scale, align, hide,
rotate, group, etc) than many different objects.
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Buttocks and stations
Next step is to design the stations and the buttocks. Starting with the buttocks first a layer has to be
created for buttocks. After that, we start the tracing of them using “control Point Curve” tool. The
“Osnap End” is turned off now. Always, be flexible with the snap settings depending on the
requirements of the following step each time.
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We move to the stations by creating first a layer for them, and by using “Polyline” tool we trace them.
The “Ortho” is turned on to assure that the station lines are totally vertical on the x‐axis. Twenty
stations have to be traced, so when the first is created then on the “Command” bar the command
“Copy” has to be put. After pressing “Enter” the object to be copy pasted has to be selected by clicking
on it; the station turns yellow and then to confirm the command – as with every command – we select
“Enter”. By having “Ortho” the station is moved to the required positions based on the plan.
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Point to copy to is the place where the next station is located. The process is repeated until all the
stations are made.
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Sections
The idea was to import the background bitmap image in the “Right” view and then create the lines of
the sections following the linesplan; selecting the “Control Point Curve” tool and tracing them very
carefully. It is a demanding process because it is obvius from the plans that the staions are really close
to each other, especially their endings on the keel. Notice the sections 6 ‐ 10 from the aft area and the
stations 11 – 16 at the fore area.
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This was done successfully and then the sections had to be aligned along the x‐axis with the stations by
moving them to the required location. Unfortunately, the y‐alignment was lost for some of the sections.
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This is not acceptable for the modelling process as it can cause complications or unreliable results,
which can be more difficult to be solved in a later stage. Another, more safe and effective way had to be
found to counteract this problem. The 3D modelling of a ship presents a time consuming and
demanding process. To find the optimum way to proceed to the next stage requires experimentation
and practice. The safest way to move the sections from the drawings to their position is to move them
as little as possible. A completely vertical line was drawn on the body plan at the “Front” view. This
line marks the centreline of the stations. It is necessary, when drawing the sections, that every single
half – section ends on this vertical line even though that means that drawing ‘through’ the keel (using
“Osnap Near” on). When a section is complete, it simply has to be rotated 90 or 270 degrees around
the newly created centreline on the “Top” view (using “Ortho” on), and finally drag it to its station on
the “Front” view (using “Ortho”, again). The “Ortho” is turned on to maintain vertical alignment and
distance from the keel. These steps are illustrated below one by one.
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First a new layer for the sections is added and we create a completely vertical line on the bodyplan at
the “Front” view. Selecting a “Polyline” and turning “Ortho” on will make this possible.
It is recommended to draw a single half – section, rotate it around the centreline and then drag it to its
station, and repeat this sequence for each one of the sections on the drawing. If all the half – stations
are created first, then the process of rotating and dragging them to the required location becomes
more problematic. The “Control Point Curve” is the tool to be used for making all the sections. “Osnap
Near” is turned on to achieve a snap near to where the cursor touches a polyline/curve, in this case the
centreline. For some stations, number one and two, the “Polyline” tool has to be used because straight
lines are included in their design. An important for those two stations after their creation is that they
have to be a single object before they are rotated and dragged. This can be done with the use of the
“Join” command we saw before, when creating the outline of the ship. Also, it is essential to have
“Osnap End” on when making those two sections so the different objects (lines and curves) are
connected to each other.
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Once the half – section is made then it has to be rotated around the centreline (red vertical line). The
“Top” view is the ideal view to work now; it is easier to sense the rotation around the centreline. On
the “Command” bar the command “Rotate” has to be put and then follow the instructions by
Rhinoceros, as with every command. Once we select the object (half – section) we press “Enter”. We
select centre of rotation and then we want the section to be rotated 270 degrees (or ‐90 degrees)
around the centreline (“Ortho on”). So the second reference point has to be put 270, or ‐90. And, the
rotation occurred. Then the final step is to drag the section to its station. To drag the section to its
station it is simply done by click on the section to be dragged and move the cursor towards the correct
position (“Ortho” on). The rotation angle for the aft half – sections is 90 degrees. The following
pictures illustrate those three steps, creating the section, rotating and dragging it to its station. We
repeat that so many times as the number of the section is.
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This process is repeated for all the sections, and it easily observed from the following screenshot that
the hull started taking a 3D form.
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Then, it is time to conduct the 3D alignment of the buttocks. This is done by importing the plan view of
the linesplan drawing. The background bitmap is placed in the specific viewport as it was shown in the
beginning. The analysis of the background image is not so good, but this is often the case regarding the
quality of linesplan drawings.
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It is essential to scale the background image so it fits with the already designed structural elements of
the ship. By selecting “View > Background Bitmap > Scale” it is relatively easy to succeed that. A line,
which its length equals to the distance between the station zero and station twenty, is drawn. For this
purpose the “Polyline” tool is used. This line is drawn on the “Front” view, where already the buttocks,
stations and sections are already made.
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On the “Top” view, now, the line is dragged onto the image just by selecting the line and moving the
cursor on the image. The line is placed on the image so its end is attached on the further left station on
the plan (labelled station zero).
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Then the image is scaled from “View > Background Bitmap > Scale”. The origin point is where the
station zero is positioned; it is confirmed by clicking on the line. The first reference point (the
programme asks for a scale factor or the first reference point) is the station twenty, and finally the
second reference point is the other end of the line. This action is recommended to be done with having
“Osnap End” on and “Ortho” on for more accurate positions of the cursor.
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As soon as the image has the right scale then it has to be moved on the reference area where the
already model is located. This is done my “View > Background Bitmap > Move”. The point to be moved
can be picked anywhere on the image. The point at the bow station is picked and will be moved to its
respective position.
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And here is the specific drawing scaled and aligned properly related to the model. Notice the perfect fit
between the image and the elements of the model (e.g., the stations).
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From the layer manager we turn off all the layers apart the one which represents the buttocks.
Carefully, then, we move the buttocks to their right location on the plan by dragging them. Always, be
flexible, and take into consideration the other views on the screen. And here are the buttocks put into
their position.
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Waterlines
The making of the waterlines is based on the same modelling philosophy that was shown previously to
create the rest of the hydrostatic features. Working on the “Top view” all the waterlines are traced
over, using the “Curve Interpolate Points” tool from the tool bar. The waterlines are traced, but they
have to be aligned with the z‐axis. From the “Profile” view, each one of the waterlines is selected and
moved to the required position. The background image on the “Top view” is not clearly visible and
makes the tracing process difficult. However, on this image the keel is illustrated straight. The author
decided to model with the lower resolution image, because he thinks that the element of the straight
keel is important when the other hydrostatic features have to be modelled, especially the sections. In
the present research the hull of the surface will be modelled based on the sections, as they were
clearly visible on the plan. If the tracing is done carefully, the waterlines fit very well, see below a stage
of creating the lines and then moving them to the required position on the plan.
Editing points
When all the hydrostatic features are modelled, then the next step is to make the necessary
corrections. The control points have to be edited. the sections need to meet the outline. It is required
to make those corrections; otherwise the surface of the hull body cannot be produced. In the following
illustration notice that some of the sections do not end on the outline of the hull.
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To do that the curve is selected by clicking on it and then from the main menu this selection is made,
”Edit > Control Points > Control Points On”, or by just pressing F10 on the keyboard. The control points
are on and then the bottom one is moved back to the outline (black silhouette line), having ”Osnap
Near” on and “Ortho” on. This correction is applied to all the points that need to be adjusted.
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And then the edited points, notice from the “Right view” that they all end on the centreline:
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Corrections are also made on the waterlines, they have to meet the oultine of the ship fore and back.
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Sheerline and hull’s surface
After the editing of the points is completed (the modeller should be aware of the fact that the model
may need corrections at anytime during the modelling process), the next step is to create the sheerline
of the ship. The outline curve is just the silhouette of the ship’s hull and not its actual form. On the
”Right” view the top ending points of the sections are connected with a curve, ”Curve Interpolate
Points”, having ”Osnap End” on. Then from ”Edit > Split”, or by typing ”Split” on the ”Command” bar,
the central part of the hull’s outline hull is divided from the the rest outline body. This command
divides NURBS into parts using other objects as cutters. A layer representing the new object is also
added to the layer manager.
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It is considered ideal by the author to model separately the transom of the Scheurrak SO1, this also
depends on the individual modeller and how descriptive the linesplan drawing is. So now the end of
the curve that closes the sheerline at the transom is deleted (“Edit > Trim”).
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Finally, it is time for the grid to close and ask the software to create the surface of the hull between the
remaining outline, the sheerline and the sections. From ”Surface > Curve Network”, or by typing
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” NetworkSrf”, the surface is finally produced. The right curves in the network are selected and the
surface is generated.
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The result is good, but the surface has to be edited to meet the requirements of the actual hull shape of
the ship. The ship has sharp edges and corner points as well as curved areas that need to be modelled.
It is a demanding process and requires time to be completed. The author decided to use a method
similar to the one used in DELFTship; the hull surface is a grid which consists of a large number of
control points. By moving these control points carefully and to their required position it is possible to
shape the grid according to the hull form of the ship. As mentioned before this task requires patience
and time to be completed.
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Finally, the modified grid has the form of the ship’s hull. Notice the amount of the control points on the
surface which makes the whole process more complicated.
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In the following picture it is very clear that the moving of the control points in order to approximate
the actual hull form of the ship is not so successful. In the areas where the control points had to be
added to create the sharp edges and curved areas the hull is problematic.
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The same problem appeared in DELFTship when modelling the same ship. The automatic fairing
routine in these softwares produce fair surfaces, but no curve shaped and sharp edges. After what
happened with the moving of the control points, the author believes that this is not a safe method to
approach the “demanding” shapes of the ship’s hull. Each time a point is moved the surface is instantly
affected and it is difficult to proceed. Same case was with the DELFTship. Experimentation took place
by using different methods and techniques (different kinds of lines and free‐form curves were tried
out) but with no decent results. Then the author thought of modelling the ship in several parts. First
the aft body of the hull, then the bow area, and separately the middle hull areas which seem to be
problematic.
First, two lines were made one parallel to z – axis and the other vertical to it, as shown below. Then,
the section with the recently made line is joined (“Join” command).
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The right part of the line which is parallel to x – axis is deleted, by selecting “Edit > Trim”, and then the
sheerline is made and joined with the remained line.
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The actual transom has a sharp ending that still the transom of the model does not have. Somehow,
the “pointy” ending of the transom has to be given to the ship’s hull form. The author thought of
rotating the last section towards the left and extending it so it meets the silhouette line of the hull. The
extension can be done by turning on the control points and dragging them to the right point, or by
using the “Extend” command. This is where the starting point of the aft’s body sheerline will start this
time.
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To create the surfaces the command “Surface > Curve Network” was selected, as previously. Each time
a surface is created the modeler should apply any corrections if needed, e.g. the surface has to meet the
outline.
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Then, a new sheerline and a surface are made from the last point until the next sharp edge:
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The task is completed by creating the surface around the bow area.
The new method of creating the hull’s surface, and especially the sharp edges and the curved areas,
proves to be more efficient. But, it is important to remember that the hull now consists of three
different surfaces. The next challenge was to connect these surfaces because if they are not joined in a
single object, the hydrostatics calculations will be problematic. Submerged areas where the surfaces
do not meet will be “flooded” with water. Several methods were tested. Rhinoceros offers some
options of surface editing and joining, which did not work because the edges of each surface were far
away from each other. Finally, the solution came by connecting the unjoined edges of those surfaces
(typing in the “Command” bar “JoinEdge”). It is really difficult to spot (see following pictures; both are
zoomed in) the unjoined edges on the model, but they exist and should be located by zooming in the
required areas – meeting edges of the surfaces.
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After that, the grid is successfully converted to a single watertight body.
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The sharp edges are created nicely and this time there is no negative impact on the areas around the
sharp and curved edges. However, it is easily noticeable where the different surfaces meet each other,
but the hull does not have any anomalies on it, as before.
Keel and rudder
Working at the “Front” view the outline of the keel is made using the “Polyline” tool for straight lines
and the “Curve Interpolate Points” for the curved parts of the keel. When the body keel is completed it
has to be converted to a single object (“Join” command). First, the layer for the keel is added in the
layer manager.
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Next step, is to create the solid body of the keel. This is done on the “Top” view. The keel is selected
and then extruded according to the width on the plan. Either on the “Command” bar by typing
“ExtrudeCrv” or from ”Surface > Extrude Curve > Straight”, selecting ”BothSides = Yes” and ”Cap =
Yes”.
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The rudder is created following exactly the same modeling steps to construct the keel with the stem‐
and stern‐posts.
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Transom
At the “Right” view a mirror‐image of the hull is created with transom missing, “Transform > Mirror”,
or typing the command “Mirror” on the “Command” bar. The sheerline curve, after the surface is
completed, can be deleted.
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At the “Right” view the “Polyline” tool is selected to draw a line between the two upper corner points
of the transom (“Planar” on “Osnap End” on). Afterwards, a surface has to be created to cover the
empty area of the transom between its four corner points (“Surface > Edge Curves”). The line and the
two surface edges are selected and the transom is created.
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The meeting edges of the three different faces are noticeable, but it is due to the method which is
based on the joining of three different faces. So, the grid consists of three different parts. Anomalies on
the hull surface do not exist, as before, around the corner points and the curved areas of the hull. This
is a common problem with Rhinoceros and odd ends on the hull of a ship, something that the author
confirmed from the DELFTship forum. It is like a common opinion that Rhinoceros is problematic
when coming into difficult areas on the hull body (MBE 2010).
Hydrostatic analysis – Modelling in Orca 3D
It is time now to conduct the hydrostatic calculations. Before that, the model has to be scaled to its real
dimensions. The scaling process is the same the author showed before when he scaled the background
image after it was inserted in the ”Top” view. After the scaling adjustments, it is moved to the O (0, 0,
0) point. Rhinoceros does not have the ability of conducting hydrostatic calculations. In that capacity,
the marine plug‐in for Rhinoceros, Orca 3D, was used. There is the ability of the modeller to change the
viewports on the screen to the ones that Orca 3D provides. These viewports are specifically made for
marine design (PlanView, Perpsective, Profile and BodyPlan). There is a similarity with the
arrangement of the viewports with the DELFTship. The ship’s length is now 31 metres.
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Initially, the design condition of the ship is defined from “Orca 3D > Stability > Define Design
Condition”. A table appears and the value of the draught, which is 3. 0 metres for the Scheurrak SO1, is
entered on the “Model Sinkage Area”. The sinkage value is the z‐coordinate of the waterplane that we
want to define as the waterplane. To calculate the hydrostatics, from the main menu the selection
“Orca > Stability > Compute Design Hydrostatics” is made. The results were good, but the prismatic
coefficient, Cp, as well as the sectional area curve and the max section coefficient had a zero value,
which is not acceptable for a complete hydrostatic analysis. Orca 3D requires sections (sections,
waterlines, buttocks, etc) in order to calculate the above hydrostatic features. Orca 3D defines six
different types of sections; the stations (in Rhinoceros they were referred to as sections), the buttocks,
the waterlines, the diagonals, the inclines and the cants. The stations, buttocks, sections and waterlines
that were created in Rhinoceros do not fully meet the requirements for the analysis in Orca 3D. New
sections were added on the model though Orca 3D. From “Orca 3D > Hull Design > Sections” the author
added stations, waterlines, buttocks. The software adds the sections in the positions the modeller
wishes, the author decided to arrange the sections according to their spacing on the hull surface and
specifically every one metre. Automatically a layer with the recently made Orca 3D sections was added
in the layer manager.
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Normally, the rudder is not included in the hydrostatic analysis, but the specific rudder is fairly large
and would seem to contribute a fair amount of buoyancy. It is also located at the end of the vessel, so
the buoyant force has a large moment arms in terms of how the ship trims (up and down motions of
the bow). Because of the above the rudder was included in the hydrostatic analysis1.
It is important to define the directions of the vectors on the hull surface. In DELFTship this was done
automatically, unless the modeller made a different section, but here the modeller has to be aware of
it. From “Analyze > Direction” the mormals (vectors) of the faces are flipped so they face towards the
water.
1 Author’s personal communication with Bruce Hays, naval architect, from DRS Technologies, Inc.
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Then, for the conduction of the hydrostatic analysis, the commands “Orca 3D > Stability > Compute
Design Hydrostatics” are given. The ship was modelled to its design waterline that is why the option
“Design Hydrostatics” was chosen. The hydrostatics are calculated and then the linesplan drawing of
the ship is generated by selecting “Orca 3D > Hull Design > Lines Drawing”. The linesplan drawing uses
the section s from Orca 3D and not the hydrostatic features (sections, stations, waterlines, buttocks)
that the author created in Rhinoceros. That is the reason why they do not look so straight comparing
with those that the author traced in Rhinoceros (See Appendix II for the hydrostatic reports and
linesplan drawing).
Modelling the Gresham ship in Rhinoceros
Once a model is built in software, it is natural that the next reconstruction project will be more straight
forward for the designer as the main design – construction principles are the same. The hull form of all
the ships is not the same as well as their structural elements. However, there is already established a
framework that makes the reconstructions easier.
The bitmap image of the linesplan of the Gresham ship is imported and placed in Rhinoceros exactly
the same way as it was shown before with the Scheurrak SO1 (View > Background Bitmap > Place).
This time it is a bit more flexible having all the views of the ship on the same linesplan. To establish a
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reference point the image is dragged to the point 0 (0, 0, 0), and afterwards the tracing of the drawing
can start. The hull form of the Princes Channel are more straight than those of the Scheurrak SO1,
which means that less points are needed to trace the hull. But, first, a layer called ”Outline” is created.
The tracing, again, does not include the stem‐ and sternposts, as well as the keel. The keel will be
designed separately. In the end of the specific process we join the line that has been drawn so it
behaves as one single object (Edit > Join > Select object for join > Enter, or write at the ”Command” bar
”Join” and Rhinoceros will ask the next action to be done). For the straight parts of the ship we use
”Polyline” and for the curved ones the tool ”Control Point Curve” is used.
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Buttocks
As soon as the outline of the ship is completed a new layer called ”Buttocks” is created and they are
traced again using ”Control Point Curve”. When the buttocks are completed, then at the ”Top” view one
by one, and having ”Ortho” on, are moved to their required position. This will be explained after the
sections are made.
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Stations
Next to be drawn are the stations. A layer called “Sations” is made for them. The “Ortho” is turned on to
assure that the station lines are totally vertical on the x – axis. Eleven stations have to be traced, so
when the first is created then on the “Command” bar the command “Copy” has to be put. Of course, the
stations can be made individually, but this is lees time consuming and the same time effective. After
pressing “Enter” the object to be copy pasted has to be selected by clicking on it; the station turns
yellow and then to confirm the command – as with every command – we select “Enter”. By having
“Ortho” the station is moved to the required positions based on the plan. This process was described
before when constructing Scheurrak SO1.
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Sections
After the buttocks and stations are created a layer called “Sections” is created. The same method that
was used before to draw, move and position the sections of the Scheurrak SO1 will be used. The safest
way to move the sections from the drawings to their position is to move them as little as possible. A
completely vertical line was drawn on the body plan at the “Front” view. This line marks the centreline
of the sections. It is necessary when drawing the sections that every single half – section ends on this
vertical line even though that means drawing ‘through’ the keel (using “Osnap Near” on). When a
section is complete, it simply has to be rotated 90 or 270 degrees around the newly created centreline
on the “Top” view (using “Ortho” on), and finally drag it to its station on the “Front” view (using
“Ortho”, again). The “Ortho” is turned on to maintain vertical alignment and distance from the keel. For
the sections the “Control Point Curve” is used, but also the “Curve: Interpolate Points” can be used. The
first one requires more control points for a careful tracing. The “Curve: Interpolate Points” is used
now. It is advisable to experiment with the different features of Rhinoceros and adjusting to every
designing situation occurs. The aft sections when they are made they have to be rotated 90 degrees
and the forward sections 270 degrees.
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Then, it is time to conduct the 3D alignment of the buttocks. This is done by importing the plan view of
the linesplan drawing. The background bitmap is placed in the specific viewport as it was shown in the
beginning. It is essential to scale the background image so it fits with the already designed structural
elements of the ship. By selecting “View > Background Bitmap > Scale” it is relatively easy to succeed
that. A line, which its length equals to the length overall, is drawn at the “Front” view, because this
where we started reconstructing the ship. For this purpose the “Polyline” tool is used. Then, by using
as guidance the length of this line the image is scaled to its required dimensions, following the same
command steps as before when we scaled the plan view of the Scheurrak SO1. We drag the scale image
on one of the sections and it fits. Afterwards, the buttocks are selected and moved to their required
position.
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Following the same procedure with the modelling process of the Scheurrak SO1, the next step is to
make all the necessary corrections on the model before creating the surface of the ship’s hull.
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Waterlines
The making of the waterlines is based on the same modelling philosophy that was shown previously to
create the rest of the hydrostatic features. Working on the ”Top view” all the waterlines are traced
over, using the ”Curve Interpolate Points” tool from the tool bar. The waterlines are traced, but they
have to be aligned with the z – axis. From the ”Profile” view, each one of the waterlines is selected and
moved to the required position.
Editing points
Before creating the surface around the sections and the outline all the end points have to intersect and
the grid has to be closed. The edition of the points is done s the same commands as before.
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The corrections are done, and notice that all the sections now meet the centreline.
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Editing actions have to be carried out on the waterlines too, as they have to meet the outline of the hull
too. By moving the points on the curve we correct any imperfection.
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The modeller has to be flexible and aware of the model’s shape at any time .The corrections can be
continued at the ”Front view”. Turning on the editing points (pressing F10) it is easily seen that not all
the section lines have the same length. This is corrected by manipulating the control points (clicking
on the point and then moving it, as in DELFTship). This action is can be done any time during the
modelling; it provides efficiency and accuracy in the corrections.
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Now, the last section where the transom is located on will be put. The stern‐post of the ship is fairly
angled to the keel so the last section needs to be angled too to give to the transom its actual shape. The
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same editing actions that were made with the other sections have to be applied to this section too. It
must intersect with the outline of the ship.
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Sheerline and hull’s surface
The outline we have is really the silhouette of the sheer, so the sheerline of the ship’s hull has to be
made. Working on the ”Right” view the top ends of the sections are connected with a curve (Curve >
Free‐Form > Interpolate Points), having ”Osnap End” on. A layer can be created for the sheerline too,
to make the modeling easier.
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Next thing is to create the surface. First, the outline has to be edited, since the sheerline is the one to be
used for the construction of the surface. The outline is selected (clicking on it) and then ”Edit >
Explode” to break the object down to its components, or press to the ”Command” bar ”Explode” and
then ”Enter”. That is for any command in Rhinoceros, both the main menu commands, or the
”Command” bar can be used to confirm an action. Now, the outline is not a single object and the line
which is parallel to the x – axis is deleted.
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Before the surface is made it is essential to join again the remaining parts of the outline to a single
object (“Join” command). The author showed a different way when he modelled the sheerline of the
Scheurrak SO1. Here another way was indicated. Rhinoceros is really flexible with several commands
leading to the same result. It was decided to finish the sheerline on the end point of the last section in
order to model the transom separately. The sheerline can also finish back to the outline and then the
transom is included in the surface. The author believes, however, that modelling the transom
separately provides with better results.
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From “Surface > Curve Network”, or by typing “NetworkSrf”, the surface is finally produced.
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While checking the model on the “Top” view it was realized that the grid was not attached completely
on the outline illustrated on the linesplan (see “Top” view on the up left corner). This was not due to
wrong methodology; it is the author’s opinion that there is a missing section (or more) from the bow
area on the linesplan drawing. The author created a new one hoping to calibrate the problem as good
as possible.
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The recently made section fits perfectly on the place where there was a missing bow section.
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In order to place the section on the right place a reference line (green line) was drawn to guide the
section on the right place according to the linesplan drawing.
The surface was made again, but still the grid did not close properly, even though it was a very small
area. So, an additional section was created. The author, also, decided to extend the sections so they
overcome the black line on the “Profile” view. The black line connecting the top ends of stem‐ and
sternpost does not have any construction importance, anyway.
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This worked because the sheerline grid closed nicely around the sheerline ( see “Top” view on the up
left corner).
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Keel
First the keel is traced over in the “Front view” and then extruded in the “Top” view as was shown in
the case of the Scheurrak SO1.
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Transom
At the “Right” view a mirror‐image of the hull is created with transom missing, “Transform > Mirror”,
or typing the command “Mirror” on the “Command” bar. The sheerline curve, after the surface is
completed, can be deleted.
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The transom is the missing element of the hull. The empty area where the transom is located needs to
be covered with the transom surface. First, one line is made, one connecting the two corner points on
the top of the transom section (“Osnap End” and “Planar” on) and one between its bottom points.
Finally, by selecting “Surface > Edge Curves”, or by typing “EdgeSrf” on the “Command” bar, the
transom is completed.
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Finally, the transom is made nicely attached on the stern‐post.
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Hydrostatic analysis – Modelling in Orca 3D
It is time now to conduct the hydrostatic calculations. Before that, the model has to be scaled to its real
dimensions, as it was done previously with the Scheurrak SO1. After the model is scaled (it is
important to scale all the objects on the model, such as the outline, the sections, the buttocks, etc) then
it is moved to the O (0, 0, 0) point. The 24. 5 metres model is imported in Orca 3D and the
characteristic viewports of a marine software appear on the screen. As it was done and shown
previously, the sections are added on the hull surface and the respective layers representing each one
of the different Orca 3D sections are automatically generated.
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The right direction of the hull surface has to be defined before the computation of the hydrostatics.
From “Analyze > Direction” the hull surface is selected and then the arrows are adjusted so they point
into the water.
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Then, for the conduction of the hydrostatic analysis, the commands “Orca 3D > Stability > Compute
Design Hydrostatics” are selected. The ship was modelled to its design waterline that is why the option
“Design Hydrostatics” is chosen again. The sinkage value, this time, is 3.24 metres. The hydrostatics
are calculated and then the linesplan drawing of the ship is generated by selecting “Orca 3D > Hull
Design > Lines Drawing” (See Appendix II for the hydrostatic reports and the linesplan drawing). As
previously, the linesplan drawing uses the sections from Orca 3D and not the hydrostatic features
(sections, stations, waterlines, buttocks) that the author created in Rhinoceros. That is the reason why
they do not look so straight comparing with those that the author traced in Rhinoceros. It was
necessary in both the cases to “let” Orca 3D add the sections in order to have a logical value for the Cp.
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Discussion
Introduction
The methodological part of the specific project was based on the application of 3D
computer graphics to reconstruct two shipwrecks that both were lost in the 16th
century. It was a challenging process for the author as he had to learn the two marine
applications and then be able to apply his knowledge on his actual objective, the 3D
reconstruction of the ships. Of course, the learning process never ends, but several
conclusions were derived regarding the hull form and performance of his two case
studies and the effectiveness of software applications in Archaeology, and specifically in
Maritime Archaeology. In what degree can the stated goals be achieved, if somebody
wanted to apply 3D modelling tools like the DELFTship and Rhinoceros, to the
interpretation of the past?
Comparison of the ships
The 3D modelling of the hull form of the two ships was based on existing linesplan
drawings. However, there were cases where the author had to add or improvise on
these plans in order to offer a better result. Linesplan drawings are made by individuals
with different backgrounds and skills and the modeller needs to be flexible enough to
establish an effective and productive link between the archaeological data (drawings are
based on the archaeological material) and technology (software applications). Achieving
this goal can be time consuming, but later it is definitely exciting to watch the completed
hull form of a ship in a 3D environment. A ship that was built and lost centuries ago. But,
the profits are not only visual or educative, but also scientific. One of the main objectives
of the project was to compute the hydrostatics of the specific ships. The calculation of
their basic hydrostatic features can tell more about their performance, but also serves
another serious purpose. By comparing the two designs in terms of hydrostatic
properties and hull form the similarities and differences will be identified and the result
could be compared with existing general statements in literature – e.g., “Dutch
shipwrights used to build slow‐moving box‐like vessels” (Unger 1994, p.124). The
organization for the management of underwater cultural heritage, MACHU (Managing
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Cultural Heritage Underwater), classifies the Scheurrak SO1 as a fluit type ship1. It
would be interesting to check how this reflects upon the results of the thesis.
Scheurrak SO1 – Resulting model attitude and hydrostatic properties
The hydrostatic analysis made with DELFTship and Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D offered the
following results (see Appendix II for the hydrostatic reports and linesplan drawings):
Volumetric and waterplane values:
Hull form coefficients:
Gresham ship – Resulting model attitude and hydrostatic properties
The hydrostatic analysis made with DELFTship and Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D offered the
following results (see Appendix II for the hydrostatic reports and linesplan drawings):
1 MACHU Wreck and Site database, Scheurrak SO1, http://www.machuproject.eu/wrecksites‐
cms.htm (Accessed June 8, 2011)
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Volumetric and waterplane values:
Table 3. Volumetric and waterplane values for the Gresham ship
Hull form coefficients:
Table 4. Hullform coefficient values for the Gresham ship
Interpretation of the hydrostatic analysis
It was expected that there will be differences between the results of DELFTship and
Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D. The aim was to model the hull form of the ships. However, when
the ships were modelled in Rhinoceros the author felt very flexible and decided to model
additional features like the keel and the rudder. So, the ships in Rhinoceros were
modelled with their keel and, in the case of the Dutch wreck the rudder was added too.
The positive element is that these differences do not tend to deform the general picture
we already had about their hull performance prior to this project. There are not any
similar hydrostatic analyses for the specific ships. However, the linesplan drawing of the
Scheurrak SO1 includes the values of the hull form coefficients. Apparently, a
preliminary research on the hull performance of the ships already existed. But, there is a
really interesting aspect coming up from the author’s project. The resulting model
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values of the hull form coefficients, which arose from Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D, present a
very good correlation with those of the original linesplan drawing of the Scheurrak SO1.
Table 5. Comparison of hullform coefficient values for the Scheurrak SO1
Figure 32. The values of the hull form coefficient of the original linesplan drawing of the
Scheurrak SO1.
Volumetric and waterplane results
The results indicate and prove that the Scheurrak was a large merchantman vessel with
a length of more than 30 metres and a displacement of 400 – 500 tons. Scheurrak SO1
appears to have been a bulk cargo carrier, the ship was carrying wheat, which large
quantities of it were found behind the decks of the starboard side (Manders 2001, pp.25,
26). It was mentioned in previous chapter that in the 16th century the shipbuilding
became more specialized regarding the ship design. By the 1600, the cargo ships are
easily distinguished from the military naval vessels, and mostly the Dutch shipwrights
applied this building philosophy on the construction of carriers. In the end of the 16th
century the product of several design changes was the fluit ship. Around 1595 the
specific vessel was invented by a Dutch ship carpenter at a town located north of
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Amsterdam. According to Nicolaes Witsen (Witsen 1690) a fluit of 28.3m long and 6.2m
broad was typically of 200 tons, and one being 32.5m long and 6.8m wide, a length‐to‐
beam ratio of 5.17: 1, was rated at 400 tons (Witsen 1690, p.178). The optimum size was
between 400‐500 tons (Unger 1994, pp.121‐126).The tonnage and the displacement of a
ship are two different measurements of it and should not be confused. In that era the
tonnage was called “tons burden” and it measured not the ship itself, but the cargo
capacity of a vessel (Steffy 1994, p.281). The results show that the Scheurrak SO1
comparing to the Princes Channel ship is much bigger regarding their cargo capacity.
The same is, also, suggested by the archaeological evidence which assumes that the
English vessel was a medium size merchant ship with a tonnage of 150‐250 tons (Auer &
Firth 2007, p.233).
In the Netherlands of the 17th century the last or lastmaat was a calculation of a ships
capacity based on her dimensions. One last is generally equal to 4000 Amsterdam
pounds (weight): one last equals 1976 kg. The calculation of the specific cargo capacity
depends on the kind of cargo and the place. A formula giving the last was the following:
242. 5
where L: length, B: beam and D: depth in hold (Burningham & de Jong 1997, p.279).
Applying this formula to Scheurrak’s SO1 dimensions (in Amsterdam feet, one
Amsterdam foot equals to 0. 28 meters) the result is 117. 16 lasten. The last itself could
also be a measure of volume (one last equals 2. 7 cubic meters) (Parthesius 2010, p.17).
So, the amount of lasten calculated for the Shceurrak SO1 will equal 317. 5 cubic metres.
For the calculation, the keel length was used which is 26 meters. However, if the length
overall is put in the formula, the final result is 377. 13 cubic meters.
The principal method of calculating the tonnage in the Elizabethan period in England
was laid down in 1582 by Mathew Baker in Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry,
Bakers’ formula, or Baker’s Old Rule, and was defined as:
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where K: length of the keel, B: beam and D: depth in hold (Friel 2009, p.2). The Gresham
ship is from the latter half of the 16th century so this formula could be apply to calculate
her tonnage. The length units need to be converted to English feet (1 foot equals 0. 328
meters). The result is 141. 379 tons. For this calculation the breadth was taken from the
original hull which is approximately 7 metres. Historically, there are several definitions
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of one ton. In England, around the end of the 14th century, the tonnage of a ship was
calculated according to the cargo capacity in Bordeaux wine casket. For merchant ships
the key figure was the amount of tun or barrels of 252 gallons that a ship could carry,
and this defined the capacity in tons burdens (Friel 2009, p.2). One ton could contain a
volume of 210‐256 gallons. One gallon is approximately 4. 54 litres (0. 0045 cubic
metres). So the 252 gallons occupy 1. 14 cubic metres. Then, the tonnage for the
Gresham becomes 161. 17 cubic metres. Thomsen, whose plans were used for the
creation of the Gresham ship hull, he calculated a tonnage of 160. 77 tons. He took,
though, the breadth from the furred hull (Thomsen 2010, p.97). The 160. 77 tons give a
volume of 183. 28 cubic metres. Steffy (1994) assumes that the ton burden occupied a
volume of 1. 6 cubic metres. As mentioned, there are several definitions of one ton. If we
apply Steffy’s definition of the ton then the result is 226. 20 cubic metres.
Hull form coefficients
In the Basic Ship Theory chapter of the thesis it was shown that the coefficients of form
are dimensionless numbers that describe the hull fineness. In Naval Architecture these
geometric quantities estimate and express how fine a hull body is constructed.
The block coefficient, Cb, measures the fullness of the entire displaced volume. Imagine
that if the immersed hull volume filled a block with dimensions of ,
the block coefficient would equal to one. Ships of large block coefficient values do not
have a fine hull and their directional abilities are poor. Higher block coefficients suggest
a hull with more interior volume, but very full ends and a flat bottom, ideal for a cargo
vessel. From the results both the ships have “good” values of block coefficient. Their
difference is not big. It is only the results from DELFTship that suggest a bigger
difference in the Cb values between the two ships. Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D give slightly
different Cb values between the two ships. High Cb values indicate low speed and high
cargo capacity. The low Cb value provides the Gresham ship with good seakeeping skills
and low resistance factor. We cannot claim, though, that the Scheurrak SO1 did not have
good seakeeping skills. However, the higher Cb value of Scheurrak SO1 has explains its
adequate cargo capacity characteristics comparing to the Gresham ship. In Rhinoceros/
Orca 3D the difference in the block coefficient value is small considering the difference
in size and type between the two ships. Smaller block coefficients suggest a hull with
finer bow and stern sections and this makes sense for both the ships (Tupper 1996,
pp.10‐11). As we saw previously, the values of the hull form coefficients of the
Scheurrak SO1 calculated with Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D are numerically close to the values
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included in the linesplan drawing. It is reasonable to assume that the results from
Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D offer a better picture of the hull performance of the ships.
The prismatic coefficient, Cp, of the English ship is bigger in both the software, but still
we should not ignore that they are different vessels. The numbers indicate that the
immersed hull of the Sheurrak SO1 was constructed with more fine ends comparing to
the Gresham ship which probably had full ends. Vessels with a narrow bow and narrow
stern will have smaller prismatic coefficient than a ship of the same length, but a
broader stern and bow area. The values of the waterplane coefficients, Cwp, indicate
differences again with the Gresham ship having fuller waterplane comparing to the
values of the Scheurrak SO1. The waterplane is actually the shape of the hull where it
touches the water. Lower Cwp suggest a hull with finer "sharper" ends, which makes a
vessel more easily driven, but less stable. A full waterplane improves stability and
handling behavior (Tupper 1996, pp.10‐11).
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Figures 32, 33, 34, 35. It is clear from the above pictures that the Scheurrak SO1 (left) had finer
sharper ends than the Gresham ship which appears to have slender ends. The narrow area
around the transom and the bow of Scheurrak SO1 explain its lower Cp values comparing with
the Gresham ship, which seems to be broader in those areas. The Gresham ship has wide hull
lines amidships which gives bigger waterplane coefficient values than the Scheurrak SO1.
The following pictures explain the low resistance factors (lower Cb value) that Gresham
ship has, comparing to the Scheurrak SO1.
Figure 36, 37. On the left the resistance curve of the Sheurrak SO1. From the curve it is derived
that the Gresham ship (right) has lower resistance factors than the Dutch ship which was a large
merchant vessel of a displacement of around 400 tons. For an initial speed of 2 knots the
Gresham ship has to overcome a resistance of 0. 0025 kN, while for the same speed the resistance
acting upon the Scheurrak SO1 is approximately 1. 25 kN.
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Looking at the results for both the ships, we could say that they are satisfactory
comparing to the tonnage, as this was defined and calculated back in those centuries.
Also, their hull form is explained sufficient by the hull form values that were calculated
from the 3D models. We should take into account that the built‐in algorithms that
support these softwares are based on modern ship‐design requirements. During the
modelling process the author was in contact with Bruce Hays, principal naval architect
and software developer in DRS Technologies, Inc, who developed the marine plug‐in
Orca 3D. When the author described to him the objective of his thesis, Hays’s reply was
characteristic and significant, “although I don’t think Orca3D’s hull assistants will be much
help; we didn’t think to include one for fluits”. That was also the reason that ships were
modelled in Rhinoceros and processed in Orca 3D.
Comparison of the two softwares
The DELFTship does not use conventional NURBS (Non uniform Rational B‐Splines)
surfaces to represent the 3D geometry, but subdivision surfaces. Modelling with
subdivision surfaces is based on representing a smooth surface via the specification of a
polygonal mesh. The modelling process starts with a given polygonal mesh. Remember
the first thing that DELFTship was asking before the creation of a new model, which is
the number of the control points in the vertical and longitudinal direction. This is
because a polygonal mesh has to be imported by DELFTship that is the default hull, the
so‐called DELFTship model. Then by the proper manipulation of the control points on
the mesh we aim at redefining the mesh in order to represent a 3D surface. The mesh is
a set of planar surfaces which consists of edges, vertices and faces, as we saw. This mesh
can also represent curved surfaces of the several structural elements of the ship. On the
other hand, Rhinoceros is based on the designing with NURBS (Non Uniform Rational B‐
Spline) modelling tools. NURBS are commonly used in computer graphics, computer‐
aided design (CAD), engineering (CAE), and manufacturing (CAM). This technique offers
flexibility and accuracy when creating curved surfaces. These surfaces can be specified
with a relatively small amount of control points. It is obvious, though, that a complex
shape requires more control points to be specified accurately. To follow is some
conclusions regarding the use of DELFTship and Rhinoceros in the specific project.
As we saw the free version of DELFTship is a ship‐designing program which has all the
common hydrostatic features built in on the DELFTship model. It is a very positive thing
that it can make almost all the hydrostatic calculations and produce a linesplan drawing
as well. It is made for modern hull shapes of passenger carriers, cargo ships, sailing
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boats and tankers. But, it is possible to define hulls, by treating the points on the control
mesh, relatively easy and successful. It is limited to hulls that are symmetric on the
centreline, but this was not an issue for the specific project. Rhinoceros is not able to
calculate the hydrostatics2, but this can be counteracted with Orca 3D, a marine design
plug‐in for Rhinoceros. Someone can totally design the hull in Orca3D because it has hull
assistants similar to DELFTship. However, the hull assistants are made for modern ship‐
designing and they are not helpful. The author decided to take advantage of Rhinoceros’
flexibility to model the ships and then use the hydrostatic tools of Orca 3D to conduct
the hydrostatic calculations. It is a challenge, though, to set as a goal to define hull
shapes from 16th century ships with modern ship‐designing softwares.
DELFTship seems to be friendlier and quite straight forward regarding the modelling
process. The mesh with the given dimensions, the default hull of the DELFTship model,
provides guidance in the beginning on which the modeller will base the model.
Rhinoceros does not provide with a default hull shape, the modeller has to create the
silhouette of the model. This is succeeded by tracing the given linesplan drawing in the
Rhinoceros environment. The digital tracing can be also done in any other suitable
software and then import the resulted image in Rhinoceros. Rhinoceros has a big
advantage regarding its compatibility with other engineering, designing, and illustration
software as it can support several file formats compared to DELFTship which is very
limited. The variety of the files’ format that can be exported from Rhinoceros or
imported to it is extremely broad, this is not happening with DELFTship. For marine
designing software, and any kind of designing software, this is very important as there is
often the case of transferring files from designing software to another for further
process or development. In Rhinoceros the digitizing tracing of the image is a very
simple process as it provides with all the necessary tools for that.
In Rhinoceros the modeller has to create all the designing elements and hydrostatic
features of the ship of the ship; the outline of the hull, the buttocks, the stations, the
sections and the waterlines, as well as the keel and transom. This process is not difficult,
but it takes time of practice and experimentation with the different features of
Rhinoceros to arrive to a decent level of modelling (see the case of creating the sections
in the ships). In DELFTship a background image of the linesplan drawing was imported,
but there is no need to be traced. The modeller is moving points on the given polygonal
2 Rhinoceros is able to produce a linesplan drawing by following reverse engineering
methodology. However, there is no built‐in routine in it that generates the linesplan of a modeled
ship.
217
mesh to approach the shape of the hull illustrated on the background image. It seems
easier, but practice is also recommended for modelling in DELFTship because the way
that somebody moves the control points on the mesh affects instantly the shape of the
hull (see the case of making the sharp edges and corner points). The software has real‐
time updates on the model as the points and curves are moved. This causes the change
of the anatomy of the ship because the positions and shape of the stations, buttocks,
sections and waterlines become different. However, somebody can reach an acceptable
level of modelling quite fast comparing to Rhinoceros. The indisputable profit by
working in Rhinoceros is the expansion of the modeller’s critical thought and modelling
sense, and as soon as somebody gets used to its features then the process becomes
faster than modelling with DELFTship. Small mistakes in DELFTship can significantly
reduce the speed of the modelling process because the polygonal mesh has to take a new
shape after the correction. The corrections in Rhinoceros don’t have the same effect.
The DELFTship polygonal mesh with the built in hydrostatic features is really helpful in
the beginning, especially when you are beginner, but throughout the modelling it limits
the modeller. When working in DELFTship the modeller cannot control the hull itself,
but rather an imaginary web (mesh with control points, faces and edges) over the hull.
This is the so‐called subdivision surface modelling technique. In the beginning it is an
awkward feeling to accept, but once somebody gets used to it, it is not a problem. The
author, however, has the opinion that the designer‐modeller, especially the second, is
restricted when demanding areas have to be made. Complex shaped areas on the ship’s
hull, like the transom area of the SO1 and the sharp corner points, cannot be approached
easily by a default given hull. Probably, the transom can be modelled separately with
one of the menu tools (e.g., making a box) but still is a complicated process. The same
applies for the creation of the keel. The tools that DELFTship offers for the creation of
the keel are not practical and it is more compatible with the creation of modern hulls. In
Rhinoceros there is no such restriction because the hull itself is always controlled by the
modeller. The making of the keel and transom in Rhinoceros is relatively easy process
by using simple drawing tools. Anyway, at the specific project the author had to make
only the hull form, but he made in Rhinoceros the keel and the transom, even the rudder,
to prove the simplicity of their construction sequence comparing to DELFTship.
As we saw before, the linesplan drawing is a set of drawings showing the form of the
hull projected on three planes perpendicular to each other. It consists of three plans‐
drawings: 1) the profile, which is a side projection of the hull, 2) the half‐breadth plan,
top plan, which is the form of the hull at different waterlines, and 3) the bodyplan
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showing the hull form at different cross sections. These plans were the main source on
which the modelling occurred. Usually, in the bodyplan, the sections in the fore body of
the ship are drawn on the right hand‐side while the sections in the after hull being on
the left. On the profile and half‐breadth plan it is most common for the bow to be drawn
facing towards the right hand‐side. This was not the case with the drawings of the
Gresham ship as in both the profile and half‐breadth view the bow is illustrated in the
opposite way.
Figure 38. The linesplan of the Gresham ship.
This becomes problematic when the image has to be imported in DELFTship. The default
hull of the DELFTship model is generated so the bow is always on the right hand‐side.
The first solution in mind is to separate the different views of the drawing plan by
cropping the image, and then rotating the profile and half‐breadth according to the
requirements. The author, in order to avoid the cropping of the linesplan, tried to model
using the original plan. But, the standard hull generated from DELFTship did not
cooperate with that change. The results were not good at all.
219
Figure 39. The linesplan did not “cooperate” with the default hull of DELFTship.
Then, the author just rotated the linesplan drawing so the bow faces the right hand‐side.
But, the default hull of the DELFTship model did not cooperate again. In the following
image this can be easily shown; the author tried to approach the transom on the right
side, as it is on the rotated plan, but the hull shape was not acceptable again.
Figure 40. Trying to model the transom when the bow faced the right hand‐side.
The solution is to modify (crop and rotate) the image of the drawing plan, as the author
did for the Gresham ship. Generally, when an image is cropped the scale of the picture is
220
not different after the action. So this was the best solution, and it was positive that the
cropped images originated from the same image.
When modelling the Scheurrak SO1 in DELFTship the plans used were the following:
Figure 41. The linesplan drawing of the Scheurrak SO1. Notice that the keel is not straight. This
occurred probably when the image was scanned. The scanned images of the linesplan were
available.
The plan view was separated from the other two, but the drawing plan was compatible
with the requirements of the DELFTship model (default hull). The only problem was
that the keel was not drawn straight on the original plan (plan view), or this occurred
after a distortion on the paper while scanning. These things can always happen and the
modeller has to improvise and find the optimum solution. A solution was to use another
image of the plan view, where the keel was straight, but with poor resolution because of
its small size.
221
Figure 42. The top view of the (poor resolution) linesplan drawing of the Scheurrak SO1. The
keel here is straight, and this one was used in the Rhinoceros model.
Unfortunately, serious scaling issues were introduced. In DELFTship, after a background
image is imported, all new background images will automatically have the same scale
applied as this one. This is problematic when the images have a great difference in size.
See at the pictures what happened. First the profile and bodyplan views were placed and
afterwards the plan view. The already big scale of the other two views made the plan
view seem extremely small compared to the others and to the DELFTship model. The
opposite will happen if the plan view is imported first with the other two coming after.
222
Figures 43, 44. The serious scaling issues when the top view of the linesplan drawing of the
Scheurrak SO1 was imported in DELFTship.
So the author used the original plan for the modelling and the final results are very good.
This scaling function that DELFTship is very convenient when importing multiple
background images originating from the same linesplan. Always, be sure to set the right
scale before importing the next background image. The ideal action is to import the
same image three times (plan view, bodyplan view, perspective view) so the scale is
automatically the same for all the views. But perfect conditions are not the rule, the
modeller has to adjust on the situations that appear and make the right modelling
decisions.
Rhinoceros is more flexible than DELFTship regarding the above issues. There is no a
default hull that limits the modeller. So the original linesplan was used with no further
problems. The modeller just picks a reference point on which the model will be built
based on the original drawings. Regarding, the scaling issues that appeared before, in
Rhinoceros this did not present a problem. The small size image with the straight keel
was used successfully, even though its resolution was not so good. Rhinoceros can
generate all kinds of curves, but for hull surfaces there are some issues as in DELFTship.
This was clear while modelling the Scheurrak SO1 with its odd sharp and corner ends. It
was quite demanding task in hours to model these areas on the hull.
223
There is no integrated software in Rhinoceros specifically made for hydrostatic
calculations. So, somebody needs Orca 3D, or another software, to process the models
the Rhinoceros models. If Orca 3D is available, then the modelling and processing can be
both done in it. However, the author does not find this option beneficial because Orca 3D
is made for modern ship‐design. To model a ship from the 16th century with Orca 3D is
quite difficult and complicated, and probably with no so good results. Rhinoceros offers
great flexibility in ship‐designing and engineering in general. After the model was
imported in Rhinoceros the sections had to be made again, because the already created
hydrostatic features from Rhinoceros were not adequate for the calculations.
Nevertheless, the process is really fast because a generator creates them automatically.
The editing process in Rhinoceros is more demanding and requires more time
comparing to the one of DELFTship, where the changes and corrections were made
easier and faster. The reason is that the default hull of the DELFTship model offers a
safety net over serious mistakes. However, the simple tools and modelling actions in
Rhinoceros make this process less complicated than expected.
Undoubtedly, the big advantage with DELFTship is that in a relatively short amount of
time (in comparison to how much time is required to complete the 3D reconstruction of
the ship) the modeller has a decent looking hull form. On the contrary, the learning
curve representing the difficulty of learning and modelling in Rhinoceros is big. A
practical disadvantage of Rhinoceros comparing to DELFTship is that the second one is
provided with no payment license by its creators. Rhinoceros can be purchased after
payment, plus the cost of a marine design plug‐in like Orca 3D.
The author made an attempt to import the DXF files of the hull grid from DELFTship to
Rhinoceros in order to check the efficiency of data interoperability between the two
softwares. The imported hull shape was not the same with the one made in DELFTship.
The fairing routine seems to be different in the two softwares. Finally, both DELFTship
and Rhinoceros are problematic when it comes to the modelling of demanding areas on
a hull shape; this was the main source of problems during the modelling processes.
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Conclusion
From the results we can claim that both the vessels had good hydrostatic characteristics and stability.
Regarding their speed qualities it seems that they were relatively fast sailors, although we cannot say
more since factors like the rigging, the competence of the crew and others are unknown to us. Of
course, there is more research needed in order to establish rigid results. Also, it is essential not to
ignore that the two ships were of different type and size. The results confirmed this difference in their
hull form. Valuable conclusions about their hydrostatics and stability were derived and the results are
satisfactory comparing them with literature statements and practices from the 16th‐17th centuries. We
need, also, to consider that both the softwares are modern ship‐design applications; they are based on
modern built‐in algorithms and routines.
It is impressive how a large merchantman like the Scheurrak SO1 could combine both good sailing
performance and sufficient cargo capacity. Sheurrak SO1 has almost twice the tonnage of the Gresham
ship, but has similar hull form coefficients with it. This is significant characteristic for the Scheurrak
SO1, considering the fact that the Gresham ship seems (hydrostatic analysis) to have been a fast sailor.
The fluit ships were heavily constructed ships but they had a smooth sailing performance, and they
were less slow and inflexible than their appearance suggested (Barbour 1969, p.280). Unger (1994)
points out that in the 17th century Dutch shipwrights used to build slow‐moving box‐like vessels
(Unger 1994, p.124). This does not seem to be the case for the Scheurrak SO1, even though from an
earlier period. The hydrostatic analysis of the Scheurrak SO1 does not indicate a box‐like vessel. The
hull form characteristics suggest a ship with good speed qualities and windward abilities (Burningham
& de Jong 1997, p.284). After the last decade of the 17th century several modifications occurred on the
hull construction of the fluit ships. The need for bigger cargo areas on the ship led the Dutch
shipwrights to build a hull with a tumblehome to the sides. The width at the waterline became greater
than at the deck level. This modification produced easily accessible areas onboard for the crew and
decreased the amount of the tax charges to be paid since they were assessed based on the area of the
main deck (Unger 1994, pp.121‐126). Scheurrak SO1 had a tumblehome and it was carried up to the
rail, it was large in the waterline area but relatively narrow a deck. Below the waterline the hull
becomes sharp and hollow (Burningham & de Jong 1997, pp.283‐284). The pictures of the hull form of
the Scheurrak SO1, from the previous chapter, indicate these features on the hull. The Sheurrak SO1
was lost in the nineties of the 16th century which probably makes it a forerunner of the fluit type
vessel, or at least a ship carrying earlier characteristics of it. (See more about the characteristics of the
fluit ship in the third chapter). If the Scheurrak SO1 can be considered a forerunner of the fluit ships,
225
this confirms the archaeological evidence given from literature suggesting that the fluit ships were
effective bulk carriers with adequate handling qualities and still large capacity skills.
The Princes Channel wreck from the results it is clear that it was not a specialised merchant vessel like
the Scheurrak SO1. This is also obvious from both the linesplan drawing and the digital model. It is a
slender hull shaped vessel with straight lines and faster than the Scheurrak SO1. The bow section is
sharp, amidships is fairly wide and rounded and its aft hull body is slender. English ships from the 16th
century were relatively fast and manoeuvrable vessels (Friel 2009, p. 9). The Gresham ship seems to
have been a fast and flexible sailor, its wide waterplane suggests that it had good stability performance
as well. Merchants of that time were also armed; guns were raised from the site of the Princes Channel
wreck. The merchant vessels of the Elizabethan period also had to be fast sailors and good defence
platforms against piracy attacks, or any other assaults (Friel 2009, p. 9). The Gresham, most likely, had
these characteristics, that make it different than the specialised cargo vessel Scheurrak SO1. The
merchant ships of that era had a diverse role, as they could serve both for trading and naval warfare
purposes and the results seem consistent to that (Bolton 1988, pp.274‐275, 287‐389).
Regarding the use of software applications, it is far from any doubt that the use of computer‐aided
design applications is recommended in Maritime Archaeology. The underwater excavation and the
post‐excavation procedures require complex research and documentation. The two‐dimensional
graphics of reconstructed ships are the starting point of every research. They are and will always be an
efficient method of presenting and interpreting a ship’s hull form or construction. On the other hand,
the building of a physical model on scale, even though it is the most sophisticated way of
reconstructing the past, it is still problematic because it requires skills, well‐preserved archaeological
remains, and it is time consuming and expensive. The 3D projection of a ship can increase the research
potential faster and accurately.
In the thesis the aim was to model the hull of each ship and then compute their basic hydrostatics.
There are still more calculations that the softwares carried out and they can be seen in their
hydrostatic reports. Next step would be to add the decks and probably apply loading conditions to the
ships, by modelling the cargo in their hold for example. Depending on how well preserved are the
remains of a wreck, somebody could add the rigging and check the speed and stability qualities more
thoroughly. It would be also profitable to model the structural elements of the ships, e.g, the frames,
the futtocks, even the nails on the planks. This could provide with a full 3D reconstruction of the ships.
The final step would be the construction of a small scale physical model based on the digital model. In
that capacity, its hull performance could be tested in a tank. So it is easily seen that the 3D modelling is
226
a great tool on the hands of an archaeologist. The thesis proved that the 3D models represent an
advanced and more thorough interpretation of a specific type of vessel.
The aim was to model the 3D hull form of the two ships from existing plans. I believe that the specific
research added a new dimension in the hull form and performance of the two ships. The 3D models
pointed out differences in terms of their hull shape and hydrostatic characteristics. The results are
satisfactory and confirmed existing literature statements about ships and practises of the 16th‐17th
centuries. The softwares are modern ship‐design applications and this caused several problems during
the modelling process. The author had to improvise in order to overcome issues and present the hull
shapes as better as possible. The whole modelling process was a learning and experimenting process
for him as well, as his experience in 3D modelling is not in a high degree. He felt limited when he
modelled in DELFTship, and more accurate and confident in Rhinoceros. That is the reason that he
considers the results from Rhinoceros closer to reality without underestimating the process in
DELFTship. The hydrostatic analyses gave decent results and the linesplan drawings generated by the
softwares are similar to the originals. Of course, the manually made plans are of better quality than the
digital versions. But, this depends on the design skills and experience of the modeller; both have a
strong impact on the final result. The comparison between the two softwares explains better the weak
points of each design package. The methodological part of the thesis was made analytically so it can be
used as a guide for similar projects. The specific project proved that a dynamic and multilevel
cooperation between the archaeological evidence, the literature research and the technological
applications can produce positive results and expand the research potential.
227
Summary
On the 24th of December 1593, a famous storm completely destroyed a merchant fleet
of 150 ships that were waiting to set sail in Texel Roads. Some ships lost their anchorage
and rammed into other ships. Forty four merchant ships were lost and more than 1,000
sailors drowned. One of these unfortunate vessels was the Scheurrak SO1 (Manders
2002). The Scheurrak SO1 was discovered in 1984 in Wadden Sea and was excavated by
the Netherlands Institute for Ship and Underwater Archaeology (ROB/ NISA) between
1989 and 1997. The wreck turned out to be a large merchant vessel for the Baltic trade,
having a length of more than 30 metres. Dendrochronological research conducted on the
wood of the ship indicates that the ship was built around 1580 from Westphalian oak
wood (Manders 2001, p.27). Most of the lower starboard hull up to the turn of the bilge
is well‐preserved, as well the bottom planking and parts of the bow and stern. Part of
the hull's starboard side, although separated from the lower hull, is preserved up to the
bulwarks. Apart from large amounts of wheat from the Baltic region, there were also
found several types of weaponry, including four iron cannons and five small carriages
(Maarleveld 1994, p.156).
Some years later, in 2003, a wreck was discovered by the Port of London Authorities in
the estuary of the Thames, in Princes Channel. It was initially thought to be the hull
remains of a modern barge, but further investigations led to an underwater excavation.
Five major wreck pieces were lifted from the sea bed and an archaeological thorough
investigation was carried out(Auer & Firth 2007). The ship carried a cargo of iron and
metal bars and was therefore thought to be a merchantman of medium size.
Dendrochronological research from the framing timbers suggested that the oak used
belonged to trees felled down in the area of East Anglia or Essex, it also showed that the
vessel was constructed soon after 1574 (Auer & Firth 2007, p.224).
Both of the ships present an indisputable archaeological and historical significance; the
Scheurrak SO1 provides important information about the Dutch flush shipbuilding
tradition and specifically the Double Dutch flushplanking solution of shipbuilding. There
was a lack of archaeological and historical information about shipbuilding methods in
the Netherlands during the end of the 16th century prior to its excavation (Maarleveld
1994, p.154). The Princes Channel wreck was subjected to a double framing treatment
during the initial construction process, a method not fully understood, until the
228
explanation of the term ‘furring’ was found. This makes the Gresham Ship an indicative
wreck (Auer & Firth 2007, p.227).
The first chapter is a short overview of the specific project research. The aims and
objectives of the thesis are presented along with methodological tools that will be used.
The second chapter offers an introduction to the principles of basic ship theory and
naval architecture. There is a description and explanation of basic topics regarding the
ship’s geometry and dimensions. Also, the definition of the geometric quantities which
estimate and express how fine a ship’s body is constructed are given and explained.
Since the thesis is dealing with hydrostatics the author found reasonable to provide with
a short summary of basic ship mechanics.
The author, prior to his main task which was the 3D modelling of the two ships’ hull
form, he thought that it would be beneficial to carry out a research on the evolution of
the hull form from the ancient times until the 17th century. This research was focused on
the European sailing vessel and it is absolutely based on archaeological evidence. A
journey from the simply made rafts crossing the river channels led to the construction of
extraordinary sailing vessels crossing the oceans is offered in the third chapter.
The two case studies were presented in the following chapter by giving the
archaeological background of the wrecks proving their archaeological and historical
importance. The hull remains were described, but the significant part of this chapter is
the interpretation of their construction sequence based on literature research on
shipbuilding techniques of that period.
Chapter five deals with the methodology used to model the hull form of the ships.
Initially, the importance of the 3D modelling in Archaeology is argued, and how software
applications can assist in the interpretation of the past. There is a brief description of the
software packages used in the thesis and their features. The strong part of the
methodological chapter is that the author describes thoroughly all the steps he followed
from the initial to the final stage of the modelling process so this study can be used as a
guide for future similar projects.
The comparison in terms of hydrostatic properties of the two ships, Scheurrak SO1 and
the Gresham ship occurs in the sixth chapter. From the results important conclusions
were derived regarding the hull form and performance of the ships. The differences
229
between the two ships regarding their volumetric and waterplane values, as well as the
hull form coefficients, were discussed. An attempt was made to compare literature
statements about 16th‐17th centuries’ practices (tonnage, volume, hull form) and the
hydrostatic results. The two software packages that were used in the thesis were
compared and their performance was discussed thoroughly indicating their weak and
strong points.
230
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235
Appendix
236
Appendix I
The following illustrations describe the first stages of the bottom hull construction of
Scheurrak SO1 (Maarleveld 1994, pp.160‐161)
237
238
Appendix II
The hydrostatic reports and the lines plan drawings of the two ships, Scheurrak SO1 and
Gresham ship. First, is the analysis and linesplan from DELFTship and then the
hydrostatic report and linesplan from Rhinoceros/ Orca 3D.
239
Design hydrostatics report
Designhydrostaticsreport.
ScheurrakSO1
Designer Konstantinos Alexiou
Created by Konstantinos Alexiou
Comment
Filename The ship SO1.fbm
Design length 31.000 (m) Midship location 15.500 (m)
Length over all 30.350 (m) Relative water density 1.025
Design beam 8.000 (m) Mean shell thickness 0.0000 (m)
Maximum beam 6.662 (m) Appendage coefficient 1.0000
Design draft 3.000 (m)
Lateral plane
Lateral area 112.00 (m^2)
Longitudinal center of effort 16.843 (m)
Vertical center of effort 0.880 (m)
The following layer properties are calculated for both sides of the ship
Layer Area Thickness Weight VCG LCG TCG
(m^2) (tonnes) (m) (m) (m)
Hull 507.02 0.000 0.000 2.418 14.781 0.000 (CL)
Sectional areas
Location Area Location Area Location Area Location Area Location Area
(m) (m^2) (m) (m^2) (m) (m^2) (m) (m^2) (m) (m^2)
1.550 0.000 7.750 15.838 13.950 24.306 20.150 22.909 26.350 15.534
3.100 0.018 9.300 19.680 15.500 24.530 21.700 21.768 27.900 9.846
4.650 3.309 10.850 22.130 17.050 24.327 23.250 20.368 29.450 2.777
6.200 10.031 12.400 23.563 18.600 23.769 24.800 18.505
11/6/2011 Page 1
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Design hydrostatics report
NOTE 1: Draft (and all other vertical heights) is measured above base Z=0.00!
NOTE 2: All calculated coefficients based on project length, draft and beam.
11/6/2011 Page 2
241
10579 10579
0 1550 3100 4650 6200 7750 9300 10850 12400 13950 15500 17050 18600 20150 21700 23250 24800 26350 27900 29450
9404 9404
8228 8228
7053 7053
5877 5877
4702 4702
3526 3526
DWL 3000 DWL 3000
2351 2351
1175 1175
Base 0 Base 0
0
Base 0 Base 0
0 Base 0 Base 0
0
2891 2891
2313 2313
1735 1735
1156 1156
578 578
Center Center
0 1550 3100 4650 6200 7750 9300 10850 12400 13950 15500 17050 18600 20150 21700 23250 24800 26350 27900 29450
242
Design hydrostatics report
Designhydrostaticsreport.
PrincesChannel wreck
Designer Konstantinos Alexiou
Created by Konstantinos Alexiou
Comment
Filename Gresham Ship Final.fbm
Design length 24.500 (m) Midship location 12.250 (m)
Length over all 24.234 (m) Relative water density 1.025
Design beam 7.000 (m) Mean shell thickness 0.0000 (m)
Maximum beam 6.189 (m) Appendage coefficient 1.0000
Design draft 3.240 (m)
Lateral plane
Lateral area 48.610 (m^2)
Longitudinal center of effort 11.682 (m)
Vertical center of effort 2.106 (m)
The following layer properties are calculated for both sides of the ship
Layer Area Thickness Weight VCG LCG TCG
(m^2) (tonnes) (m) (m) (m)
Hull 232.87 0.000 0.000 2.632 11.569 0.000 (CL)
Sectional areas
Location Area Location Area Location Area Location Area Location Area
(m) (m^2) (m) (m^2) (m) (m^2) (m) (m^2) (m) (m^2)
0.000 0.000 4.900 5.625 9.800 9.533 14.700 10.038 19.600 6.394
1.225 1.567 6.125 6.866 11.025 10.017 15.925 9.582 20.825 4.134
2.450 2.929 7.350 7.968 12.250 10.273 17.150 8.876 22.050 1.330
3.675 4.311 8.575 8.843 13.475 10.265 18.375 7.866 23.275 0.000
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Design hydrostatics report
NOTE 1: Draft (and all other vertical heights) is measured above base Z=0.00!
NOTE 2: All calculated coefficients based on project length, draft and beam.
11/6/2011 Page 2
244
12579 12579 12579 12579
6290 6290
3774 3774
2516 2516
1258 1258
0 1225 2450 3675 4900 6125 7350 8575 9800 11025 12250 13475 14700 15925 17150 18375 19600 20825 22050 23275
6290 6290 6290 6290
Base 0 Base 0
2971 2476 1981 1486 990 495 Center 495 990 1486 1981 2476 2971 2971 2476 1981 1486 990 495 Center 495 990 1486 1981 2476 2971
5032 5032 5032 5032
2971 2476 1981 1486 990 495 Center 495 990 1486 1981 2476 2971 2971 2476 1981 1486 990 495 Center 495 990 1486 1981 2476 2971
0 1225 2450 3675 4900 6125 7350 8575 9800 11025 12250 13475 14700 15925 17150 18375 19600 20825 22050 23275
2971 2971
2476 2476
1981 1981
1486 1486
990 990
495 495
Center Center
0 1225 2450 3675 4900 6125 7350 8575 9800 11025 12250 13475 14700 15925 17150 18375 19600 20825 22050 23275
245
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
Condition Summary
Notes
1. Locations such as the center of buoyancy and center of flotation are measured from the origin in the
Rhinoceros world coordinate system.
2. The orientation of the model for an Orca3D hydrostatics solution is defined in terms of “sinkage,”
“trim,” and “heel.” The sinkage value represents the depth of the body origin (i.e. the Rhino world origin)
below the resultant flotation plane, and is sometimes referred to as "origin depth." Heel and trim
represent angular rotations about the Rhino longitudinal and transverse axes, respectively, and are
taken in that order. For a more detailed description of these terms see the Orca3D documentation.
3. Hull form coefficients are non-dimensionalized by the waterline length.
4. Calculation of Cp and Cx use Orca sections to determine Ax. If no Orca sections are defined, these
values will be reported as zero.
246
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
247
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
248
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
249
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
250
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
Overall Dimensions
Waterline Dimensions
251
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
Volumetric Values
Waterplane Values
Sectional Parameters
Ax 20,184 m^2
Ax Location 13,532 m Ax Location / Lwl 0,397
Cb 0,519 Cx 0,806
Cp 0,644 Cwp 0,739
Cvp 0,702 Cws 2,925
252
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
253
Scheurrak SO1
Design Hydrostatics Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHʌȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\SO1 Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
254
A B
z z
2 2
x y
5 m Sta
4 m Sta
3 m Sta
2 m Sta
1 m Sta
0 m Sta
1 m Sta
2 m Sta
3 m Sta
4 m Sta
5 m Sta
x
1 1
y
PROJECT
Scheurrak SO1
COMPANY
Konstantinos Alexiou
AUTHOR
Konstantinos Alexiou
DATE DRAWING NUMBER
11/6/2011
MODEL UNITS
1 SHEET 1 OF 1
SCALE
A B
255
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
Condition Summary
Notes
1. Locations such as the center of buoyancy and center of flotation are measured from the origin in the
Rhinoceros world coordinate system.
2. The orientation of the model for an Orca3D hydrostatics solution is defined in terms of “sinkage,”
“trim,” and “heel.” The sinkage value represents the depth of the body origin (i.e. the Rhino world origin)
below the resultant flotation plane, and is sometimes referred to as "origin depth." Heel and trim
represent angular rotations about the Rhino longitudinal and transverse axes, respectively, and are
taken in that order. For a more detailed description of these terms see the Orca3D documentation.
3. Hull form coefficients are non-dimensionalized by the waterline length.
4. Calculation of Cp and Cx use Orca sections to determine Ax. If no Orca sections are defined, these
values will be reported as zero.
256
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
257
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
258
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
259
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
260
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
Overall Dimensions
Waterline Dimensions
261
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
Volumetric Values
Waterplane Values
Sectional Parameters
Ax 16,364 m^2
Ax Location -10,944 m Ax Location / Lwl 0,460
Cb 0,481 Cx 0,684
Cp 0,703 Cwp 0,785
Cvp 0,613 Cws 2,841
262
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
263
Gresham Ship
Hydrostatics & Stability Analysis
Konstantinos Alexiou
5HSRUW7LPHȝȝ
Model Name: C:\Users\Kostas\Desktop\Thesis Drafts\Final Models wre!\GS Official Thesis - Scaled
Orca.3dm
264
A B
z z
2 2
x y
9,5 m Sta 21,5 m Sta
y 8,5 m Sta 20,5 m Sta
7,5 m Sta 19,5 m Sta
6,5 m Sta 18,5 m Sta
5,5 m Sta 17,5 m Sta
4,5 m Sta 16,5 m Sta
3,5 m Sta 15,5 m Sta
2,5 m Sta 14,5 m Sta
1,5 m Sta 13,5 m Sta
0,5 m Sta 12,5 m Sta
0 m Sta 11,5 m Sta
10,5 m Sta
1 1
PROJECT
Gresham Ship
COMPANY
Konstantinos Alexiou
AUTHOR
Konstantinos Alexiou
DATE DRAWING NUMBER
11/6/2011
MODEL UNITS
1 SHEET 1 OF 1
SCALE
A B
265