PROGRAMMING

Programming is the process by which a set of instructions is produced to make a

computer perform a specified activity. The activity can be anything from the solution of a
mathematical problem to the production of a company payroll. The instructions ultimately
obeyed by the computer are the numerical codes significant to the computer’s central processor.
Since a computer cannot reason, but is entirely dependent on instructions supplied to it by its
human users, it cannot be expected to perform any task adequately unless the problem it is
required to solve has been specified correctly in every detail and the instructions it is asked to
obey define in complete detail each step of the solution. The main steps which have to be
covered before a program is completed are: 1. Understand the problem, and plan the solution. 2.
Prepare a flowchart or decision table of the problem. 3. Prepare the instructions in coded form. 4.
Test the program until it is performing correctly. 5. Prepare detailed documentation of the
program and instructions on its operation.
Depending on the complexity of the problem, the capacity of the computer and the type
of language to be used, the program may be written as a single entity or divided into sections or
segments, each one covering a logically distinct part of the problem. For example, a program
might be divided into a housekeeping segment in which the program is set to its entry conditions,
an input segment which deals with reading and validating data input to the program, a processing
segment which operates on the input data and output segment which presents the results of the
processing in the required form.
Flowcharting the program is the next step to be performed. The object of the flowcharting
is to produce a diagram showing the logical relationship between the various parts of the
program. It is particularly important to maintain an overall outline flowchart of the whole
problem when segmentation takes place to ensure that all parts of the program specification are
taken care of. A flowchart will normally be independent of the type of computer to be used or the
language of the program is to be written in, although these factors must be borne in mind. The
logical steps described in the flowchart are translated into instructions to the computer.
Multiprogramming is a technique developed in order to utilize a computer more
efficiently enabling the processor to spend a great portion of its time in action and making more
use of all available peripheral units. The basic principle of multiprogramming is that more than
one program can be present in memory at the same time, and share the available processor time
and peripheral units. Each program is written as a completely independent unit, and each
program uses peripheral units allotted to it for the duration of a run. Benefits to be gained from
this concept of multiprogramming include the elimination of off-line equipment to transcribe
data into a faster medium for input since, while the activity is proceeding, using limited numbers
of peripheral units and little processing time, other more productive programs can use the
remaining peripherals and processor time.

Word list
Flowchart, s = organigrama, schema logica
Decision table, s = tabla de decizii
Entity, ies = unitate, entitate
Housekeeping segment, s = segment/sectiune de initializare
Housekeeping = operatie auxiliara
Overlays = suprapuneri
To allot –ed –ed = a atribui, a aloca
Run, s = executie,ciclu, rulare
To overcome – overcome –overcome = a invinge, a rezolva
Overall outline flowchart, s = organigrama generala de principiu
Notes to the text
1. Mind the preposition
To divide into
To turn into
To translate into
To classify into
To transform into
To change into
2. Unless (conj.) = if not, except when
Examples:
The results are bound to be correct unless an error has slipped in the input data.
Unless properly adjusted, the device does not work.
 3. Mind the spelling of the adverbs derived from adjectives:
adj. ideal adv. ideally
real really
logical logically
general generally
but
main mainly
great greatly
proper properly
weak weakly
4. Mind the main ways of expressing dependence in English:
We have come to depend on computers for the fast and the accurate solution of intricate
calculations.
A computer is entirely dependent on the instructions supplied to it.
The program can be divided into several sections depending on the complexity of the
problem.
5. Synonyms:
To earn = to get in return for work or as a reward for one’s qualities, etc.
To gain = 1. to obtain something wanted or needed
2. to become fast (of a watch)
on 3. to go faster than, get closer to the person or thing pursued.
To win = to get by/means of hard work, struggle, as the result of a
competition.
Examples:
He earns his living by teaching mathematics in a high school.
His outstanding literary merits have earned him worldwide fame.
At is was late, we took a taxi to gain time.
My watch gains five minutes every day.
To everybody’s surprise he won all three matches.
Pattern

is likely
known to make
was
He expected progress.

turns out to have made

seemed

Ex. 1. Comprehension check up.

1. What is programming?
2. Which are the main steps to be covered before a program is completed?
3. What sections can a program be divided into?
4. Which is the object of flowcharting?
5. What is multiprogramming?
6. Which are the benefits to be gained from multiprogramming?

Ex. 2. Translate into English using infinitival constructions:

Aceste lipsuri sunt compensate de viteza de scriere a programului si de faptul ca probabil

mai putine greseli vor avea loc. Multiprogramarea da posibilitatea dispozitivului de prelucrare sa
foloseasca mai eficient unitatile periferice disponibile. L-am auzit spunind ca a intampinat multe
greutati in elaborarea programului. Nimeni nu se asteapta ca un calculator sa rationeze ci numai
sa execute operatiile logice initiate de om. S-a intamplat ca cei 2 beneficiari sa vrea sa foloseasca
calculatorul in acelasi timp. Pricipiul de funtionare s-a dovedit a fi acelasi in ambele cazuri. Se
parea ca cele doua tehnici de afisaj al datelor erau la fel de utile. Este probabil ca s-a strecurat o
greseala care nu a fost descoperita inca. Se stie ca ela gasit o solutie uimitoare pentru aceasta
problema. Se crede ca aceste metode au dat deja rezultate foarte bune.
Ex. 3. Read and translate the following sentences into Romanian:

He is expected to have finished the work already. The phenomenon is believed to have
occurred thousands of years ago. He turned out to have been the first whoever suggested this
improvement. He is likely to have inadvertently input some erroneous data. Newton is rightly
considered to have laid the basis of modern mechanics. He happened to have just obtained the
book he badly needed. The voltage is likely to have dropped meanwhile.

Ex. 4. Fill in the blanks with one of the verbs: to win, to gain, to earn, using it in the form
required by the context:

Benefits to be - from this technique include lower costs. He did his best to – that
scholarship, which enabled him to continue his studies. After several months’ work he could at
least enjoy a well – rest. The young man had to start working very early in order to – his
livelihood. By being the first to start, he had already – an advantage over his competitors. The
most important thing for him was to – time. Working in that research center he – a good
knowledge of computers, The Curies – worldwide fame with their discoveries in the field of
radioactivity. The young man was steadily – on the other runners in the race. As expected, he
finally – the race. His industry and perseverance – him the respect and admiration of all his
friends. At present this new theory is … ever more ground.

Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences into Romanian and then add a question tag to each,
according to the model given below.

A computer works in real time, doesn’t it?

Multiprogramming does not necessarily imply time-sharing.

It deserved mention nevertheless.
There can be no guarantee of minimum response time.
A mathematical program uses long periods of time without external references.
The program must initiate a input operation.
The solution needn’t occur over the same period of time.
The monitor resumed the operation of program A.
Priorities will be assigned to certain programs.
It cannot handle a large number of user programs.
Several programs are loaded simultaneously.

Ex. 6. Read the passage below and explain in your own words what problems must be overcome
in order to achieve multiprogramming.

In order to achieve multiprogramming, several problems must be overcome. Obviously if

more than one program is present in memory at the same time, there must be not danger of one
program interfering with another. Interference could involve overwriting another program’s area,
or attempting to use a peripheral unit at the same time as another program. In order to achieve
optimum utilization of processor time and of peripheral units, some method of allotting priorities
between the programs sharing the computers must be made. Further, in order to enable programs
of different sizes to be loaded into the computer t different times, as and when store space
becomes available because of programs finishing, the method of loading programs and sharing
memory between them must be as flexible as possible.