CHAPTER 1 ➢The kernel is the core inner component that
processes data at the hardware level.
What is an Operating System?
 It is a program (software) that acts as an
intermediary between the user of a computer
and the computer hardware.
 It serves as an interface between the user and
the hardware
o Processors
o Main memory
o Disks
o Printers
o Display
o Keyboards
o Network interfaces
o Other I/0 devices
 It provides an environment in which a user
may execute programs.
Computer System Structure
 Computer hardware
Provide basic computing resources (CPU,
memory, I/O devices).
 Operating Systems
Acts as an intermediary control and
coordinates the use of the hardware among
the various application programs for the
various users example: UNIX, LINUX,
Windows, MS DOS
 System application programs
Define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing
problem of the users ( compilers, database
systems, video games, business programs)
 Users
People, machine and other computers
(compilers, database systems, video games,
business programs)
Operating system functions
➢Booting: An operating system manages the startup
of a device.
➢Memory management: An operating system
coordinates computer applications and allocates
space to different programs installed in the computer.
➢Data security: An operating system protects your
data from cyberattacks.
➢Loading and execution: An operating system
starts and executes a program
➢Drive/disk management: An operating system
manages computer drives and divides disks.
➢Device control: An operating system enables you
to allow or block access to devices.
➢User interface: This part of an operating system,
also known as UI, allows users to enter and receive
information.
➢Process management: The operating system
allocates space to enable computer processes, such as
storing and sharing information.
Operating systems use two components to
manage computer programs and applications:
• It handles input-output management,
memory and process management.
• Kernel is the one program running at all
times (all else being application programs).
➢The shell is the outer layer that manages the
interaction between the user and the OS.
• The shell communicates with the operating
system by either taking the input from the
user or a shell script.
• A shell script is a sequence of system
commands that are stored in a file.
Traditional computer system
 Memory (CPU, Disk Controller, USB
Controller, GRAPHIS ADAPTER)
Types of operating systems
● Batch OS
The batch operating system does not have a
direct link with the computer. A different
system divides and allocates similar tasks into
batches for easy processing and faster
response.
● The batch operating system is
appropriate for lengthy and
timeconsuming tasks. To avoid
slowing down a device, each user
prepares their tasks offline and
submits them to an operator.
● Batch operating systems are used
for tasks such as managing payroll
systems, data entry and bank
statements.
● Time-sharing or multitasking OS
➢The time-sharing operating system,
also known as a multitasking OS,
works by allocating time to a
particular task and switching between
tasks frequently. Unlike the batch
system, the time-sharing system
allows users to complete their work in
the system simultaneously.
➢It allows many users to be
distributed across various terminals
to minimize response time
➢Examples of time-sharing operating
systems include Multics and Unix.
● Distributed OS
This system is based on autonomous
but interconnected computers
communicating with each other via
communication lines or a shared
network. Each autonomous system
has its own processor that may differ
in size and function.
➢A distributed operating system
serves multiple applications and
multiple users in real time. The data
processing function is then
distributed across the processors.
➢Distributed operating systems are
used for tasks such as
telecommunication networks, airline
 reservation controls and peer-topeer
networks.
● Network OS
➢Network operating systems are
installed on a server providing users
with the capability to manage data,
user groups and applications.
➢This operating system enables
users to access and share files and
devices such as printers, security
software and other applications,
mostly in a local area network.
➢Examples of network operating
systems include Microsoft Windows,
Linux and macOS X.
● Real-time OS
➢Real-time operating systems
provide support to real-time systems
that require observance of strict time
requirements. The response time
between input, processing and
response is tiny, which is beneficial for
processes that are highly sensitive and
need high precision.
➢These processes include operating
missile systems, medical systems or
air traffic control systems, where
delays may lead to loss of life and
property. Real-time operating systems
may either be hard real-time systems
or soft real-time systems. Hard real-
time systems are installed in
applications with strict time
constraints.
➢The system guarantees the
completion of sensitive tasks on time.
Hard real-time does not have virtual
memory. Soft real-time systems do not
have equally rigid time requirements.
A critical task gets priority over other
tasks
➢Real-time operating systems are
used for tasks such as scientific
experiments, medical imaging,
robotics and air traffic control
operations.
● Mobile OS
➢Mobile operating systems run
exclusively on small devices such as
smartphones, tablets and wearables.
The system combines the features of a
personal computer with additional
features useful for a handheld device.
➢Mobile operating systems start
when a device is powered on to
provide access to installed
applications. Mobile operating
systems also manage wireless
network connectivity.
➢Examples of mobile operating
systems include Android OS, Apple
and Windows mobile OS.
Computing Environments - Traditional
● Stand-alone general purpose machines
● Portals provide web access to internal
systems
● Network computers (thin clients) are like
Web terminals
● Mobile computers interconnect via wireless
networks
● Networking becoming ubiquitous – even
home systems use firewalls to protect home
computers from Internet attacks
Computing Environments – Distributed
● Distributed computing
Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous,
systems networked together
• Network is a communications path, TCP/IP
most common
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
Network Operating System provides features
between systems across network
• Communication scheme allows systems to
exchange messages
• Illusion of a single system
Computing Environments – Client-Server
● Client-Server Computing
• Many systems now servers, responding to
requests generated by clients
• Compute-server system provides an
interface to client to request services (i.e.,
database)
• File-server system provides interface for
clients to store and retrieve files
Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer
● Another model of distributed system
● P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
• Instead all nodes are considered peers
• May each act as client, server or both
• Node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup
service on network, or
• Broadcast request for service and respond
to requests for service via discovery protocol
• Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
Computing Environments - Virtualization
● Allows operating systems to run applications
within other OSes
• Vast and growing industry
● Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU,
running guest OSes also natively compiled
• Consider VMware running WinXP guests,
each running applications, all on native
WinXP host OS
• VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides
virtualization services
● Use cases involve laptops and desktops running
multiple OSes for exploration or compatibility
• Apple laptop running Mac OS X host,
Windows as a guest
• Developing apps for multiple OSes without
having multiple systems
 • QA testing applications without having
multiple systems
• Executing and managing compute
environments within data centers
● VMM can run natively, in which case they are also
the host
• There is no general purpose host then
(VMware ESX and Citrix XenServer)
Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
● Cloud computing environments composed of
traditional OSes, plus VMMs, plus cloud management
tools
• Internet connectivity requires security like
firewalls
• Load balancers spread traffic across
multiple applications
CHAPTER 2
➢Operating systems provide an environment for
execution of programs and services to programs and
users
➢One set of operating system services provides
functions that are helpful to the user:
▪ User interface - Almost all operating
systems have a user interface ( UI)
▪ Varies between Command Line
(CLI ), Graphics User Interface (GUI),
Batch
▪ Program execution - The system must be
able to load a program into memory and to
run that program, end execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error)
▪ I/O operations - A running program may
require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O
device
▪ File system manipulation - The file
system is of particular interest. Programs
need to read and write files and directories,
create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.
▪ Communications - Processes may
exchange information, on the same computer
or between computers over a network
▪ Communications may be via shared
memory or through message passing
(packets moved by the OS)
▪ Error detection - OS needs to be
constantly aware of possible errors
▪ May occur in the CPU and memory
hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
▪ For each type of error, OS should
take the appropriate action to ensure
correct and consistent computing
▪ Debugging facilities can greatly
enhance the user s and programmer s
abilities to efficiently use the system
➢Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the
efficient operation of the system itself via resource
sharing
• Resource allocation - When multiple users or
multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must
be allocated to each of them
• Many types of resources -Some (such as CPU
cycles, main memory, and file storage) may
have special allocation code, others (such as
I/O devices) may have general request and
release code
➢Accounting -To keep track of which users use how
much and what kinds of computer resources
➢Protection and security -The owners of
information stored in a multiuser or networked
computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not
interfere with each other
• Protection - involves ensuring that all access
to system resources is controlled
• Security of the system from outsiders
requires user authentication, extends to
defending external I/O devices from invalid
access attempts
• If a system is to be protected and secure,
precautions must be instituted throughout it.
A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
User Operating System Interface
➢Command Line Interface (CLI)
➢CLI allows direct command entry
➢Sometimes implemented in kernel,
sometimes by systems program
➢Sometimes multiple flavors
implemented (i.e. shells)
➢Primarily fetches a command from
user and executes it
➢Sometimes commands built in,
sometimes just names of programs
➢If the latter, adding new features
doesn't require shell modification
➢Graphical user Interface (GUI)
➢User friendly desktop metaphor
interface
• Usually mouse, keyboard,
and monitor
• Icons represent files,
programs, actions, etc
• Various mouse buttons over
objects in the interface cause
various actions (provide
information, options, execute
function, open directory
(known as a folder)
➢Many systems now include both CLI
and GUI interfaces
▪ Microsoft Windows is GUI
with CLI command shell
▪ Apple Mac OS X is Aqua GUI
interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells
available
▪ Unix and Linux have CLI
with optional GUI interfaces
(CDE, KDE, GNOME)
➢Touchscreen Interfaces
Touchscreen devices require new interfaces
• Mouse not possible or not desired
• Actions and selection based on
gestures
• Virtual keyboard for text entry
System Calls
➢System calls are interfaces provided by an
operating system that allow user-level programs to
request services or functionality from the kernel,
which is the core part of the operating system.
➢These services can include tasks like file
operations, process management, memory allocation,
and input/output operations.
➢System calls act as a bridge between the user-level
applications and the low-level hardware of the
computer.
➢Purpose: Enable user programs to perform
privileged or protected operations like
reading/writing files, creating processes, managing
memory, and more.
➢Mostly accessed by programs via a high level
Application Programming Interface (API) rather than
direct system call use
Type of System Calls:
➢File management – (create file, delete file, open,
close file, read, write, reposition, get and set file
attributes)
➢Device management – (request device, release
device, read, write, reposition, get device attributes,
set device attributes, logically attach or detach
devices)
➢Information maintenance – (get time or date, set
time or date, get system data, set system data, get and
set process, file, or device attributes)
➢Communications – (create, delete communication
connection, send, receive messages if message
passing model to host name or process name, i.e.
from client to server, transfer status information,
attach and detach remote devices)
➢Protection – (Control access to resources, Get and
set permissions, Allow and deny user access)
System Programs
System programs provide a convenient environment for
program development and execution. They can be
divided into:
➢File Management/manipulation
➢Status information sometimes stored in a File
modification
➢Programming language support
➢Program loading and execution
➢Communications
➢Background services
➢Application program
Operating System Structure
Simple Structure
I.e., MS DOS written to provide the most functionality in
the least space
• Not divided into modules
• Although MS DOS has some structure, its
interfaces and levels of functionality are not
well separated
Unix
UNIX limited by hardware functionality, the original
UNIX operating system had limited structuring. The
UNIX OS consists of two separable parts:
➢Systems programs
➢The kernel
• Consists of everything below the system call
interface and above the physical hardware
• Provides the file system, CPU scheduling,
memory management, and other operating
system functions; a large number of functions
for one level
Layered Structure Approach
➢ The operating system is divided into a
number of layers (levels), each built on top of
lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user
interface.
➢ With modularity, layers are selected such
that each uses functions (operations) and
services of only lower level layers
Microkernel System Structure
➢ A microkernel system structure is a design
approach for operating systems where the core
functionality of the operating system is kept as
small and minimal as possible, with most
operating system services provided by separate,
user-level processes or modules.
➢ In a microkernel system, the kernel's primary
responsibility is to manage communication and
provide essential services, while higher-level
functions are delegated to separate
components running in user space.
Modular Structure
➢ Most modern operating systems implement loadable
kernel modules
➢Uses object oriented approach
➢Each core component is separate
➢Each talks to the others over known
interfaces
➢Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
➢Similar to layers but with more flexible
➢Linux, Solaris, etc
Hybrid Systems
Most modern operating systems actually not one pure
model
• Hybrid combines multiple approaches to
address performance, security, usability needs
• Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address
space, so monolithic, plus modular for dynamic
loading of functionality
• Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel
for different subsystem personalities Apple Mac
OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa
programming environment
Debugging is finding and fixing errors, or bugs
➢OSes generate log files containing error
information ➢Failure of an application can
generate core dump file capturing
➢memory of the process
➢Operating system failure can generate crash
dump file containing kernel memory
▪ Beyond crashes, performance tuning
can optimize system performance
 ➢Sometimes using trace listings of activities,
recorded for analysis
➢Profiling is periodic sampling of instruction
pointer to look for statistical trends

Kernighan’s Law: Debugging is twice as hard as writing

the code in the first place. Therefore, if you write the
code as cleverly as possible, you are, by definition, not
smart enough to debug it.

Performance Tuning
• Improve performance by removing
bottlenecks
• OS must provide means of computing and
displaying measures of system behavior
• For example, “top” program or Windows Task
Manager

Various ways to structure one as follows:

• Simple Structure
• Layered Structure
• Microkernel System Structure
• Modular Structure
• Hybrid Systems

System Boot When power initialized on system,

execution starts at a fixed memory location
➢Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
➢Operating system must be made available to
hardware so hardware can start it
➢Small piece of code bootstrap loader , stored
in ROM or EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it
into memory, and starts it
➢Sometimes two step process where boot
block at fixed location loaded by ROM code,
which loads bootstrap loader from disk
➢Common bootstrap loader, GRUB , allows
selection of kernel from multiple disks, versions,
kernel options
➢Kernel loads and system is then running