Applied Operating System
MODULE 1 – IT0035
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?
An Operating System (OS) is a program or
system software that acts as an interface between
the user and the computer hardware and controls
the execution of all kinds of programs.
It is not possible for the user to use any computer
or mobile device without having an operating
system.
Goals of Operating System
1. Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier.
2. Make the computer system convenient to use.
3. Use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner.
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
❖ Computer hardware – CPU, memory and
I/O devices, provides the basic computing
resources.
❖ Application programs – are used to solve
the computing problems of the users such as
word processors, games and business
programs.
❖ Users – who utilize a computer or network
service trying to solve different problems.
❖ Operating Systems – controls and
coordinates the use of the hardware among
the various application programs for the
various users.
COMMON SERVICES OFFERED BY ALMOST ALL
OPERATING SYSTEMS:
1. User Interface (UI) – refers to the part of an
OS, or device that allows a user to enter and
receive information.
• Types of UI:
o Command Line Interface
o Batch based interface
o Graphical User Interface
2. Program Execution – The OS must have the
capability to load a program into memory
and execute that program.
3. File System Manipulation – Programs need
has to be read and then write them as files
and directories. File handling portion of OS
also allows users to create and delete files by
specific name along with extension, search
for a given file and / or list file information.
4. Input / Output Operations – A program
which is currently executing may require I/O,
which may involve file or other I/O device.
The OS is responsible for reading and/or
writing data from I/O devices such as disks,
tapes, printers, keyboards, etc.
5. Communication – Process needs to swap
over information with other process.
Processes executing on same computer
system or on different computer systems can
communicate using operating system
support.
6. Resource Allocation – The OS manages the
different computer resources such as CPU
time, memory space, file storage space, I/O
devices, etc. and allocates them to different
application programs and users.
7. Error Detection – The operating system
should be able to detect errors within the
computer system (CPU, memory, I/O, or user
program) and take the appropriate action.
8. Job Accounting – OS keeps track of time
and resources used by various tasks and
users, this information can be used to track
resource usage for a particular user or group
of users.
9. Security and Protection
➢ Protection is any mechanism for
controlling access of processes or users
to resources defined by the OS.
➢ Security is a defense of the system
against internal and external attacks
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(denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service)
WHAT IS A KERNEL?
Kernel is the central part of an OS which manages
system resources and is always resident in
memory. It also acts like a bridge between
application and hardware of the computer. It is
also the first program that loads after the
bootloader.
Bootloader is a program that loads and starts the
boot time tasks and processes of an OS. It also
places the OS of a computer into memory.
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Operating systems are there from the very first
computer generation and they keep evolving with
time.
Types of operating systems which are most
commonly used:
1. Batch Operating System
• The user of a BOS never directly
interacts with the computer.
• Every user prepares his or her job on an
offline device like a punch card and
submit it to the computer operator.
• To speed up processing, jobs with
similar needs are batched together and
run as a group.
• The programmers leave their programs
with the operator then operator sorts
the programs with similar
requirements into batches.
2. Time-sharing Operating Systems
• Time-sharing or multitasking is logical
extension in which CPU switches jobs
so frequently that users can interact
with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing.
• Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU
by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the
user can receive an immediate
response. Response time should be < 1
second
• Each user has at least one program
executing in memory
• If several jobs ready to run at the same
time -> CPU scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory,
swapping will take place
• Examples: Unix, Linux, Multics and
Windows
3. Distributed Operating System
• Distributed systems use multiple
central processors to serve multiple
real-time applications and multiple
users. Data processing jobs are
distributed among the processors
accordingly.
• The processors communicate with one
another through various
communication lines (such as high-
speed buses or telephone lines). These
are referred as loosely coupled systems
or distributed systems. Processors in a
distributed system may vary in size and
function. These processors are referred
as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
• Examples: Telecom Network, WWW,
Cloud Computing, etc.
4. Network Operating System
• A NOS runs on a server and provides
the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking
functions.
• The primary purpose of the network
operating system is to allow shared file
and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a
local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
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• Examples: Microsoft Windows Server
2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008,
UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X Server, Novell
NetWare, and BSD/OS (Berkeley
Software Design)
5. Real-time Operating System
• RTOS is an operating system intended
to serve real-time systems/applications
that process data as it comes in, mostly
without buffer delay.
• The time interval required to process
and respond to inputs is very small.
This time interval is called response
time.
• Real-time systems are used when there
are time requirements are very strict
like missile systems, air traffic control
systems, robots, etc.
• Examples: LynxOS, OSE, QNX, RTLinux,
VxWorks, Windows CE
6. Handheld Operating System
• It is also known as Mobile OS which is
built exclusively for a mobile device,
such as a smartphone, personal
digital assistant (PDA), tablet,
wearable devices or other embedded
mobile OS.
• Examples: Android, Symbian, iOS,
BlackBerry OS and Windows Mobile
COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION
× One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to
shared memory.
× Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
completing for memory cycles.
× I/O devices and the CPU can execute
concurrently.
× Each device controller is in charge of a
particular device type
× Each device controller has a local buffer.
× CPU moves data from/to main memory
to/from local buffers.
× I/O is from the device to local buffer of
controller.
× Device controller informs CPU that it has
finished its operation by causing an interrupt.
What is an Interrupt?
› Interrupt is a signal emitted by hardware or
software when a process or an event needs
immediate attention.
› It alerts the processor temporarily to a high
priority process requiring interruption of the
current working process and then return to
its previous task.
› Types of Interrupts:
o Hardware Interrupt
o Software Interrupt
› An operating system is interrupt driven.
HARDWARE INTERRUPT
→ A signal created and sent to the CPU that is
caused by some action taken by a hardware
device.
→ Example: When a key is pressed or when
the mouse is moved.
SOFTWARE INTERRUPT
→ Arises due to illegal and erroneous use of
an instruction or data. It often occurs when
an application software terminates or when
it requests the operating system for some
service.
→ Example: stack overflow, division by zero,
invalid opcode, etc. These are also called
traps.
INTERRUPT HANDLING
The operating system preserves the state of the
CPU by storing registers and the program counter.
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
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➢ Polling – operating system sends signal to
each devices asking if they have a request.
➢ Vectored Interrupt System - requesting
device sends interrupt to the operating
system.
Separate segments of code determine what action
should be taken for each type of interrupt.
Operating System Operators
› Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect
itself and other system components
× User mode and kernel mode
× Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when
system is running user code (1) or kernel
code (0)
• Some instructions designated as
privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
• System call changes mode to kernel,
return from call resets it to user.
• A system call is a way for programs to
interact with the OS. A computer
program makes a system call when it
makes a request to the OS‘s kernel.
PROCESSOR SYSTEM
Single-Processor System
› There is one main CPU capable of executing
a general-purpose instruction set, including
instructions from user processes.
Multiprocessor System
› Also known as parallel-system or
multicore.
› First appeared in servers and now in
smartphones and tablet computers.
COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
× Most systems use a single general-purpose
processor (PDAs through mainframes)
× Most systems have special-purpose
processors as well
× Multiprocessors systems growing in use and
importance
o Also known as parallel systems or
tightly-coupled systems
o Advantages include:
▪ Increased throughput
▪ Economy of scale
▪ Increased reliability – graceful
degradation of fault tolerance
o Two types:
▪ Asymmetric Multiprocessing
▪ Symmetric Multiprocessing
MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEMS
Advantages:
1. Increased throughput. Increasing the
number of processor, expect to get more
work done in less time.
2. Economy of Scale. It can cost less than
equivalent multiple single-processor
systems because they can share
peripherals, mass storage and power
supplies.
3. Increased Reliability. Functions can be
distributed properly among several
processors. If one processor fails, the other
processor can pick-up the task.
The multiprocessor systems in use today are of
two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing. Each
processor is assigned a specific task. A boss
processor controls the system and the
other processors either look to the boss for
instructions or have predefined tasks.
Boss-worker relationship.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP). The
most commonly used. In which each
processor performs all tasks within the
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operating system. All processors are
peers and no boss-worker relationship.
The difference between symmetric and
asymmetric may result from either hardware or
software.
× A recent trend in CPU design is to include
multiple computing cores on a single chip.
Such multiprocessor systems are termed
multicore. They can be more efficient than
multiple chips with single core.
× A dual-core design with two cores on the
same chip. Each core has its own register set
as well as its own local cache
CLUSTERED SYSTEMS
› Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple
systems working together.
› Usually sharing storage via a storage-area
network (SAN)
› Provides a high-availability service which
survives failures
o Asymmetric clustering has one
machine in hot-standby mode
o Symmetric clustering has multiple
nodes running applications, monitoring
each other
› Some clusters are for high-performance
computing (HPC)
COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT
› Traditional computer – blurring over time
• Office environment
→ PCs connected to a network,
terminals attached to mainframe or
minicomputers providing batch
and timesharing
→ Now portals allowing networked
and remote systems access to
same resources
• Home networks
→ Used to be single system, then
modems
→ Now firewalled, networked
• Mobile computing
→ Refers to computing on handheld
smartphones and tablet
computers.
• Distributed system
→ It is a collection of physically
separate, possibly heterogeneous
computer systems that are
networked to provide users with
access to the various resources that
the system maintains.
→ Network operating system is an
operating system that provides
services across the network.
• Client-Server Computing
→ Dumb terminals succeeded by
smart PCs
→ Many systems now servers,
responding to requests generated
by clients
o Compute-server provides
an interface to client to
request services (i.e.
database)
o File-server provides
interface for clients to store
and retrieve files.
› Another model of distributed system
› P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
• Instead all nodes are considered peers
• May each act as client, server or both
• Node must join P2P network
→ Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
→ Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
• Examples: Napster and BitTorrent
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› Virtualization
• It is a technology that allows operating
systems to run as applications within OPEN-SOURCE OPERATING SYSTEM
other operating system. × Open Source operating systems are
• It is one member of the class software released under a license where the copyright
that also includes emulation. Emulation holder allows others to study, change as well
is used when the source CPU type is as distribute the software to other people.
different from the target CPU type. × Counter to the copy protection and Digital
• Example: virtual machine, Rights Management (DRM) movement.
OracleVirtualBox × Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF),
› Cloud Computing which has “copyleft” GNU Public License
• It is a type of computing that delivers (GPL)
computing, storage and even × Examples: GNU (GNU’s Not Unix) / Linux,
applications as a service across a BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and
network. Sun Solaris
• It is a logical extension of virtualization
→ Public Cloud – cloud available via
the Internet
→ Private Cloud – cloud run by a
company for that company’s own
use
→ Hybrid Cloud – cloud that includes
both public and private
› Cloud Computing Service Models
• Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or
more applications available via the
Internet
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software
stack ready for application use via the
Internet
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) –
servers or storage available over the
Internet.
Platform Type Common Examples
Google Apps, Dropbox, Salesforce,
SaaS
Cisco WebEx, Concur, GoToMeeting
AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Windows Azure,
PaaS Heroku, Force.com, Google App
Engine, Apache Stratos, OpenShift
DigitalOcean, Linode, Rackspace,
Amazon Web Services (AWS), Cisco
IaaS
Metapod, Microsoft Azure, Google
Compute Engine (GCE)
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PROCESS MANAGEMENT
PROCESS CONCEPT
› A process is a program in execution. A
program by itself is not a process.
› A program is a passive entity, such as the
contents of a file stored on disk while a
process is an active entity.
› A computer system consists of a collection of
processes:
o Operating system processes execute
system code, and
o User processes execute user code.
› Although several processes may be
associated with the same program, they are
nevertheless considered separate execution
sequences.
› All processes can potentially execute
concurrently with the CPU (or CPUs)
multiplexing among them (time sharing).
› A process is actually a cycle of CPU execution
(CPU burst) and I/O wait (I/O burst).
Processes alternate back and forth between
these two states.
› Process execution begins with a CPU burst
that is followed by an I/O burst, which is
followed by another CPU burst, then another
I/O burst, and so on. Eventually, the last CPU
burst will end with a system request to
terminate execution.
› Example:
PROCESS ARCHITECTURE
To put it in simple terms, we write our computer
programs in a text file and when we execute this
program, it becomes a process which performs all
the tasks mentioned in the program.
When a program is loaded into the memory and
it becomes a process, it can be divided into four
sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The figure
shows a simplified layout of a process inside main
memory.
The process Stack contains the temporary data
Stack such as method/function parameters, return
address and local variables.
This is dynamically allocated memory to a
Heap
process during its run time.
This includes the current activity represented by
Text the value of Program Counter and the contents
of the processor's registers.
This section contains the global and static
Data
variables.
PROCESS STATE
As a process executes, it changes state. The
current activity of a process party defines its state.
Each sequential process may be in one of
following states:
1. New. The process is being created
2. Running. The CPU is executing its
instructions.
3. Waiting. The process is waiting for some
event to occur (such as an I/O completion).
4. Ready. The process is waiting for the OS to
assign a processor to it.
5. Terminated. The process has finished
execution.
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Process State Diagram
PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK
Each process is represented in the operating
system by a process control block (PCB) – also
called a task control block. A PCB is a data block
or record containing many pieces of the
information associated with a specific process
including:
1. Process state. The state may be new,
ready, running, waiting, or halted.
2. Program Counter. The program counter
indicates the address of the next
instruction to be executed for this process.
3. CPU Registers. These include
accumulators, index registers, stack
pointers, and general-purpose registers,
plus any condition-code information.
Along with the program counter, this
information must be saved when an
interrupt occurs, to allow the process to be
continued correctly afterward.
4. CPU Scheduling Information. This
information includes a process priority,
pointers to scheduling queues, and any
other scheduling parameters.
5. Memory Management Information. This
information includes limit registers or page
tables.
6. Accounting Information. This information
includes the amount of CPU and real time
used, time limits, account numbers, job or
process numbers, and so on.
7. I/O Status Information. This information
includes outstanding I/O requests, I/O
devices (such as disks) allocated to this
process, a list of open files, and so on.
× The PCB simply serves as the repository for
any information that may vary from process to
process.
PROCESS CONCEPT
Example of the CPU being switched from one
process to another. This is also known as Context
Switch Diagram.
CONCURRENT PROCESSES
o The processes in the system can execute
concurrently; that is, many processes may be
multitasked on a CPU.
o A process may create several new processes,
via a create-process system call, during the
course of execution. Each of these new
processes may in turn create other processes.
o The creating process is the parent process
whereas the new processes are the children
of that process.
o When a process creates a sub-process, the
sub-process may be able to obtain its
resources directly from the OS or it may use a
subset of the resources of the parent process.
o Restricting a child process to a subset of the
parent’s resources prevents any process from
overloading the system by creating too
many processes
o When a process creates a new process, two
common implementations exist in terms of
execution:
1. The parent continues to execute
concurrently with its children.
2. The parent waits until all its children
have terminated.
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o A process terminates when it finishes its last
statement and asks the operating system to
delete it using the exit system call.
o A parent may terminate the execution of one
of its children for a variety of reason, such as:
1. The child has exceeded its usage of
some of the resources it has been
allocated.
2. The task assigned to the child is no
longer required.
3. The parent is exiting, and the OS does
not allow a child to continue if its parent
terminates. In such systems, if a process
terminates, then all its children must also
be terminated by the operating system.
This phenomenon is referred to as
cascading termination.
o The concurrent processes executing in the OS
may either be independent processes or
cooperating processes.
o A process is independent if it cannot affect or
be affected by the other processes. Clearly,
any process that does not share any data
(temporary or persistent) with any other
process is independent. Such a process has
the following characteristics:
1. Its execution is deterministic; that is, the
result of the execution depends solely
on the input state.
2. Its execution is reproducible; that is, the
result of the execution will always be the
same for the same input.
3. Its execution can be stopped and
restarted without causing ill effects.
o A process is cooperating if it can affect or be
affected by the other processes. Clearly, any
process that shares data with other processes
is a cooperating process. Such a process has
the following characteristics:
1. The results of its execution cannot be
predicted in advance, since it depends
on relative execution sequence.
2. The result of its execution is
nondeterministic since it will not always
be the same for the same input.
o Concurrent execution of cooperating process
requires mechanisms that allow processes to
communicate with one another and to
synchronize their actions
SCHEDULING CONCEPTS
• The objective of multiprogramming is to
have some process running at all times, to
maximize CPU utilization.
• Multiprogramming also increases
throughput, which is the amount of work
the system accomplishes in a given time
interval (for example, 17 processes per
minute).
• Example: Given two processes, P0 and P1.
• The idea of multiprogramming is if one
process is in the waiting state, then another
process which is in the ready state goes to
the running state.
• As processes enter the system, they are put
into a job queue. This queue consists of all
processes in the system.
• The processes that are residing in main
memory and are ready and waiting to
execute are kept on another queue which is
the ready queue.
• A process migrates between the various
scheduling queues throughout its lifetime.
The OS must select processes from these
queues in some fashion.
• The selection process is the responsibility of
the appropriate scheduler.
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TYPES OF SCHEDULER
o Long-term scheduler ( or Job scheduler )
→ selects processes from the secondary
storage and loads them into memory
for execution.
→ The long-term scheduler executes
much less frequently.
→ There may be minutes between the
creation of new processes in the
system.
→ The long-term scheduler controls the
degree of multiprogramming – the
number of processes in memory.
→ Because of the longer interval between
executions, the long-term scheduler
can afford to take more time to select
a process for execution.
o Short-term scheduler ( or CPU scheduler )
→ selects process from among the
processes that are ready to execute,
and allocates the CPU to one of them.
→ The short-term scheduler must select a
new process for the CPU frequently.
→ A process may execute for only a few
milliseconds before waiting for an I/O
request.
→ Because of the brief time between
executions, the short-term scheduler
must be very fast.
SCHEDULING CONCEPTS
› Medium-term scheduler removes (swaps
out) certain processes from memory to lessen
the degree of multiprogramming (particularly
when thrashing occurs)
› At some later time, the process can be
reintroduced into memory and its execution
can be continued where it left off.
› This scheme is called swapping.
› Switching the CPU to another process
requires some time to save the state of the old
process and loading the saved state for the
new process. This task is known as context
switch.
› Context-switch time is pure overhead,
because the system does no useful work
while switching and should therefore be
minimized.
› Whenever the CPU becomes idle, the OS
(particularly the CPU scheduler) must select
one of the processes in the ready queue for
execution.
CPU SCHEDULER
CPU scheduling decisions may take place under
the following four circumstances:
1. When a process switches from the running
state to the waiting state (for example, I/O
request, invocation of wait for the
termination of one of the child processes).
2. When a process switches from the running
state to the ready state (for example, when
an interrupt occurs).
3. When a process switches from the waiting
state to the ready state (for example,
completion of I/O).
4. When a process terminates.
For circumstances 1 and 4, there is no choice in
terms of scheduling. A new process (if one exists
in the ready queue) must be selected for
execution. There is a choice, however, for
circumstances 2 and 3.
When scheduling takes place only under
circumstances 1 and 4, the scheduling scheme is
non-preemptive; otherwise, the scheduling
scheme is preemptive.
CPU SCHEDULING
• Non-preemptive scheduling, once the CPU
has been allocated to a process, the process
keeps the CPU until it releases the CPU either
by terminating or switching states. No process
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is interrupted until it is completed, and after
that processor switches to another process.
• Preemptive scheduling works by dividing
time slots of CPU to a given process. The time
slot given might be able to complete the whole
process or might not be able to it. When the
burst time of the process is greater than CPU
cycle, it is placed back into the ready queue and
will execute in the next chance. This scheduling
is used when the process switch to ready state.
CPU SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS
• Different CPU-scheduling algorithms have
different properties and may favor one class
of processes over another.
• Many criteria have been suggested for
comparing CPU-scheduling algorithms.
• The characteristics used for comparison can
make a substantial difference in the
determination of the best algorithm. The
criteria should include: CPU Utilization,
Throughput, Turnaround Time, Waiting
Time, and Response Time
CPU SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS
1. CPU Utilization measures how busy is the
CPU. CPU utilization may range from 0 to 100
percent. In a real system, it should range from
40% (for a lightly loaded system) to 90% (for
a heavily loaded system).
2. Throughput is the amount of work
completed in a unit of time. In other words
throughput is the processes executed to
number of jobs completed in a unit of time.
The scheduling algorithm must look to
maximize the number of jobs processed per
time unit.
3. Turnaround Time measures how long it
takes to execute a process. Turnaround time
is the interval from the time of submission to
the time of completion. It is the sum of the
periods spent waiting to get into memory,
waiting in the ready queue, executing in the
CPU, and doing I/O.
4. Waiting Time is the time a job waits for
resource allocation when several jobs are
competing in multiprogramming system.
Waiting time is the total amount of time a
process spends waiting in the ready queue.
5. Response Time is the time from the
submission of a request until the system
makes the first response. It is the amount of
time it takes to start responding but not the
time that it takes to output that response.
A good CPU scheduling algorithm maximizes
CPU utilization and throughput and minimizes
turnaround time, waiting time and response time.
• In most cases, the average measure is
optimized. However, in some cases, it is
desired to optimize the minimum or
maximum values, rather than the average.
• For example, to guarantee that all users get
good service, it may be better to minimize
the maximum response time.
• For interactive systems (time-sharing
systems), some analysts suggests that
minimizing the variance in the response
time is more important than averaging
response time.
• A system with a reasonable and predictable
response may be considered more desirable
than a system that is faster on the average,
but is highly variable.
• Non-preemptive:
› First-Come First-Served(FCFS)
› Shortest Job First (SJF)
› Priority Scheduling (Non-preemptive)
• Preemptive:
› Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF)
› Priority Scheduling (Preemptive)
› Round-robin (RR)
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Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround
Process
CPU SCHEDULING TECHNIQUES—NON Time Time Time Time
PREEMPTIVE P1 0 5 0-0 = 0 5-0 = 5
P2 1 3 5-0 = 5 8-0 = 8
FIRST-COME FIRST-SERVED (FCFS) P3 2 8 8-0 = 8 16-0 =16
→ FCFS is the simplest CPU-scheduling 16-0 =
P4 3 6 22-0 = 22
algorithm. 16
→ The process that requests the CPU first gets 29/4 51/4
Average
7.25 ms 12.75 ms
the CPU first.
→ The FCFS algorithm is non-preemptive.
→ Example 1: Gantt Chart:
o Consider the following set of P1 P2 P3 P4
processes that arrive at time 0, with
the length of the CPU burst given in
0 5 8 16 22
milliseconds (ms).
o Illustrate the Gantt chart and SHORTEST JOB FIRST (SJF)
compute for the average waiting → SJF algorithm associates with each process
time and average turnaround the length of the latter’s next CPU burst.
time. → When the CPU is available, it is assigned
Given: to the process that has the smallest next
Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround CPU burst.
Process
Time Time Time Time
→ If two processes have the same length next
P1 0 5 0-0 = 0 5-0 = 5
P2 0 3 5-0 = 5 8-0 = 8
CPU burst, FCFS scheduling is used to
P3 0 8 8-0 = 8 16-0 =16 break the tie.
16-0 = → SJF algorithm is non-preemptive.
P4 0 6 22-0 = 22
16 → Example 1:
29/4 51/4 Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround
Average Process
7.25 ms 12.75 ms Time Time Time Time
P1 0 5 3-0 = 3 8-0 = 8
Gantt Chart:
P2 0 3 0-0 = 0 3-0 = 3
P1 P2 P3 P4 14-0 =
P3 0 8 22-0 = 22
14
P4 0 6 8-0 = 8 14-0 = 14
0 5 8 16 22 25/4 47/4
Average
Formulas: 6.25 ms 11.75 ms
• Waiting time = Start time – Arrival Gantt Chart:
time
P2 P1 P4 P3
• Turnaround time = Completion time
– Arrival time
• Average Waiting time = Sum of 0 3 8 14 22
Waiting time / No. of processes
• Average Waiting Time = Sum of
Turnaround time / No. of processes
→ Example 2:
Applied Operating System
MODULE 2 – IT0035

→ Example 2: CPU SCHEDULING TECHNIQUES—

Process
Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround PREEMPTIVE
Time Time Time Time
P1 0 5 0-0 = 0 5-0 = 5 SHORTEST JOB FIRST (SJF)
P2 1 3 5-1 = 4 8-1 = 7 → The SJF algorithm may be either
14-2 =
P3 2 8 22-2 = 20 preemptive or nonpreemptive.
12
P4 3 6 8-3 = 5 14-3 = 11
→ A new process arriving may have a shorter
21/4 43/4 next CPU burst than what is left of the
Average
5.25 ms 10.75 ms currently executing process.
Gantt Chart: → A preemptive SJF algorithm will preempt
the currently executing process.
P1 P2 P4 P3
→ Preemptive SJF scheduling is sometimes
called Shortest Remaining Time First
0 5 8 14 22 scheduling.
PRIORITY SCHEDULING (NP) SHORTEST REMAINING TIME FIRST (SRTF)
→ Priority scheduling (non-preemptive) Example:
algorithm is one of the most common Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround
Process
scheduling algorithms in batch systems. Time Time Time Time
→ Each process is assigned a priority. (0-0) +
P1 0 5 8-0 = 8
(4-1) = 3
→ Process with highest priority is to be
P2 1 3 1-1 = 0 4-1 = 3
executed first and so on. 14-2 =
→ Processes with same priority are executed P3 2 8 22-2 = 20
12
on FCFS basis. P4 3 6 8-3 = 5 14-3 = 11
→ Priority can be decided based on memory Average
20/4 42/4
requirements, time requirements or any 5 ms 10.5 ms
other resource requirement. Gantt Chart:
→ Example 1: P1 P2 P2 P2 P1 P4 P3
Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround
Process
Time Time Time Time
P1 0 5 0-0 = 0 5-0 = 5 0 1 2 3 4 8 14 22
P2 0 3 13-0 = 13 16-0 = 16
P3 0 8 5-0 = 5 13-0 = 13 PRIORITY SCHEDULING (P)
P4 0 6 16-0 = 16 22-0 = 22 → Priority scheduling can either be
34/4 56/4 preemptive or nonpreemptive.
Average
8.5 ms 14 ms
→ When a process arrives at the ready queue,
Gantt Chart: its priority is compared with the priority at
P1 P3 P2 P4 the currently running process.
→ A preemptive priority scheduling
algorithm will preempt the CPU if the
0 5 13 16 22
priority of the newly arrived process is
higher than the currently running process.
Applied Operating System
MODULE 2 – IT0035

→ Example 3:
Proce Arrival Burst
Priority
Waiting Turnaroun → The performance of the RR algorithm
ss Time Time Time d Time
P1 0 5 1 0-0 = 0 5-0 = 5
depends heavily on the size of the time
13-1 = quantum.
P2 1 3 2 16-1 = 15
12 → If the time quantum is too large (infinite),
P3 2 8 1 5-2 = 3 13-2 = 11
the RR policy degenerates into the FCFS
16-3 =
P4 3 6 3
13
22-3 = 19 policy.
Average
28/4 50/4 → If the time quantum is too small, then the
7 ms 12.5 ms effect of the context switch time becomes
Gantt Chart: a significant overhead.
P1 P1 P1 P1 P3 P2 P4 → As a general rule, 80 percent of the CPU
burst should be shorter than the time
quantum.
0 1 2 3 5 13 16 22

ROUND-ROBIN (RR) SCHEDULING

→ This algorithm is specifically for time-
sharing systems.
→ A small unit of time, called a time
quantum or time slice, is defined.
→ The ready queue is treated as a circular
queue.
→ The CPU scheduler goes around the ready
queue, allocating the CPU to each process
for a time interval of up to 1 time quantum.
→ The RR algorithm is therefore preemptive.
→ Example:
Arrival Burst Waiting Turnaround
Process
Time Time Time Time
(0-0 + 12-3)
P1 0 5 14-0 = 14
=9
P2 1 3 3-1 = 2 6-1 = 5
(6-2 + 14-9
P3 2 8 + 20-17) 22-2 = 20
=12
(9-3 + 17-
P4 3 6 20-3 = 17
12) = 11
34/4 56/4
Average
8.5 ms 14 ms
Gantt Chart:
P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P3 P4 P3

0 3 6 9 12 14 17 20 22