PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORISTS

BY:
ALLAN, ANGELINE
BAS-ILAN, AUBREY
DACSIG, DARYL JOI
KAI, DUSTY
MANANGE, DANICA
PENEYRA, RIZZA MAE
SIMON, JOANNA GRACE
SOTERO, JANNAH FAYE

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

BSN I-B

FEBRUARY 17, 2020

1
 ABRAHAM MASLOW
(1908-1970)

BIOGRAPHY
Abraham Maslow, (born April 1, 1908, New York, New York, U.S.—died June 8, 1970,
Menlo Park, California), American psychologist and philosopher best known for his self-
actualization theory of psychology, which argued that the primary goal of psychotherapy should
be the integration of the self.

THEORY
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately capture the
complexity of human behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow
presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment. Any given behavior
could satisfy several functions at the same time; for instance, going to a bar could satisfy one’s
needs for self-esteem and for social interaction. Maslow’s so-called ‘hierarchy of needs’ is often
presented as a five-level pyramid, with higher needs coming into focus only once lower, more
basic needs are met.
Deficiency/Deprivation Needs
Maslow called the bottom four levels of the pyramid ‘deficiency needs’ because a person
does not feel anything if they are met, but becomes anxious if they are not. Thus, Physiological
needs, the lowest level on the hierarchy, include necessities such as air, food, and water. These
tend to be satisfied for most people, but they become predominant when unmet. During
emergencies, safety needs such as health and security rise to the forefront. Once these two levels
are met, belongingness needs, such as obtaining love and intimate relationships or close
friendships, become important. The next level, esteem needs, include the need for recognition
from others, confidence, achievement, and self-esteem.

2
 SIGMUND FREUD
(1856-1939)

BIOGRAPHY
Freud’s father, Jakob, was a Jewish wool merchant QUICK FACTS
who had been married once before he wed the boy’s BORN
mother, Amalie Nathansohn. The father, 40 years old at – May 6, 1856
Freud’s birth, seems to have been a relatively remote – Pribor, Czechoslovakia
and authoritarian figure, while his mother appears to have DIED
been more nurturing and emotionally available. Although – September 23, 1939 (aged
Freud had two older half-brothers, his strongest if also most 83)
ambivalent attachment seems to have been to a nephew, – London, England
John, one year his senior, who provided the model SUBJECTS OF STUDY
of intimate friend and hated rival that Freud reproduced  Human Sexual Activity
often at later stages of his life.  Primitive Culture
Freud’s scientific training remained of cardinal  Personality
importance in his work, or at least in his own conception of  Moses
it. In such writings as his “Entwurf einer Psychologie”  Dream
(written 1895, published 1950; “Project for a Scientific FOUNDER OF Psychoanalysis
Psychology”) he affirmed his intention to find a
physiological and materialist basis for his theories of the
psyche. Here a mechanistic neurophysiological model vied with a more organismic, phylogenetic
one in ways that demonstrate Freud’s complicated debt to the science of his day.
In late 1885 Freud left Vienna to continue his studies of neuropathology at
the Salpêtrière clinic in Paris, where he worked under the guidance of Jean-Martin Charcot. His
19 weeks in the French capital proved a turning point in his career, for Charcot’s work with
patients classified as “hysterics” introduced Freud to the possibility that psychological disorders
might have their source in the mind rather than the brain. Charcot’s demonstration of a link
between hysterical symptoms, such as paralysis of a limb, and hypnotic suggestion implied the
power of mental states rather than nerves in the etiology of disease. Although Freud was soon to
abandon his faith in hypnosis, he returned to Vienna in February 1886 with the seed of his
revolutionary psychological method implanted.
Several months after his return Freud married Martha Bernays, the daughter of a
prominent Jewish family whose ancestors included a chief rabbi of Hamburg and Heinrich
Heine. She was to bear six children, one of whom, Anna Freud, was to become a distinguished
psychoanalyst in her own right. Although the glowing picture of their marriage painted by Ernest
Jones in his biography of Freud has been nuanced by later scholars, it is clear that Martha
Bernays Freud was a deeply sustaining presence during her husband’s tumultuous career.

THEORY
THEORY OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE
His creation of psychoanalysis was at once a theory of the human psyche, a therapy for
the relief of its ills, and an optic for the interpretation of culture and society. Despite
repeated criticisms, attempted refutations, and qualifications of Freud’s work, its spell remained
powerful well after his death and in fields far removed from psychology as it is narrowly
defined. If, as the American sociologist Philip Rieff once contended, “psychological man”

3
replaced such earlier notions as political, religious, or economic man as the 20th century’s
dominant self-image, it is in no small measure due to the power of Freud’s vision and the
seeming inexhaustibility of the intellectual legacy he left behind.
Shortly after his marriage Freud began his closest friendship, with
the Berlin physician Wilhelm Fliess, whose role in the development of psychoanalysis has
occasioned widespread debate. Throughout the 15 years of their intimacy Fliess provided Freud
an invaluable interlocutor for his most daring ideas. Freud’s belief in human bisexuality, his idea
of erotogenic zones on the body, and perhaps even his imputation of sexuality to infants may
well have been stimulated by their friendship.
A somewhat less controversial influence arose from the partnership Freud began with the
physician Josef Breuer after his return from Paris. Freud turned to a clinical practice
in neuropsychology, and the office he established at Berggasse 19 was to remain his consulting
room for almost half a century. Before their collaboration began, during the early 1880s, Breuer
had treated a patient named Bertha Pappenheim—or “Anna O.,” as she became known in the
literature—who was suffering from a variety of hysterical symptoms. Rather than using hypnotic
suggestion, as had Charcot, Breuer allowed her to lapse into a state resembling autohypnosis, in
which she would talk about the initial manifestations of her symptoms. To Breuer’s surprise, the
very act of verbalization seemed to provide some relief from their hold over her (although later
scholarship has cast doubt on its permanence). “The talking cure” or “chimney sweeping,” as
Breuer and Anna O., respectively, called it, seemed to act cathartically to produce an abreaction,
or discharge, of the pent-up emotional blockage at the root of the pathological behavior.

4
 ERIK ERIKSON
(1902-1994)

BIOGRAPHY
Erik Erikson was born June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt, Germany. His young Jewish mother,
Karla Abrahamsen, raised Erik by herself for a time before marrying a physician, Dr. Theodor
Homberger. The fact that Homberger was not, in fact, his biological father was concealed from
Erikson for many years. When he finally did learn the truth, Erikson was left with a feeling of
confusion about who he really was.
"The common story was that his mother and father had separated before his birth, but the
closely guarded fact was that he was his mother's child from an extramarital union. He never saw
his birth father or his mother's first husband." — Erikson's obituary, The New York Times, May
13, 1994
This early experience helped spark his interest in the formation of identity. While this
may seem like merely an interesting anecdote about his heritage, the mystery over Erikson's
biological parentage served as one of the key forces behind his later interest in identity
formation. He would later explain that as a child he often felt confused about who he was and
how he fit into his community.
His interest in identity was further developed based on his own experiences in school. At
his Jewish temple school, he was teased for being a tall, blue-eyed, blonde, Nordic-looking boy
who stood out among the rest of the kids. At grammar school, he was rejected because of his
Jewish background. These early experiences helped fuel his interest in identity formation and
continued to influence his work throughout his life.
THEORY
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND IDENTITY CRISIS
Erik Erikson is best-known for his famous theory of psychosocial development and the
concept of the identity crisis. His theories marked an important shift in thinking on personality;
instead of focusing simply on early childhood events, his psychosocial theory looks at how social
influences contribute to our personalities throughout our entire lifespans. Erikson's stage theory
of psychosocial development generated interest and research on human development through the
lifespan. An ego psychologist who studied with Anna Freud, Erikson expanded psychoanalytic
theory by exploring development throughout the life, including events of childhood, adulthood,
and old age.
Erikson was a neo-Freudian psychologist who accepted many of the central tenets of
Freudian theory but added his own ideas and beliefs. His theory of psychosocial development is
centered on what is known as the epigenetic principle, which proposes that all people go through
a series of eight stages. At each stage, people face a crisis that needs to be successfully resolved
in order to develop the psychological quality central to each stage.
While Freud's theory of psychosexual development essentially ends at early adulthood,
Erikson's theory described development through the entire lifespan from birth until death. The
eight key stages he described were:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
This stage occurs between the ages of birth and 2 years and is centered on developing a
sense of trust in caregivers and the world. Children who receive responsive care are able to
develop the psychological quality of hope.

5
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
This stage takes place between the ages of 2 and 3 years and involves gaining a sense of
independence and personal control. Success in this stage allows people to develop will and
determination.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Between the ages of 3 and 6 years, children begin to explore their environment and exert
more control over their choices. By successfully completing this stage, children are able to
develop a sense of purpose.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
The stage that takes place between the ages of about 5 and 11 years is focused on
developing a sense of personal pride and accomplishment. Success at this point in development
leads to a sense of competence.
5. Identity vs. Confusion
The teen years are a time of personal exploration. Those who are able to successfully
forge a healthy identity develop a sense of fidelity. Those who do not complete this stage well
may be left feeling confused about their role and place in life.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
The stage that takes place in early adulthood is all about forging healthy relationships
with others. Success leads to the ability to form committed, lasting, and nurturing relationships
with others.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
At the stage occurring during middle adulthood, people become concerned with
contributing something to society and leaving their mark on the world. Raising a family and
having a career are two key activities that contribute to success at this stage.
8. Integrity vs. Despair
The final stage of psychosocial development takes place in late adulthood and involves
reflecting back on life. Those who look back and feel a sense of satisfaction develop a sense of
integrity and wisdom, while those who are left with regrets may experience bitterness and
despair.
Aside from the psychosocial development theory, Erikson also coined the term “identity
crisis” and believed that it was one of the most important conflicts people face during the
developmental process. According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis
and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself. Erikson also spent time studying the
cultural life of the Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok of northern California. He utilized the
knowledge he gained about cultural, environmental, and social influences to further develop his
psychoanalytic theory. While Freud’s theory had focused on the psychosexual aspects of
development, Erikson’s addition of other influences helped to broaden and expand
psychoanalytic theory. He also contributed to our understanding of personality as it is developed
and shaped over the course of the lifespan.

6
 JEAN PIAGET
(1896-1980)

BIOGRAPHY
Jean Piaget is a Swiss psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study of the
acquisition of understanding in children.
Piaget’s early interests were in zoology; as a youth he published an article on his
observations of an albino sparrow, and by 15 his several publications on mollusks had gained
him a reputation among European zoologists. At the University of Neuchâtel, he studied zoology
and philosophy, receiving his doctorate in the former in 1918. Soon afterward, however, he
became interested in psychology, combining his biological training with his interest in
epistemology. He first went to Zürich, where he studied under Carl Jung and Eugen Bleuler, and
he then began two years of study at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1919.
In Paris, Piaget devised and administered reading tests to schoolchildren and became
interested in the types of errors they made, leading him to explore the reasoning process in these
young children.
Among Piaget’s major works available in English are Le Langage et la pensée chez
l’enfant (1923; The Language and Thought of the Child), Le Jugement et la raisonnement chez
l’enfant (1924; Judgment and Reasoning in the Child), and La Naissance de l’intelligence chez
l’enfant (1948; The Origins of Intelligence in Children). He also wrote a series of books dealing
separately with children’s conceptions of time, space, physical causality, movement and speed,
and the world in general.
THEORY
THE 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding
hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like
little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As
kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
He proposed thatintelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of
stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested.
Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young
children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than
adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a
genius could have thought of it."

7
 The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
1. The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
– The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
– Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking,
and listening
– Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
– They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
– They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
2. The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
– Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
– Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective
of others.
– While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
– During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
– They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
– Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
– Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle
4. The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
– At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems
– Abstract thought emerges
– Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
– Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

8
 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

BIOGRAPHY
He was born on October 25, 1927, Bronxville, New York, U.S. and on died January 17,
1987, Boston, Massachusetts. He was an American psychologist and educator known for his
theory of moral development. He was the youngest of four children of Alfred Kohlberg, a
successful silk merchant of Jewish ancestry, and Charlotte Albrecht Kohlberg, a Protestant and a
skilled amateur chemist. When the couple divorced in 1932 after 11 years of marriage, the two
younger children chose to live with their father and the older ones chose their mother.
In 1945, he graduated from Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. After serving
in the U.S. merchant marine, he worked on a ship that had been hired by Haganah, the Zionist
military organization, to smuggle Jewish war refugees into Palestine, past the British blockade.
The ship was intercepted, however, and Kohlberg was imprisoned in a British internment camp
in Cyprus.
Returning to the U.S. in 1948, he enrolled at the University of Chicago, and with high
examination scores, he was excused from many required courses and received his bachelor’s
degree in psychology in just one year. and a Ph.D. in psychology in 1958. In 1959, Kohlberg
joined the staff of Yale University as an assistant professor of psychology. In 1962, he returned
to the University of Chicago as an assistant professor. Over several years, he worked as an
associate professor and director of Child Psychology Training Program at the university. The
remainder of his career was spent as a professor of education and social psychology at Harvard
University between 1968 and 1987. Kohlberg married Lucy Stigberg in 1955, and the couple had
two sons. Kohlberg died of an apparent suicide in 1987, after a long battle with depression
coupled with painful symptoms from a tropical parasite he had contracted in Belize in 1971. He
parked his car, leaving identifying documents behind, then walked into the frigidly cold Boston
Harbor.
THEORY
MORAL PSYCHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development were influenced by the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget’s stage-based theory of development. Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s two stages,
identifying six stages of moral development. He argued that correct moral reasoning was the
most significant factor in moral decision-making, and that correct moral reasoning would lead to
ethical behavior. Kohlberg believed that individuals progress through stages of moral
development just as they progress through stages of cognitive development.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development included three levels and six stages:
1. Preconventional Morality
The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level. In
the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms because they
are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher). This obedience is compelled
by the threat or application of punishment. The second stage of this level is characterized by a
view that right behavior means acting in one's own best interests
Stage One
Obedience and punishment. The child is motivated to avoid punishment and has little or
no independent moral reasoning.
Stage Two
Individualism and exchange. Individuals are focused on fulfilling their own self-interests,
while acknowledging that different people have different views.

9
2. Conventional Morality
The second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the name
"conventional." The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an attitude which seeks
to do what will gain the approval of others. The second stage is one oriented to abiding by the
law and responding to the obligations of duty.
Stage Three
Maintaining interpersonal relationships. At this stage, individuals emphasize the
importance of being kind to other people, engaging in “good” behavior and showing concern for
others. This stage includes a strong emphasis on gaining approval.
Stage Four
Law and order. The individual is determined to obey the rules, focusing on the value that
the law adds to human life. A person at this stage might argue that breaking the law is wrong
because the law is designed to protect people. Stage 4 individuals focus on maintaining the social
order and upholding cultural norms.
3. Post-Conventional Morality
The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the majority
of adults. Its first stage (stage 5) is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in
the welfare of others. The last stage (stage 6) is based on respect for universal principle and the
demands of individual conscience. While Kohlberg always believed in the existence of Stage 6
and had some nominees for it, he could never get enough subjects to define it, much less observe
their longitudinal movement to it.
Stage five
Social contract. People at this stage of development focus on doing what is best for
society as a whole and respecting individual rights. Civil disobedience would be endorsed by
people in both stages of post-conventional morality.
Stage six
Universal principles. At this stage, individuals are focused on upholding principles of
universal justice, fairness, and ethics. They believe in the democratic process, but also endorse
disobeying unjust laws.
To determine which stage of moral development his subjects were in, Kohlberg presented
them with invented moral dilemmas, such as the case of a man who stole medicine for his sick
wife. According to Kohlberg, few people reach stages five and six; most tend to stay at stage
four.
Kohlberg’s theory was highly influential, especially in psychology and education. No
other account had provided such a detailed explanation of children’s moral development.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one stage at a time.
That is, they could not "jump" stages. They could not, for example, move from an orientation of
selfishness to the law and order stage without passing through the good boy/girl stage. They
could only come to a comprehension of a moral rationale one stage above their own. Thus,
according to Kohlberg, it was important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion
which would help them to see the reasonableness of a "higher stage" morality and encourage
their development in that direction. The last comment refers to Kohlberg's moral discussion
approach. He saw this as one of the ways in which moral development can be promoted through
formal education. Note that Kohlberg believed, as did Piaget, that most moral development
occurs through social interaction. The discussion approach is based on the insight that
individuals develop as a result of cognitive conflicts at their current stage. Moreover, during a
time when most psychologists were behaviorists, Kohlberg’s work broke new ground by
concentrating on cognitive phenomena. His theory also received much criticism, however,
most notably from the American psychologist Carol Gilligan, who argued that it ignored the
distinct patterns of moral development exhibited by girls.

10
 CARL JUNG
(1875-1961)

BIOGRAPHY
Carl Jung was born on July 26, 1875, in Kesswil, Switzerland. Jung believed in the
“complex,” or emotionally charged associations. Jung was the proponent for concepts like
extroversion and introversion, archetypes, modern dream analysis, and the collective
unconscious. Psychological terms coined by Jung include the archetype, the complex,
synchronicity, and it is from his work that the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was
developed, a popular staple of personality tests today. He collaborated with Sigmund Freud, but
disagreed with him about the sexual basis of neuroses. Jung published numerous works during
his lifetime, and his ideas have had reverberations traveling beyond the field of psychiatry,
extending into art, literature and religion as well.
Jung died at his home in Zurich on June 6, 1961.
THEORY
Among Jung’s most important work was his in-depth analysis of the psyche, which he
explained as follows: “By psyche I understand the totality of all psychic processes, conscious as
well as unconscious,” separating the concept from conventional concept of the mind, which is
generally limited to the processes of the conscious brain alone.
Jung believed that the psyche is a self-regulating system, rather like the body, one that
seeks to maintain a balance between opposing qualities while constantly striving for growth, a
process Jung called “individuation”.
His concept of the psyche is broken down as follows:
1. The Ego
To Jung, the ego was the center of the field of consciousness, the part of the psyche
where our conscious awareness resides, our sense of identity and existence. This part can be seen
as a kind of “command HQ”, organizing our thoughts, feelings, senses, and intuition, and
regulating access to memory. It is the part that links the inner and outer worlds together, forming
how we relate to that which is external to us.
The ego is just one small portion of the self, however; Jung believed that consciousness is
selective, and the ego is the part of the self that selects the most relevant information from the
environment and chooses a direction to take based on it, while the rest of the information sinks
into the unconscious.
2. The Personal Unconscious
The personal unconscious arises from the interaction between the collective unconscious
and one’s personal growth, and was defined by Jung as follows:
“Everything of which I know, but of which I am not at the moment thinking; everything
of which I was once conscious but have now forgotten; everything perceived by my senses, but
not noted by my conscious mind; everything which, involuntarily and without paying attention to
it, I feel, think, remember, want, and do; all the future things which are taking shape in me and
will sometime come to consciousness; all this is the content of the unconscious… Besides these
we must include all more or less intentional repressions of painful thought and feelings. I call the
sum of these contents the ‘personal unconscious’.”
Unlike Freud, Jung saw repression as just one element of the unconscious, rather than the
whole of it.

11
3. Complexes
Complexes, in the Jungian sense, are themed organizations in the unconscious mind
centering around patterns of memories, emotions, perceptions, and wishes, patterns that are
formed by experience and by an individual’s reactions to that experience. Complexes often
behave in a rather automatic manner, which can lead to a person feeling like the behaviour that
arises from them is out of his or her control. People who are mentally ill or mislabeled as
“possessed” often have complexes that take over regularly and markedly.
In a healthy individual, complexes are seldom a problem, and indeed are likely key to
balancing the rather one-sided views of the ego so that development can occur. If the person is
mentally unwell, however, and unable to regulate his or herself (as seen in those experiencing
dissociation between these states), complexes may become overt and more of an issue. In these
cases, the ego is damaged, and is therefore not strong enough to make use of the complexes via
sound reflection, granting them a full and unruly life of their own.
4. The Collective Unconscious
Jung believed, unlike many of his contemporaries, that all the elements of an individual’s
nature are present from birth, and that the environment of the person brings them out (rather than
the environment creating them). Jung felt that people are born with a “blueprint” already in them
that will determine the course of their lives, something which, while controversial at the time, is
fairly widely supported to today owing to the amount of evidence there is in the animal kingdom
for various species being born with a repertoire of behaviours uniquely adapted to their
environments.
Jung believed that these blueprints are influenced strongly by various archetypes in our
lives, such as our parents and other relatives, major events (births, deaths, etc.), and archetypes
originating in nature and in our cultures (common symbols and elements like the moon, the sun,
water, fire, etc.).
Jung did not rule out the spiritual, despite the biological basis he described the
personality as having; he also felt there was an opposing spiritual polarity which greatly impacts
the psyche.
4. The Self
The Self, according to Jung, was the sum total of the psyche, with all its potential
included. This is the part of the psyche that looks forward, that contains the drive toward
fulfillment and wholeness. In this, the Self was said to drive the process of individuation, the
quest of the individual to reach his or her fullest potential.
In this area, he once again is seen to differ from Freud; in Freudian theory, the ego is
responsible for the above process and forms the axis on which a person’s individual psychology
spins, whereas in Jungian theory, the ego is just one part which rises out of the (infinitely more
complex) self.
5. Persona
Jung said that the Persona is an element of the personality which arises “for reasons of
adaptation or personal convenience.” If you have certain “masks” you put on in various
situations (such as the side of yourself you present at work, or to family), that is a persona. The
Persona can be seen as the “public relations” part of the ego, the part that allows us to interact
socially in a variety of situations with relative ease.
The persona usually grows from the parts of people that wished once to please teachers,
parents, and other authority figures, and as such it leans heavily toward embodying only one’s
best qualities, leaving those negative traits which contradict the Persona to form the “Shadow”.
6. The Shadow
Those traits that we dislike, or would rather ignore, come together to form what Jung
called the Shadow. This part of the psyche, which is also influenced heavily by the collective
unconscious, is a form of complex, and is generally the complex most accessible by the
conscious mind. Jung did not believe the Shadow to be without purpose or merit; he felt that
“where there is light, there must also be shadow”—which is to say that the Shadow has an
important role to play in balancing the overall psyche. Without a well-developed shadow side, a
person can easily become shallow and extremely preoccupied with the opinions of others, a
walking Persona.
Jung believed that, not wanting to look at their Shadows directly, many people project
them onto others, meaning that the qualities we often cannot stand in others, we have in

12
ourselves and wish to not see. To truly grow as a person, one must cease such willful blindness
to one’s Shadow and attempt to balance it with the Persona.
7. Anima and animus
According to Jung, the anima and animus are the contra-sexual archetypes of the psyche,
with the anima being in a man and animus in a woman. These are built from feminine and
masculine archetypes the individual experiences, as well as experience with members of the
opposite sex (beginning with a parent), and seek to balance out one’s otherwise possible one-
sided experience of gender. Like the Shadow, these archetypes tend to wind up being projected,
only in a more idealized form; one looks for the reflection of one’s anima or animus in a
potential mate, accounting for the phenomenon of love at first sight.
Jung did see either masculinity or femininity as the “superior” side of the gender coin, but
merely as two halves of a whole, such as light and shadow, halves which ought to serve to
balance one another out.
8. Individuation
Individuation, to Jung, was the quest for wholeness that the human psyche invariably
undertakes, the journey to become conscious of his or herself as a unique human being, but
unique only in the same sense that we all are, not more or less so than others.
Jung did not try to run from the importance of conflict to human psychology; he saw it as
inherent and necessary for growth. In dealing with the challenges of the outside world and one’s
own many internal opposites, one slowly becomes more conscious, enlightened, and creative.
The product of overcoming these clashes was a “symbol” which Jung felt would contribute to a
new direction where justice was done to all sides of a conflict. This symbol was seen as a
product of the unconscious rather than of rational thought, and carried with it aspects of both the
conscious and unconscious worlds in its work as a transformative agent. The development that
springs from this transmutation, which is so essential to Jungian psychology, is the process of
individuation.

13
 REFERENCES
ABRAHAM MASLOW
1. Burton, N. (2012) Our Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201205/our-hierarchy-needs
2. David, L. (2014) MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS. Retrieved from
https://www.learning-theories.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.html
SIGMUND FREUD
1. https://www.simplypsychology.org/simplypsychology.org-Sigmund-Freud.pdf
ERIK ERIKSON
1. How Erik Erikson's Own Identity Crisis Shaped His Theories
2. https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-erikson-biography-1902-1994-2795538
JEAN PIAGET
1. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Piaget
2. https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
1. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lawrence-Kohlberg
2. https://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/lawrence-kohlberg.html
3. https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/MEDICAL_ETHICS_TEXT/Chapt
er_2_Ethical_Traditions/Reading-Barger-on-Kohlberg.htm
CARL JUNG
1. Journal Psyche. (2018). The Jungian Model of the Psyche. Retrieved from
http://journalpsyche.org/jungian-model-psyche/
2. Biography. (2020). Carl Jung. Retrieved from
https://www.google.com.ph/amp/s/www.biography.com/.amp/scholar/carl-jung

14