OPERATING SYSTEM UNIT-1

What is an Operating System ?

• A modern computer consists of:

 One or more processors
 Main memory
 Disks
 Printers
 Various input/output devices.
• Managing all these varied components requires a layer of software – the
Operating System (OS).
Operating System:

 An operating System (OS) is an intermediary between users and computer

hardware. It provides users an environment in which a user can execute
programs conveniently and efficiently.
 In technical terms, it is software which manages hardware. An operating
System controls the allocation of resources and services such as memory,
processors, devices and information.

• An Operating System is a program that acts as an intermediate/interface

between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.

• OS goals:

– Control/execute user/application programs.

– Make the computer system convenient to use.

– Ease the solving of user problems.

– Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

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Windows 
Android 
Linux 
Ubuntu 
Fedora 
Mac O/S 

Where does the OS fit in?

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Operation mode of computer

Characteristics of OS

• It manages different resources like cpu, disk, memory etc.

• It allows portability and enables easier program.

• It improves the performance.

• It is an interface b/w hardware and software.

Services provided by an OS

• Program Development :-

It provides variety of facilities and services such as editor and debugger. Editor
is used to create or modify the program. Debugger is used to debug the program.

• Program execution :-
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It provides some tasks to execute program. Instruction and data must be loaded
into main memory, I/O devices must be initialized and resources must be prepared.

• Access to I/O devices

It requires some set of instructions or operations. Programmer can access such

devices using simple reads and writes.

• System access

In the case of share or public system, OS control access to the system. It must
provide protection from unauthorized user.

• Control access to Files

– Provide mechanism to control access to files.

• Error detection and correction

– A verity of error can occur while system is running such as internal or

external error. OS must correct this type of errors.

• Accounting

– Accounting is the process of keeping track of a user’s activity while

accessing a network’s resources, including the amount of time spent
in the network.

Give different types of operating system.

Types of Operating system:

• Batch Operating System

• Time-sharing Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
• Network Operating System
• Real-time Operating System
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Batch operating system:

• The users of batch operating system do not interact with the computer
directly.
• Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and
submits it to the computer operator.
• To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run
as a group.
• Thus, the programmers left their programs with the operator. The operator
then sorts programs into batches with similar requirements.
• The problems with Batch Systems are following.
 Lack of interaction between the user and job.
 CPU is often idle, because the speeds of the mechanical I/O devices are
slower than CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
• Real Life Example:
 to purchase any product EMI facility is available.
 Practical Batch in the Exam

Time-sharing operating systems:

• Time sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various

terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time.
• Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
• Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.
• The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-
Sharing Systems is that in case of multiprogrammed batch systems,
objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems
objective is to minimize response time.
• Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate
response.
• For example, in a transaction processing, processor execute each user
program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is if n users are
present, each user can get time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
• Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are following
 Provide advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
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 Reduces CPU idle time.

• Disadvantages of Timesharing operating systems are following.
 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
• Real Life Example:
 Telnet users

Distributed operating System:

• Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real

time application and multiple users.
• Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly to
which one can perform each job most efficiently.
• The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines).
• These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
• Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, and computers and so on.
• The advantages of distributed systems are following.
 With resource sharing facility user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Real Life Example:

 www
 Internet

Network operating System:

 Network Operating System runs on a server and provides server the

capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions.
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 The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file
and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local
area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
 Examples of network operating systems are Microsoft Windows Server
2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell
NetWare, and BSD.
• The advantages of network operating systems are following.
 Centralized servers are highly stable.
 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
• The disadvantages of network operating systems are following.
 High cost of buying and running a server.
 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
• Real Life Example:
Novell NetWare, Microsoft Windows NT, Microsoft Windows

2000, Microsoft Windows XP, Sun Solaris, Linux, etc

Real Time operating System:

 Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be
used as a control device in a dedicated application.
 Real-time operating system has well-defined, fixed time constraints
otherwise system will fail.
 For example Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial
control systems, weapon systems, robots, and home-appliance controllers,
Air traffic control system etc.
• There are two types of real-time operating systems.
 Hard real-time systems
 Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. For
e.g. Internal Exam, External Exam.
 In hard real-time systems secondary storage is limited or missing with data
stored in ROM. In these systems virtual memory is almost never found.
 Soft real-time systems
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 Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority
over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. For e.g.,
Assignment Submission, Attendance.
Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For
example, Multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea
exploration and planetary rovers etc.

Buffering And Spooling

There are two ways by which Input/output subsystems can improve the
performance and efficiency of the computer by using a memory space in the main
memory or on the disk and these two are spooling and buffering.

What is buffering?.
A buffer is an area of main memory for holding data during input and output data
transfers.

 Buffering is one tool that can increase the efficiency of the operating system and
the performance of individual processes.
 After the data have been read and the CPU is about to start the operations, the input
device is instructed to begin the next input operation.
 Both the CPU and I/O device are busy.

I/O Buffering
 Block-oriented
Information is stored in fixed sized blocks
Transfers are made a block at a time
Used for disks and tapes
 Stream-oriented
Transfer information as a stream of bytes
Used for terminals, printers, communication ports, mouse, and most other devices
that are not secondary storage
Types of Buffering
• Single Buffer
• Double Buffer
• Circular Buffer
Single Buffer:
Operating system assigns a buffer in main memory for an I/O request
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Block-oriented
• Input transfers made to buffer
• Block moved to user space when needed
• Another block is moved into the buffer
Stream-oriented
• Used a line at time
• User input from a terminal is one line at a time with carriage return signaling
the end of the line
• Output to the terminal is one line at a time

Double buffer:
• Use two system buffers instead of one
• A process can transfer data to or from one buffer while the operating system
empties or fills the other buffer
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Circular Buffer:
• More than two buffers are used
• Each individual buffer is one unit in a circular buffer
• Used when I/O operation must keep up with process

SPOOLING

Spooling stands for Simultaneous peripheral operation online. A spool is

similar to buffer as it holds the jobs for a device until the device is ready to accept
the job. Spooling refers to putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer
is a special area in memory or hard disk which is accessible to I/O devices. It
considers disk as a huge buffer that can store as many jobs for the device till the
output devices are ready to accept them.

An operating system does the following activities related to distributed

environment −

 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
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 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data
can rest while the slower device catches up.
 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer
can perform I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the
computer read data from a tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape
printer while it is doing its computing task.

Advantages

 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor
operations for another job.

Difference Between Buffering and Spooling

SPOOLING BUFFERING
It overlaps the input/output of It overlaps the input/output of
Basic
one job with the execution of one job with the execution of the
Difference
another job. same job.
Full form Simultaneous peripheral
No full form
(stands for) operation online
Spooling is more efficient than Buffering is less efficient than
Efficiency
buffering. spooling.
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SPOOLING BUFFERING
It considers disk as a huge spool Buffer is a limited area in main
Consider Size
or buffer. memory.

Encryption & Decryption

What is meant by Encryption?

Encryption is a process which transforms the original information into an

unrecognizable form. This new form of the message is entirely different from the
original message. That's why a hacker is not able to read the data as senders use an
encryption algorithm. Encryption is usually done using key algorithms.

Data is encrypted to make it safe from stealing. However, many known companies
also encrypt data to keep their trade secret from their competitors.

Encryption
Process

What is meant by Decryption?

Decryption is a process of converting encoded/encrypted data in a form that is

readable and understood by a human or a computer. This method is performed by
un-encrypting the text manually or by using keys used to encrypt the original data.

Decryption
process
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Why use Encryption and Decryption?

Here, are important reasons for using encryption:

 Helps you to protect your confidential data such as passwords and login id
 Provides confidentiality of private information
 Helps you to ensure that that the document or file has not been altered
 Encryption process also prevents plagiarism and protects IP
 Helpful for network communication (like the internet) and where a hacker
can easily access unencrypted data.
 It is an essential method as it helps you to securely protect data that you
don't want anyone else to have access.

KEY DIFFERENCE

 Encryption is a process of converting normal data into an unreadable form

whereas Decryption is a method of converting the unreadable/coded data
into its original form.
 Encryption is done by the person who is sending the data to the destination,
but the decryption is done at the person who is receiving the data.
 The same algorithm with the same key is used for both the encryption-
decryption processes.

Difference between Encryption and Decryption

Parameter Encryption Decryption

It is a process of converting
It is a method of converting the
normal data into an unreadable
What is unreadable/coded data into its
form. It helps you to avoid any
original form.
unauthorized access to data

Whenever the data is sent The receiver of the data

Process between two separate machines, automatically allows you to convert
it is encrypted automatically the data from the codes into its
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using a secret key. original form.

Location of The person who is sending the The receiver receives the data and
Conversion data to the destination. converts it.

The manager is receiving the

An employee is sending essential
Example essential documents from his/her
documents to his/her manager.
employee.

The only single algorithm is used for

The same algorithm with the
Use of encryption and decryption with a
same key is used for the
Algorithm pair of keys where each use for
encryption-decryption process.
encryption and decryption.

Transforming humanly It is a conversion of an obscure

Major understandable messages into an message into an understandable form
function incomprehensible and obscure which is easy to understand by a
form that cannot be interpreted. human.

Explain encryption with algorithm in detail.

 Encryption is one common method of protecting information transmitted

over unreliable links.
 The basic mechanism works as follows:
1. The information (text) is encrypted (encode) from its initial reasonable form
(called clear text) to an internal form (called cipher text) This internal text form,
although readable, does not make any sense.

2. The cipher text can be stored in a readable file, or transmitted over unprotected
channels.

3. To make sense of the cipher text, the receiver must decrypt (decode) it back into
clear text.
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 Even if the encrypted information is accessed by an unauthorized person or

program, it will be useless unless it can be decoded. The main challenge in
using this approach is the development of encryption schemes that are
impossible to break.
 Various methods meet this challenge. The most common ones provide a
general encryption algorithm, E, a general decryption algorithm, D, and a
secret key (or keys) to be supplied for each application.
Let Ek and Dk denote the encryption and decryption algorithms, respectively, for a
particular application with a key K.

Then, the encryption algorithm must satisfy the following properties for any
message m

l. Dk (Ek (m))-m

2. Both Ek and Dk can be computed efficiently.

3. The security of the system depends on only the secrecy of the key, and
does not depend on the secrecy of the algorithms E and D.

 The secret keys must be sent securely to both the sender and receiver. Each
user has both a public and a private key, and two users can communicate
knowing only each other's public key
 An algorithm based on this concept as follows. This algorithm is believed to
be almost unbreakable. The public encryption key is a pair (e, n); the private
key is a pair (d, n), where e, d, and n are positive integers. Each message is
represented as an integer between 0 and n-l (a long message is brokeń into a
series of similar messages, each of which can be represented as such an
integer). The function E and D are defined as
E(m) = me mod n = c

D(c) = CD mod n = m

The main problem is choosing the encryption and decryption keys. The integer n is
Computed as the product of two large (100 or more digits) randomly chosen prime
Number p and q with

n=p*q
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The value of d is chosen to be a large, randomly. chosen integer relatively prime

to (p-l)*(g-1). That is, d satisfies greatest common divisor

[d, (p-1)*(q-1)] = 1

Finally, the integer e is computed from p q and d to b the multiplicative inverse of

d modulo (p-1)*(q-1). That is e satisfies

E*d mod (p-1)*(q-1) =1

Finally the integer e computed from p, q, and d to be the multiplicative inverse of d

module (p-1)*(q-1). That e satisfies

E*d mod (p-1)*(q-1)=1

For example, Let p=5 and q=7, then, n=35 and (p-1)*(q-1) =24, since 11 is
relatively prime to 24, we can choose d=ll:• and since 11*11 mod 24 = 121 mod
24=1,e=11. suppose now m=3 then

C= me mod n=3 mod 35 =12

cd mod n=1211 mod 35= 3=m

Thus, if we encode m using e, we can decode m using d

311 = 177147

Password

Definition

 A password, sometimes called a passcode. Is a

memorized secret, typically a string of characters,
usually used to confirm the identity of a User.

 A password is a string of characters used for Authenticating a user on a

computer system. For example, you may have an account on your computer
that requires you to log in. In order to successfully access your account, you
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must provide a valid username and password. This combination is often

referred to as a login. While usernames are generally public information,
passwords are private to each user

 A secret word or code used to serve as a security measure against

unauthorized access to data. It may be used to log into a computer, network
or website or to activate newly installed software in the computer.
 Passwords provide the first line of defense against unauthorized access to your
computer and personal information. The stronger your password, the more
protected your computer will be from hackers and malicious software. You
should maintain strong passwords for all accounts on your computer.

Password Tips

 CHANGE PASSWORD FREQUENTLY - The longer you use a password, the

higher the risk.
 USE GOOD PASSWORDS - Don't use persons, places or things that can be
identified with you.
 DON'T DISCLOSE YOUR PASSWORD - Your password is as valuable as the
information it protects.
 INSPECT YOUR DATA - If you suspect someone has tampered with your
files, report it immediately.
 NEVER LEAVE AN ACTIVE TERMINAL UNATTENDED - Always log out
or lock your terminal before leaving it.

VIRUS
Vital Information Resources Under Seize

A computer virus is a program or piece of code that is loaded into your computer
without your knowledge and runs against your wishes. Viruses can also replicate
themselves

Creeper 1982 – First Virus on Network

C-brain 1986 – First PC Virus ( Boot sector Virus )

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Types of Computer Virus:

Overwrite Virus:

It is the simplest computer virus that overwrites the code of the host computer
system's file with its own malicious code. The content of the infected file is
replaced partially or completely without changing the size of the file. Thus, it
destroys the original program code by overwriting it with its defective code. The
infected files must be deleted or replaced with a new copy as this virus cannot be
removed or disinfected.

Append Virus:

As the name suggests, this virus appends its malicious code to the end of the host
program's file. After that, it alters the file's header in a way that the file's header is
redirected to the start of the malicious code of the append virus. Thus, this code is
executed each time the program runs. However, it does not destroy the host
program; rather, it modifies it in a way that it holds the virus code and enables the
code to run itself.

Macro Virus

Macro virus alters or infects the macros of a document or data file. It is embedded
as a macro in a document and adds its codes to the macros of the document. The
virus spreads when infected documents or data files are opened in other computers.

It also spreads through software programs, which execute macros such as Ms

Word, Ms Excel. Each time a document is opened using these programs, other
related documents will also get infected.

The first macro virus, which was named concept, spread through emails with
attached Ms Word documents. It infected MsWord 6.0 and Ms Word 95
documents, which were saved using Save As option. Fortunately, it did not cause
any harm, except for displaying a message on the screen.

Boot sector Virus

Boot virus or boot sector virus alters the boot sector program stored in the hard
disk or any other storage device such as floppy disks. It replaces the boot sector
program with its own malicious version. It infects the computer only when it is
used to boot up the computer. If it enters after the boot-up process, it will not infect
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the computer. For example, if someone forgets to remove the infected floppy disk
when the pc is turned off and then turns on this pc, it runs the infected boot sector
program during the booting process.

Usually, it enters into your system through corrupt media files, infected storage
devices, and insecure computer networks. The spread of this virus is very rare
these days due to the decline in the use of floppy disk and use of boot-sector
safeguards in the present-day operating systems.

Memory Resident Virus

The resident virus stays permanently in the primary memory (RAM) of the
computer. When you start the computer, it becomes active and corrupts the files
and programs running on the computer.

Non-resident Virus:

Unlike the resident virus, the non-resident virus does not reside in the memory of a
computer. So, it is not executed from the computer's memory. For example,
executable viruses.

File Virus :

This type of virus infects the system by appending itself to the end of a file. It
changes the start of a program so that the control jumps to its code. After the
execution of its code, the control returns back to the main program. Its execution is
not even noticed. It is also called Parasitic virus because it leaves no file intact but
also leaves the host functional.

Multipartite Virus

Multipartite virus spreads and infects in multiple ways. It infects both the boot
sector and the executable files stored on the hard drive simultaneously. When you
turn on a computer, the boot sector virus is triggered as it latches on to the hard
drive, which has the data for starting up the computer. Once it is triggered, the
program files also get infected.
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File Infector Virus

It is one of the commonly found computer viruses. It mainly infects the executable
files; the files with .com or .exe extensions. The virus becomes active when the
infected file is executed. The active virus overwrites the file partially or
completely. Thus it may destroy the original file partially or completely.

Trojan Horse

Trojan horse is a malware like a virus or a worm, but it is technically different

from both. It can't replicate like virus and worm. Trojan horse hides itself in a
program. Once you install any such program, the trojan horse enters into your
computer. It can provide unauthorized access to your computer, send your files to
other computers, and may delete files or can make other unwanted changes in your
computer.

Executable Virus:

It is a non-resident computer virus, which resides in an executable file. Whenever

the infected file is executed, it infects the other files.

Polymorphic Virus:

It creates its thousands of copies itself; in each copy, it changes the sequence and
byte values to evade detection by antivirus software. Even the best antiviruses may
not be able to detect this virus. Polymorphic viruses affect data types and functions
and generally spread through spam, infected sites, and while using other malware.

Stealth Virus:

It is a hidden computer virus, which specifically attacks operating system

processes. It usually hides itself in partitions, files or boot sectors and is capable of
going unnoticed during antivirus or anti-malware scans, i.e., it can avoid detection
intentionally.
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Life-Cycle of a Computer Virus

The typical life-cycle of a computer virus takes place in four phases:

1. The dormant phase,

2. The propagation phase,

3. The triggering phase,

4. And the execution phase.

The Dormant phase

During the dormant phase, the virus is idle .The virus has accessed its victim's
computer or software, but it does not do anything yet. The virus will wait until a
"trigger" gives it the command to execute. This trigger could be anything from a
predefined date to the user taking a specific action, like double-clicking an icon.

The Propagation phase

In the propagation phase, the virus is fruitful and multiplies. The virus will start
to insert copies of itself into other programs or areas on the disk. These copies are
often altered in some way to make detection more difficult.

The Triggering phase

A dormant virus moves into this phase when it gets activated, it will now perform
the function for which it was intended.

The Execution phase

Finally, during the execution phase, the virus gets to work. The virus's payload is
released, and the end user will begin to notice problems with their computer such
as deleted files, the system crashing, or endless popups on the screen.

How Does Virus Affect?

Let us discuss in what ways a virus can affect your computer system. The ways are
mentioned below −

 By downloading files from the Internet.

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 During the removable of media or drives.

 Through pen drive.
 Through e-mail attachments.
 Through unpatched software & services.
 Through unprotected or poor administrator passwords.

Impact of Virus

Let us now see the impact of virus on your computer system −

 Disrupts the normal functionality of respective computer system.

 Disrupts system network use.
 Modifies configuration setting of the system.
 Destructs data.
 Disrupts computer network resources.
 Destructs of confidential data.

Virus Detection

The most fundamental method of detection of virus is to check the functionality of

your computer system; a virus affected computer does not take command properly.

However, if there is antivirus software in your computer system, then it can easily
check programs and files on a system for virus signatures.

Virus Preventive Measures

Let us now see the different virus preventive measures. A computer system can be
protected from virus through the following −

 Installation of an effective antivirus software.

 Patching up the operating system.
 Patching up the client software.
 Putting highly secured Passwords.
 Use of Firewalls.

Most Effective Antivirus

Following are the most popular and effective antivirus from which you can choose
one for your personal computer −
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 McAfee Antivirus Plus

 Symantec Norton Antivirus
 Avast Pro Antivirus
 Bitdefender Antivirus Plus
 Kaspersky Anti-Virus
 Avira Antivirus
 Webroot Secure Anywhere Antivirus
 Emsisoft Anti-Malware
 Quick Heal Antivirus
 ESET NOD32 Antivirus

WORM

A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send

copies of itself to other nodes on the network. It may do this without any user
intervention. Unlike a computer virus, a computer worm does not need to attach
itself to an existing program. Worms tend to harm the network by consuming
network bandwidth where viruses infect or corrupt files on the targeted computer.

Definition: A computer worm is a program that copies itself from one computer to
another computer.

Example: The Morris worm was one of the first computer worms distributed via
the Internet. It is considered the first worm and was certainly the first to gain
significant mainstream media attention. It was written by a graduate student at
Cornell University, Robert Morris Jr, and launched on November 2, 1988 from
MIT. The worm was released from MIT to disguise the fact that the worm
originally came from Cornell. Morris ended up with a $10,050 fine, 3 years
suspended jail sentence, and 400 hours of community service.

What the worm did:

1. determines where it could spread

2. spreads its infection
3. remains undiscovered & undiscoverable
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What its effect was:

1. resource exhaustion – due to program flaw

2. 2nd order effect: disconnection of many systems from the network
3. 3rd order effect: isolation and inability to perform necessary work

How does it spread:

1. target machine, loader, get rest of worm one time password

2. undiscovered & undiscoverable encrypt, delete from disk, change name
3. CERT – Computer Emergency Response Team

What Types of Computer Worms Exist?

There is no universal classification of computer worms, but they can be organized

into types based on how they are distributed between computers. The five common
types are as follows:

1. Internet Worms:

Like they do with computer networks, computer worms also target popular
websites with insufficient security. When they manage to infect the site, internet
worms can replicate themselves onto any computer being used to access the
website in question. From there, internet worms are distributed to other connected
computers through the internet and local area network connections.

2. Email Worms:

Email worms are most often distributed via compromised email attachments. They
usually have double extensions (for example, .mp4.exe or .avi.exe) so that the
recipient would think that they are media files and not malicious computer
programs. When the victims click on the attachment, copies of the same infected
file will automatically be sent to addresses from their contacts list.

An email message doesn’t have to contain a downloadable attachment to distribute

a computer worm. Instead, the body of the message might contain a link that’s
shortened so that the recipient can’t tell what it’s about without clicking on it.
When they click on the link, they will be taken to an infected website that will
automatically start downloading malicious software to their computer.
 OPERATING SYSTEM UNIT-1

3. Instant Messaging Worms:

Instant messaging worms are exactly the same as email worms, the only difference
being their method of distribution. Once again, they are masked as attachments or
clickable links to websites. They are often accompanied by short messages like
“LOL” or “You have to see this!” to trick the victim into thinking that their friend
is sending them a funny video to look at.

When the user clicks on the link or the attachment – be it in Messenger,

WhatsApp, Skype, or any other popular messaging app – the exact same message
will then be sent to their contacts. Unless the worm has replicated itself onto their
computer, users can solve this problem by changing their password.

4. File-Sharing Worms:

Although illegal, file-sharing and peer-to-peer file transfers are still used by
millions of people around the world. Doing so, they are unknowingly exposing
their computers to the threat of file-sharing worms. Like email and instant
messaging worms, these programs are disguised as media files with dual
extensions.

When the victim opens the downloaded file to view it or listen to it, they will
download the worm to their computer. Even if it seems that users have downloaded
an actual playable media file, an executable malicious file could be hidden in the
folder and discreetly installed when the media file is first opened.

5. IRC Worms:

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a messaging app that is mostly outdated nowadays but
was all the rage at the turn of the century. Same as with today’s instant messaging
platforms, computer worms were distributed via messages containing links and
attachments. The latter was less effective due to an extra layer of protection that
prompted users to accept incoming files before any transfer could take place.