Libro Fire Engineering Incident Management For The Street Fire Officer 2ed

Incident Management
for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition
SkipColeman.indb 1 9/15/08 4:06:39 PM

Incident Management
for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition
John F. “Skip” Coleman

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are presented solely for educational purposes. The author and publisher assume no
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material in this book. Use of the material in this book is solely at the risk of the user.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Coleman, John, 1950-

Incident management for the street-smart fire officer / John F. “Skip” Coleman.-- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59370-150-5 (alk. paper)
1. Fire extinction. 2. Emergency management. I. Title.
TH9310.5.C636 2008
628.9’25068--dc22
2008004545
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 12 11 10 09 08

Dedication
S
ince the first writing of this text, so much has changed. I want to thank my
daughter Fay for her assistance in this edition. Her skills saved me hours of work. I
want to thank my wife Theresa for giving me the time and encouragement needed to
complete this project, and to my son Toby, just for being Toby. I would also like to thank
Martin Grube for the use of his photos in this book.
Again, thanks to the 500 or so firefighters on the Toledo Fire Department for helping me
look like I knew what I was doing on the fireground.
Last, to Ray and Andy who were part of the 343—who took great risk to save life—a toast!
“To the Boys!”
· >| v |< ·

5. Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Contents The Two Types of Staging . . . . . . . . 46
Chain of Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Tools Needed By the
Foreword to the Second Edition . . . . 11 Staging Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1. The Incident Management
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6. Sectoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Incident Management Defined . . . . . . 1 Types of Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . 54
ICS Versus IMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Differentiating Between
Fireground Operations . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Floor Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Incident Management System as a Combination Assignments . . . . . . . . 58
Management Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Revolving Assignments . . . . . . . . . . 59
The Basic Premise of the Incident Responsibilities of Sector Officers . . 60
Management System . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Big Four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Four Types of Command . . . . . . 14 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Announcing the Assumption
of Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 7. Running Incidents—How it
Three Parts of the Incident Works in the Real World . . . . . . . . 63
Management System . . . . . . . . . . 17 The Essential Elements
Effects and Benefits of IMS . . . . . . . 18 of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Basic Command Structure . . . . . . . 66
2. The Essence of Command . . . . . . 21 8. Mission Statements . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Command Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Choosing Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 9. The Mission of Command . . . . . . . 75
Directing Without Interfering . . . . . . 25 Incident Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Defining Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3. Establishing Command . . . . . . . . 27 Making Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
The Three Command Modes . . . . . . 28 Size-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Passing Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Command’s Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Transferring Command to an The Last Word on
Outside Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Command’s Mission . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Scenario Based Decision Making . . . 92
4. Command Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Going Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 10. The Mission of Attack . . . . . . . . . 95
Types of Command Post . . . . . . . . . 38 The Responsibility of Attack . . . . . . 96
The Type of Command Post Fire Attack Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
and the Type of Command . . . . . . 40 Two Basic Attack Strategies . . . . . . 97
Command Post Locations . . . . . . . . 41 The Relationship Between
Base of Operations for Attack and Command . . . . . . . . . 107
Command Staff Personnel . . . . . . 42 Basic Attack Rules of Thumb . . . . 108
Tools Needed for Command Post . . . 42 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Scenario Based Decision Making . . 112

· >| Incident Management for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition –––––––––––––––––
11. The Mission of Search . . . . . . . . 115 13. The Mission of Ventilation . . . . 155
The Responsibilities of the The Relationship Between
Search Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Command and Ventilation . . . . . 156
Common Search Techniques Why Ventilate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Used Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Types of Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
The Responsibility of Command Natural Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
During Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Mechanical Ventilation . . . . . . . . . 163
The Relationship Between Which Type of Ventilation to Use? . 166
Command and Search . . . . . . . . 126 When to Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Prioritizing Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Outside Vent Man OVM . . . . . . . . . 169
Reading the Building for Search . . 127 The Responsibilities of Ventilation . 169
Where to Start and Stop Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Your Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Scenario Based Decision Making . . 171
How Long Should You Search? . . . 129 Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Search Versus Rescue . . . . . . . . . . 130
Searching with a Hoseline . . . . . . . 131 14. The Mission of Exposure . . . . . 173
Searching with a Tool . . . . . . . . . . 131 The Extinguishment Process . . . . . 173
Searching with a Thermal Imager . 132 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Types of Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Scenario Based Decision Making . . 133 Exposure Protection . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Prioritizing Exposures . . . . . . . . . . 177
12. The Mission of Backup . . . . . . . 135 Protecting Exposed Structures . . . 178
The Relationship Between Expanding the Assignment . . . . . . 179
Command and Backup . . . . . . . . 135 The Relationship Between
The Responsibility of the Command and Exposure . . . . . . 182
Backup Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Responsibilities of Exposure . . . . . 182
Alternate Water Sources . . . . . . . . 138 Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
From Where Should Backup Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Enter the Building? . . . . . . . . . . 139 Scenario Based Decision Making . . 184
Where to Position the
Backup Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 15. The Mission of Extension . . . . . 185
To Charge or Not to Charge When Extension Should be
the Backup Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 a Separate Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Switching the Backup Line to Critical Factors Influence
an Attack Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 the Extension in Fire . . . . . . . . . 187
Using Backup for Subsequent Where to Check for Extension . . . . 187
Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Checking for Extension . . . . . . . . . 189
Protecting Other Divisions When to Assign Extension . . . . . . . 190
and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Should Extension Have
Is One Backup Line Enough? . . . . 147 a Hoseline? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Assigning Backup First . . . . . . . . . 149 The Relationship Between
When to Assign Backup . . . . . . . . 151 Command and Extension . . . . . . 191
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 The Responsibilities of Extension . 191
Scenario Based Decision Making . . 152 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
· >| viii |< ·

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Contents |< ·
16. The Mission of Overhaul Backup’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . 217

and Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Ventilation’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . 218
What Overhaul Entails . . . . . . . . . 198 Exposure’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . 218
When to Assign Overhaul . . . . . . . 198 Extension’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . 218
Who Should be Assigned Overhaul’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . 218
to Overhaul? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Salvage’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . 218
Where to Overhaul . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Rapid Intervention Team
How to Overhaul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Benchmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Accumulation of Debris . . . . . . . . . 201 Other Incident Benchmarks . . . . . 219
Determining the Area of Origin . . . 202 What Benchmarks Mean . . . . . . . . 221
The Responsibilities of Overhaul . . 202 Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Overhaul Versus Extension . . . . . . 203
The Mission of Salvage . . . . . . . . . 204 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
What Salvage Entails . . . . . . . . . . 204
Who Should be Assigned
to Salvage? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
When to Assign Salvage . . . . . . . . . 205
Where to Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
How to Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Responsibilities of Salvage . . . . . . . 206
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
17. The Mission of Rapid

Intervention Teams . . . . . . . . . . . 209
The Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
The Implications of NFPA 1500 . . . 210
Who Should be the RIT? . . . . . . . . 210
When Should an RIT
be Established? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
How Rapid Intervention
Teams Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
The RIT Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
The Tools Required . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Where the RIT Stages . . . . . . . . . . 211
The On-Scene Survey . . . . . . . . . . 212
What Happens If an RIT
is Activated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
18. Benchmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Command’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . 216
Attack’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Search’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . 217
· >| ix |< ·

Foreword to the Second Edition
I
t’s now been more than 30 years since I began fighting fires. To many, I have become the
dinosaur that I used to snicker at as a recruit. You know, the old fellow who was set in his
ways, always carried either a rag in his back pocket (so it looked like he was about ready
to, or just finished, cleaning or polishing something), or a cup of lukewarm coffee in his hand,
and who was about as wide as he was tall.
Many changes have occurred in the fire service since the fall of 1975. EMS (emergency
medical services), ICS (incident command system), and RIT (rapid intervention team), to name
a few. Safety is a word that finally has some teeth behind it. Apparatus have gotten bigger and
then smaller and tools have come and gone. Not only has how we fight fires changed, so has
the makeup of firefighters themselves. Women are more prevalent, and diversity in other areas
such as race and religion has taken new strides in the fire service. We always had different
generations of firefighters to manage, but we now have names (or better—letters such as X)
to identify them and, hence, how to treat them. To be very blunt, we do different things now
at fires, and we look at doing them differently. Not only have things changed since I came
on the job, but things have also changed since I wrote the first edition of this book in 1997.
September 11, 2001, comes to mind.
The incident command system is probably the biggest fireground change to hit the fire
service since the advent of the motorized fire apparatus. Finally, we removed our heads from
the sand and allowed ourselves to be thrust into the business of fireground management.
To be sure, old chiefs managed fires. I was one of those old chiefs who ran fires without any
semblance of ICS. I came on the job in 1975 and was promoted to battalion chief (then called
district chief) in the spring of 1987. We implemented ICS in the fall if 1988. So for the first
11 or so years of my fire life, I responded to fires without using ICS. For the first one and a
half years or so as a chief officer, I ran fires without using the words “command,” “sector,”
“branch” or “staging.” The fires went out! They all go out! But, I believe, they now go out with
more control and less chaos.
· >| xi |< ·

· >| Incident Management for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition –––––––––––––––––
Part of this book is about the ICS and how Additionally, this book is about tactical
it can be implemented into the “structural” and strategic considerations at typical
world of firefighting. ICS was originally incidents. This book will center on typical
designed to manage large wildland fires. incidents. Large complicated fires and
Chiefs looked at the system and decided it other incidents are covered in my second
would not only help manage the resources book, Managing Major Fires (PennWell/Fire
of a wildland fire but also could be applied Engineering, 2001). This book rarely goes
to structural firefighting. The problem is the past the command structure necessary for
transition between the use of the system at a the typical house fire in your community.
wildland fire and at a house fire. Last, you may not agree with everything
Another part of this book is about in this book. That’s OK. Take what you
the relationship between the incident like—apply it to your department and the
commander (IC) and officers. I’m not talking tools and evolutions you use. Understand
about how they get along off duty and off the the rest, and likewise, understand why “that
fireground. I’m talking about how they relate dog won’t hunt” in your department. Not
to each other at fires. There has to be a trust, everyone has a six-person engine or truck
understanding, and bond between the IC company—many departments don’t even
(regardless of rank) and the company officers have a truck company.
at incidents. Each needs to know what the
other is doing. Each needs to know the other’s
objectives. They must communicate.
· >| xii |< ·

1
The Incident Management System
I
n one of the recent articles in Fire Engineering Magazine, the question was asked, “What is
the one greatest invention or advancement in the fire service since the advent of motor driven
fire apparatus?” Several good responses were given. Among them were the self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA), thermal imagers, Nomex™, and automatic sprinklers. Along
with equipment, the incident management system (IMS) should be right up there as one of the
greatest innovations in fire service.
Incident Management Defined

There is no one standard definition
of incident management. Most use some
of the same words such as standard and
management. The definition I use is IMS
is a standard method of operating at every
incident that a fire department responds to.
IMS defines the roles and responsibilities Fig. 1–1. IMS can be used at all incident types.
of every unit that responds to an incident,
regardless of the incident type. In fact, IMS should be used on all incident types—fires,
emergency medical services (EMS), hazardous materials, confined space, and so on. I will
discuss these adaptations to IMS later; in general, IMS fits everywhere (fig. 1–1).
Of course, every department in the United States does not fight fires the same way. We
all live in different regions with different climates, topography, economic status, department
size, and population served. Some departments have five firefighters and an officer on each
apparatus, while others respond with only one firefighter. Some send 28 or more to a report of
· >| 1 |< ·

· >| Incident Management for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––
a fire in a single-family residence, and others provided direction and encouragement to

are lucky to initially get six or seven. But, once crews advancing on the fire or, worse, going
a department (or departments—with mutual above it to look for children without a line.
or automatic aid) gets on the scene of a fire, With IMS, that shouldn’t happen. Command
the organizational structure, terminology (to should be established by the first-in officer,
some extent), and some operations should and from that point on, no one—better said,
be very similar. The one person in charge no company or crew—should do anything
will probably be referred to as the command. without being assigned.
Units that have arrived on-scene but are not
given an assignment will normally be referred
to as staged. The rear of the fire building will
generally be referred to as side C or side 3. Fireground Operations
There are two types of fire department
operations: preincident and incident-specific
ICS Versus IMS assignments. (I’m not talking about the
differences between paid and volunteer fire
Let me take a few moments to explain the departments—I’m talking about the way they
difference between the incident command operate once they arrive on the fireground.)
system (ICS) and the incident management
system (IMS). Both have their roots in the
military. Both sprang from FIRESCOPE Preincident assignment
(Firefighting Resources of Southern California
Organized for Potential Emergencies). ICS is Preincident assignment is used by
the older version of the system; it provided many larger departments. (A lot of smaller
continuity in fireground operations and departments use preincident assignments at
management. IMS is the newer, more all- high rise fires and alarm drop calls.) Initial
purpose version of ICS. To be sure, they are crews responding are given assignments by
very similar, and we in the world of structural procedure. Usually, in larger cities, many
firefighting see little if any difference. Some of the crews responding arrive at about
things are called by different names, such as the same time. To save time and avoid
sector (IMS) and division (ICS). But these are confusion, companies are procedurally given
minor differences in the overall context. assignments by the order in which they were
On a larger scale, I believe that IMS is dispatched. This is also called concurrent
as much an attitude as it is a tool. It has fireground operations. In concurrent
a confidence, a form of control. It demands fireground operations, most of the operations
communication and information, and it has are going on all at the same time or being
checks and balances that ideally provide for done concurrently. An example of a set of
a safer fireground. The days of chief officers preincident assignments is the following:
pulling up to a fire, and allowing the fire to run
them, are over. Incident management makes · > First due engine—Take a line to the fire.
thinkers out of commanders. No longer could
a chief or first-in officer stand by and allow · > Second due engine—Augment the
the troops to manage themselves. There first-in engines water supply and take
were old chiefs who never gave an order or a line above the fire.
· >| 2 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Incident Management System |< ·
· > Third due engine—Provide a backup the same crew will darken a fire, vent, and
line if needed. then search a house because no other crews
have arrived on-scene yet. That is a classic
· > First due truck—Force entry, OVM example of sequential fireground operations.
(outside vent man), search, I understand both types of operations. I
can understand why big cities use concurrent
· > Second due truck—Search and ladder or preincident assignments. Likewise, I can
the building. understand why smaller departments use
sequential or incident-specific assignments.
· > Squad—Assist with rescue and attack. Whatever works best for your department
works for you. What is vitally important is that
· > Chief—Run the fire. everyone responding to your incident knows
how you and your department operate.
With preincident assignments, crews are It must also be understood that both
given the ability to complete other tasks if types of fireground operations use an incident
necessary, but they must inform the incident commander. With preincident assignment,
commander (IC) as soon as it is practical. command has the ability to deviate from
procedure as necessary. Normally, a lot less is
said in the initial few minutes of a working fire
Incident-specific assignment over the radio when preincident assignments
are used. That is because crews understand
Incident-specific assignment is probably what their assignments are. More chatter
used by the majority of departments in the is conducted over the radio with incident-
United States. This method is used in smaller specific assignments because command (not
departments where response times are procedure) dictates the assignments of all
greater and is built on the principal that one responding units, and this must be conveyed
company will arrive at a fire, and then, a few via radio. Face-to-face assignments should
minutes later, another company will arrive, be kept to a minimum initially at routine
and so on. With this response, not all things fires, and face-to-face assignments should
can be accomplished at once. Command must always be backed up with a subsequent and
prioritize initial and subsequent actions. This confirming radio transmission. In this case,
is also called sequential fireground operations. redundancy is a necessity. If it wasn’t said
Things are done in more of a sequence of over the radio, it wasn’t assigned.
events rather than all at the same time. As an
example, the chief arrives first and assigns
the first-in engine exposure D, because the
fire originated in a vacant house and is Incident Management System
spreading to the occupied exposure on the
D side. The next-in unit (an engine company) As a Management Tool
is then assigned to source attack. The next-
in unit may then be assigned to source Incident management is a tool used to
search, or some other assignment. Again, define the role and responsibility of every
the IC assigns incoming units on a priority person who responds to a fire. Everyone has a
basis for that specific incident as opposed to place, and everyone has a purpose. Everyone!
by procedure. Sometimes, in rural America, From the moment a crew leaves the house for
· >| 3 |< ·

a fire run, everyone has an assignment. Now 3. Stage. If a unit responds to a reported
we have a playbook for the fire department. No fire where command is established
longer should crews ever report to a fireground and that unit has not been given an
and start to take up work without being given assignment, it should stage in an
an assignment by command. That’s known as appropriate location (fig. 1–2).
freelancing. So, as units respond, they either:
I like to think of IMS as a big tool belt.
1. Assume command—the officer only. Command (the position) is the hammer of
The remainder of the crew can and the belt. It is the tool that is always pulled
should be used in some firefighting and used. The belt has other tools such
task. (This will be discussed later.) as operations, logistics, safety, and so
on. These tools are pulled and used when
2. Are given an assignment. Now, only necessary, but not on every run. As a
the name used to talk to the unit carpenter, if our only task is to drive one or
should be changed until their next two nails, all we need to pull is the hammer.
assignment, but they also know where (Remember, the hammer—command—is
to report (such as attack, search, used at all incidents.)
or division D exposure). Once the In the fire service, liken that scenario
assignment is given, officers should to a report of a fire at 1945 Vermont
turn to evolution-based operations Avenue. The crew responds, and the officer
such as stretching and advancing establishes command upon arrival as part of
lines, raising ground or aerial ladders, the on-scene announcement. The command
or conducting searches. finds Vermont Avenue contains no 1945
address and, further, sees no indication of
fire, and no one makes themselves known.
In this circumstance, the command is
in service as a false alarm; the only tool
“pulled” is command.
Let’s now say a carpenter has to put an
addition on an existing house. The carpenter
needs a hammer, as well as saws, levels,
measuring tapes, and so on. The carpenter
needs more tools on the tool belt and needs to
know how to use them. In fact, the carpenter
needs other carpenters who also know how to
use all the tools. Liken that to working a fire
at a house. Command (the tool) is needed.
So, possibly, is an operations section,
logistics, attack, search, and ventilation
groups. One person can’t effectively do it all.
In this instance, one person can probably
handle command, operations, and logistics,
but additional crews (tools) will be needed to
Fig. 1–2. Staging sets the tone for the incident. It provides a attack, search, and ventilate the house.
focus to even uncommitted units.
· >| 4 |< ·

The Basic Premise of the

Incident Management System
There is a basic premise behind IMS,
which is what makes it work at large wildland
fires as well as heart-attack runs. As I said
earlier, IMS is as much an attitude as it is a
tool. IMS develops teamwork. As the saying
goes, there is no “I” in team. I wish I could say
there is no “I” in IMS, but obviously there is.
However, the “I” in “I’ll do what ever I want”
is not there. Everyone has an assignment.
Everyone knows everyone else’s assignment.
If everyone does his job, it all gets done, all
under the direction of one person.
One person will be in charge of

Fig. 1–3. Only one person will be in charge of every incident.
every incident we respond to
IMS eliminates multiple commanders. Larger or complicated fires require
The days of three or four chiefs responding multiple chiefs, not multiple commanders.
to the same fire and all giving orders are over. At a complicated house fire (trapped victims,
That isn’t to say that three or four chiefs exposure problems, etc.), an operations chief
(or more) can’t all respond to the same fire. becomes a necessity. I advocate almost never
In fact, there is a trend in the fire service pulling a company officer off a crew for this
today to send a minimum of two chiefs to purpose, especially at a complicated fire.
a report of a fire. I applaud that concept. Special-call for another chief (even using
Sometimes, running even just a house fire mutual aid), and once that next chief arrives,
with a single chief can be a very stressful assign that officer to operations. Even better
situation, especially when you have to assign yet, let the chief take command, and you go
crews to stretch themselves due to life-safety to operations. (I’ll explain why later.) Now you
concerns. It’s nice to have someone to bounce have a chief running the fire (operations) and
ideas off of. another chief in charge of the rest (command).
Under IMS, command is the only Command is still in charge, but this officer
person in charge of the incident (fig. 1–3). can leave the placement of apparatus, and
Command’s responsibility is to determine concerns such as which line needs 20 more
the objectives of the incident, convert those pounds of pressure, to operations while he or
objectives into a strategy, and then assign she oversees the bigger picture.
crews to tactically carry out the strategy. I recall responding to a second-alarm fire
Multiple or conflicting strategies can burn as the operations deputy in an apartment
down buildings and kill firefighters. Too complex. When I arrived, I gave the first-in
many cooks spoil the broth, and too many chief operations and I took command. I didn’t
commanders can spoil the fireground. do anything spectacular. After the fire,
· >| 5 |< ·

I remember officers coming over to me and chiefs and their crews. When things went
saying how things calmed down and got well, I would pat the chief on the back and
controlled much faster after I got there. say, “You done good,” or simply, “I’m out of
I thanked them for the compliment but here.” Either meant the same thing. It wasn’t
explained that the only reason things got uncommon for me to get on the radio as I was
better was that once I arrived, I assigned the leaving and tell “All crews on _____ Street,
battalion chief to operations. The chief still you did a good job.” However, sometimes
ran the fire. As IC, all I did was handle the the converse was true. If I responded or was
other aspects of the incident, which allowed informed that a problem existed, the incident
operations to concentrate solely on the fire. commander would have been the first (and
By other aspects, I mean tasks like calling for normally the last) person I talked to. If it
the Red Cross to set up the canteen, helping wasn’t the IC’s fault, then the IC should have
displaced occupants, asking the electric addressed the problem with the subordinate
company to cut the drop, having the gas officer, not me. My job, as operations deputy,
company turn off the gas, getting an air wagon was to ensure that the chiefs did their job. It
started, having the police block the street so is the job of the battalion chief to ensure that
cars don’t cross our hoselines, and so on. the company officers do their job.
While I did that, mostly on another tactical
channel, all operations had to concentrate
on was the fire. It wasn’t my arrival, but Command must have total control
the fact that we expanded the command
of the incident—no freelancing.
structure and divided responsibilities that
eased the situation. That’s what IMS is about, I’ll run any incident in any community
divide and conquer. as long as I have one thing: total control of
the incident. If I’m the only one in charge,
and you or someone else (like the public, for
Command will be held example) are going to hold me responsible,
then I must have control of what gets done
ultimately responsible for the
and when it gets done. How is a different
outcome of the incident. issue. The how refers to evolutions, and under
most circumstances, command shouldn’t
“The buck stops here.” One person must get involved in evolutions. That’s a training
be responsible. That’s why chief officers get the and procedural issue.
big money! We are paid to make decisions and If your department operates using
accept responsibility for those decisions. preincident assignment or incident-specific
IMS is not designed as a vehicle to assignments, when you deviate from those
place blame, although IMS does define the assignments or act on your own without
roles and responsibilities of everyone who permission, that’s considered freelancing.
responds to an incident. Command is on the
top of the pyramid or flowchart and, as such,
should be held ultimately responsible for the Freelancing defined
outcome of the incident. As deputy chief of
operations, it was my job to respond to fires Freelancing is defined as acting without
(normally as an observer at first-alarm fires) authority. In essence, it’s doing whatever
and to evaluate the actions of the battalion you as an officer or firefighter want to do.
· >| 6 |< ·

Freelancing kills. Freelancing not only kills In the preceding scenario, I don’t expect
firefighters but has also probably killed the crew to charge past the victim saying,
hundreds, if not thousands, of civilians at “Coleman says if we pull you out, that’s
fires (fig. 1–4). Freelancing is one of those dirty freelancing.” What I expect is for you to have
little secrets in the fire service: We all know crew members grab the victim, and as you
it’s done yet we rarely do anything to stop it, begin to drag the individual out, the officer
especially at the lower ranks of the service. reports over the radio “Attack to command,
we have a victim and are bringing the victim
out.” Once the IC says, “Command OK,” over
the radio, the crew is no longer freelancing.
They are acting under authority. When
statements like that are made to an incident
commander, the IC has two choices, which
normally have to be made instantaneously.
One is to say “command OK,” which 99
times out of 100 will be the prudent thing to
say. The other would be to say “maintain,”
which means continue on with your present
assignment. Let’s say command is out front
with two firefighters from another crew,
and the above transmission comes over the
radio. These men are outfitted with their
MMR (mask mounted regulator) snapped in.
All they have to do is follow the line into the
Fig. 1–4. Freelancing kills civilians and firefighters. house, up the stairs, and grab and drag the
victim. The initial attack crew can stay with
the victim until they arrive and then continue
There is another type of freelancing. I call advancing on the fire. In essence, command
it “assigned freelancing.” Assigned freelancing is now killing two birds with one stone.
is completing tasks other than what you were Look at it in another scenario:
assigned. Normally, one would find nothing
wrong with someone doing more than they Battalion 1 arrives first at a structure fire
were asked, but let’s look at it in a practical in a single-family, two-story frame home at
sense. Take the following scenario: 1334 hours. Heavy smoke is showing, and
there are flames coming from windows on the
Battalion 1 arrives first at a structure fire B side of Division 2. Command assigns the
in a single-family two-story frame home at first-in engine to attack.
1334 hours. Heavy smoke is showing, and Knowing that the next-in crew will be a
there are flames coming from windows on the minute or two out, Command decides that
B side of Division 2. Command assigns the this is a good time to do a 360° evaluation of
first-in engine to attack. the building and heads toward sides B and C
As attack pulls and stretches a 13⁄4-inch of the building.
line up the stairwell, they come across a victim As attack pulls and stretches a 13⁄4-inch
lying on the stairway landing. line up the stairwell, they come across a victim
lying on the stairway landing. The crew drops
· >| 7 |< ·

the line and begins to bring the victim out and officers get a myopic view of the entire
begin life-saving efforts in the front yard. fire scene. All in all, that’s not a bad
thing. I want interior officers to focus
Command is now at the B/C corner and on their task. Command should have
can’t understand why the crew isn’t darkening the bigger picture, including what
the fire. “Why is it taking them so long?” assignments have already been made,
Command nervously heads back to side A approximately where those crews are
and gets on the radio and asks attack for in the building, what units are staged
an update: “Command to attack, give me an and available, and how are things
update.” Command reaches side A and then looking (as compared to a minute or
discovers why the fire didn’t get darkened two ago). Command may have already
and why attack didn’t answer the radio. assigned crews to that task, and the
That brings me to the second rule in crew that noticed the people hanging
freelancing: Freelancing is only freelancing if out windows wasn’t aware of the
you don’t tell command. I will never discourage assignment. It may be looking very
officers and crew members from taking good from side A, and perhaps crews
initiative, but only after informing command. can walk the victims down the stairs
We’ve been there. We know and understand in a very few minutes.
what it’s like to be assigned something and
see something else important that needs to The bottom line is, let command know
be done. You have to remember two things: what you are doing if it at all deviates from
the assignment or the norm.
1. Command can only see what one
person can see. If you’re inside and
see victims, see fire while searching, Command, command’s general staff,
holes in the floor or people hanging
and command’s staff positions
out of windows on side C, command
needs to know. Tell command. Say There are still those who believe that
something to the effect of, “Command, ICS isn’t necessary at a house fire. Those
this is Engine 21, we have people individuals believe that fire officers should
hanging from windows on side C. understand their duties at a “simple” house
We’re going to throw a ladder and fire. While I agree that a house fire should
get them down.” Then let command be a relatively simple operation and that
decide. Under most circumstances, if officers should understand their duties, I
you tell command what you have, the disagree with the assertion that ICS then
response will be “OK.” However, under isn’t necessary. One individual needs to
some circumstances, it may not. The prioritize and direct even the simplest house
choice and the responsibility falls fire. Someone needs to coordinate resources
on command. However, it would be and take responsibility for the incident. That
wrong in that situation to simply pull someone should be the incident commander.
ladders and begin a rescue without I must state here that there are many
informing command. who may view my knowledge and use of the
incident command system as myopic and
2. Command should have the bigger extremely limited. I am referring in general
picture. Once assigned, interior to those members of the fire service who
· >| 8 |< ·

practice wildland firefighting. For that type Command is the person in charge of the
of firefighting, this view is probably correct. I incident. As such, this officer is responsible
have never fought anything larger than a few for directing the resources necessary to
acres of grass fires. However, the system that handle the incident. Command’s task is
I learned, and taught, and believe in so much to focus on the incident as a whole and
comes directly from FIRESCOPE and ICS. My ensure that what needs to be done is being
world of ICS is the structural world of ICS. done (but not necessarily how). The task
We have little use for base, tankers (those is to coordinate resources, direct incoming
that have wings), and a logistical section that units (crews), communicate and act upon
provides for both a support and a service communications from group or division
branch. We need SCBAs, more water, and supervisors, and a host of other tasks that,
some fans and tools to breach a wall or two to put it in the simplest terms, make the
with. It’s not that we don’t need a logistics incident go more smoothly.
section at a structure fire—we do, but it Command is responsible for operations,
usually is handled by the chief in charge who planning, logistics, and administration.
may or may not be called “command.” These are referred to command’s general
Please don’t misunderstand. ICS is the staff. Safety, liaison, and information officers
backbone of wildland firefighting. Firefighters are referred to as command’s staff positions.
are brought in for these incidents from all These positions are referred to as sections,
over the country. They must speak the same such as the planning section or the logistics
language and operate under a management section. What command can’t or doesn’t want
system that is universal. However, due to the to handle should be passed off to a subordinate,
limited resources needed at a house fire, the peer, or superior as soon as practical. There
management system can be more parochial. are still those who believe that to truly work
I am not discounting ICS or its use at even under a strict incident management system,
the simplest room and contents fire, but in all of the above sections must be filled prior
the real world of residential firefighting, we to any pulling and stretching of hose or other
can afford to downsize the system a little fireground tasks. Nothing could be further
to meet our own particular needs. It’s hard from the truth, especially in structural
to establish (let alone justify the use of) a firefighting. In my mind, command’s general
full-blown command structure when all you staff and command’s staff positions must
have and are going to get at a house fire be treated as a luxury in the big scheme of
is seven members. things. This is especially true of smaller and
IMS is built on focus. It’s “divide and rural departments. Command should rarely
conquer.” Everyone has a task and a if ever take firefighters from the fight to fill
subsequent focus. If the personnel on the a staff or general staff position. This does
fireground each focus on their individual tasks, not mean that at these types of fires, those
then all the tasks get accomplished. It sounds positions are never or rarely filled. They are
pretty simple, but it isn’t always that easy. filled when additional crews and chief officers
This text is not solely about IMS. Anyone arrive at the incident.
reading this book should already have a firm Think of your last big fire. At first, it’s
understanding of IMS and its principles. likely that there weren’t enough people to do
As a quick review, however, I will provide all the tasks that needed to be done, but 20
a brief review of all the command, general, or 30 minutes into the fire, there probably
and staff positions and how they fit into the were a number of firefighters standing
average house fire.
· >| 9 |< ·

outside, leaning on hooks. Now you have base camps, bringing in extra hand tools
enough personnel to start filling command’s and larger earth-moving equipment, as well
staff and general staff positions as needed. as setting up site hospitals to treat injured
or ill firefighters (medical unit) falls under
their purvey. However, at the vast majority
Command’s general staff positions of house fires, command can handle this
section. At larger apartment fires, command
The are four general staff positions may opt to designate a logistics officer to
that command is responsible for at every tend to tasks like acquiring a temporary
incident: operations, planning, logistics, location to put displaced citizens or to secure
and administration. demolition crews if the dispatch center can’t
Operations is responsible for handling the take care of that request. Again, if command
emergency. At a fire, operations is responsible does not designate a general staff position,
for directing crews assigned to fight the fire then command is responsible for the task.
and any other incident-related task such as Administration is responsible for
emergency medical treatment, evacuations, handling the administrative requirements
and the like. Operations reports directly to of the incident. In the world of wildland
command and, in my opinion, should work firefighters, administration (called finance
at the command post. All tactical crews in FIRESCOPE or the incident command
(groups, divisions, and branches) report system) is established very early into the
directly to operations. If established, staging incident. In the world of the structural
reports to operations. firefighter, administration is probably
Planning is responsible for assessing what the last section to be established if it is
has happened, what is currently happening, established at all. I have been to many
and what could happen in the future as it hundreds of working fires, and commanded
relates to the incident. Because this book hundreds myself, and have yet to establish
focuses on residential structure fires, I will an administration section at one of my fires.
emphasize that planning is responsible for I can envision the instance where I would,
documenting what resources are on the but other than mandated disaster drills, I
scene and what their current assignment have yet to establish one. Again, this book is
is. In other words, planning is responsible mostly about structural firefighting.
for accountability. If no planning section is
assigned, then command is responsible for
assuring scene accountability—normally Command’s staff positions
by and through the operations section
if one is established. There are three staff positions, referred to
Logistics is responsible for getting the as officers, that command must fill at every
necessary tools and equipment to the incident: safety, liaison, and information
incident. Generally, at a house fire, this officers. As stated earlier, commands’ general
may entail extra SCBA bottles, a canteen staff positions are referred to as sections,
or auxiliary to bring coffee or cold drinks to as in operations section. The individuals
the crews operating the fire, or the like. In filling the individual positions in commands’
wildland firefighting, Logistics can be a very general staff are referred to as chiefs, as in
weighty and complicated section. Setting up operations chief or planning chief.
· >| 10 |< ·

Safety. The scene safety officer is the command post, the liaison officer can
responsible for assuring the safest fireground communicate with outside entities and
possible. That’s a pretty tall order. ICS rules persons who have an interest in the incident
state that the incident commander can fill without bothering command. For example,
the role of the safety officer if one is not command can tell liaison that when the
designated. In my opinion, at a working electric company arrives, to have them
residential fire, safety is an essential staff cut the drop to the source building and
position that should be filled when staffing exposure A, and that when the gas company
allows. As an incident commander, I feel arrives, have them shut the supply to the
better knowing that there is one person who source building at the curb. At that point,
is focused on safety. When that section is command can go back to commanding. Some
established, a lot of pressure is removed from departments that are short on staffing use a
the incident commander. police officer as the liaison officer. You have
Safety officers should be located wherever to ask yourself what is more important, to
safety problems are evident at the specific have a firefighter act as liaison at the scene
fire. If roof operations are taking place, then or to use the firefighter to fight the fire and,
the safety officer should be up the ladder, instead, enlist a police officer to help direct
ensuring that the ventilation operation is outside agencies.
being conducted as safely as possible. The Information officer. The information
safety officer needs to be sure that the ladder officer provides information to the media,
is raised correctly and butted, the firefighters victims, families of victims, and fire
are operating on the correct side of the vent personnel. At a vacant house fire, the incident
hole, and that all the appropriate personal commander can fill the role of information
protective equipment (PPE) is in place. If officer and normally not miss a beat. In the
the crew must go defensive on a vacant excitement of the fight, before the fire is
residential occupancy, the safety officer under control, I usually tell the media to take
must make sure that all the collapse zones some pictures, and I’ll give them a sound bite
are maintained. If it’s 20° below zero, the in a few minutes. At a multiple-alarm fire, I
safety officer should make sure the crews are usually assign a specific information office to
protected as much as possible and that they handle the media.
are provided frequent breaks. While all of At working apartment fires, the
this is occurring, the IC can focus elsewhere, information officer can provide information
knowing that one individual is concentrating to displaced occupants. Such information
on the safety aspects of the incident. I am could pertain to when and if they can get
blessed with 24-hour safety officers in my back into their apartments, help make
department. Absent them, safety would be arrangements for temporary housing and
one of the first staff positions I would fill at a clothing needs, and help notify family
residential structure fire. members of their status. Additionally, the
Liaison. The liaison officer is the office family members who arrive at the scene
keeper of the command post in structural of a large apartment fire can be referred
firefighting. In most circumstances, liaison to the information officer to give them
is a luxury for residential fire. At large, information on their family and friends.
multiple-alarm apartment fires, the liaison While this is being done, the command is
officer can be a very valuable asset. At freed up to command.
· >| 11 |< ·

When to fill the boxes chief assumes the role of command. From
that time on, command is on a separate
When you’re talking about IMS at radio channel and, more or less, handles the
residential structure fires, “When do you other aspects of the incident while operations
fill the boxes?” is the big question. The tends to the fire. Command is there, working
command function must be filled all the time alongside operations and making the final
and at every incident. Someone has to be decisions. However, operations handles the
in charge. Someone has to be accountable nuts and bolts of the fire, while command
for the incident. Someone needs to be able takes care of the rest. This is only a suggestion,
to “change the play at the line” and call and in Toledo this works well for us. National
an audible. At a fire, that someone is the Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1561 is
incident commander. Now if your standard silent on when the boxes get filled.
operating procedures (SOPs) dictate that the Common sense would suggest that filling
first-in officer can participate with the crew all the boxes at the onset of an incident (with
until the next-in officer, or even the chief, the arrival of the first-in unit) may not lend
arrives, that’s OK! But the first-in officer itself to a successful outcome. One of the
should be in charge and held accountable first rules in accountability (of personnel) is
for the incident until another officer takes that any accountability system should not
command; in an ideal world, the first-in interfere with initial operations. That rule
officer is in command and should announce should likewise apply to filling in the boxes.
that fact in the on-scene announcement. ICS is not a tool that should distract from the
However, I’m not here to dictate procedure, safety of firefighters, civilians, or our mission.
but every department should have a policy In fact, ICS should enhance the incident if
that states who is in charge and when. used correctly. When the first crew arrives in
All of the other boxes (operations, a working factory fire with three firefighters
planning, logistics, and administration on it, the initial priority of that first-in crew
sections; safety, liaison, and information should be firefighter and civilian safety, and
officers) are plain and simply a luxury. Now, then they should start to work the fire if it can
if I had a department where the command be done safely and in accordance with policy
vehicle pulled up to every fire with eight and procedure. The first priority should not
chief officers on it, life would be simple and be to fill the command structure. This in no
all of the boxes would be filled. However, way means that the role of command should
not even the largest cities have that luxury, not be filled from the onset! Nothing could
at least initially, at a fire. Policy, common be further from the truth. However, all of the
sense, and circumstances need to be used in command’s staff and general staff positions
determining what other, if any, of the boxes can and should be filled as more crews and
get filled at any fire. chief officers arrive.
Policy should dictate when command and Think of your last good multiple-alarm
any other section might get filled. Our only fire. Think of the fire in the first 5 minutes
policy to this end states that at any second or so. Chances are that there was too much
alarm and over (except for “precautionary” to do with too few firefighters. Now, think
second alarms) an operations section shall of that same fire 20 or 30 minutes into the
be established. Usually, the first dispatched incident. Close your eyes and picture the
battalion commander who was the command scene. You can probably see 10 or more
moves down to operations and the next-in firefighters standing around with hooks in
· >| 12 |< ·

their hands, watching the fire burn and the a major incident. Members are certified
crews work. That’s the time to start filling to fill specific boxes. Some are certified
in the boxes. to act as IC, planning, and operations,
In the world of structural firefighting, for example. Not only are standards of
rarely is a finance section required. Most of qualification required, but hands-on time
the structural fires a department encounters in the specific area of expertise (say, filling
last 12 hours or less (and that would be a the planning section) at real incidents is also
pretty good fire!). As already stated, we necessary. Again, this is a requirement for
always assign an operations chief at any wildland firefighting. The State of California
working second-alarm fire. I can see the need certified incident management teams (IMTs)
for a planning section chief at many working for wildland firefighting and for other
multiple-alarm fires. Some fires involving emergencies. Certified members are allowed
hazardous materials will require a logistics to carry a “red card,” issued from the state,
section. Keep in mind that what command verifying their qualifications.
doesn’t pass off, command is responsible for. In an informal sense, some departments
If command starts to get so bogged down in are taking the concept of IMTs and applying
getting air cylinders replaced and charged it to fit more local needs. In Lucas County,
or thinking of where the water runoff is Ohio, we are training chief officers in the
headed and what’s in it that it’s not possible county to fill the boxes at major incidents.
to concentrate on the fire and its specifics, This will provide a pool of trained teams that
then the command needs to start getting can manage a large incident and still provide
help. Let the incident and its nuances dictate the municipality having jurisdiction a pool
what boxes to fill. And, finally, planning, of home chiefs to manage other day-to-day
logistics, and the other boxes (notice I didn’t incidents. The State of Ohio is starting a
list operations) at most structure fires are a credentialing process to certify IMTs as part
luxury. They should be filled when on-scene of a statewide mutual aid system.
staffing is adequate and at safe operating To be fair and to show the other side of
levels. I would never consider pulling a the coin, I would like to take a few minutes
firefighter off of a necessary line or from to discuss the “command team” concept
conducting a search to fill a box for me. I used by the Phoenix Fire Department.
simply couldn’t justify it. The Phoenix Fire Department has its own
interpretation of command teams. At a major
incident they dispatch a second battalion
Command teams chief and what they call a senior chief to
assist the incident commander. These three
In many areas of the country, command individuals make up a command team. It
teams are a new concept. In California and consists if an incident commander and a
parts of the West and South where wildland senior and junior advisor. Together, they
fires are a concern, they have been around for manage the incident.
a while. In the formal sense, command teams Regardless of the type of command
are a group of individuals who are trained team that you use, IMTs have their place in
and certified to fill the boxes in the incident residential fires. I am becoming more and
command system. Once established and more of a believer in the use of a team to
certified, they are allowed to respond to other assist command in managing even simple
jurisdictions as a team and help command fires. As already stated, I don’t believe in
· >| 13 |< ·

taking firefighters from the fight to build a may respond on these runs. I suggest that
staff. However, when staffing is available, the procedure should designate the highest
I believe in getting the IC a little help, too. ranking officer as the informal commander
at these incidents.)
The Four Types of Command

I would assume that in the infancy of the
incident management system there was only
one form of IMS. Much of IMS, as anything else,
comes from necessity. It must be remembered
that IMS sprang from FIRESCOPE in the
ICS. This system was designed specifically
for wildland firefighting. These were large
fires, which required massive numbers of
resources. After the inception of ICS, it soon
became apparent that this system could be
used not only at large fires but also at more
routine incidents as well.
There are four types of command used
today: informal, formal, unified, and area. Fig. 1–5. A fire crew operating at an EMS run
The type of command used is dependent on
two or more factors: When operating under an informal
command, the command does not have to
1. The number of units of formally establish or announce that he or
officers responding she is in charge. It is understood that there
is only one officer on the scene, and that this
2. The number of entities formally officer is command and is, as such, in charge
represented at the command post of the incident. In these responses, when
the officer reports on the scene, the officer
should give an initial on-scene report, stating
Informal command that the unit is on the scene and including
an initial conditions report. At this point, the
Informal command is established when officer should handle the incident as training
only one officer responds to the incident, and procedure dictate.
such as in normal emergency medical
services (EMS) and “still box” alarm
responses. In many cities, this also includes Formal command
the normal first responder or medical runs
on advanced life support (ALS) runs (fig. 1–5). Formal command is used whenever more
In these responses, traditionally only one than one unit responds to an incident. Under
officer responds to the incident on a single formal command, the officer assuming
unit. (In some rural departments where command announces that fact over the
volunteers are used, more than one officer radio. Every incident where more than one
· >| 14 |< ·

unit responds must have only one person As stated earlier, incident management
in charge (fig. 1–6). Procedurally, we must is based on the premise that one person
have a way of determining who the officer in is in charge of every incident to which we
charge will be on these multiunit responses. respond. The formal command allows us
Most departments today in the United States to proceduralize this vital basic premise.
operate under the procedure that the first Upon the arrival of the first-in officer,
officer on the scene will be the incident command should be assumed. Procedure
commander until the incident is over, or until should then dictate when and how command
that officer is relieved by higher authority. should be transferred.
Not too many chiefs can run an incident
while putting on their fire gear. As you read
on, you’ll see I use the term focus a lot. If all
personnel focus on what they’re supposed to
be doing, everyone gets the job done well. It’s
hard to focus on running an incident while
you’re parking, dressing, or walking up to
an incident. You may not even want to take
command. It may be too small an incident
for your involvement, or you may want the
officer on a promotional list, who initially
took command, to continue to run the fire
with you standing nearby so the officer can
gain experience and confidence (fig. 1–7).
Fig. 1–6. A chief officer operating at a formal command post
There are still some cities in the United

States where procedure dictates that the
highest ranking individual on-scene is
command regardless of the situation. I have
several problems with this. First, when a
higher-ranking chief officer arrives, the entire
burden of command shouldn’t be placed on
that individual, who may not be ready to
assume that task. Simply pulling up and
putting yourself on the scene does not mean
that you have done your own size-up and are
ready to assume command. Second, many
departments dispatch more than one chief,
especially on multiple-alarm or large-area
incidents. The incident may not dictate or
necessitate using a higher-ranking chief simply Fig. 1–7. A command post expanding to unified command. Note
because that individual arrived on the scene. the presence of police at the command post.
· >| 15 |< ·

Unified command Area command

Unified command is used at large, Area command is the newer type of
multijurisdictional incidents (see fig. 1–7). command. Area command is established
It allows for more than one individual to be to oversee the management of multiple
command and establishes a think-tank, if incidents that are each being handled
you will, of individuals to share the burden by an IMS organization or to oversee the
of decision making and responsibility of the management of large or multiple incidents in
incident. An example of a large incident at which several incident management teams
which unified command would be established have been assigned. Area command has
would be a large spill on Lake Erie. A spill of responsibility to set the overall strategies
that nature could affect not only the United and priorities, allocate critical resources
States but also the Canadian waters of Lake according to those priorities, ensure that
Erie. In this instance, unified command that incidents are properly managed, and ensure
incorporates the representation by Ohio, that objectives are met. Area command
Michigan, and Canadian fire officials, as well becomes unified area command, when
as the United States and Canadian Coast incidents are multijurisdictional. The
Guard, could be established. These officials following scenario shows that having an area
would jointly make decisions and share command can be advantageous.
responsibility for the outcome of the incident. A tornado touches down in your
On a much smaller scale, unified command community. The tornado does damage in the
may be established at wildland fires involving north, central, and south portions of your
two or more jurisdictions. city. These three areas cannot be managed
When unified command is used, it by one incident commander. In this case,
must be announced over the radio and area command would be established. An
documented. All the agencies and the area command post would be established
representatives of those agencies must be somewhere in the city. This command post
continually documented throughout the would have an incident commander, and
incident. Time has taught us that under these possibly a logistics chief and a planning chief.
incidents where unified command is used, it In the incident described earlier, we could
is best to appoint a command lead agency. possibly establish a north, a south, and a
Most incident types dictate which agency central command. These three command
will act as the lead agency. As an example, posts would be in charge of their respective
in a chemical weapons of mass destruction areas. Request for resources and personnel
(WMD) incident, unified command would be would go through the area command post.
established by representatives of the police, Now with area command, each incident is
fire, EMS, and local health department. In managed by its own incident commander. An
this case, the health department would be operations section, planning section, or any
the lead agency. In the case of a bombing other command or general staff position can
incident where the police, fire, EMS, and be assigned to better manage the incident.
other agencies responded, the police or other
law enforcement agency would probably
become the lead agency.
· >| 16 |< ·

For the confines of this text, we will hot-dogs. In short, with IMS we’ve identified
concentrate primarily on formal command. some weaknesses that procedures have
In this day and age, it’s incumbent on every covered up, and we have been directed toward
fire department and chief officer to have a some new areas that needed training.
clear understanding of not only formal but
also unified and area command.
Three Parts of the Incident

Announcing the Assumption Management System
of Command I’ve heard almost every excuse in the book
why some departments don’t use IMS. “We
When formal command is established, it don’t need all that stuff to run and put out a
should be announced over the radio along house fire,” some would say. “It’s only good at
with the initial scene report. This radio second alarms.” No one has convinced me yet
transmission is how everyone responding that IMS is not needed at every incident that
knows from whom to take direction. This fact we respond to. For something that cleans up
is vital. Only one individual should be giving incidents the way IMS does, there’s not a lot
direction to incoming units. Too many chiefs to it. Basically, IMS consists of three parts:
spoil a fire. Mobile officers with multiple
priorities and multiple strategies to get into · > Command defines the roles,
place can only lead to disaster. relationships, and responsibilities of
The first officer on the scene should personnel responding to an incident.
announce that fact and that he or she
is the command, and from that time on, · > Staging sets up the placement of
that individual is the only officer to make uncommitted apparatus at the scene
strategic decisions at that fire. More than of an emergency.
anything else in recent history of the fire
service, IMS has made it essential that the · > Sectorization divides the area
fire administrators train their officers in how into manageable units or
to make strategic decisions at incidents. task-oriented assignments.
Not only do they need to know how to make
strategic decisions, but they also need to That said, IMS defines who’s doing
inform incoming crews of their objectives. I what and where. You need a place to
will discuss fire objectives later. put uncommitted units and personnel
The incident management system allows responding, and you also need a formal
chief officers to sit back and watch officers, way of dividing up the incident. Now, to
young and old, new and veteran, take make this system flow and to enhance the
command at all types of incidents. IMS has basic premise of IMS, we need to address a
given us the opportunity to see who has good few additional areas.
strategic concepts and to identify areas of
weakness. It also has allowed us to identify
and distinguish the team players from the
· >| 17 |< ·

Effects and Benefits of IMS

Basically, incident management affects
and, if correctly used, improves the following
aspects at every emergency situation:
Command
As stated earlier, IMS defines the roles and
responsibilities of command. Another reason
to establish command at the beginning of an
incident is so there’s no misunderstanding
who is in charge of an incident at any
particular time. Command must establish
strategies and then make the appropriate
assignments with the personnel and
equipment already on the scene or en route.
Command then can systematically build the
specific structure that will effectively meet
the needs of that particular incident.
Fig. 1–8. Command affects and improves communication.
Communications
IMS establishes a universal form of Span of control or communications
communication at every emergency scene (fig.
1–8). Terminology, names, and nomenclatures Incident management sets guidelines
are preestablished and used at specific relevant to the span of control of emergency
times and at certain occurrences. Everyone scenes. Span of control is defined as the
responding is given an assignment that is number of subordinates one supervisor
specific and known to all on the scene and can effectively handle. The emphasis is on
those listening. Additionally, with command- effectively. During nonemergency operations,
to-control radio communications, only certain one officer can handle several subordinates
officers should speak directly to command, and effectively manage their operations. In
and command should speak only to certain emergency operations under IMS, the span
officers. This follows the chain of command, of control drops to 1:3–7 subordinates.
according to the incident’s flowchart. The figure I usually agree to is a
1:5 officer-to-subordinate ratio. When using
IMS, this 1:5 figure should not be violated
unless absolutely necessary. Common sense
must prevail here. At large defensive fires,
there are times when one officer can manage
· >| 18 |< ·

more than five units standing outside lobbing Questions

water into a destroyed or almost destroyed
structure. However, an officer crawling down 1) Fill in the blanks to the definition of ICS:
the hallway conducting a search may not be “ICS is a __________________ method of
able to control five subordinates at one time. operating at ___________________ incident
In these instances, the span of control may that a fire department responds to.”
need to be narrowed.
One rule cannot and should not 2) Another name for preincident assignments
be created that dictates the number of is _____________________________________.
subordinates that one person can manage.
So much of it depends on the situation, the 3) Another name for incident-specific
task being performed, the experience level assignments is ________________________.
of the crew, and the experience level of the
officer. Incident commanders need to be 4) What are the three basic premises
keenly aware of the crews that they respond behind IMS?
with. The span of communications is another a. ______________________________________
factor that needs to be considered. The span b. ______________________________________
of communications is defined as the number c. _____________________________________
of subordinates one person can communicate
with effectively. Again, this is situational. It 5) List the four command general staff
is dependent on the incident and its severity, positions.
what is being discussed, and who it is being a. ______________________________________
discussed with. Again, a chief officer might b. ______________________________________
be able to communicate with 5, 6, or 10 other c. ______________________________________
officers at a command post. However, an d. _____________________________________
officer crawling down the hall conducting a
search may have a hard time communicating 6) List the three command staff positions.
with two or more searchers effectively. a. ______________________________________
b. ______________________________________
c. _____________________________________
7) command is used when only one officer

responds to an incident.
8) ___________________________is used when

an incident becomes multijurisdictional.
9) Can you operate under unified area

command? Yes or No
10) What is the normal span of control used

under IMS during emergency operations?
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
· >| 19 |< ·

2
The Essence of Command
A
s I said earlier, the incident management system (IMS) is as much an attitude as it is
a management tool. When I was a young man, my father tried to teach me the game
of golf. At that age, a young man learns many lessons from his father. In those days,
cutoff blue jeans were the fashion trend for young adults. My father wouldn’t even let me
practice in cutoff blue jeans. His quote was, “You have to look important to feel important!” He
would go on to say, “You never see Jack Nicklaus or Arnold Palmer in a pair of shorts, playing
golf.” Just as golf is a game of attitude as much as it is a skill, I believe running an incident is
as much an attitude as it is a skill.
The incident management system is built on focus. It is the incident commander’s (IC’s)
responsibility to focus on the entire incident. Division and group officers then need to focus
on their specific assignments. If everybody focuses on individual tasks, then all the tasks get
done and the bigger picture is accomplished. As an IC, my job is to stand out front or wherever
I can get the best view of the incident and get an overview of the entire scene. It’s best if you
develop your own pose while running an incident. What I mean by pose is to develop a way
of standing or slightly pacing in front of the fire scene that allows you to maintain a focus on
what is in front of you. In my case, I tend to stand in front of a fire with my hands crossed
across my fire coat, and one arm somewhere near my chin or mouth. My task at every fire is
to try to stay in that pose throughout the majority of the incident. If I can do this, then there’s
a much better chance that I am in control of the fire as opposed to the fire being in control of
me. I also believe that it instills confidence in the troops. Who would you rather have run your
fire, a chief who is running all over the place or a chief who calmly focuses on the fire?
· >| 21 |< ·

Command Presence and I am a viewed by firefighters on

the scene, I believe that they feel
I’ve heard a lot of speakers and read confident that I am in control of the
several articles that discuss command situation. The converse is also true.
presence. Command presence is pretty If they are used to seeing me in my
much an attitude (fig. 2–1). This attitude normal pose, but for whatever reason
is directly related to the situation, one’s I am pacing pensively or, worse yet,
knowledge and experience, as well as specific running at a fire, then they’ll know
personality traits. that something’s wrong. It’s at that
The key to command presence is an time that their confidence in me, the
attitude that allows you to run the fire and situation, and perhaps themselves will
not let the fire run you. This is not to say that be in doubt. That’s not a good thing.
you can’t get excited, anxious, frustrated,
mad, or a wide range of other emotions · > Listen more than you talk. Anyone
while running a fire. The key is being able who knows me knows that I’m not
to control these emotions. I believe that this shy about talking over the radio. If
is as much a learned trait as a perfect golf something has to be said, I’m certainly
swing or riding a bike. not afraid to say it. My job as an
IC is to gain as much information
concerning the incident as I can
in the shortest possible time. I can
do that in several ways. One is by
listening to the radio and knowing
my people. If Captain Jaksetic
starts yelling in his face piece at
the fire, I know something’s wrong.
Listen to communications between
officers and crew members as well
as you listen to conversations from
your dispatch center.
· > Bunker up. I’m not going to start the

debate concerning the location of
command posts. I don’t care if you sit
in your car. I don’t care if you stand
Fig. 2–1. Command presence is how you portray outside, with slightly less favorable
yourself at incidents. lighting and communication in the
frigid cold. It’s your job! If you do
Here are a few tips on creating and choose, however, to stand outside
maintaining a command presence throughout and run your fire, then bunker
routine and stressful fires: up. Every leader needs to lead by
example (fig. 2–2). I understand the
· > Assume your pose. When I stand at temptation of sticking your head in,
a fire with my arms crossed and one walking in between buildings, and
hand somewhere around my mouth
· >| 22 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Essence of Command |< ·
going in other areas in the warm and · > Make your own decisions. I know
hot zones. Be prepared, bunker up, chief officers that let company officers
and lead by example. run their fire for them. Some solicit
advice from group or division officers,
and then act on that advice without
weighing any other factors. These
company officers are so familiar
with the way these chiefs work that
they now provide advice unsolicited.
Please don’t get me wrong here. I ask
a lot of questions at fires. “What’s
it looking like in there? Are you
working your way toward the fire?
Did you find it yet?” In the end,
though, you need to make your own
decisions. When you’re ready to
make your own decisions, you can
be influenced by group and division
officers, feedback, and comments
and conversations. You must always
remember, however, that you will be
responsible for your decisions, so
make them your decisions.
Fig. 2–2. Bunker up! Do as you say! If you require them to use Choosing Staff
it—you use it and lead by example.
I realize that this text is directed at mostly
single-family residential structure fires. The
· > Communicate. I don’t care if you yell huge command staff is not normally needed
over the radio, but yell all the time. or advisable at these incidents. I have come to
The converse is also true. I don’t care the realization that even at the most mundane
if you’re a “low talker”; just be a low fires, two chiefs work better than one. There
talker all the time. Be consistent! is an interesting trait happening across the
Firefighters crawling down the hall of United States. Some of the larger, busier
a fire don’t want to hear a chief who departments in the country are sending two
normally talks quietly start yelling at or more chiefs to working fires. The more
a fire. Nor do they want to hear a chief I think about this, the more I believe it is
who usually yells start to whisper and essential. Two chiefs create a think tank. It
mumble at a fire. Consistency is the doesn’t matter if one takes command and the
key! It’s OK to raise your voice, but other is assigned to side C, or if both operate
get back to your own normal speaking at the command post. Four eyes, four ears,
level as soon as possible. and two brains are better than two eyes, two
ears, and one brain.
· >| 23 |< ·

Things almost always run more smoothly life-safety issues a concern for civilians
with two chiefs running the fire, even if one and firefighters. Most of us can picture this
chief is very experienced and a great chief, type of fire. It is truly a blessing at these
and the other is a poor strategic or tactical fires to pass off to the operations chief the
chief with very little experience. One can help, responsibilities of supervising divisions and
prod, and mentor the other. As a side note, groups and ensuring that the objectives of
we need to stop complaining about people the incident are being met, while you as the
we consider poor strategic or tactical chiefs IC take care of other aspects of the incident,
and start to work with them to build their including addressing the victims’ needs,
abilities and confidence. It’s our own fault, ensuring that the utilities to the structure
as administrators, if we have chiefs that are are secure, providing canteen service for the
poor on the fireground. crews on-scene, addressing the media, and
As relates to this text, I still advocate so on. While the IC tends to all of this, the
the use of two chiefs running a single- operations chief can, in essence, run the fire.
family house fire whenever possible. Things How much easier can it get?
almost always go more smoothly when two
chiefs are on-scene working together. As
the initial IC runs the fire, the second chief,
once on-scene, can do a 360° evaluation of
the building, talk to witnesses and owners,
make specific (non-fire-related) requests to
dispatch on different fire frequency, and a
host of other tasks, which allows the initial
incident commander to do one thing—focus
on the fire!
There are departments where one chief
goes in and does origin and cause while
the other chief concentrates on overall and
demobilization. They then switch places and
compare notes to see if they identify the same
origin and cause. If they both come up with the
same origin and cause, they can rest assured
that they probably have it pinpointed.
Routine house fires normally do not
require an incident commander and an
operations chief (fig. 2–3). Under most
conditions, in a room and contents fire, one
chief can handle command and the operations
sections simultaneously. I have been to Fig. 2–3. An operations chief is normally not required
many single-family residential structure for a house fire.
fires in my career where an operations chief
is a godsend. These fires are normally in Our ability to grab another chief officer or
large buildings with fire on several floors company officer to fill the role of operations
in several areas and heavy heat and smoke chief depends on the size of the fire and
conditions throughout the structure, with the number of crews and firefighters on the
· >| 24 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Essence of Command |< ·
scene. Unless it is proceduralized, it may evolutions will be conducted inside the

not be prudent in most circumstances to structure. The only way to know what is
grab the first-in officer for your operations being done by crews is to drill together and
chief once you arrive at the fire. Having an conduct tailboard critiques immediately after
operations chief is a luxury to most incident the fire is darkened down. The IC should
commanders unless it is proceduralized ask questions as to what, how, and when
that two chiefs respond on every fire. If specific tasks were done. If the answers
your procedures do not dictate the response weren’t in the IC’s game plan, corrective
of the second chief officer, then consider action should be taken immediately (not in
special-calling for an additional chief when the form of discipline) to ensure that there is
the need arises. I suggest, however, that you no misunderstanding as to what you expect
think very carefully about pulling a company at your next fire. How else are they going to
officer from the crew initially at a fire to give know? And how else are you going to know
you an operations section chief. The one you what they’re doing inside once they disappear
gain may not be worth the loss to the crew. into the smoke? A structure fire is no place to
make assumptions concerning the actions of
your crews. That’s how people get killed. The
only way to know exactly what they’re doing
Directing Without Interfering in there is to train them before the fire and
then ask them after the fire, so you can make
An incident commander’s job is to direct sure that training matched actions.
and lead crews in emergency situations. The So, getting back to the heading
job is not to micromanage company officers. of this section, how do you direct
Once assignments are given by the IC (or without interfering?
by procedure), then the IC should let the
company officer do his or her task. That is · > Train, train often, train all on the
not to say that if I assign a crew attack and same items, update all on new
I envision them pulling 21⁄2-inch line, but I changes, and then train some more.
see them grabbing the 13⁄4-inch preconnect,
that I shouldn’t stop them and tell them to · > Conduct tailboard critiques. Ask them
grab a bigger line. Much in the same way, if what they did, how, and when. If it
you tell the ladder crew to vent the building, doesn’t match what you would have
and positive pressure ventilation (PPV) is all done or what procedure dictates, then
that is required, yet you see them approach a correct it now!
house with a 28-foot ladder and a chainsaw
in their hands, you should tell him to drop Repeat items one and two.
the ladder and get the fan.
All officers should be trained to about the
same level in the department. There should
be no doubt in any chief officer’s mind as to
the tactical evolutions that will be conducted
once an assignment is made. If you assign a
crew to attack, once they enter that building
and disappear in the smoke, you should
have a good understanding of exactly which
· >| 25 |< ·

3
Establishing Command
M
ost of us have struggled with the incident management system (IMS) for some
15 years. I would hope by now that for most of us, the IMS is established at the
arrival of the first-in officer at every incident we respond to. Some departments still
operate by utilizing command modes. Command modes give the first arriving officer options
with regard to initial actions at incidents, depending on conditions. The National Fire Incident
Management System Consortium is an organization of fire service professionals whose goal
was to merge the two most popular incident command systems used by the American fire
service into a single common system. In July 1990, the Phoenix Fire Department hosted the
first of a series of AdHoc Committee meetings with Phoenix and FIRESCOPE representatives,
with staff assistance from the National Fire Academy. The consortium, established to
resolve differences between several forms of IMS in use, also recognizes command modes. It
refers to command modes as “command options.” Command modes are selected according
to the conditions of the situation. I refer to command modes as the playbook of the fire
service. When the quarterback (command) calls the play (the command mode or option)
according to what he or she sees (the situation), then the team (the other units responding)
know what to do.
Command modes are similar to that. When the first arriving officer reports nothing
showing, all responding units now know what to do. Command modes should be part of the
command’s on-scene announcement.
Remember, command modes are situational—they depend on what the officer first
sees on arrival. Also, command modes can be used for most, if not all, types of incidents,
not just fires.
· >| 27 |< ·

The Three Command Modes Nothing showing mode

As stated earlier, command modes More than 90% of fires that we respond
create a playbook for the fire service. Many to are handled with one line or less. At the
departments still use some form of command majority of fire runs that we will respond
modes, whereas others require the first to, the first on-scene unit sees no evidence
arriving officer to establish command at of fire on arrival. In these situations the
every incident regardless of the situation. I’m first arriving officer, as part of the on-scene
not here to set policy for your department. I announcement, states “nothing showing.” At
believe in a strong command presence from this time, all units responding or listening to
the onset of the incident. There are always the transmission know two things:
exceptions. The first arriving officer has
many tough decisions to make at the scene · > A fire department unit has arrived on
of a working fire with a report of children the scene.
trapped. The officer’s ability to participate
with the crew and initiate rescues or quickly · > There is no apparent sign of a fire
darken down an advancing fire must be at this time.
evaluated against remaining outside and
providing a strong command presence from In this mode the first arriving officer
the onset of the situation. This decision can observes no smoke or other signs of fire. It
and must be left to the company officer, and would be expected that the officer and crew
no procedure should be so stringent that it investigate to determine the reason the
prohibits officers from deviating from policy fire department was called (fig. 3–1). They
in extreme emergencies. would leave the apparatus and investigate
The three command modes are nothing to determine if fire department services are
showing, fast attack, and command. needed. It is assumed that the first officer
Again, which command mode to use is on the scene is in charge and is going to
situational, depending on initial observations investigate. The fact that the first-in officer
at the scene. is command and is going to investigate need
not be announced over the radio! That is
what is expected.
Here comes the playbook. Once all
responding units hear the first unit on-scene
reporting the nothing showing mode, they
should stage until directed by command. No
other unit should go up to the incident without
being directed to do so by command (the first
officer on the scene). So, we have a play called
nothing showing and a diagram of that play
in our playbook. The first-in officer and crew
will go up to the scene and investigate why
they were called, and everyone else stages.
Fig. 3–1. When nothing is showing, it is expected that the crew of

the first-in unit will investigate. All other crews stage.
· >| 28 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Establishing Command |< ·
Fast attack mode clear-cut answers here. Procedures

recommended from your department
In the fast attack mode, the officer being chief should guide you as to when to
involved hands-on will have a definite impact use the fast attack mode.
in the outcome of the incident—in other
words, if command participates with the
crew, the incident probably will be handled
successfully, and no additional units will be
needed, or their participation will be kept to
a minimum (fig. 3–2). The converse is also
true. If the officer does not participate with
the crew but instead stops to take formal
command, it is likely that the incident will
escalate into a working incident. For this
mode to be effective, the first-in officer must
consider several variables in a relatively short
period of time, including the following:
· > The extent of the incident on arrival.

Will the fire officer’s hands-on
involvement have a definite impact on
the incident outcome? With a small
fire in the kitchen or wastepaper
basket in the bathroom, this probably
will be the case. However, if there’s a
totally involved vacant house in the
middle a field, the officer would be
hard-pressed to explain how hands-on Fig. 3–2. An engine company operating in the fast attack mode
involvement will have an impact on
the outcome of that fire. The house is
going to burn down whether the first Here’s how it works. The first-in officer
officer participates or not. pulls in front of the structure and sees light
smoke or is approached by a frantic individual
· > The location of other responding units. stating a loved one or someone else is in the
If the unit operates in an inner-city structure. The first on-scene officer announces
urban area or other units responding that he or she is on the scene, gives a condition
are just seconds behind the first-in report, and advises that officer and crew are
unit, then the time prior to the next going into fast attack mode. At this time, all
incoming unit’s establishment of units responding that are listening to the
formal command will be minimal. transmission know four key things:
If definite rescues are to be made
and additional responding units · > A fire department unit has arrived
are some distance away, the officer on the scene.
may use of the fast attack mode to
participate in the rescue. There are no · > There is some type of fire.
· >| 29 |< ·

· > The first-in officer is joining the crew Once the command mode is used, all
to participate in the incident. responding units or people listening to the
transmission know three key things:
· > The next-in unit on the scene,
regardless of type, must establish · > A fire department unit has arrived
formal command. Once formal on the scene.
command is established, all other
responding units stage. · > There is a working fire.
· > On their arrival at the incident,

The command mode they should stage in an appropriate
location until directed by command.
With the command mode, there is a
working fire. The first officer determined that Again, it is not my job here to set
it would be more prudent to the outcome of procedure for your department. Unless a
the incident to stay outside and direct other serious situation exists, it is unnecessary
incoming units than it would be to participate for the first-in officer to go fast attack. I
in the attack (fig. 3–3). believe that even small fires are kept small
with the intervention of strong a command
presence from the onset of the arrival of
the first-in officer. Anything else (except in
dire, known life-threatening instances) is
not acceptable.
Passing Command
Some departments get hung up on
exactly when command should be passed. I
know departments where the mere presence
of a high-ranking chief constitutes transfer of
assignment to that highest-ranking chief on
the scene. I discussed this in earlier chapters,
but this is a good time to reiterate my concerns
over this practice. I responded to many fires
in my career where the first-in officer had
an excellent handle on the situation at the
scene. Small room and contents fires such
as wastepaper baskets or food-on-the-stove
fires come to mind. If I had stepped in for
Fig. 3–3. A crew operating in the command mode at this working ego’s sake and taken command of the fire,
structure fire several opportunities would have been lost.
· >| 30 |< ·

First is the opportunity for me to observe · > Is the incident still expanding, or is
lower-ranking officers command a minor it beginning to de-escalate? Usually,
incident. Second is the opportunity for me to if I pull up and the incident is still
mentor these officers. Third, it takes away my expanding, I will take command and
ability to “manage by walking around.” These let the officer go work with the crew.
small fires can become a great learning tool If, however, I pull up and the fire is
for chief officers. Instead of being required to already darkened and crews have
focus on the entire incident, as is the true begun overhaul, I may not.
responsibility of any IC, a chief can observe
specific acts or evolutions that are being · > Are the needs of the occupants being
conducted on the fire scene. addressed? Contrary to what the
My rule of thumb for when a chief officer local firefighters union and my two
should take command from a subordinate is children might say, it takes a lot to
to ask myself, “Are the needs of the incident get me upset. One thing that does get
being met?” What better way to determine me upset is when I see fire victims or
when command should be passed than by occupants being ignored by the IC. I
looking at the scene and determining if its realize these are busy times and that
needs are being addressed? Such needs there’s a lot going on, but we go to
include the following; fires all the time. Chances are this is
their (the civilians’) first fire. Besides
· > Are the appropriate assignments that, under most circumstances,
being made? Has the initial IC the fire has taken these people by
overcommitted or undercommitted surprise. More often than not, they
to the fire? If you pull up to a are standing outside unprepared,
well-involved house fire where sometimes not fully clothed or dressed
a captain has already assumed for the elements and suffering from
command, where two engines and a anticipatory neurosis. It doesn’t take
truck are staged but only one crew much, nor usually does it distract
has been assigned to roof ventilation, from firefighting efforts, to go over
then the appropriate assignments are and acknowledge them, assist in their
probably not being made. Conversely, immediate needs such as getting them
if you pull up to a very small room into the warmth of a neighbor’s house
and contents fire and the initial IC or even a fire vehicle, and to tell them
has five handlines stretched inside we’re doing everything we can and
and is beginning roof ventilation that you will be right back to talk to
efforts, again, perhaps the appropriate them more in-depth.
assignments have not been made. But
if you pull up, and everything being · > Are the needs of the firefighters being
done is being done pretty much the met? Has rehab been established
way you’d want it, there probably is (fig. 3–4)? Are safety precautions
no need for your intervention. being taken? Should we even
be in the building?
· >| 31 |< ·

that his or her actions were not the reason

you took command may be appropriate
in this scenario.
When command is going to be passed,
this action needs to be announced over the
radio. This will let all units dispatched and
responding and those listening know from
whom to take direction. Additionally, it
indicates who the responsible parties are. If
an error in judgment is made, it will be easier
to identify who made the error. However, IMS
is not a vehicle for identifying or placing
blame; it simply defines responsibility.
One last word about passing command:
Fig. 3–4. One of the needs of the incident is the needs of the We have all been to multiple-alarm fires where
crews. Command must have the ability to focus in several areas. deputy chiefs, division chiefs, or even the chief
of the department arrive. As I said earlier, I
don’t believe that the simple arrival of a chief
If all of the above are being addressed, officer means that person is now in command.
then there is little need to step in and take That does not mean, however, that a superior
command from an officer of a lower rank. If officer can’t walk up to the command post
the statement “if the needs of the incident and order the incident commander to take
are being met, then command need not be some appropriate measure the senior chief
passed” is correct, then so is the statement believes is necessary. How that situation
“if the needs of the incident are not being should be handled from a practical, ethical,
met, then command should be passed.” This procedural, and legal standpoint should
certainly is a judgment call. probably be thought out in advance. If I, as
IMS is expandable. As the incident grows, the IC, disagree with the verbal order directed
so can the command structure. The idea at me by a senior or higher-ranking officer,
is to address the needs of the incident, not am I obliged to follow that order? Where I
play musical chairs. Passing for the sake of work, procedure states that I can violate a
passing (or for ego) is burdensome to the IC direct order if I believe that order creates a
and serves no useful purpose. If the needs of safety concern for myself or others. I also
the incident are being met, then command understand full well the language in our rule
need not be passed. One final factor must be book that discusses violation of a direct order.
also considered: How is staffing? On a daily So what would I do in that situation? I don’t
basis, “do more with less” is the common cry know. I would have to be in that situation to
from city hall. It may be more prudent for answer that question.
the responding chief to take command at a Regardless of who you are or your
working fire and send the initial commanding position in the department, you should not
officer back to the crew to reinforce the attack give direction (assignments to other crews)
company, even though the needs of the over the radio unless you are command.
incident are being met. A quick word after That violates one of the basic principles of
the fire to the initial IC to assure him or her IMS. This is not to say that you can’t stop an
· >| 32 |< ·

unsafe condition or action from occurring. In fire department extinguishes the boat fire (fig.
fact, negligence comes to mind if you don’t. 3–5). When environmental services arrives,
No one on the fireground (with the exception they use their boom to contain the spill. Your
of the operations chief) should give direction services are no longer needed here, and you
to crews operating at the scene of a fire go back in service. Since this is still an active
except the IC. You can coach, mentor, or incident with city personnel on the scene, I
prod if necessary. would suggest that when you go in service
“Unit 114 to command, you might want to also say over the radio, “Environmental
to consider a third alarm out here!” Or, “I’d services will now be command on the Maumee
think about backing those guys out of there!” River.” Again, in my opinion, this removes the
Those radio transmissions just may prompt fire department from any liability in the event
or prod an officer who may be teetering that the spill is not handled in an appropriate
between upgrading the fire to a third alarm manner after you leave.
or backing lines out of a fire. But you, the one
who isn’t command, did not give direction
over the radio. This is as hard to explain as it
is to write about, but I think you get the gist
of my message.
Transferring Command
to an Outside Agency
Let’s say you respond to a vehicular
accident on the boundary of your
jurisdiction. You arrive at about the same
time as a neighboring department does, and
it is determined that the incident can be
handled by one crew, and that the incident Fig. 3–5. Sometimes it is prudent to transfer command to
is in their jurisdiction. I would suggest, an outside agency when we are ready to leave the scene,
under these conditions, as part of your radio such as at this marine fire. Command might be turned
announcement putting yourself in service over to environmental services to initiate spill containment
that you say, “Command is transferred to the or fuel cleanup.
Maumee Fire Department.” Legally, in my
opinion, that takes all of the liability away
from you and your department if something
bad happens after you leave. What to do with your crew
Let’s say you respond to a boat fire with a
chemical spill on a river in your community. Assume you are the company officer
On arrival, you find a boat on fire plus a on an engine company in your city. You
small spill or sheen on the river. You ask are dispatched to a house fire and your
your dispatch to respond with someone from engine is first due. As you arrive, you give
environmental services to the incident. The the condition report and state that you are
· >| 33 |< ·

command. Now assume you are the company · > You can use them in a command staff
officer of an engine company responding to a position. Say you pull up in front of
second alarm in your community. On arrival, a large vacant warehouse with heavy
command tells you to set up staging at Main fire on several floors. You should take
and Fourth Streets. command and can assign your driver
In both of these instances, you have been to assure a water supply. You could
given an assignment (either by procedure assign another firefighter as initial
or by the IC), but you still have your engine safety officer and have that officer
and a complement of three firefighters. begin to establish collapse zones or
What do you do with the remainder of your assess structural stability. In any
crew? First off, any answer should come event, if you take command initially at
from departmental policy. Union contracts an incident, try to use your apparatus
may also apply in some cases. I have three and staffing to the best of their ability
suggestions of what you should do with your and as procedure and safety concerns
crew if you are assigned as the IC or given allow (fig. 3–6). To let them just
another assignment away from your crew. stand there may not be the prudent
thing to do.
· > You can assign one of your crew
members as an acting officer and then
give the whole crew an assignment
that is within their abilities as a
three-person crew. With you as the
IC, the driver can handle the pumps.
The acting officer you just assigned
and another firefighter can pull and
stretch the initial attack line into the
structure. Again, contractual and
safety concerns may prohibit this
under some circumstances.
· > You can assign them to another

incoming crew. If the size or location
of the fire dictates that two firefighters
may not be able to safely function
inside, you can have them (the two
firefighters remaining on your crew)
stretch the line to the front door,
while an incoming crew bunkers up
and meets them. At that time they
can assist that second incoming crew
with the fire attack. For purposes Fig. 3–6. If you are required to assume command, the
of accountability, this fact must be remainder of your crew can be assigned to work with another
stated over the radio and relayed incoming company.
to the accountability officer as
soon as possible.
· >| 34 |< ·

What to do with the chief Questions

Think of the ego problem that could be 1) What are the three command modes?
associated with the following statement, a. ______________________________________
“If command cannot be improved, then b. ______________________________________
command should not be passed.” Who c. _____________________________________
determines whether command can be
improved? Should we interpret responding 2) Command modes are___________________
chiefs getting canceled as an indictment on _______________________________________.
the chief’s ability to run an incident?
First of all, rank has its privileges. If 3) After the first arriving officer announces
the chief wants to come to a rubbish fire the “nothing showing” mode, all other
and take command of a single company responding units should_______________
attacking a dumpster, that’s the chief’s call. _______________________________________.
We have a saying in my department: “He who
has command has the paperwork.” Now, if 4) Who takes formal command if the first-in
the chief gets dispatched to a rubbish fire officer announces “fast attack”?
(911 dispatchers do make mistakes) and
wants to hang around and watch a company 5) Finish this statement: Command should
put out the fire, then there’s not a lot we be passed _____________________________
can do about it. Our procedures require _______________________________________.
that dispatched chiefs take command of all
working fires to which they are dispatched. 6) Give an example when command
They may have the first-in officer keep should be passed to an outside agency.
command as a training session if the _______________________________________
member is in a promotional position. If so, ________________________________________
that should be announced over the radio. In
our organization, only battalion chiefs work 7) If you take command, you can use the
the line. Deputy chiefs fill staff positions. remainder of your crew as a company
They are dispatched only to second-alarm or under some circumstances.
larger incidents. When they arrive at a large True or False
incident, our procedure states that they will
take command of the incident and the original 8) If you take command, you can assign
battalion chief is moved to operations. This your crew to another company.
was explained earlier in the book. However, if a True or False
deputy chief responds to a second alarm, and
on arrival the fire is beginning to de-escalate 9) Command modes are also called command
and the other criteria explained earlier in _______________________________________.
this chapter are being addressed, then the
chief is not required to take command simply 10) In the command mode, the first arriving
because he or she is there. chief assumes the initial formal
command position.
True or False
· >| 35 |< ·

4
Command Posts
T
he command post is the area in
which command is expected to
operate. Usually, command officers
will operate in or near their vehicles or, in
the case of a single-family structure fire, at
or near the first-in unit (engine, truck, or
squad) (fig. 4–1).
Under normal circumstances the incident
commander (IC) determines location of the
command post. It is extremely important
that command remain at the command post
for the majority of the incident so that this
individual will be easy to locate. Before the
incident management system (IMS) was
implemented, chief officers would circle the
fire scene. Some chiefs would say that was “to
get a good continual look at the structure.”
I believe that, for the most part, circling was
a release for nervous energy. I can recall
countless fires at which we counted the Fig. 4–1. The command post is the area in which command is
number of times a chief (or chiefs) walked expected to operate.
past us as we pumped water on defensive
fires. I can also recall countless times when I looked for the chief so I could relay a message
I did not want to give over the radio but could not find the chief. Usually, the chief was on
one side of the building when I was looking in some other area where he or she was “last seen
passing by.” This was an unnecessary waste of time and energy for all concerned.
· >| 37 |< ·

There are text books still in print today Upon returning to the command post,
that say that the most effective place for a command should announce that fact to all
chief officer is inside the fire building, right crews on the scene.
behind the nozzle. I find it hard to believe
that a chief officer can effectively focus on all
the needs of an incident when he or she is
inside a structure. Command must trust its Types of Command Post
officers. Command should stay outside and
maintain focus on the whole incident and let The three command posts—mobile,
company officers do their job. The location stationery, and formal—vary in location, size,
of the command post generally depends on and complexity according to the following;
the type of command used. Command then
determines the location. However, some · > The type of command established.
guidelines can help ensure that you select
the best type of command post and location. · > The needs of the incident at the
time it is established. Some small
incidents, such as small hazardous
materials (HazMat) spills in the
Going Mobile downtown area in the middle of a
weekday in summer may nonetheless
The urge to move about the fire scene is have significant needs.
a hard urge to resist! Heavy smoke showing,
more than one side involved, people screaming, · > The potential for the incident to
firefighters screaming—and all you’ve got is a expand. It’s better to keep looking
view of one side of the fire building. ahead rather than always trying
Going mobile means that command is to catch up.
leaving the command post for a short period
of time. The fact that command is going
mobile should be announced over the radio so Mobile command posts
that company officers on the scene and those
listening know that command will not be at With the mobile command post, it is
the command post. Among the reasons for expected that command officers will be at
command’s going mobile are the following: a location remote from their vehicles. The
location of the command post should be one
· > To talk to the occupants of from which you will be able to focus on the
the structure whole incident. In a garage fire, the engine
may be on the street or in the driveway, but
· > To check on the status of injured the command post may be in the backyard.
civilians or personnel At a vehicular accident, the command post
may be several hundred feet ahead of the
· > To begin origin and first-in engine due to traffic tie-ups. The key
cause determination characteristic of this type of command post is
that there’s no specific location for a command
· > To quickly check the status post and that the IC will be away from the
of exterior fire areas vehicle or other more traditional locations
· >| 38 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Command Posts |< ·
for the command post (fig. 4–2). When using post at these types of incidents. Unless
a mobile command post, command must command designates otherwise, that is where
announce its location if it is not obvious. command is expected to be when I arrive at a
(“This is Main Street Command; the command working fire. If I want to take command from
post will be located in front of the Ryder the first-in officer, I automatically report
tractor-trailer.”) Mobile command posts are to that first-in engine, and that is where
normally used for smaller incidents. the IC should be. After a brief exchange of
information, I usually assume command.
If, at a later time, I feel it would be more
advantageous to move the command post
to another location, I announce over the
radio that I am changing the location of the
command post. The location of the command
post may be changed for many reasons,
including the following:
· > To provide a better view of at least two

sides of a structure
· > To move the original command

post from the smoky or
hazardous atmosphere
· > To provide a location were command

is more able to step back and focus on
the entire incident
· > To provide a new location that is a

more logical site for other arriving
members and outside entities to locate
Stationary command posts tend to be

Fig. 4–2. At this motor vehicle accident, mobile command less formal and are intended to be visited
posts work best. by a minimum number of entities (such
as police command, the gas company, and
other chief officers).
When using a stationary command
Stationary command posts post, it is more likely for command to go
mobile and leave the post unattended for
Stationary command posts are used at short periods of time. Stationary command
normal single-family and multifamily dwelling posts are used where formal command is
fires and small commercial structure fires. My established but the needs of the incident
department has instituted a procedure that are relatively small. Such incidents would
designates the area around the first-in engine include normal residential structure fires or
as the location of the stationary command larger multivehicle or traffic accidents.
· >| 39 |< ·

Formal command posts The Type of Command Post

The formal command post, a necessity at and the Type of Command
multiple-alarm incidents, is more structured
than the stationary command post and
should be more functional. It is used at large Informal command and
incidents where formal or unified command
the command post
has been established. Its location must be
formally announced over the radio. It is Since an incident managed under
expected that the formal command post will informal command is small, the scope and
always be occupied at least by command. needs of the incident will also be small.
Dispatch should announce the location of Traditionally, the unit responding may need
the formal command post as a reminder to park on the street and walk some distance
to units responding and listening. Formal before the actual victim or fire can be seen. In
command posts are for use at large incidents these instances, command would be mobile.
where formal or unified command has been To best focus on the incident, it will be best
established (fig. 4–3). for the IC to go to the incident as opposed
to remaining in the car. Hence, a formal
command post may be impractical.
Formal command and

the command post
Under formal command, more than one
officer has responded to the incident. As such,
one officer must establish command and run
the incident. A command post, which should
be stationary, should be established. The
incident will be larger, and the needs of the
incident will be larger as well. More people
will be required to visit the command post.
Depending on the situation, under formal
command, a stationary, or formal command
post, will be required.
Unified command and

the command post
A large, formal command post, under
Fig. 4–3. Setting up a formal command post
a roof with appropriate lighting and
communications, should be used under
unified command. Under unified command,
the individuals representing command
· >| 40 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Command Posts |< ·
would not be expected to go mobile and Command Post Locations

leave the command post. These incidents are
of a longer duration, and the uniform and In addition to what has already been
civilian personnel representing command said with regard to the location of command
will want to make their presence known posts, I offer the following rules:
at the command post.
· > Command posts should be
situated in the most advantageous
Area command and the command post location for focusing on the whole
incident (fig. 4–4).
When working under area command,
there will be several area command posts. · > The larger the incident, the farther
That’s the principal behind area command. away the command post should be.
The individual area commands could operate
out of a command post that could be mobile, · > At major fire, it may be advisable for
stationary, or formal, depending on the command officers (in the command
situation. As in the event of a flood, one area post) to be so removed from the
command could use a mobile post—moving incident that they cannot view the
along a river bank or down a block of streets. structure involved, such as in the
Another area command in the same incident case of a high-rise fire. The National
could use a formal command post—possibly Fire Academy runs scenarios that
located in a high school, and so on. prove this point quite vividly.
The main area command post will be a
formal command post in a building with as
many amenities as possible.
Table 4–1. Command mode vs. type of command post

Command Type of Advantages/Characteristics
Post Type Command
Mobile Informal Allows command to focus on
or formal the incident’s needs. Incident
may be some distance
from apparatus.
Stationary Formal Allows command to be in a
recognizable position and still
view the incident’s needs,
normally, at first-in unit (engine).
Command can still move about
or go mobile if necessary.
Formal Formal, Stationary and formal. Forces
unified, command to stay at the
or area command post. Others can
“move about” for command.
Should be recognizable.
Fig. 4–4. One rule for the location of a command post is to

choose a location where command can focus on the incident.
· >| 41 |< ·

Base of Operations for Tools Needed for

Command Staff Personnel Command Post
Who should operate at the command I have one last word about command
post and who need not be there is up to the posts. This text deals primarily with small
command’s discretion. To be sure, command incidents. I am not going to get into command
needs to be there. In general, command will post operations except formal command at
want most of the staff at the command post. most single-family residential structure fires.
The following are the locations that the most My second book, Managing Major Fires, deals
commonly used command staff members with larger incidents and contains references
should operate: to command posts at larger incidents. All
departments, regardless of size, should
· > Command: command post. have provisions and procedures relative to
command post operations at not only small
· > Liaison: command post. but large incidents as well. In addition, the
National Incident Management System (NIMS)
· > Safety: wherever the incident use will be mandated in 2006 if federal funds
dictates, but normally not at the are to be accepted by a department of any size.
command post. The National Fire Academy and the Federal
Emergency Management Administration
· > Information officer: at a location have publications on the application of NIMS.
remote from but within walking Unified command as well as area command
distance of the command post are two areas that need to be learned and
practiced in your community in the event
· > Operations: at the command post a catastrophic incident occurs within your
jurisdiction, or you are called to assist, via
· > Planning: at the command post mutual aid or automatic aid, in another
community suffering catastrophic or large
· > Logistics: usually at the command incident, whether man-made or natural.
post, but may have to leave for
short periods
· > Administration/finance: at the

command post
· >| 42 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Command Posts |< ·
Questions
1) The command post is the area__________
_______________________________________.
2) Logistics determines the location of the

command post.
True or False
3) Command posts vary in location, size, and

complexity, according to the following:
a. ______________________________________
b. ______________________________________
c. _____________________________________
4) The three types of command posts are:

a. ______________________________________
b. ______________________________________
c. _____________________________________
5) In a station command post, command

should be located _____________________.
6) Unified command is normally operated

out of what type of command post? _____
________________________________________
7) The rule of thumb is the larger the

incident, the ___________________________
__________ the command post should be.
8) The operations section chief normally

operates at ____________________________.
9) The safety officer normally operates ____

________________________________________
_______________________________________.
10) The information officer normally operates

________________________________________
_______________________________________.
· >| 43 |< ·

5 Staging
S
taging is the placement of uncommitted apparatus and personnel at an incident.
Technically, to be defined as a staging area, apparatus and personnel need to be within
5 minutes of the incident or the working area. A little background is in order here: Base
is an area used mostly in wildland firefighting where crews eat, sleep, and/or rest. At high-rise
fires, base is also used as the outside staging area for that specific incident. The reason for
this goes back to the true definition of staging. To be considered staging, firefighters must be
within 5 minutes of the area they will work. At a high-rise fire, it may take many minutes for
a crew to leave from the street where they are staged and traverse to possibly the 20th or 30th
floor. So in the case of high-rise fires, the outside staging area is referred to as base. The space
two floors below the fire is generally referred to as the staging area.
Staging produces three positive actions for every incident:
· > Staging virtually stops initial freelancing of incoming units. As units arrive at an
incident, they are required to stage, stopping them from going up to the incident
and doing whatever they feel needs to be done. Staging will not stop assigned
freelancing (assigned companies doing tasks other than they were assigned).
Only training can stop assigned freelancing. But staging should keep responding
unassigned units and personnel from approaching the scene until directed to do
so by command or operations. Staging gives control to command (or operations,
if designated) by allowing command to place or stage incoming units, whichever
are deemed necessary.
· > Staging sets a calming tone for the incident. No matter what the size or scope of the
incident, staging is used. Members are required to stop and await direction. In many
ways, staging slows incoming officers down and allows them to concentrate on their
crews and where they are to stage, not on the incident or their possible assignments.
· >| 45 |< ·

Once staged, the units await direction from command. In Level I staging, the officer
from command or operations. This of the responding unit selects the appropriate
removes the pressure of creating your location to stage. Appropriate locations for
own assignment and lets command responding units in the nothing showing
do it for you. mode would be as follows:
Engine companies. The next-in engine
· > Staging allows a crew to truly look should stage at or near a hydrant. All of
important. No more rushing up the responding engines should stage at an
to the scene of a false alarm on a intersection in the direction of travel, unless
residential street and then fighting that direction is covered by another engine.
over who should back out of the In this case, it may be more prudent to go
street instead of pulling ahead. I around the block in case the engine must
have been embarrassed several come in from that other direction. In this
times by firefighters pulling up to case command should be informed that the
a scene where no smoke or fire is engine is going around the block and staging
visible, jumping off the apparatus, at the (name of the street’s) corner. The only
and running toward the address like exception to this is if the first unit on the scene
they’re going to save the world, only is not an engine. In this instance, the first
to learn that this was a false alarm engine should go up to the fire address and
or very minor incident. stage in front of the building. This is done to
get a quick water supply should a small fire
erupt. However, when an engine company is
required to pull up to an incident and stage
The Two Types of Staging because the first unit on the scene is not an
engine, the crew should stage at their engine.
There are two types of staging that are Members should sit in the rig and await
used by most departments in the United direction from the officer inside (command).
States: Level I and Level II. The type of staging There is no need for three or four more
depends on the level of response. firefighters to be walking through the house.
If needed, command will call for them.
Truck companies. Responding truck
Level I staging companies should position themselves at an
intersection that gives them the best access to
Level I staging is used at responses up the front of the building. If this means driving
to a first- or regular-alarm assignment. In around the block, then so be it. We have all
these instances, the first unit to arrive on the complained when truck crews stripped our
scene gives a condition report that indicates apparatus of tools because the truck had to
the following information: unit designation, park a block down the street when engines
address, a brief conditions report, and and squads blocked their access to the
the command mode used, for example: front of the building. Truck crews get upset
“Dispatch: Engine 5 is at 1945 Vermont Ave. when they have to lug their ground ladders,
We have smoke showing. Engine 5 is Vermont positive pressure ventilation (PPV) fans, and
command.” On receipt of this announcement, other equipment a city block because they
all responding units should stage at an can’t get close to the fire, so give them access
appropriate location and await assignment to the front of the building.
· >| 46 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Staging |< ·
Squads. Heavy squads or other rescue on the scene is the truck, then that crew
vehicles can stage at the nearest intersection. should investigate, and the engine company
If called up by command, they can pull into should stage at a location advantageous for
a driveway or somewhere off the street. The supplementing the system. If, on the other
idea is to get out of the way and not come hand, the engine arrives first, then the truck
up until called. should stage at the nearest intersection.
Chief officers. They can do whatever This procedure applies to fire and
they want. It’s that simple. When we first emergency medical services (EMS) incidents.
began using incident management, I’d go It works and must be enforced if the incident
right up to the scene. Sometimes, I’d even is to be truly controlled.
get out of my car to see what was going on.
(Remember, we’re discussing the nothing Level II staging
showing scenario.) Now that I’m older and
have more faith in my officers, I tend to stay Level II staging is used at incidents
back at the nearest intersection and wait to that go beyond the first or regular alarm
see if they have anything or if the call is going response. The key difference between Level
to get cancelled. I and II staging is that in the Level I staging,
In the fast attack mode the first-in crew the officer determines the location to stage.
participates in the incident, officer and In Level II staging, command or operations
all. The next-in unit comes up and takes chooses the site where incoming apparatus
command. Once this happens, all other are to stage. In Level II staging, once a
responding units should stage, according to staging area site has been chosen, the units
the guidelines described earlier. Remember, responding go to that area and not to the fire.
in the fast attack mode, the first-in officer In some instances, this can (and should) be a
will be inside participating with the crew. block or so from the incident. Sometimes no
In the command mode, once someone smoke or fire may be seen from the staging
formally takes command, all of the responding area (fig. 5–1).
units should stage as described earlier.
One frequently asked question is what
should happen on still box responses such
as alarm system emergencies and garage
fires where responses less than a regular
alarm are dispatched? The same procedure
holds true: The first unit should go up to
the scene, and the other responding units
should stage in a location advantageous
for that type of situation and apparatus. If
two engines are sent on an alarm system
incident (commercial building with a fire
alarm sounding), then one unit should go
investigate the nature of the call, and the
other engine should stage in a location
advantageous for supplementing the system Fig. 5–1. An Engine and truck in Staging. The officer of one of
if needed. If an engine and truck are sent these units could be used as the Staging officer. The remainder
on the same type of alarm, and the first of the crew can be used at the fire.
· >| 47 |< ·

Once in the staging area, units are role of staging.” If personnel and specific
then sent to the fire scene when requested units in your jurisdiction prohibit you from
by command or operations. The staging proceduralizing that the first unit to arrive in
area is under the direction of a staging staging automatically assumes the position
officer; all units in staging should report to of staging officer, those particular types of
the staging officer. units should be excluded. Remember that
as little as possible time should be wasted in
establishing a staging officer.
I like to think of the staging area as
Chain of Command “my own little fire department.” For chief
officers of smaller departments, staging may
The staging officer should report directly establish your own “larger” fire department.
to operations if an operations chief has been By this I mean that with staging established
assigned. There is no need for operations to by mutual aid companies, you now have your
tell command to get staging to send an engine own larger department with more resources
company to assist on Division 2. That’s a for this particular incident. Units dispatched
waste of time for operations and the incident to staging are not available for another
commander. Of course, if command has not response. (If concurrent incidents occurred,
designated an operations officer, then staging command will decide whether staged units
should report directly to command. should respond to another incident or
remain staged.) Next, I like to think of the
staging officer as the “dispatcher” for my little
Who should be the staging officer? fire department. Command or operations
asks for those units, and, unless specified,
The first unit (officer) to report to staging the staging officer chooses them, just as
should assume the duties of the staging a dispatcher would.
officer. In my department we have gone
around and around on this. At first, we
chose to have the first officer who reported Duties of the staging officer
to the staging area automatically be assigned
as staging. Sometimes, we have three-person The staging officer has three basic
truck companies. When a truck company responsibilities:
arrives first at the staging area, that meant
that the truck officer would become the · > To control the activities in the
staging officer. That left a two-person truck staging area. The staging officer
company. It’s hard enough doing truck work should ensure accessibility to
with three personnel, let alone two. We tried and egress from the staging area.
to get the truck crew another firefighter Placement of apparatus and some
from the next unit in staging, but that sort of accountability system
didn’t always work. Now we have excluded should be established to ensure
truck company officers from taking on the that (1) unit(s) sent to staging log
duty of staging officer. Our procedure now in and out for future reference, and
states, “The first officer to report to staging (2) members sent to staging stay in
(other than a truck officer) shall take on the staging. Units should not remain
· >| 48 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Staging |< ·
in staging for long periods of time. Staging should be monitoring the fire
They will be assigned as needed or incident. If the staging officer can anticipate
sent back to the station after the potential requests for units and knows that
situation de-escalates. Facilities there may be a shortfall for those particular
such as food or portable restrooms units, then staging should inform operations
probably will not be needed, but if of the status of those particular units
for some reason they are, logistics remaining in staging:
would arrange for them. “Staging to operations: Be advised that
if more than two aerials will be needed, you
· > To send the appropriate unit(s) to only have two left in staging.”
the incident (or other assignment). That notice should suffice and take the
Command or operations normally responsibility of notification off the shoulders
will not worry about individual or of staging and place it squarely on the
particular units that are in staging, shoulders of operations or command.
except for specialized units such
as aerial platforms or foam units,
command or operations will ask for How staging should work
an engine, a truck, and so forth. It
will be up to staging to choose the Assume that an operations officer was
appropriate unit and send it up to designated at the incident. Pretend you are the
the incident (this will be explained staging officer at a large warehouse complex
later in detail). fire and the officer of an engine company.
Your engine was the first unit to report to
· > To keep command or operations the staging area. You arrive at the designated
informed. I would hate to be the staging area and inform operations that you
poor staging officer who has been are at the staging officer:
asked by operations or command “Engine 14 to operations: We are at
to send in an engine and had to the staging area. Engine 14 officer will
radio back, “Staging to command: be staging.”
No engines are left in the staging “Operations to Engine 4: OK on staging.”
area.” Staging periodically should We now have a staging area with a
call operations or command and staging officer and one staged engine
report the status of the units (Engine 14) (fig. 5–2). There’s no sense in
available in staging, for example: not using a perfectly good engine and the
“Staging to operations: Be advised remainder of your crew. The remainder of
you have two engines and one the second-alarm assignment is two more
truck left in staging.” engines, two truck companies, a heavy
rescue squad, and battalion chief. The chief
Now that operations has been informed responding reports directly to the command
about how many units are left in staging, post, as procedure dictates, unless otherwise
the operations officer can inform command directed by operations while en route.
and discuss the need for additional units. If
additional units are needed, command—and
only command—should request them.
· >| 49 |< ·

stick. Operations asked for an engine to

supply the truck. All three engines staged
can provide the capacity for the truck you
have chosen, plus water for a handline if
needed. One engine has three personnel,
one has four, and the other has five. How
many firefighters does it take to supply
water tower? No more than three, or your
department needs a lot of training. I’d send
the engine with three firefighters.
Table 5–1. Initial Units Dispatched to Level II Staging

Units Capabilities Staffing
Fig. 5–2. Two trucks at Level II staging.
Engine 4 1,500 gpm Three personnel
Engine 7 1,250 gpm Four personnel
Operations wants to set up the ladder Engine 6 1,500-gpm squirt Five personnel including
tower in the rear of the building: a two-person rescue unit
(two-passenger van)
“Operations to staging: Send a truck and
an engine to Division C and have them set Truck 17 100-foot aerial tower
with a 1,000-gpm nozzle
up a water tower. I want them to try to cut off
the spread to the west wing of the building.” Truck 4 85-foot straight stick
aerial with prepiped
“Staging to operations: OK.” 1,000-gpm nozzle
Staging should now look at the units in
Squad 1 Heavy resuce Four-person crew
staging (or that are still en route to staging)
and consider the following: Battalion 3 One car One chief
· > The request made by operations

When the staging officers makes the
· > The units available (in staging decision, he or she should inform the units
or en route) that will be sent and provide them with any
additional necessary information. (e.g., “The
· > The anticipated future needs chief wants you to set up in Division C and
of the incident try to keep the fire from getting into the west
wing of the fire building.”) Finally, staging
Operations wants to use its aerial as a tells operations who is being sent up.
ladder pipe. Nothing fancy, just a straight “Staging to operations: You’re getting
stick. As Table 5–1 indicates, you need an Engine 4 and Truck 4 to Division C.”
aerial platform that can do many things
and safely carry several firefighters and a
straight stick aerial in staging. Both can
throw the same amount of water. Reach is
no factor at this time. Choose the straight
· >| 50 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Staging |< ·
What the staging officer Necessities

should tell assigned units · > Radio, mobile or portable ( a portable
After the staging officer determines is better). Staging can move about
what units will be sent to the scene, the the staging area and talk with
staging officer should inform the officer or staged officers.
person in charge of that unit, preferably in
a face-to-face conversation, of any specific · > Something to write on and with. At
information needed. Items covered in this times, request from command may
briefing include the following: be quite explicit; it’s easier to note
who is and was in staging than have
· > What the assignment is (e.g., attack) to look around every time a unit or
update is requested.
· > Where the assignment is
(e.g., Division 16)
Luxuries
· > Whom to report to if someone else
is in charge of that assignment · > A place to sit. If a staged vehicle or
(e.g., Engine 7, Lieutenant Smith,) extra chief buggy can be kept in
staging, it would be advantageous
· > Special instructions on equipment to staging. If a large incident occurs
to take (e.g., “The chief wants in bad weather, having a warm or
to know if the sprinklers are cool dry place to operate from will
doing any good.” Or “Make sure be greatly appreciated.
you check the plenum.” Or
“Take the hose pack and pike · > Lighting. At night, light makes it easier
poles with you.”) to read notes.
· > An aide. Somebody to keep track of

staged units, act as a runner, listen
Tools Needed By the to the radio, or do all three sure
would be nice.
Staging Officer
Staging doesn’t need a whole lot to do his A final note
task. A few necessities and a few luxuries will
make life a lot easier, however. When it is determined by command
that the need for staging no longer exists,
a broadcast to all units and dispatcher that
“staging is terminated” would be useful. The
announcement should be logged by dispatch
regardless of who makes the announcement.
· >| 51 |< ·

· >| Incident Management for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Questions
1) __________________________________ is the
placement of uncommitted apparatus
and personnel at an incident.
2) Technically, to be defined as a staging

area, apparatus and personnel need to
be within _______________ minutes of the
incident or the working area.
3) What type of staging is used at

first-alarm responses? _________________
________________________________________
4) Who picks the place to stage in

Level I staging? ________________________
________________________________________
5) In general, engines should stage________

_______________________________________.
6) In general, trucks should stage_________

_______________________________________.
7) In general, squads should stage_________

_______________________________________.
8) Who chooses the staging location in

Level II staging?________________________
9) Who controls the activities of the

staging area?__________________________
10) The staging officer can have the

dispatch center send the incident a
second-alarm assignment.
True or False
· >| 52 |< ·

6 Sectoring
S
ectorization means breaking down the incident into manageable units. As such,
sectorization helps to define expectations and areas of responsibility and is very closely
related to three areas: span of control, chain of command, and tunnel vision.
· > Span of control. The effective span of control for emergency operations is usually
considered to be three to seven subordinates, with the optimum being five. This is not
a hard-and-fast rule. There will be times when the officer in charge of the division or
group can be responsible for more than five subordinates (fig. 6–1). Conversely, there
will be times when five subordinates are too many for one officer to manage, such
as when conducting searches. I believe that when the responsibilities or the roles of
subordinates are not of a life-threatening nature, or vital to the outcome of the incident,
then an officer may be able to effectively manage more than five subordinates.
· > Chain of command. Sectorization defines, in large part, the chain of command of the
incident (not necessarily that of the department). Lines of authority and responsibility
for staff and division or group officers are defined. As indicated in most flowcharts,
fire suppression division or group officers working under operations should not
communicate directly with command. Conversely, command should not talk directly
with division or group officers if an operations officer is designated. This is where
chain of command comes in. It is a factor that is often violated at fires.
· > Tunnel vision. One of the objectives of the incident management system (IMS) is to
give a specific assignment to everyone who is needed to handle an incident. Once that
assignment has been received, the division or group supervisor’s job is to tunnel in or
focus on that specific task. If the division or group officer is assigned to backup, this
officer should concentrate on protecting the interior crews and maintaining egress if
· >| 53 |< ·

necessary. The officer should not be Functional assignments

attacking the fire in the structure or
looking for fire to extinguish. That’s Functional assignments define the
not the job of the officer doing backup; specific activity command or operations
the job is to provide backup for wants performed. They are the verbs of the
interior crews. Sectorization ensures fire service—the action words such as attack,
this focus by defining responsibilities. search, backup, extricate, triage, and decon.
(Note that this list spans several types of
incidents; IMS fits all kinds of incidents.)
When command assigns a functional
sector, the crew is expected to handle that
task (e.g., attack) for the entire structure.
Functional sectors are referred to as groups
(such as attack group or search group).
Geographical assignments
Geographical assignments define an
area in which crews will work. This area
Fig. 6–1. A division officer conferring with firefighters can be inside or outside a structure. When
assigned to him. command assigns a geographical sector,
the crew must be able to handle everything
that needs to be done in that area (with the
exception of any functional sector command
Types of Assignments assignments). This will be explained in
greater detail later. Geographical sectors are
The National Fire Academy advocates referred to as divisions, such as Division 12
two types of assignments: functional and or Division D (fig. 6–2).
geographical. However, I advocate one
additional assignment type: combination. To
some, this may add confusion, but I believe
that this third type of sector clarifies, or better
yet defines in more detail, the responsibility
of the crew. The type of sector used thus
depends on the following factors:
· > Whether the assignment is activity

based: functional
· > Whether the assignment is area

based: geographical
Fig. 6–2. Division C officer with his crew working in the rear
· > Whether the assignment is both of the structure. He is responsible for everything that goes
activity and area based: combination on in Division C.
· >| 54 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Sectoring |< ·
Combination assignments company for Division 2; you will now be

Division 1 attack.” Or: “Command to attack:
Combination assignments are both I’m low on companies. Take your time and
geographical and functional. They not only work your way up to Division 2. If things
define the area command wants a crew change, let me know!” With either of these
to work, but also what they are supposed transmissions, command’s expectations
to do when they get there. Combination should be very clear to attack.
assignments make it possible to fine-tune Some departments use many functional
expectations. Specifically, they define the task assignments at structure fires (attack,
that should be conducted in a specific area search, backup, ventilation, salvage, etc.).
such as “Division 2 attack” or “extrication in The National Fire Academy (NFA) generally
the green Ford.” advocates the use of two functional
assignments: search and ventilation. Most
of the other tasks accomplished at fires,
Functional assignments in detail according to the NFA, are done by divisions.
For example, Engine 5 is assigned to Division
Functional assignments are technically 16 at a high-rise fire. The officer is responsible
referred to as groups (such as attack group, for ensuring that everything that needs to
search group, or vent group). Functional done on the 16th floor is being done. As the
assignments are given based on the task officer and crew stretch a line into Division
command wants performed. When command 16, the officer hears command assign Squad
assigns a functional sector, the crew is 1 to search. Squad 1 is responsible for
responsible for accomplishing that task searching the entire building. Now, Division
in the entire structure. For example, if 16 (Engine 5) is responsible for everything on
command assigns Engine 5 as attack, then the 16th floor with the exception of search.
Engine 5 is responsible for putting out all
the fire in the structure. If attack cannot
accomplish that task before running out of Geographical assignments in detail
water or before the alarm bells on their SCBA
(self-contained breathing apparatus) begin to Geographical assignments are technically
go off, and the attack officer (the officer of referred to as divisions. Geographical
Engine 5) believes that the crew and officer assignments provide a means for the incident
cannot safely or effectively complete the commander (IC) to divide up the fire scene.
task assigned, then the attack officer should Geographical assignments aid in eliminating
inform command of that fact and that another confusion or duplication. Sometimes at
crew may be needed to assist the attack crew fires, it can be confusing to give direction
inside the structure: to companies fighting fires on different
“Attack to command: I think we need floors. The use of geographical sectors helps
another crew to attack on Division 2. We’ve differentiate between operations.
got our hands full on Division 1.” The question often asked is, “Why not
Now it’s up to command to decide call the company a unit number?” To me,
whether to assign other company to help the answer is simple. First, it is easier for
attack (Engine 5) fight the fire. Command command (or operations) to know what the
could make one of two radio transmissions. assignments are than who is filling them. That
“Command to attack: I’ll get another attack is up to the accountability officer. It’s easier
· >| 55 |< ·

for me to remember that I have assigned a is that a company is assigned in that particular
unit to attack than it is that I have Engine 5 area, and through effective accountability,
inside and have told them to put out the fire. that assignment can be traced to a specific
Second, that company is no longer designated company if necessary.
by a unit number; rather it is designated by
the task it was assigned or the area in which
it is to perform. Command doesn’t need to
remember which unit was assigned to attack Geographical assignments—The
or search; communications can be directed
exterior of the building
at the task being performed or the area it is
being performed in. Last, it simply reinforces As a rule, geographical assignments
expectations (Engine 5, you are Division 2). are made in relation to the command post.
Let’s take this one step further. Suppose Command posts generally are in an area
this fire goes to a second and a third alarm, somewhere in the front of the structure.
and command (or operations) has assigned Some fire departments use a numbering
seven companies to attack the fire in specific system to identify the front and the sides of
areas of the building. Now, would it be easier the structure. My guess is that even more
to refer to the company by work location use the first four letters of the alphabet
or unit designations? If command wants to to designate specific areas around the
tell the crew attacking the fire on the fifth structure (fig. 6–3).
floor that fire is venting out windows on the
C side, it seems easier to simply direct the
communication to Division 5 than to have to
remember what crew command has put on
the fifth floor. C
Scenario: A company is calling with vital
information. Let’s say command has attack
assigned in seven areas of a structure. B D
Operations hears this transmission: “Engine
7 to operations: We’re trapped and out of
water—send us help now!”
The first thing command has to do is A
remember where Engine 7 has been assigned. Command Post
Should command go to Engine 7 to start
following the line inside the structure? What if Fig. 6–3. Exterior sides of a building
Engine 7 didn’t take line off Engine 7? It may
be as simple as looking at command board, Side or Division A is generally referred to
but even that is an unnecessary step. as the front of a structure. Moving clockwise
“Division 4 to operations: We’re trapped and and looking to the left side of the building is
out of water and we need some help now!” referred to as side B. The rear of the structure
With the above transmission, we can now is referred to as side C, and the right side of
get crews and water into the fourth floor. the structure is side D.
Which companies are dispatched to which
area becomes insignificant. What is important
· >| 56 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Sectoring |< ·
Exposures are also referred to by letter Differentiating Between

designations. The building on the immediate
left of the source building (the original fire Floor Levels
building) is referred to as Exposure B. An
exposure in the rear of the source building Along with differentiating between
is referred to as Exposure C. And exposure the different sides of a fire structure and
building on the right of the source building exposures, sectorization provides a method of
referred to as Exposure D (fig. 6–4). If the fire differentiating between floors. I know several
is spreading toward Exposure D for more than chiefs from several different departments who
one building, the next building to Exposure believe that this is an unnecessary task. Many
D is referred to as Exposure D1 (fig. 6–5). of them live in communities where there are
only two- or three-story
buildings. In their case
it may be unnecessary
to use terminology that
differentiates between
Exposure C floors other than first
floor, second floor, and
third floor. Other chiefs
who criticize sectorization
Exposure Exposure
Source Building to differentiate between
B D
floors state that there
are reasons inbred to
their department that
Command Post would prohibit them
from using specific
words to differentiate
between floors.
Fig. 6–4. Examples of differentiation in exposures. Note that the original fire building is
referred to as the “source” building.
Exposure Exposure Exposure Source Exposure Exposure Exposure

B-3 B-2 B-1 Building D-1 D-2 D-3
Fig. 6–5. Differentiating between units in strip malls that are exposures
· >| 57 |< ·

Again, Division seems to be the term used

most frequently throughout the country.
Division 12 would designate the 12th floor of
a structure. Division 7 would designate the
Division 9 7th floor of a structure (fig. 6–6). Please note
that the sides and exposures of a building
use letters to differentiate between exterior
Division 8
areas. The floor interior can be differentiated
or divided using numbers. This is designed
Division 7 to avoid confusion between the exterior and
interior of a building (fig. 6–7).
Division 6
Division 5
C
Division 4 Quadrant 2 Quadrant 3
Division 3
B D
Quadrant 1 Quadrant 4
Division 2
A
Command Post
Division 1
Fig. 6–7. Differentiating between interior floor assignments. This

Sub-division 1 is extremely useful in house fires in directing crews to areas to
be searched or that have hot spots.
Sub-division 2
Combination Assignments
Fig. 6–6. Interior floors of a building Sector assignments can be a combination
of functional and geographic assignments.
This allows for fine-tuning expectations. If
First and foremost, it makes no command determines that more than one line
difference to me what you call a specific floor is needed to extinguish a fire, a method for
in a structure in your community. What distinguishing between these companies must
is important is that any department that exist. That’s where combination assignments
responds or could respond to a fire in your come in. “Division 1 attack” specifies that
community understands how you differentiate command has given responsibility of the fire
between floors in your structures. attack on the first floor to a specific company.
· >| 58 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Sectoring |< ·
The only way Division 1 attack moves itself firefighting actions on the fourth floor (attack,
and its line to attack on other floor in the search, ventilation, salvage, and overhaul).
structure is at the direction of command: Eventually, command assigns the heavy
“Command to Division 1 attack: You’ve squad as search. The officer assigned to
got the fire on Division 1; I have assigned Division 4 is now responsible for everything
Engine 6 as Division 2 attack.” on Division 4 except search. As the first
Or, after confirmation from command: truck company arrives, command assigns
“Attack to command: We knocked down them to ventilation. Now the officer assigned
the fire on Division 1. I’m sure it’s on the to Division 4 is responsible for everything
floor above us. Permission to move up that needs to be done on Division 4, with the
to Division 2?” exception of search and ventilation.
“Command to attack: OK, you’re now
Division 2 attack.”
Revolving Assignments
Utilizing groups and divisions
Let’s assume the first-in officer at working
All functional assignments are referred fire sets up the command post in front of
to as groups, such as attack group, search the structure involved in fire and assumes
group, and so on. Groups transcend interior command. A few minutes later, the battalion
or exterior areas. This means that crew will chief arrives and assumes command. The
be responsible for its function in all areas new incident commander soon realizes that
of the structure. If the span of control will the wind is shifting and smoke is now flowing
be violated within a group, that functional across the command post. The original IC has
sector is expanded and called a branch. If, sent crews inside and also made two exposure
lets say, more than five units are operating assignments for the exterior the building.
under a ventilation group, they should be Now, when the command post is moved, the
referred to as a ventilation branch. original assignments are not in relationship
All the geographical assignments are to the new command post location. What
referred to as divisions according to the NFA. was side D is now side C. If the command
If a crew is designated Division 3, that crew post is moved, should the original geographic
is responsible for anything needed on the assignments be changed? My answer is no! As
third floor. (That includes attack, ventilation, a rule, the original designation of geographical
salvage, or any other function that has assignments should not be changed during
not been assigned.) the incident. If this is allowed to happen,
According to the NFA, a crew assigned to think of the confusion to crews already in
a division should handle everything that is place and working in their assigned areas.
needed in the division with the exception of This is unnecessary. It is much easier for
any functional sector assigned. the people working at the command post to
For example, Battalion 1 arrives first to realize that the command post has moved
a working fire in an eight-story apartment and to use the original exterior designations
building. The fire is on the fourth floor than it is for crews to listen to and memorize
with smoke on the fifth and sixth floors, as their new assignment or, worse yet, to require
well. The officer assigns the first-in engine all crews to pick up their lines and tools and
as Division 4. They are responsible for all move to another area.
· >| 59 |< ·

Responsibilities of solve diminishes in our mind, and at

that point it could be argued that we
Sector Officers are not doing our job.
If the safety of the crew is the sector
Being a company officer is not an easy officer’s primary responsibility, then
task. Being responsible for other firefighters one thing becomes very evident to
while operating inside a burning building me: Sector officers cannot afford
complicates the responsibilities of that to be hands-on crew members. If a
company officer. I’m a firm believer that company officer assigned to attack
IMS uncomplicates the role of the company is crawling through a bedroom in
officer. The IC prioritizes assignments and the second division of the two-story
then, in essence, tells the company officer frame home with a nozzle in both
what the expectations are. (e.g., “Command hands, then the officer’s focus is on
to Engine 5: You are attack.”) Now the officer whatever is immediately in front of
of Engine 5 has a firm understanding of what him or her. I contend that a firefighter
the focus should be. However, it’s not all (regardless of rank) cannot focus
that easy. Once the assignment is given, the on the safety of the rest of the crew,
officer now must choose between specific, fire conditions, heat conditions,
tried-and-true evolutions to accomplish and stability conditions and, at the
the assigned task or tasks. On top of that, same time, focus on operating an
he or she has several other responsibilities effective hose stream.
that also become part of the focus. The
responsibilities of the sector officer are: · > Accomplishing the task assigned.
Your next concern as a sector officer
· > The safety of the crew. The sector is to ensure that the task you were
officer’s primary responsibility is assigned is accomplished. It all goes
to ensure that officer and crew can back to focus. If I assign a crew
safely operate within the work area attack, I expect them to put out all
that has been assigned to them. Our the fire they can find in the area
task at any incident is to be part of assigned (normally the entire building)
the solution to the problem, whatever or until they run low on air and need
the problem may be—for example, a to exit the building.
fire, a HazMat (hazardous materials)
run, or a simple BLS (basic life · > Keeping command informed. Whether
support) squad run. If, however, we you are assuring the safety of your
become part of the problem, then crew or directing your crew in the
our focus, as well as the focus of accomplishment of the assigned task,
most on-scene firefighters, becomes your last responsibility is to keep
rushing to the assistance of the the IC informed. The days of leather-
firefighter(s) in trouble. I realize lounged chief officers standing at
that this is a dangerous profession. the top of stairways with no SCBA
However, when a firefighter gets in and, more likely than not, smoking
trouble for whatever reason, the a cigarette should be long gone. At a
on-scene crew’s focus shifts. The single-family residential structure fire,
actual problem that we were sent to there’s no need for a chief officer to be
· >| 60 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Sectoring |< ·
inside the structure until the fire is on areas other than the safety of the crew.
deemed under control and has been Multitasking is great. However, brain surgeons
well vented. I do believe it is essential don’t play tennis during operations. In life or
that chief officers get an inside look death situations (and firefighting is always
around to assist them in determining a life and death situation), multitasking
what tactics and evolutions were generally creates unsafe practices. Company
employed at that particular fire. officers get paid to supervise, direct, and
However, if we train our officers and encourage. Firefighters get paid to act. If
have faith in them and their abilities, both focus on their specific responsibilities,
then I believe it is unnecessary for the everything gets done.
chief officers to go to the inside if it’s a At some firefighter fatality fires, it was
bread-and-butter fire. Your time, your determined that crews freelanced. One or two
knowledge, and your experience better firefighters broke away from the attack crew
serve the focus of the entire incident and began to search for victims or more fire,
if you are outside and in a location or search crews got distracted by firefighting
where you can observe as much of the activities. Either of the above two examples
scene as possible. may be necessary at times, but not without
So, if the ICs are not afforded the approval of the IC. As I stand outside and run
opportunity of running in to observe a fire, I am imagining that attack is actually
conditions inside the structure during attacking the fire and that search is actually
the height of the fire, then it must be searching for and removing viable victims.
the responsibility of sector officers Running a good fire depends on a grand plan
to keep the IC informed of interior developed to accomplish several tasks with
conditions. If the attack crew can’t the assumption that each crew assigned is
make the landing of the second floor doing what they were told to do. Anything less
stairway due to heat, the IC needs to can lead to devastating results. And finally,
know this. If searchers are conducting many firefighters have died at fires because
a search on Division 3, and they the IC was not provided with good, up-to-date
immediately determine that conditions information concerning interior conditions.
eliminate the possibility of any viable
victims on that floor, command needs
to know. If ventilation gets on to a roof
and determines that the roof assembly The Big Four
and ridgepole are becoming spongy,
then again, command needs to be This book is written predominantly for
made aware of this fact. fires in single-family residential occupancies.
Most of the tactics employed in this text will
These three responsibilities of a sector work at apartment fires and small commercial
officer remain constant regardless of the occupancies as well. At these smaller fires,
assignment. If we look at many of the there are four assignments that are usually
fireground fatalities and serious injuries that made initially by the IC. The order of their
occurred in recent years, I believe several priority depends on the conditions found
commonalities could be noted. Oftentimes upon arrival and the availability of staffing
at fatal fires, it was determined that the and apparatus. I call these four typical
company officer or crew leader was focused assignments the Big Four. In some form or
· >| 61 |< ·

fashion, their assignment is needed at any Questions

structure fire that requires a hose stream to
extinguish. From my perspective, the Big Four 1) _______________________________________
are attack, ventilation, search, and backup. means breaking down the incident into
manageable units.
· > Attack. It is the fire department’s
responsibility to extinguish the hostile 2) Sectoring is closely related to what
fires to which they respond. The type three areas?
of fire attack employed depends on ________________________________________
several factors that will be discussed ________________________________________
later in this text. ________________________________________
· > Ventilation. The by-products of 3) What is considered the normal span of
combustion must be moved to an control for emergency crews?
outside atmosphere.
4) What are the three types of sectors
· > Search. At some point in time, the discussed in the text?
structure involved in fire and the a. ______________________________________
by-products of combustion must be b. ______________________________________
searched to ensure that all savable c. ______________________________________
victims have been removed.
5) Geographical sectors are referred to as
· > Backup. Firefighting is a dangerous _______________________________________.
profession, and the responsibility of
any IC is to make sure our job is done 6) Functional sectors are referred to as
as safely as possible. It is for this _______________________________________.
reason that backup should be one
of the four consistent assignments 7) If the normal span of control is exceeded,
made at every working structure fire. what are the units called?_______________
The responsibility and placement ________________________________________
of backup will be discussed later
in this book. 8) What are the Big Four?
________________________________________
It’s fairly easy to recognize the need ________________________________________
for the Big Four. One word of caution! The ________________________________________
prioritization of these assignments is the key ________________________________________
to successful fireground operations. This
will be explained in even greater detail in 9) What are the three priorities of a
the following chapters. sector officer
a. ______________________________________
b. ______________________________________
c. ______________________________________
10) Diagram the division around a fire

structure.
· >| 62 |< ·

7
Running Incidents—How It Works Real World
T
his chapter may cause some consternation with those who use the incident management
system (IMS) for very large fires, such as in wildlands. The elements of IMS that
apply to wildland incidents are there because they have to be. At these major fires
where hundreds of resources respond, control and coordination of resources is essential.
Divisions, groups, and branches are all essential. Likewise, it is essential that command’s
general staff positions be filled, more likely than not, within a few hours of the initial call.
Logistics and administration or finance are vital elements that make the management flow
seamlessly. However, many of these expanses in the system are not vital at 800-square-foot
single-family residential structure fires. Therefore, some scaling back of IMS is necessary in
our bread-and-butter operations; I don’t think the inventors of the system intended to make
IMS cumbersome at these types of fires.
The Essential Elements of the System

It goes without saying that the incident commander (IC) is one of the key elements in the
IMS. It is from this position that strategies and objectives are developed. Because of this, it is
hard for me to envision the incident where establishing command is not a priority on arrival
of the first-in unit. If this first vital step is not taken, the chances of confusion and conflicting
strategies and objectives may be present at the onset of the incident (fig. 7–1).
· >| 63 |< ·

handle salvage and overhaul functions. The

typical experienced chief can handle the
management of these few firefighters along
with command general and staff functions of
the incident with little or no problem.
At a typical small-scale structural
fire, once command is established, initial
assignments including attack, ventilation,
and search are made. Depending on fire
scene conditions, command may opt to assign
a safety officer to help by focusing on the
safety concerns of the incident. Figures 7–2
and 7–3 depict the initial command structure
to a room and contents fire. In figure 7–2,
command was established by the first-in
officer, riding the seat of the first-in engine.
Fig. 7–1. Command at the initial stages of a working church fire
COMMAND
(E-5 officer)
As stated in chapter 2, command’s general
and staff positions consist of operations,
planning, logistics, administration, safety,
liaison, and information officers. These
positions can have assignments below them
to assist them in carrying out their specific ATTACK
functions. With the exception of hazardous (E-5 officer)
materials (HazMat) incidents, the IC can fill
each of these positions. At HazMat runs, the
IC and the safety officer must be two separate
individuals. Most departments respond with
three or four apparatus, with an average of Fig. 7–2. Initial command structure for a room and contents fire
13 firefighters and officers, to a report of a
house fire. On arrival, several assignments
will be made by command to divide and The remainder of the crew is assigned
conquer the problem. Generally, attack is attack. Moments into the fire, the responding
assigned first. Depending on staffing and a battalion chief arrives and assumes
host of other conditions including ventilation command, then assigns other incoming crews
and life-safety concerns, ventilation or search to ventilation and search. One officer is pulled
will probably be assigned. Once the fire is off a crew and assigned to be a safety officer.
knocked down, crews will be reassigned to Figure 7–3 shows this command structure.
· >| 64 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Running Incidents—How It Works Real World |< ·
COMMAND
(battalion chief)
Safety (E-3 officer)
ATTACK VENTILATION SEARCH

(E-5) (TCK 1) (E-3)
Fig. 7–3. Command structure for a room and contents fire as other units arrive
For most single-family residential never to hesitate to provide on-scene staffing

structure fires, the incident can be handled commensurate with the fire problem, plus
with a command structure similar to that a few extra just to roll hose and provide for
depicted in fig. 7–3. Depending on fire and breaks. I also will not criticize a chief who
staffing conditions, other divisions and groups asks for additional help at the command post.
may be assigned as well as an operations I realize some of you come from one-chief
section. It is always my contention that filling departments—that’s why we have mutual
command staff functions when necessary aid. It’s there and should be used, and I have
is vital to good fire scene management. no qualms about asking for another chief or
However, when initially approaching the two to assist me in running my fire. It’s nice
incident, the filling of command general and to have one or two people to bounce concerns
staff functions is usually a luxury for the IC. and questions off of, especially at very large or
This does not detract from the importance of extremely intensive life-safety fire incidents.
operations, planning, and other command As stated earlier, the chief officer and
functions; however, filling these positions safety officer generally fill the bill for command
should never overshadow the need to put the staffing at a room and contents fire. On top
fire out. I would be hard-pressed to justify of that, a few fire-suppression divisions and
allowing a fire to continue to burn or letting groups along with a few support, or “after
areas go unsearched because I was busy the knockdown,” crews are necessary. In
with the selection of command and general smaller departments, the same crew may
staff and positions. be required to complete several assignments
I have been to many fires in my career such as attack, then salvage and overhaul.
where I was pulled aside by officers later In larger departments, generally there are
and thanked because I special-called for more than enough crews responding to
additional units to help them at the scene. handle the Big Four (attack, ventilation,
This is especially true during very cold or search, and backup), plus one or two left for
extremely hot firefighting conditions. I try overhaul and pickup.
· >| 65 |< ·

Basic Command Structure for any working fire. On a weekday in the

afternoon, most volunteer firefighters are
I will take a few minutes in this next earning their living. It may take 10 to 15
section to define what I consider the basic minutes to get additional crews on-scene.
command structure for our typical responses. Figure 7–4 indicates the initial on-scene
I realize that there are departments that operations at this fire, followed by figure 7–5,
respond to some fires initially with only four which indicates operations after the arrival
or five firefighters and officers. Conversely, of a dozen or so volunteers.
my department responds with approximately
28 firefighters, officers, and chiefs. The New
York City Fire Department (FDNY) responds
with closer to 40 officers, firefighters, and
chiefs. So what I state here may not fit with
your initial operations, but rather should COMMAND
be used as a guideline for special-calling for (E-1 officer)
additional command staff resources after
arrival on the scene.
Fire ATTACK
(E-1 crew)
The functions of the incident commander
and attack group are considered the
minimum response for any department.
Sequential firefighting is therefore a must Fig. 7–4. Command structure of one officer and three firefighters
COMMAND
(department chief)
Safety (mutual aid chief)
ATTACK SEARCH VENTILATION BACKUP

(E-1 crew) (E-2 crew) (mutual aid eng.) (mutual aid)
Fig. 7–5. Command structure with additional responding volunteers
· >| 66 |< ·

Emergency medical services officer dispatched on the first-responding

unit is the IC, and the most highly trained
and basic life support runs
medical personnel is in charge of patient
Typical basic life support (BLS) runs are care. Figure 7–6 shows the command chart
handled by first responders. Most often with for a typical ALS incident, in which an IC is in
a paid department, one or two firefighters and charge of the scene, and the highest-ranking
an officer will respond. Larger departments trained medical person on the scene is in
respond with three firefighters and one or charge of patient care.
more officers. Although informal command
is used at these BLS runs, there is still an
IC, who is the officer on that first-responder
apparatus. As such, the IC is responsible for
command, operations, planning, logistics,
and the administrative aspects of the BLS COMMAND
run. If an ambulance is needed (logistics), (E-2 officer)
then the IC is responsible for handling that
logistical portion of the incident. If the victim
needs initial emergency medical services
(EMS) treatment, such as bandaging or
the administering of oxygen, then the IC is PATIENT CARE
responsible for ensuring that this treatment (medic 1, eng. 2)
is given. Once the run is over, the IC is
responsible for all associated paperwork and
journal entries; that is the administrative
function of this run. Fig. 7–6. Command structure for a medical emergency
Emergency medical services and

advanced life support runs Motor vehicle accidents
The response you send on an advanced In my department, we send two units to
life support (ALS) run depends on the system a report of a motor vehicle accident (MVA)
in which you work. Most departments send with injuries. One of these units must be
a first responder and an ALS-type unit in a pumping unit, that is, an engine. This
response to these runs. Some municipalities engine company is required in the event of
have their own paramedics, whereas fuel spills, flash fires, or extrications. Some
others depend on private ALS services. departments send a lesser response, while
The same holds true in rural parts of the others initially send more. At a minimum,
country. Some volunteer departments the command structure at an MVA with
provide first-responder and ALS services, injuries should be an IC and specific groups
while others provide first responders, and to handle triage, patient care, and transport,
some other entity, either public or private, depending on the services you provide. The
provides the paramedics. Regardless of the command structure for this type of MVA is
form used, every ALS run needs an IC. By shown in figure 7–7.
law in most states, the highest-ranking
· >| 67 |< ·

COMMAND
(E-5 officer)
PATIENT CARE PATIENT CARE

(eng. 5) (eng. 6)
Honda Truck
Fig. 7–7. Command structure for a motor vehicle accident (MVA) with injuries
COMMAND
(battalion 1)
Safety
EXTRICATION BACKUP PATIENT CARE

(squad) (eng. 3) (E-4 officer)
Eng. 4
Eng. 9
Fig. 7–8. Command structure for a typical MVA
Motor vehicle accidents with extrication HazMat runs

require additional resources. Several groups
must be established, including an extrication From the onset, a HazMat run requires
group, a backup group, and specific patient a larger command staff. An incident
care groups. If there are multiple victims, commander is always required. Additionally,
a triage officer should also be assigned. at any spill, a safety officer must be
MVAs involving buses or other mass transit established if entries are to be made. Fuel
vehicles may require an operations section spills at gas stations may not require much
to assist command in the myriad of tasks more than an IC and a couple of shovelfuls of
that must be accomplished. Command sand or other absorbent materials. At bona
structure for a typical MVA is depicted in fide spills, however, the command structure
figure 7–8, and figure 7–9 depicts a mass of the incident should expand. Along with
casualty MVA with many victims. an IC and a safety officer, an operations
· >| 68 |< ·

COMMAND
(battalion 1)
Safety
Information Officer
EMS FIRE
(staff chief) (E-9 officer)
Extrication Patient Care Triage Transport Backup

(medic 1) (E-3 officer) (E-9)
SQ 1 E-1
SQ 4 E-3
E-4
Fig. 7–9. Command structure for a mass casualty MVA with many victims
COMMAND
(E-9)
Scene Safety (E-4 officer)
DECON CONTAINMENT
(E-4 crew) (HazMat team)
HazMat Safety (HazMat officer)
Entry/Containment
Fig. 7–10. Command structure for a Level 1 HazMat incident with a small spill
section and possibly a planning section Evacuation groups and EMS groups may
should be established. If an entry is to be also need to be set up. Figure 7–10 represents
made, a “decon” group must be established a small spill (Level 1 HazMat incident),
prior to any entry. Exclusionary zones (cold, and figure 7–11 represents a larger spill
warm, and hot zones) must be established. (Level 2 HazMat incident).
· >| 69 |< ·

COMMAND
(battalion 1)
Scene Safety
FIRE CONTROL HAZMAT EMS
Hazmat Safety E-6
E-7
Backup Exposure C DECON ENTRY
E-1 (E-4) (E-9) (HazMat)
HazMat Backup
Metering
Fig. 7–11. Command structure for a Level 2 HazMat incident with a larger spill
Multiple-alarm fires
I have been to hundreds of multiple-alarm I remember responding to an apartment
fires in my career. Some of these have been fire as the brand-new operations deputy
precautionary seconds that didn’t go much back in 1998. It was an early morning in
beyond the utilization of first-alarm crews. a large complex with heavy fire involving
At these fires, normally all that is required is one section. After my arrival, I established
an IC and, in our operations, a safety officer. command and the first-in battalion chief
Our department has trouble going over a took over operations. After the fire, several
fourth-alarm fire. I have been at several firefighters and officers came up to me and
four-alarm fires and ran three in one month stated how glad they were that I had arrived.
several years ago. These fires call for an IC They said that things were really messed up
and an operations section, at a minimum, until I took command. I explained to each of
along with a safety officer. Many departments, them that it wasn’t my arrival that smoothed
including mine, mandate the establishment of things out. In essence, what happened was
an operations section at any multiple-alarm that when I took over as command, I took all
fire. I believe this is a good practice. the responsibilities for the other aspects of
· >| 70 |< ·

the incident away from the operations chief to get chief officers assigned inside or
running the fire. That allowed operations to outside as division supervisors. Figure 7–13
concentrate solely on running the fire. As depicts the command structure at typical
soon as I took over command, I handled all second-alarm apartment fire.
the little things that the original, solitary IC
was handling, on top of running what was
a complicated fire scene. I started worrying
about the displaced occupants. I started
handling logistics and planning. I made
sure that our hoselines were not being run
over. I got the canteen started. While I was
handling all of these other aspects, operations
concentrated on running the fire; hence the
fire started going more smoothly.
At multiple-alarm fires, it is essential that
the IC get enough resources at the scene to
not only handle current and known problems
but also to anticipate the unknown. It is
just as important that the IC get help at the
command post (fig. 7–12). The decision must
be made by the IC, based on staffing and fire
conditions, about who should be assigned to
fill in the gaps in the command system. I do
not advocate pulling an officer from a crew
assigned to vital tasks such as initial fire
attack, ventilation, or search efforts to give
me help at the command post, but it is not
unreasonable in certain circumstances. In
fact, I suggest that the IC request additional
help by special-calling for chief officers to
respond to any multiple-alarm fire. If you
knock the fire down quickly, and most of your
problems go away, you can always cancel the
responding chief officer.
At a minimum, multiple-alarm fires
should be run with an incident commander, Fig. 7–12. A more formal command post is established
operations section chief, and a safety well into a working fire.
officer. Depending on the complexity of the
fire and the staffing required, additional
command staff functions may need to be
filled, such as planning (e.g., where are you
going to put, and how are you going to care
for, displaced senior citizens from a major
nursing home fire?). It may also be necessary
· >| 71 |< ·

COMMAND
(deputy chief)
Safety
Information Officer
OPERATIONS
(battalion 1)
Staging
Division 1 Vent Group Division 2 Exposure D

(captain E-5) (officer TCK 1) (Lt. eng. 9) (captain E-16)
division 1 attack division 2 attack division d attack
division 1 search division 2 search division d vent
division 1 backup division d search
division d backup
Fig. 7–13. Command structure at a typical second-alarm fire
As you can see, filling all the boxes is not staff personnel, as well as the availability of
necessary at most structure fires regardless of firefighting officers and personnel. At times,
their size. I have never yet been to a structure it’s lonely at the top, but it doesn’t have to be.
fire where an administration section was If you feel bogged down at your next fire, get
assigned. I can understand the reason why one help. My rule of thumb is that if I’m too busy
may be needed; however, it hasn’t happened to talk to individuals or take a few seconds to
yet in Toledo. The number of boxes filled on think about what’s going on and what I want
the IMS depends on the size and scope of the to do about it, then I need someone to help
incident, the knowledge and experience of the me run that incident, either my firefighters or
IC and other assigned command general and those from outside entities.
· >| 72 |< ·

8
Mission Statements
I
have a general concern with the way that most departments are trained. My concern is
not an indictment of specific training instructors or the way they train. In fact, nothing
could be further from the truth. My concern is this: When I came on, I learned the job
from not only my training officers, company officers, and peers, but I also learned it from
the Toledo Fire Department drill manual. This book was an internal publication written
specifically for my department with the evolutions that we employ. It used our terminology.
If we didn’t have something, the manual didn’t discuss it. In essence, the manual was us.
Sometime in the late 1980s, this changed, and we and many other departments across
United States adopted a generic training manual. At that time, I was the training chief for
the department, and I had never read this generic manual. As a matter of fact, as of this
writing I still have not read the entire manual. As I teach across the United States and this
topic comes up, I often ask anyone with more than 15 to 20 years on the job if they were
like me, and also have not read that manual. The resounding answer is yes, and that is my
concern with the way most departments are trained.
As a chief officer and incident commander (IC), I continually send crews inside burning
buildings. Once they crawl into the smoke-filled abyss, the only assumptions I can make
about what those crews are doing is what I would be doing under the same circumstance.
I learned to fight fires reading textbooks such as Firefighting Principles and Practices, by
William Clark, and Strategic Concepts in Firefighting, by Edward P. McAniff. Both of these
books were written in the 1970s by New York City fire chiefs. They were two of the books
that I was assigned to read for my first few tests. At that time, they were cutting-edge texts.
Today, young firefighters only learn concepts from the generic, nationally accepted books
that I mentioned earlier. It’s no wonder that when I assign a specific task and have a picture
in my mind of the evolutions that will be done, there may be a great difference in what
is actually taking place.
· >| 73 |< ·

In 1994, I was a line battalion chief. all working sectors assigned at the majority
I remember being dispatched to a house fire of runs that we make. It was for that reason
when the above-mentioned problem became that we developed mission statements.
evident. Tommy Jaksetic was captain of Mission statements define the reason that
Squad 1. I assigned him attack and assigned we exist. From mission statements, goals and
Engine 5 as backup. A few minutes after the objectives can and should be derived. The
fire was darkened down, Capt. Jaksetic came mission of the Toledo Fire Department is “the
out huffing and puffing, threw his helmet on protection of life and property of the citizens
the ground and exclaimed, “Chief, I thought of Toledo through education, fire prevention
you assigned us attack!” I said, “I did.” Capt. code enforcement, and the response of
Jaksetic then said, “And why is Engine 5 in highly trained emergency personnel.”
there putting my fire out?” After I calmed him Everything we do and ask for in our budget
down, I went over to the lieutenant on Engine should be reflected in that statement. If
5 and asked him, “Lieutenant, if I assign you we wrote a brief, one-sentence mission for
backup, what are you supposed to be doing in attack, search, and so on, we believed that
there?” The lieutenant replied, “looking for fire their mission, and hence reason that they
to put out!” It was then that I realized we had exist and our expectations of them would
a significant problem in our department. be more clearly defined.
About this time, there had been When we introduced the mission
discussions about revising our IC policy. statements as they related to sector
I took this opportunity to convince the assignments, it was as if a lightbulb came
operations deputy that we needed to better on in our officers’ minds. It became clear
define the role of every assignment that we that when the assignment was made, it
make, not only on the fireground but also on was the officer’s task to complete that
all runs. This was in 1994, and we were also assignment and not focus on other aspects
in the process of writing our department’s of the incident. The next several chapters
mission statement. We determined that it examine mission statements for the most
might be best to write a mission statement for frequently assigned sectors.
· >| 74 |< ·

9
The Mission of Command
T
he mission of command is to
coordinate the activities of
emergency crews.
Command’s mission should be carried
out making every effort to use accepted
strategic practices to protect life and
property from the effects of fire and other
emergencies. In this mission statement,
coordinate is italicized. I do this to stress
the point that the incident commander
(IC) should not be the hands-on worker
at a fire. It all goes back to focus. An IC
cannot focus on the entire incident, its
needs, and the safety of firefighters if
the IC’s hands are on the nozzle, venting
a roof, or other tactical evolutions
(fig. 9–1). There may be times when an
IC would, for a short-term, become a
hands-on person. These events usually
arise from low staffing, and they should
be the exception, not the rule. If an IC
must participate in on-scene tactical
operations, then those times should be
short, and the IC should return to the Fig. 9–1. A chief running a working house fire. Look where his focus is.
command post as soon as possible and
focus on the whole incident.
· >| 75 |< ·

Even at single-unit responses where As I pull up at a fire, I review these

informal command is used, the officer should four priorities.
make every effort not to become a hands-on
participant in emergency scene operations.
At an emergency medical services (EMS) Firefighter safety
incident, even if only two members are on
the scene, the informal IC must be the one The first thing I ask myself when I arrive
who focuses on the whole. This allows the at the scene of a fire is, “Are we going to
second member to take vitals, administer be part of the solution, or, if we enter the
oxygen, and perform other initial patient care structure, is there a likelihood that we will
operations. There are times when the officer become part of the problem?” We can only do
must participate. One example would be so much. Our fire gear is only rated at a little
working on a victim in a full cardiac arrest, over 500°F for around 45 seconds. Flashover
with staffing at only two or three members. occurs at between 700°F to 1,400°F. Common
However, before the officer laid hands on the sense would dictate that if we pull up to a
victim, I would hope that he or she would ask house that is at or near flashover conditions,
for additional units to respond. As soon as that we will not be able to operate for very long
additional unit arrived on-scene, someone inside that structure.
should establish a formal command.
Civilian safety
Incident Priorities If I determine that, due to fire and heat
conditions and in accordance with safe
There is no secret to running a fire. A chief firefighting practices that require all required
or company officer’s ability to successfully personal protective equipment (PPE) be
manage any incident depends on several used, our crews can safely and effectively
factors. Among them are experience and enter the structure, then my next question
knowledge, but there is no secret or magic is, “Are there savable people the structure?”
wand needed to successfully run a fire. The human body can only tolerate dry heat
In almost every incident I respond to, of about 160° and moist heat at about 130°
I review what I call command’s incident for short periods of time. I like to use the
priorities. Most of us fight fires with limited 200/two rule. This rule states that the
initial resources. Because of this fact, the likelihood of a human being surviving in
actions of incoming crews need to be prioritized. an unprotected 200°F atmosphere taking
I like to use four initial priorities that I review many more than two breaths is minimal;
when I run a fire. Those initial priorities are: 200°F will not support combustion for
most common combustibles. So we’re not
· > Firefighter safety. talking about very high temperatures here.
Our first-responder and emergency medical
· > Civilian safety. technician (EMT) training tells us that the
human body can only survive for 4 to 6
· > Stop the problem. minutes in an atmosphere that contains
15% or less oxygen. Carbon monoxide
· > Conserve property. displaces oxygen during combustion. In
· >| 76 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Command |< ·
a heavy smoke condition, it would not be of a building. A deck gun comes to mind.
unrealistic to expect atmospheres containing Elevated master streams from tower ladders,
15% or less oxygen. buckets, or straight stick aerials are other
If, on arrival, I believe that firefighters techniques. Vertical ventilation, if it can be
cannot safely and effectively enter a structure, done safely, comes to mind. Darkening down
then I go to Plan B (which will be described the fire with handlines also comes to mind.
below). If, on arrival, I believe that firefighters Any of these or a combination thereof will
can safely and effectively enter the building, change fire conditions.
but due to fire and smoke conditions, no Waiting for fire conditions to change
civilians could be alive in the structure, then themselves. A vacant house with heavy fire
again I go to Plan B. Last, if on arrival I believe conditions venting from all windows and
that firefighters cannot effectively enter the doors, namely, a flashover is shown is figure
building and that there are no savable people 9–2. If this fire is allowed to vent itself through
in the building, then I go to Plan B. However, the roof, then nature will pull heat, flame, and
if I pull up and believe that firefighters can smoke internally through the vent hole and
safely and effectively enter the structure and out of the opening, which is what we want.
that there exists the likelihood that savable Once this fire is then darkened down from
people could be inside, then aggressive the outside, a determination can be made as
interior structural firefighting is called for, to structural stability and, hence, our ability
that is, Plan A. to overhaul from the inside.
Plan A. Good aggressive interior
firefighting operations are what constitute
Plan A. These operations depend on fire
conditions, the number of firefighters on the
scene, and their training and abilities. Under
most circumstances, Plan A is initiated with
the establishment of command and the
pulling and stretching of interior handlines.
Subsequent actions such as ventilation and
searches, the placement of backup lines,
and salvage and overhaul operations follow.
I estimate that we go, appropriately, to Plan
A at approximately 75% of the working Fig. 9–2. A well-involved vacant house fire
fires we respond to. Statistically, over 90%
of the fires we respond to are handled with
one line or less. Plan B is not complicated. Plan B consists
Plan B. If, on arrival, you pull up and of our ability to fight the fire on our terms,
firefighters cannot safely and effectively enter not on the fire’s terms. If we were to blindly
the building, then your actions need to be run into this well-involved vacant house fire,
directed at one of two options. Either change I guarantee we would become part of the
the fire conditions or wait for fire conditions problem and not part of the solution. We
to change themselves. do not fight the fire on our terms enough
Changing fire conditions. There are today. With heavy life-hazard involvement,
several ways firefighters can change fire it may be justified to fight the fire on its
conditions and do it safely from the exterior terms. By our terms, I mean immediately
· >| 77 |< ·

entering the structure on arrival without “the protection of life and property” from
taking any steps (other than putting on all the effects of fires and other emergencies.
PPE) to lessen the likelihood of firefighters No one’s life should be less valuable than
becoming part of the problem. Activities material objects. However, we should take
that can be taken that lessen the likelihood such steps, as safely as possible, to protect
of firefighters becoming injured or part as much property as we can whenever we
of the problem consist primarily of initial are called to assist the public. Although
ventilation efforts, laddering involved upper not as glamorous as saving a life, that
stories of the structure where fire operations is what citizens expect, and that is what
will commence if no secondary means of we get paid to do.
egress exist, or darkening down visible fire
from the exterior in known nonexistent
life-hazard fire conditions.
After we assess our ability to safety Defining Objectives
and effectively enter the structure and
the likelihood of finding savable victims Once command’s initial priorities have
inside, and then taking steps to go to Plan been reviewed, the next step in making your
A or Plan B, our next priority becomes initial assignments at a fire is to determine
stopping the problem. Remember, Plan A what your objectives are. Objectives define
is aggressive interior operations, and Plan outcomes. At a room and contents fire in
B is changing fire conditions or waiting till a single-family residential structure, the
conditions change. objective should be to confine the fire to the
room of origin. All initial assignments, and
thus the actions of the initial crews, should
Stop the problem be directed at meeting that specific objective.
An appropriate action in this case would
If we respond to a structure fire, then be to stretch a handline inside and get the
stopping the problem consists of attacking nozzle in the doorway or entrance to the room
the fire, entering the structure, removing any involved in fire (let’s say a bathroom on the
victims, and performing salvage and overhaul second floor). Once that objective has been
operations. If we respond to a motor vehicle met, and the line has darkened the fire and
accident (MVA), then stopping the problem contained it to the bathroom, new objectives
consists of extrication if necessary, triage need to be established such as, in this case,
treating, and transporting injured civilians, limiting damage and assuring the fire is
as well as handling any other vehicular completely out. These two objectives can be
accident–related problems such as flash fires accomplished with appropriate ventilation
and fuel or oil spills. and overhaul. (It is assumed in this scenario
that there’s no life hazard involved—if there
were, a different set of objectives would also
Conserve property need to be defined.)
For the most part, most incident
Last, we need to conserve as much commanders are very weak at defining
property for the citizen while conducting their initial objectives, that is to say, in
the first three priorities. Most of us have a “verbalizing” their objectives. To be sure,
mission statement that includes somewhere assignments are usually made; however,
· >| 78 |< ·

we leave it to guesswork on the part of the As the incoming officer on Engine 1 in

company officer as to what we really believe Scenario 1, I would have several options.
we want to try to accomplish. As a company (Some may or may not be what you would do
officer, which of the two scenarios do you in the same situation, but are simply listed
believe works better? as considerations.)
· > Scenario 1: Battalion 1 arrives first-in · > I could pull line inside to try to isolate
at single-family two-story residential the fire as the remainder of my crew
structure fire and observes heavy went upstairs to conduct a quick
fire in the interior of the first floor at primary search.
the B/C corner. The home appears
to be occupied, and it is 12:30 a.m. · > I could pull line inside with the intent
The two first-in engines pull in at of extinguishing all visible fire while
pretty much at the same time, one another crew was responsible for
coming from the north and the other primary search on Division 2.
coming from the south. Command’s
initial transmission is: “Dispatch, · > I could pull line inside to try to
Battalion 1 is on the scene. We isolate the fire as the remainder of
have fire showing on Division 1 of my crew conducted a primary search
a two-story frame. Battalion 1 is on Division 1.
Command. Command to Engine 1,
come up, you’re attack. Command to · > I could ladder the building to
Engine 2, lay-in to Engine 1, and then Division 2, take a line to Division 2,
you are search.” and conduct a quick primary search
while using the line to keep the fire
· > Scenario 2: Battalion 1 arrives from coming up to Division 2.
first-in at single-family two-story
residential structure fire and As the officer of the second-in engine,
observes heavy fire in the interior I also would have several options in reference
of the first floor at the B/C corner. to the transmission in Scenario 1.
The home appears to be occupied,
and it is 12:30 a.m. The two first-in · > I could lay in and start a search
engines pull in at pretty much at on Division 2.
the same time, one coming from the
north and the other coming from · > I could lay in and start a search
the south. His initial transmission on Division 1.
is: “Dispatch, Battalion 1 is on the
scene, we have fire showing on In Scenario 2, my objectives have been
Division 1 of a two-story frame. spelled out for me. We know what the IC
Battalion 1 is Command. My expects of us. As the officer on Engine 1,
objective is to keep the fire on the I would pull line to the first floor and darken
first floor and to conduct a quick down the fire on Division 1. As the officer on
primary on Division 2. Command, Engine 2, I would lay in and then I would
Engine 1, you’re Attack. Command to take my crew to the second floor and conduct
Engine 2 lay-in, you are Search.” a rapid primary search, report to command
· >| 79 |< ·

the status of my search, and await directions.

It’s pretty straightforward. As we go through
this text, I will emphasize the importance
of defining objectives.
Making Assignments
Once you review command’s initial
priorities (firefighter safety, civilian safety,
stop the problem, and conserve property) Fig. 9–3. A well-involved vacant house fire with an occupied
and determine your initial objectives, you exposure problem
need to make specific assignments based
on three things: the picture in front of you, In figure 9–4, light smoke is showing from
command’s initial priorities (objectives), and a second-floor window. The home appears to
the availability of staffing and apparatus. be occupied. The objective here is simple:
Go in and find the room of origin, ensure
life safety, and limit smoke damage. This
The picture objective can be obtained by placing a line
at the opening to the room or area involved,
Information about a lot of what needs conducting a quick search, and providing
to be done in a structure fire can be gained aggressive ventilation.
from looking at the fire building. I realize
there are departments that assign apparatus
by procedure based on their position in
the dispatch order. What works for these
departments works for these departments.
From the picture, the IC can develop
objectives. This is incident specific. By that
I mean each fire that we respond to presents
its own unique set of priorities or objectives.
In figure 9–3, heavy fire involvement includes
the source fire and an exposure problem. The
source fire appears to be a vacant dwelling, Fig. 9–4. A single-family home with a small fire on Division 2
while the exposure is an occupied dwelling.
This fire presents a unique set of objectives.
In this case, the objective would be to keep
the fire confined to the source building. Review command’s priorities
This objective can be obtained by a two-step
process. First, getting a line on the exposed After you look at the picture in front of
exterior wall surface of the exposure and you, quickly review command’s priorities:
maintaining it. Second, getting lines inside firefighter safety, civilian safety, stop the
to cover vulnerable areas such as windows, problem, and conserve property. The first
soffits, and other weak spots or openings on two priorities are the most important. Can
the exposed wall surface.
· >| 80 |< ·

firefighters safely and effectively enter the Size-Up

area involved (firefighter safety), and are
there savable people in the area involved Several excellent books have been
(civilian safety). By looking at the picture in written about size-up. Fireground Size-Up, by
front of you and answering those questions, Michael Terpak (PennWell, 2002), comes to
initial assignments can be made. mind. This book is well written and contains
excellent facts concerning the art of size-up.
Some books say that size-up should begin
The availability of personnel with the receipt of the alarm. Others say
that size-up begins with preplanning, that is,
and apparatus
familiarizing yourself with structures in your
Now that you have your initial assignments community before a fire occurs. As stated
in mind, you need one more essential item earlier, I believe the first view of the structure
to initiate your plan. You need the tools and is the most important factor determining
personnel to accomplish your objectives. what needs to be done first at an incident.
This is not the proper venue to get into Another way of ending that sentence, and
the staffing issues that have plagued most perhaps more significant to the outcome of
departments for the last several decades, nor the incident, would be that the first view is
is this the venue to discuss the differences the most important factor in determining
between paid and volunteer departments. what the first on-scene crew’s activities (and
Command needs to have an understanding as such, their objectives) will be.
of what it takes in relation to personnel and After determining what fire conditions
tools to accomplish specific assignments. are present (e.g., smoke or open flame), the
I like to call this the “woodchuck factor,” specifics of the structure—construction type,
in reference to the familiar tongue-twister, occupancy, and so on—come into play. It’s not
“How much wood could a woodchuck chuck if always possible to do what we would like to do
a woodchuck could chuck wood?” How many because of lack of personnel. Initial attacks and
firefighters does it take to pull, stretch, and backups may not be feasible. It may be more
pump into a 13⁄4-inch attack line? How many prudent to assign a backup crew to hold the
more firefighters does it take to maintain a stairs at an apartment fire with occupants still
constant water supply for that attack line? fleeing the structure as we are trying to enter.
How many firefighters does it take to conduct Size-up—when the officer rapidly evaluates
a search in the building involved? Incident the whole picture to determine the incident
commanders need an understanding of the activities (or to-do list)—will be influenced by
tools, equipment, and staffing required to the following at a fire:
perform every function on the fireground.
There is no excuse for a chief officer not · > The extent of fire and smoke on arrival
knowing how long it takes the department
to reposition an aerial apparatus and again · > Structure type (if a structure is involved)
flow water. If an IC anticipates it will take 3
to 5 minutes and repositions the aerial in · > Occupancy
a location that is 3 to 5 minutes ahead of
fire, but it takes the crew over 10 minutes to · > Exposure potential
reposition the aerial and flow water, the IC’s
actions may become pointless. · > Actions of occupants and bystanders
· >| 81 |< ·

Extent of fire and smoke on arrival Figure 9–6 shows a single-family structure
that is well involved. Command’s to-do list at
In my mind, the picture in front of you this incident would include the following:
is the most significant factor in determining
what needs to be done. In class, I tell my · > Exposure protection.
students, “Look at the picture. What you see
should give you a to-do list.” Notice I referred · > Attack the source building.
to these as a to-do list instead of command
priorities. It is important to keep command · > Vent the source building.
priorities different from a to-do list. Command
priorities remain constant. The to-do list can · > Search the source building.
change not only from incident to incident
but also from minute to minute at a fire. In · > Backup.
figure 9–5, no evidence of fire is seen. No
smoke or fire is visible. The to-do list of this · > Overhaul in salvage in the source
incident is pretty simple; determine why you building as needed.
were dispatched to this incident and handle
any emergency that arises. If staffing is available only to accomplish
one task at a time, then the crew should
accomplish each of command’s tasks on the
to-do list, one at a time. This is referred to as
sequential firefighting. All of the listed tasks
should be accomplished on the to-do list,
bearing in mind the priorities of command
(firefighter safety, civilian safety, stop the
problem, and conserve property).
· > Firefighter safety. Initially, commit

Fig. 9–5. No smoke or fire showing necessary crews to protect Exposure
B. This can be done relatively
safely near the A/B corner of the
source building. Send a crew inside
Exposure B to ensure that no fire
got inside the structure. Consider
firefighter safety concerning the
source building fire. Take lines into
the upper portion of the structure.
If this is not feasible, knock the fire
down from the outside.
· > Civilian safety. There could be

savable people in Exposure B. From
what can be seen in figure 9–7, the
Fig. 9–6. A well-involved single-family residential fire with a likelihood of savable people in the
potential exposure problem source building is negligible. Bearing
· >| 82 |< ·

these two factors in mind, it would structure of origin. There have been
be safe to initiate interior operations fires where I would have felt good
in Exposure B and to change if I had just stopped the fire three
conditions or wait until conditions houses down from the original source
change themselves in the source building. Whether there are interior
building. Since the source building (as in the specific room or floor) or
contains fire conditions unsuitable exterior exposures, the fire must be
for sustaining life, it would be best controlled by placing hose streams or
to fight the fire from the outside using other methods of stopping the
and then evaluate the safety of the production of heat and the advance
structure to determine if interior of the fire and moving it back toward
overhaul is feasible. the area of origin—the process of
darkening down the fire. Finally all
hotspots should be extinguished
through overhaul.
· > Conserve property. As much property

as possible should be saved in the
establishment and overhaul process.
Salvage is the process of protecting
occupants’ belongings (including as
much of the structure as possible).
Structure type
After the extent of fire has been evaluated,
Fig. 9–7. A house fire where the likelihood of finding savable the structure type must be considered.
victims is slim Structure types may be classified several
ways. One prominent method is the National
· > Stop the problem. At this fire, stopping Fire Protection Association (NFPA) rating. The
the problem is best accomplished ratings range from Class 1 (fire resistive) to
by the sequence of confine, control, Class 5 (combustible buildings). This method
and extinguish. The first step is to is most beneficial for writing inspection or
confine the fire to the source building. fire reports. For fireground officers, I believe
This is done by looking at the fire only the materials used in construction or,
in front of you and asking yourself, more aptly, the cause-and-effect relationship
“where do I actually think I can stop of the fire to building materials should be
the fire?” In some instances, it is considered in relation to “structure type.”
realistic to attempt to confine the fire Such types as wood, ordinary, concrete,
to part of the room of origin (as in a steel, and any combination of the above are
small rubbish fire in the corner of a prevalent across United States. Specific texts
bathroom), to the room of origin (as on the relationship of the construction and
in a well-involved mattress fire in a the fire service are available. The specifics of
bedroom), to the floor of origin, or the these constructive methods, materials, and
· >| 83 |< ·

their reactions to fire are beyond the scope Exposure potential

of this book. Finally, it must be remembered
that there are many types of subclasses in Where is the fire going, and what can it
each of the construction materials used. affect? There are two types of exposures:
Coming to mind are the differences between
the balloon frame, platform, and truss frame · > Internal exposures: the spread of fire
wood construction. Each of these three within a structure. It can be from
reacts differently in fire. A little knowledge part of a room to another part of that
is a dangerous thing. It’s essential to know room, from one room to another, or
not only the building materials you are from floor to floor. Internal exposures
dealing with, but also how the materials are protected best by two actions:
are connected and how floor and roof – Cutting off the spread of fire by the
assemblies are supported. proper placement of attack lines
– Checking for extension above, around,
and below the fire (all six sides of the
Occupancy box) as quickly as possible
Occupancy types range from residential · > External exposures: the spread of
to storage and business occupancies. As fire from one structure to another
it relates to occupancy type, size-up is structure or another object of value
concerned with the following: (such as a vehicle parked in the
driveway). External exposures,
· > What is the building being used discussed extensively in a future
for—school, restaurant, housing, and chapter, are best protected by:
so on—and what fire potential does – Covering the exposed surface of the
that bring? exposed structure with a film of water to
keep it below its ignition temperature
· > How many people could be in the – Gaining access to the exposed structure
structure at this particular time? (if applicable) to make sure the surface
application of water is sufficient and
· > Are there any special processes assuring that fire did not enter through
contained inside that would affect window openings or other avenues
civilian escape and fire spread? of fire spread
– Decreasing the amount of BTUs being
produced by the source fire
The potential for fire spread of the source

fire to an exposure must be evaluated as soon
as possible. Under normal circumstances,
if the fire has spread to other structures,
the first lines probably should be used to
protect the exposures. Additional lines will
then be needed to extinguish the source
fire (fig. 9–8).
· >| 84 |< ·

or white normally
indicates attack
has found and
knocked down the
fire. This comes
from the production
of steam. Smoke
that is getting
progressively darker
may mean that the
fire is spreading or
reaching flashover.
Fig. 9–8. Apartment fires like this present severe exposure potential. Black smoke that
begins to turn
brown indicates the
The actions of occupants and bystanders flammable contents that were burning
have now spread fire into the wood
One of the indications of the severity of the frame structure itself. Brown boiling
incident (other than visible smoke or fire) will smoke is usually an indication that
be the actions of the occupants or bystanders cellulose or wood is burning.
when you arrive. If someone is in the street
waving responders down as they approach and · > Changes in the force with which the
others are standing and pointing, then some smoke is leaving the structure. The
sort of incident probably is in progress. This rule is the more pressure, the more
may have little bearing on the incident itself heat. If the pressure lessens, chances
or its severity (what is a big fire to a civilian are that the fire is running out of fuel.
may be a booster line fire to a firefighter), but
it should serve to get command’s attention, to · > Changes in the location of fire.
start looking in the right direction and get the If the fire has burst out into locations
mental juices flowing. remote from the original fire site,
if it has had multiple beginnings
(areas of origin), or if the fire has
Updating and evaluating entered the structure and is moving
undetected in void spaces, then some
After command makes the initial decisions must be made and action
assignments, based on the to-do list, must be taken.
command waits. At this time, the IC should
look for obvious changes in the fire and Once assignments have been made,
its by-products from the outside. Again, command can and should update the to-do
command must make every effort to remain list periodically. What may have been number
at the command post and be looking one on command’s to-do list may not even be
for the following: of concern 5 minutes later. I usually like to
have one engine (unit) staged for additional
· > Changes in the color of the smoke. assignments until the fire is under control. If
Dark smoke that turns to a light gray it is not used by the time the fire is deemed
· >| 85 |< ·

under control, I normally send it back. As it First, command will need to find a location
relates to using and returning dispatched from which he or she can best focus on as
units, it is command’s responsibility much of the incident as possible. In most
to do the following: instances, in my mind, this is at a location
in front of the structure (fig. 9–9). There are
· > Gather the necessary personnel and departments that believe the incident can
equipment to handle the situation best be served by a battalion chief or incident
(and I like to have one engine staged, commander located in the seat of the buggy.
just in case). There are the departments that believe the
incident can best be served from the battalion
· > Get the units dispatched to the scene chief or incident commander located inside
back in service as soon as practical. the fire structure. I am of the belief that the
IC needs to be able to view two or three sides
of the structure if possible. This allows the
IC to check on smoke conditions and fire
Command’s Tasks spread throughout the vast majority of the
building. If this can be done from the seat of
Everyone on the fireground has tasks the buggy, then I guess I’m OK with it. It’s
that need to be accomplished. Crews hard for me to envision how this can be done
assigned to attack must pull and stretch by an IC who has positioned him- or herself
lines and locate and extinguish the seat inside the fire structure.
of the fire. Search must go to areas of the
structure where savable people could be,
and locate and remove civilians. Each of
these evolutions requires specific tasks that
must be accomplished to meet the incident
objectives. Command has a list of tasks
that must be accomplished. Although not
normally hands-on, these tasks still need
to be accomplished to meet the objective of
protection of life and property from the effects
of fire and other emergencies.
Focus on the incident

One of command’s primary tasks is
to focus on the entire incident. As stated
previously, I believe the incident management
system (IMS) is built on focus. If the IC focuses
on the entire picture and then assigns specific
crews to handle specific evolutions geared at
meeting the objectives, then everything gets
done and the incident is handled. It’s kind of Fig. 9–9. Command’s focus. This is an example of command
a “divide and conquer” strategy. focusing on the whole picture.
· >| 86 |< ·

When I say focus on the entire incident, Administrators need to constantly review
there are several factors that must be audiotapes of working fires. This is a must!
considered. One is positioning yourself in a Any communication errors, including not
location where you can view as much of the acknowledging even the most mundane
structure as possible, as well as changes in transmission, need to be corrected. If search
smoke and fire conditions. This also includes is telling me what color the curtains are, I
your ability to quickly view the specific areas will acknowledge “Command OK—we’ll talk
and then go back and focus on the whole later,” and I will explain the insignificance
incident. This is called mixed scanning. It is of home furnishings at that specific point
the process in which an IC walks from the in time. But every officer deserves to know
A/B corner over to the A/D corner to quickly that if they say something to me on the
observe smoke and fire spread. The IC then radio, I will acknowledge that transmission.
returns to the command post (let’s say to the Acknowledging transmissions should be as
original fire location—at the A/B corner) to routine and customary to everyone on the
again focus on the main body of fire. One fireground as putting on their Nomex hood
concern with mixed scanning involves an or checking their self-contained breathing
IC’s ability to realize he or she must briefly apparatus (SCBA) prior to the beginning of the
focus on a specific area and then, as soon tour. That way, in those rare instances where
as conditions are observed, go back to crews are actually in trouble, communications
scanning the entire structure. Too often, ICs will not be dropped or missed, and multiple
get “tunneled” on one specific area of the fire. screams for help will not be required.
There have been occasions when this has
lead to disastrous results.
Command must also focus on radio Communicate and act on
communications. Missed transmissions can
information from officers
result in dead firefighters. Communications
problems are one of the five elements Another one of command’s tasks is to
associated continually with firefighter communicate and act on information from
fatalities. I want the IC to acknowledge every officers. It’s not enough to simply acknowledge
transmission that is directed toward him or the transmission from attack that “they can’t
her, especially until the fire is deemed under make the second floor stairway because of
control. This goes back to my psychological heat.” Command needs to do something
principle: When people are put in stressful about that. Luckily, you have some options.
situations, they revert to what is customary Command can order them back down the
and routine. If you are crawling down the hall stairs, request immediate ventilation efforts,
as a company officer and realize you’re low on or simply order them out of the building.
air or you don’t know where you are, and you Once attack tells command they have the fire
call command with a Mayday or an urgent knocked down, command must redirect their
message, I bet good money you will want efforts, depending on the situation and the
command to acknowledge that transmission. availability of additional crews. Staffing may
This is not the time to yell over the radio three allow for other crews to check for extension.
and four times, “Attack to command: We’re In some instances, command may order
lost on Division 2 and low on air.” You want attack to check for extension to conduct an
to know the IC understands you’re in trouble immediate search in the area of the fire or to
and you want the IC to know it now. begin overhaul of the fire floor.
· >| 87 |< ·

Coordinate resources Adjust to changes and updates

As command, you are conductor of the A good IC anticipates future needs. Jim
“fireground orchestra.” You set the tone, the Murtagh, Deputy Chief of the New York City
rhythm, and the tempo. If more resources Fire Department (FDNY) (retired) stated,
are needed, you are responsible for ordering “Command should always be one alarm ahead
them (fig. 9–10). If you have more crews than of the fire.” Even if staffing is not available,
the needs of the incident require, then you an IC should be one or two moves ahead of
are responsible to send them back for other current operations. If any time the word may
emergencies. You set the game plan and comes to mind, you’d better have definites
ensure that it is carried out. When crews available. If you may need another engine,
need a break, you are the one who determines you’d better have one staged. If you may need
if that task needs to be immediately or to have the roof opened, you’d better have a
continually replenished or if that operation crew headed for the roof. If you don’t think you
can be suspended for the time being. have enough personnel conducting search to
complete the building search in a reasonable
amount of time, you’d better either get another
crew started or be thinking of a Plan B.
As command, immediately after you order
a crew inside to start a fire attack, you need
to be thinking about:
· > What will I have them do next if they

locate it and darken down the fire?
· > What will I have them do if they can’t

locate the fire?
· > What will I have them do if they can’t

back down the fire—where will more
water come from?
· > What will I do if the fire pushes them

down the stairs or hallway area
of the building?
Command needs to anticipate questions

like this for every assignment until the fire
is deemed under control, and then a new
set of questions will arise. When everything
falls into place, running a fire isn’t that
tough. If the fire, the building, or crews
Fig. 9–10. One of command’s tasks is to coordinate resources. start to throw up roadblocks, a good chief
should have the answers before reaching the
stumbling points.
· >| 88 |< ·

Be responsible for operations, If something doesn’t look right, stop it!

planning, logistics, and administration Too many times firefighters stand,
We can’t forget, regardless of the regardless of rank, and watch other
region of the country we work or the size firefighters do stupid things. We watch them
of our department, that we operate under break glass when we know the room will light
an incident command system. The IC up. We watch them crawl inside buildings
is responsible for operations, planning close to flashover. We sit and watch them
logistics, and administration of every cut a hole in a roof with the hole between
incident to which he or she responds. Let’s them and the ground ladder to get down. I
look at a single-family residential structure think most of us think, “Well, I guess they
fire. Regardless of the size of the structure or know what they’re doing,” when in reality
fire, command is responsible to make sure they don’t. Billy Goldfeder calls it “NTS,” for
that the fire is put out. That’s operations! “non-thinking-syndrome.”
Command is also responsible for determining If you see something on the fireground
what has happened (origin and cause), that doesn’t look right, stop it! Whistle,
what is currently happening, and what will shout, or grab them by their fire coats and
happen in the future. The IC is responsible asked them, “What are you doing?”
for accountability (resource status, or re-
stat) and other planning concerns associated
with a small fire. That’s planning! Be responsible for accountability
Logistically, command is responsible for
ensuring that air wagons are on the scene so Both NFPA 1500 (Standard on Fire
that SCBA bottles can be filled. If it’s a cold Department Occupational Safety and Health
night, command can order a bus or other Program) and 1561 (Standard on Emergency
covered vehicle to keep firefighters warm. The Services Incident Management System)
IC can order the canteen to provide coffee for address accountability. Two words are
crews and send them to rehab if necessary. repeated over and over in these two standards
That’s logistics! as it pertains to accountability. Those words
Administratively, command fills out are location and function. Both standards
the paperwork and ensures that the needs state (I paraphrase):
of the civilians are being met. He can help
them obtain temporary housing and clothing · > It is the responsibility of the IC to
through the Red Cross, as well as handle know the location and function of
any Workers Compensation claims for every crew on the fireground.
firefighter injuries that may have occurred.
That’s the administration! · > It is the responsibility of every
Most chiefs who have been operating for company officer to ensure that the IC
a while do all of these tasks, and more, as knows his or her crew’s location and
second nature. They don’t fill the boxes, and function at all times.
they don’t create a huge staff. They handle it
all and sometimes manage to laugh and joke · > It is the responsibility of every
with assigned crews without missing a beat. company officer to know the location
But we can’t forget the provisions of IMS and and function of every person assigned
what it stands for. to his or her crew at all times.
· >| 89 |< ·

· > It is the responsibility of every Let’s assume the IC arrives first at a

firefighter to ensure that his or her fire in a two-story single-family residential
company officer knows his or her occupancy. The first-in unit is an engine,
location and function at all times. and they are assigned attack. The next-in
crew is also an engine crew, and they are
As an IC, it’s not my responsibility to know assigned search. Through this, the following
which firefighters are riding which apparatus. transmission is made:
That’s the company officer’s responsibility. “Dispatch, Battalion 1 is on the scene,
Don’t get me wrong, every chief needs to have we have fire showing on Division 2. Battalion
a method of determining who rides every 1 is command. Command to Engine 1: you
apparatus. Status sheets, crew rosters, and are attack. Command to Engine 2: you’re
a myriad of other tools are provided to keep search. Lets keep it to the room involved
track of who is riding each rig. But at a fire, and make sure everyone is out of the second
it is my responsibility to know the location floor.” (Note the Objectives are stated in the
and function of every crew at my incident on-scene announcement!)
(fig. 9–11). If I get mutual aid crews, I may Engine 1 and 2 begin to carry out their
not know the firefighters who respond. All I missions and enter the building. About 3
want to know what rigs respond. It is up to minutes after they enter, the attic flashes
the officer and the jurisdiction to know who over. The IC only knows that two crews
is riding the rig. are inside the building, but not their
location. The IC can only assume where
they would be.
Now let’s take the same scenario and
insert accountability. Assume the IC of the
first unit arrives at a fire in a two-story
single-family residential occupancy. The
first-in unit is an engine, and they are
assigned attack. The next-in crew is also
an engine crew, and they are assigned
search. Through this, the following
transmissions are made:
“Dispatch, Battalion 1 is on the scene, we
have fire showing on Division 2. Battalion 1
is command. Command to Engine 1: you’re
Fig. 9–11. Command is responsible for accountability. attack. Command to Engine 2, you’re
search. Let’s keep it to the room involved
As relates to location, it’s not good and make sure everyone is out of the second
enough to only know if crews are inside or floor.” As soon as Engines 1 and 2 are
outside of the building. You need to know ready to enter the structure, the following
not only which crews are inside the building, transmissions are made:
but where they are in the structure. This is “Command, Engine 1 is starting attack
essential if the building or fire begins to act on Division 2.”
up. In either event, I want to know two things “Command, Engine 2 starting search
right now: Are there crews in the affected on Division 2.”
area, and, if so, how many? “Command OK”
· >| 90 |< ·

Engine 1 and 2 begin to carry out their area buildings), and those transmissions
missions and enter the building. must be acknowledged and tracked, either
“Search to Command: We have an all by the IC’s mind (as in the case of a small
clear on Division 2 and we’re moving down room and contents fire) or a command board.
to Division 1.” I don’t sell accountability systems. The
“Command OK” system I advocate doesn’t cost a penny. All
The attic flashes over. it takes is disciplined incident commanders
Command knows that an attack crew and officers.
is on the second floor and a search crew is
moving down from the second floor to the
first floor. However, command knows that Directing division and group officers
there are no crews in the attic. Command
can react, but he or she doesn’t have to react As stated earlier, command is responsible
with the same intensity as he or she would if for the outcome of the incident. As such, the
crews were in the attic. IC must take responsibility for the actions
“Command to all units on the scene: of division and group leaders working
We’ve had a flashover in the attic. Pull back for him or her at a fire. This leads to the
down to Division 1 and regroup.” question, “Where does command’s ability to
The difference between the two scenarios direct sector officers at an incident become
is striking. The same incident occurs: A micromanaging the incident?”
working fire with two crews inside and a The answer is situational. It lies with
flashover. In the first scenario, command command and whether he or she has the
had only the knowledge that two crews time to personally direct a division or group
were inside the building. In the second of officers. It also lies in the company officers’
scenario command not only knew that two experience level. In the next chapters, you
crews were inside, but exactly where those will see that any individual promoted to the
crews were in the building. All of this was rank of company officer should possess the
done without tags, rings, or Velcro strips. knowledge, skills, and abilities to function
Any accountability system is only as good as an officer leading fire units. As such, if
as the communication process. You can command has the time to give direction
have rings, tags, or Velcro, but if they don’t to the officer, I’m OK with that. Directions
tell command where crews are inside the such as “You’re top-side ventilation” or
building, then they are only providing half of “Attack, take the line into the front door” are
the essential information. acceptable and they give additional focus
Most accountability systems in use to the company officers. I draw the line at
today only tell us who is in and who is not much more direction than this. I don’t
in the structure. I believe the goal of any believe command needs to list specific tools
good accountability system should be to tell or site-specific evolutions or tactics that
command not only who is in the building should be used, except in extreme situations.
but also where they are in the structure. That’s why we have procedures and training
All of this can be done with short radio manuals. (Those extreme situations may
transmissions from group and division include specific tactics at HazMat incidents,
officers prior to entry and then as they move or at incidents where the officer is new or a
from floor to floor (or area to area in large rookie riding the seat).
· >| 91 |< ·

The Last Word on 4) What are the three things specific
assignments should be based on?
Command’s Mission a. ______________________________________
b. ______________________________________
I’m not sure whether this item belongs c. _____________________________________
in the mission statements, but I know it is
certainly a requirement if one is going to be 5 From what does the IC develop his or
a successful chief or company officer. Most her objectives? _________________________
structure fires (and even other emergencies _______________________________________
such as car accidents and HazMat incidents)
affect two different and distinct things. At 6) What are the five items the author
a structure fire, the structure is certainly considers in initial size-up?
affected by the fire, but so are the owners ________________________________________
or occupants. However, many chiefs or ________________________________________
company officers neglect the occupants or ________________________________________
owners of the structure. ________________________________________
Most of us as ICs or company officers talk ________________________________________
to the owners or occupants to get information
concerning who owns the structure, phone 7) What are the two types of exposures?
numbers, what may have caused the fire, ________________________________________
and whether the smoke detector operated ________________________________________
correctly, but many of us neglect their
needs. They may have many questions. We 8) Smoke coming from a structure with more
go to hundreds of fires a year. The occupants pressure generally means there is more
may have only one fire in a lifetime. We can ________________________in the structure.
accomplish much with a few minutes of kind
words, comfort, understanding, and effort. 9) What is command’s primary task?______
________________________________________
10) Who is responsible for fireground

Questions accountability? ________________________
1) What are command’s four priorities at

every incident?
a. ______________________________________
b. ______________________________________ Scenario Based
c. ______________________________________
d. _____________________________________ Decision Making
2) If firefighters cannot safely enter a building In this and subsequent chapters, I will
on fire and no savable victims are inside, provide several scenarios at the end of the
Plan B should be put into effect. Plan B is to chapter in which you can apply what you have
_______________________________________. read as well as convert it to your department’s
operations. There is nothing included in this
3) Objectives define_______________________. section that is absolute. Fires are fought
· >| 92 |< ·

well and quite differently across the country. 1) What are your initial concerns upon
As we all know—they go out! Apply what arrival? _______________________________
works for you and your department. Hence, ________________________________________
there are really no correct answers to these ________________________________________
scenarios. There are, of course, better and ________________________________________
worse options. But who determines that?
So many factors apply, such as staffing, 2) What is your initial on-scene report? ____
response levels and times, apparatus and ________________________________________
tools utilized and so on. My hope is that ________________________________________
you answer the questions honestly and then ________________________________________
discuss your answers/options with your ________________________________________
mentors, peers, and/or classmates. There
are really no wrong answers—only no answer 3) What is your objective at this moment?
will get you nowhere! ________________________________________
________________________________________
(Notice the line is short—your objectives should be short as well.)
4) What are your initial actions? __________

________________________________________
________________________________________
5) As far as you know, with only the above

information provided, what are your
staffing requirements right now?________
________________________________________
_______________________________________
Fig. 9–12. Scenario You are informed by the owner that she
believed she smelled smoke in the basement
when she went down to take the clothes out
In the scenario above (fig. 9–12), you are of the clothes dryer. She says there is a light
the first officer to arrive at this reported fire. haze of smoke down there.
The complement of apparatus and manpower
is what you normally receive on a report of a
fire in a residential occupancy. You are riding 6) What now is your objective, next actions
the apparatus you normally ride (engine, and staffing requirements to accomplish
truck or chief’s car, etc. If you are a relief your Objective? _________________________
officer, put yourself in the seat you ride most.) ________________________________________
The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a ________________________________________
Sunday morning. The weather is not a factor. ________________________________________
With that, you have all the information given
to you on dispatch.
· >| 93 |< ·

1) What are your initial concerns upon

arrival? ________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
2) What is your initial on-scene report? ____

______________________________________
______________________________________
________________________________________
3) What is your objective at this moment?

Fig. 9–13. House prior to fire call. ______________________________________
______________________________________
4) What are your initial actions? __________

________________________________________
________________________________________
5) As far as you know, with only the above

information provided, what are your
staffing requirements right now?________
________________________________________
________________________________________
Fig. 9–14. House at arrival. Note smoke coming from first floor at
front window. The occupant locates you and tells you
everyone is outside except the cat. Crews inside
report they located the fire in the kitchen.
In the scenario above (figs. 9–13 and
9–14), you are the first officer to arrive at this
reported fire. The complement of apparatus 6) What now is your objective, next actions
and manpower is what you normally and staffing requirements to accomplish
receive on a report of a fire in a residential your objective? ________________________
occupancy. You are riding the apparatus you ________________________________________
normally ride (engine, truck or chief’s car,
etc. If you are a relief officer, put yourself 7) With adequate crews inside handling
in the seat you ride most.) The time of the the fire under the direction of an Interior
incident is 0630 hours on a Sunday morning. division officer, as incident commander,
The weather is not a factor. With that, you what are your planning, logistics and
have all the information given to you on administrative concerns for this incident?
dispatch. Upon arrival you observe smoke Planning _______________________________
showing from the first floor of a two-story Logistical ______________________________
brick veneer home. Administrative __________________________
· >| 94 |< ·

10
The Mission of Attack
T
he mission of attack is to coordinate suppression efforts in the area assigned.
In the mission statement for attack, coordinate is italicized. I emphasize this word
because the officer’s hands are the last two hands I expect to be on the bale of the
nozzle. This is especially true during the height of the battle. After the fire is knocked down
and during the overall process, I have no problem with an officer picking up line and knocking
down a hotspot while the crew members open up and complete other tasks. It all goes back
to focus. The incident commander’s (IC’s) task is to focus on the entire incident. The officer
assigned to attack has focus also. That focus is the attack: where we go in, where we take the
line, how we attack the fire, where will we go after we knock it down, and what we will do if
we can’t knock it down. I don’t believe you can do all of that if you’re crawling toward the fire
with the bale of the nozzle in your hand.
You should be recognizing a pattern or recurring theme here:
· > Command focuses on the incident.
· > Division or group leaders “tunnel in” (focus) on the task assigned.
· > Crews do the work.
Remember, officers can’t concentrate on the entire fire attack if they are turning over
mattresses, looking for hot spots, or applying an indirect stream off the ceiling trying
to catch the right angle that allows water to rain down on the fire. Some of you may be
saying, “We don’t have enough people not to let the officer be on the nozzle.” There are times
when staffing may be low. In some departments, that may be all the time. We don’t allow
one-person attacks. No department should allow one-person attacks. If two firefighters enter
the building with the hoseline, and one of them is an officer, then the firefighter should
· >| 95 |< ·

be on the nozzle and the officer should be If command simply designates your
behind the firefighter assisting, pulling line, crew as attack, then you and your crew
and directing the firefighter. The answer is are responsible for putting out all the fire
really simple: Do only what you can, and in the building or area assigned. If you
then do the best you can. A three-person need to go out and change an air bottle,
crew cannot take a hydrant and pull and then you must inform command and await
stretch an attack line at the same time. The direction. If command, however, assigns
first-in officer, prior to taking command, you a combination assignment of attack on
must decide by looking at the picture what Division 2, let’s say, then you and your crew
the incident’s to-do list is. If it is to quickly are responsible for putting out all the fire you
take an interior line inside and attempt a can find on Division 2. Command doesn’t
quick knockdown, then the officer cannot expect you to go up to Division 3 or down
afford to leave a firefighter at the hydrant. to Division 1. The IC expects you to stay on
Most engines carry at least 500 gallons of Division 2 and knock down all the fire, give
water in their booster tank. You can put a a progress report or benchmark, and then
lot of fire out with 500 gallons of water if you await direction.
use a little discipline:
· > Don’t throw water at smoke, only

at real fire. The Responsibility of Attack
· > For most interior attacks in The officer assigned to attack has three
single-family homes, an indirect primary responsibilities. In order, these
attack (straight stream bounced responsibilities are:
off the ceiling) is best because it
provides the best use of water (heat · > The safety of the attack crew
absorption) and the least disruption
of the thermal balance. (This will be · > Putting out all the fire in the
discussed later in this chapter.) area assigned
· > Quickly pull ceilings to check for · > Keeping command informed
vertical extension.
· > Use positive pressure ventilation after

you have identified and darkened the The safety of the attack crew
seat of the fire.
Any group or division leader’s first
Once command has been established, responsibility is the safety of the crew.
water supplies can be established and It’s awfully difficult to put out a fire when
backup lines put in place. On the other you’re running from it. Likewise, if command
hand, if attack knows a lot of water will sends you into areas where the extent of
be needed because the fire is already fire is becoming untenable or affecting the
well advanced, the officer should leave a structure to the point where stability is
firefighter to establish a water supply and being jeopardized, then the officer needs
assign incoming crews to attack. to protect the crew or take some form of
· >| 96 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Attack |< ·
evasive measures. The attack officer needs Fire Attack Concepts

to continually be evaluating the area that
officer and crew are operating in for changes There are several factors that play into
in heat and smoke conditions and the the type of attack you will choose to use in
stability of the floor assemblies. The officer a specific incident. The type of equipment
needs to monitor the radio for transmissions carried on the apparatus, the type of fire
concerning other areas of the building and encountered, and the amount of training and
assignments therein. experience the crew has all play into the type
of fire attack to be used.
Before moving forward, let’s discuss a
Putting out all the fire basic fire concept. There are many different
descriptions of fire attacks that have been
in the area assigned
written about for more than a hundred
As stated earlier, your task as the attack years. Since entering the fire service, I have
officer is to make sure all of the fire is put read dozens of texts and articles discussing
out. If you are not assigned to a specific area, methods of fire attack. They all have several
but instead simply assigned attack and the things in common:
fire is in a structure, then it’s your job to
put out all the fire in the entire structure. · > They differentiate between interior
If you’re given a combination assignment and exterior attacks.
such as Division 1 attack, then your job
is to get a line on Division 1 and put out · > They differentiate between nozzle
all the fire you can find on Division 1, not and stream types.
Division 2, and not the basement. Once you
have a fire knocked down, inform command · > They differentiate between the different
by giving the appropriate benchmark and types and stages of fire growth.
await direction.
The two types of fire attacks that I will
discuss are called different names by different
Keeping command informed people. If the name that I use is different from
the term you use, change the name in your
The old days of chief officers crawling mind and move on.
up stairways behind attack crews without a
self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
to see how the fire attack was going are long
gone. To compensate, incident commanders Two Basic Attack Strategies
want and need information. If you are an
attack officer and your crew can’t make the The two basic strategies are offensive and
second-floor landing because of the heat, defensive fire attacks. Each form of attack is
command needs to know that. If your crew distinct and depends on the following:
is inside and a crew member’s low-air alarm
bell starts going off, again, command needs · > The extent of the fire on arrival
to know that.
· > The likelihood of savable victims
· >| 97 |< ·

· > The ability of crews to operate formula is length × width ÷ 3. Say

inside safely the room involved is 10-ft by 10-ft
bedroom. 10 × 10 = 100 ÷ 3 = 33.
· > The stability of the structure You need 33 gallons per minute
(gpm) to extinguish a 10 × 10 roomful
· > The ratio of risk to gain of fire. Now take an entire floor of a
typical house in your community.
Say, 1,200 square feet; then
The objective of any strategy is the 1,200 ÷ 3 = 400 gpm. Now the
following: question becomes, “What do you
have on your engine that flows
· > To confine the fire—to the smallest 400 gpm?”
area possible by preventing it from
spreading. This is 100% related to · > To extinguish the fire—overhaul the
nozzle placement. We want to get fire area to make sure that all traces
a nozzle (line or hose stream—call of the fire had been extinguished.
it what you will) between the fire
and savable property. Some like
to say, they want to get a nozzle Offensive fire strategy
between the fire and savable people.
If you do one, you accomplish An offensive strategy calls for an
both. Regardless, the objective of aggressive interior attack on the seat of the
confining the fire is to get the initial fire. The key to this strategy is to confine
line (stream or nozzle) between the fire to the smallest area possible. In the
where the fire is and where you offensive strategy, command believes that
don’t want it to go, and that is a quick interior attack can be successful,
accomplished by proper nozzle the structure is worth saving, and the
placement. If you properly place risks associated with sending crews inside
the first line, you have a chance at will not be greater than the value of the
accomplishing this. If you take your materials being saved. I would like to have a
line in from the wrong direction, dollar for every time I, as a firefighter or an
you stand a good chance of causing officer, basically risked my life to save the
more damage and pushing the fire stuff we would be shoveling out of windows
to areas not yet involved. 15 minutes later. This is not to say that
firefighters should not take some risk to
· > To control the fire—by reducing the save property. Our job is to save life and
production of heat, which is done by property from the effects of fire. However,
cooling the area around the fuel to no firefighter’s life or well-being should be
below the fuel’s ignition temperature. risked on property that is already, or will
Math is not my strong suit, but math soon be, damaged by fire. There is a fine line
is required to estimate the required when differentiating between when to and
water flow you need to darken a fire. when not to commit to interior firefighting.
The National Fire Academy’s water Property can be replaced.
flow formula works well for me. The
· >| 98 |< ·

The three tactics of an offensive attack · > It provides a great deal of knockdown
power and quickly darkens down a
The three tactics for an offensive strategy large quantity of flame.
are the following:
Direct attack. An offensive direct attack · > It does not push the fire away from
is probably the normal, most commonly used the nozzle as easily as fog streams.
fire attack in the fire service today. Direct
attacks are either smooth or solid streams The disadvantages of the direct attack
applied directly to the burning material (fig. are the following:
10–1). The intent of a direct attack is to cool
the surface of the burning material. · > More water is needed, ounce for
ounce, in relation to the amount of
fire than with other forms of offensive
attack. The reason for this is that the
water droplets should be as small as
possible for maximum absorption of
heat. When a straight or solid stream
is used in an indirect attack, the
water droplets are quite large.
· > There is more water damage due to

larger drops of water and larger flows
Fig. 10–1. The direct attack is a straight stream directed at the because heat absorption is more
seat of the fire. difficult with larger drops.
· > A direct attack disturbs the thermal

The advantages of the direct attack are balance, diminishing visibility. When
the following: you find a good free-burning fire and
then hit the base of the flame with a
· > It provides greater reach. When straight or solid stream (direct attack),
the heat produced from fires keeps “the lights go out.” This is due to the
firefighters at a distance, then reach disruption of the thermal balance
is a good thing. (what was once the hottest part of the
room becoming cooler than the upper
· > It does not produce a lot of steam. In levels of the room).
an enclosed area, that is an important
factor for the comfort of firefighters Fog attack. Fog streams certainly have
and any yet-to-be located victims. their purpose, but they should not be used
or used only sparingly in interior structural
· > It probably won’t drive out crews who firefighting. I have worked with older
are working in other areas due to officers who would actually become violent
steam production. if they saw you use fog streams inside a
structure. That always seemed to me to be
· > It gives excellent penetration for a bit overdramatic. I can only think of two
deep-seated fires. instances in which I would advocate the use
· >| 99 |< ·

of fog inside a structure. The first is when the · > A fog stream can hold or even change
fire must be held to a specific area (fig. 10–2). the direction of fire.
Fog streams have the ability to hold back heat
and fire. As such, fog streams generally can The disadvantages of a fog attack are
hold a lot of fire in a hallway or other area the following:
while crews retreat. This action should only
be used in an emergency. It will generate a · > Maximum absorption of heat yields
lot of steam and pushes heat, smoke, and fire maximum production of steam. The
back down a hallway and possibly into other human body cannot tolerate moist
areas of the structure. The second reason I heat nearly as well as dry heat. If
would advocate the use of fog while inside you have ever been steamed out of
the structure would be for quick ventilation the building by someone using a fog
purposes. Given an adequate opening, a fog stream from the outside, you know
stream can move over 20,000 cubic feet of air exactly what I mean and how quickly
per minute. That is more than most positive the atmosphere can change when a
pressure ventilation (PPV) fans. fog stream is injected into a heated
atmosphere. Even Nomex hoods afford
little protection against the generation
of steam. If savable victims are inside
a structure, imagine what a fog
stream could be pushing onto them.
· > Of the three methods of offensive

attack, fog streams disrupt thermal
balance the most. If a fog stream is
injected into a room where there is
a free-burning fire and only slight
smoke with good visibility, the
Fig. 10–2. The fog attack visibility will be quickly diminished.
If you must see what you are doing,
or looking for (as in search), you
The advantages of a fog attack are probably do not want to use a fog
the following: stream to darken a fire.
· > This method provides maximum · > There is little reach or penetration
heat absorption. There is a direct with a fog stream. The majority of
correlation between the amount of the stream evaporates or is pushed
heat absorbed and the size of the away from the seat of the fire by
water droplets. (The maximum size of convection currents.
the water droplets is approximately
350 microns.) Most firefighters Indirect attack. With the indirect attack, a
don’t carry water droplet measuring straight or solid stream is aimed at the ceiling,
devices, so let’s just say the smaller then deflected off the ceiling and allowed to rain
the drop, the better when it comes to down on the fire (fig. 10–3). While approaching
heat absorption. the fire area, you’ve aimed the stream toward
· >| 100 |< ·

the ceiling at an angle that permits deflected · > Of the three methods, the indirect
water to hit the burning surface. I’ve used attack maintains the best visibility
this method hundreds of times at the training and disrupts the thermal balance
tower in the burn building and on actual fires the least.
as a line firefighter and officer. I believe it to
be the best method of interior attack for most The disadvantages of an indirect attack
fires. Although there is a natural tendency to are the following:
narrowly sweep the stream across the ceiling
to ensure that the proper angle has been · > More burning material needs to be
chosen, some fire instructors teach a rapid overhauled than in a direct attack
side-to-side movement across the ceiling that because of lack of water penetration
provides better extinguishment when using into the burning material.
the indirect attack.
Table 10–1. Offensive Attack Methods

Attack Advantages Disadvantages Comments
Type
Direct Reach, Disrupts thermal Best for
Attack penetration, balance, more incipient
low steam water required fires and
production. (more water those in
Won’t fan or damage). flashover.
push fire.
Fog Can hold fire Produces great Use only
Attack and heat to amounts of in an
specific area. steam. Can kill emergency.
Can be used civilians and Will push
Fig. 10–3. The indirect attack: A straight stream is bounced for ventilation. injure firefighters. fire to other
off the ceiling. Best heat Disrupts thermal areas of the
absorption. balance. Little building.
reach.
Indirect Good Little penetration. Best for
The advantages of an indirect attack are Attack reach. Little Overhaul greater. freeburning
the following: disruption fires, such
of thermal as furniture
balance. that is well
· > The straight stream produces the Better heat involved.
least amount of steam production of absorption.
the three methods of interior attack.
The droplets deflected off the ceiling
are big enough and, therefore, do not
overproduce steam and vaporize (turn
to steam) before they reach the seat Defensive strategy
of the fire.
The defensive strategy is an exterior attack
· > The reach of the straight stream on the fire used when command believes no
makes it possible for firefighters savable victims are in the building and the
to stay back from the heat of a amount of fire involvement or stability of
free-burning fire.
· >| 101 |< ·

the structure makes it imprudent to send Tactics of the defensive strategy

firefighters inside. Defensive attacks are used
in the following situations: There are three defensive strategies. The
choice of tactics used in a defensive strategy
· > The fire has reached flashover, and at depends on the following factors:
least one floor is totally involved. · > The amount of fire in the structure
· > The stage of burning
· > The structure is vacant and · > The stability of the structure
well-involved in fire, heavy smoke
conditions exist, or there have been The three tactics are as follows:
previous fires in the structure. · > Direct attack
· > Indirect attack
Defensive attacks are holding attacks. · > Combination attack
As mentioned earlier, ICs must, as part of
their initial size-up, ask themselves, “Where Direct attack. The direct attack in a
do I want to stop the fire?” It may be on a defensive strategy is much like the direct
specific floor, in a specific structure, or on attack in an offensive strategy. The nozzle
the block on which the structure is located. is set on a straight stream and directed
onto the burning material (fig. 10–4). This
Fig. 10–4. A direct attack used at a car fire
· >| 102 |< ·

method is used when the fire is in flashover If command calls for a defensive
or the free-burning stage (visible fire), and strategy on a fire, no crews should enter
firefighters can’t get close to the structure the structure for any reason without first
because of the structure’s stability or a notifying command (or operations) and then
great deal of radiant heat is being generated having command (or operations) approve and
(fig. 10–5). This was evident at the Station confirm their actions. When the IC believes
Nightclub Fire in Warwick, Rhode Island. The that all savable people, including firefighters,
initial firefighter on the first line stated that are out of the structure, he or she will then
was as close as he could get to the building make certain strategic moves based on
because of the radiant heat being generated. that fact. At that point, the IC will not get
This is the type of attack most people overly concerned if a portion of the structure
think about when they think of large fires: collapses or breaks out in fire, because no
firefighters standing outside and dumping one should have been in there. But, imagine
water into the building with aerials, platforms, you are operating on Division C, and you let
monitors, and 21⁄2-inch handlines. After the your crew convince you (or you may even
fire has been darkened down, command (and convince yourself) that “you can get a great
operations) determines whether an interior shot at the fire if you operate just a few feet
overhaul will be made or the structure will inside the door.” You’re putting yourself and
have to be demolished. your crew at great risk. Command may not
Fig. 10–5. An attack crew on an exterior defensive attack line
· >| 103 |< ·

even blink at a collapse or if a new area of this two-story storefront to open it up. At this
fire involvement breaks out if it is believed time, no fire was showing, just slight smoke
that no one is in that area. from the eaves. No one was kicking in doors or
In the direct attack, straight streams are breaking windows, as we usually did.
directed toward the fire from open windows, We put a 35-footer up to Side C and were
aerials through the vented (either man-made going up to punch a hole in the roof. I was the
or natural) roof, collapsed areas, and so on. It first man up. Tim Boaden was about eight
is important that firefighters maintain a safe feet up the ladder, and Mike Palechety was
distance and that the safety officer marks butting the ladder. Just as I stepped off the
off collapse zones (using either physical or ladder onto the roof, someone (I never found
imaginary boundaries). out who) opened up a big picture window. The
Indirect attack. The defensive indirect explosion threw me up about a foot in the air. It
attack has only one application. It is blew Tim off the ladder and an engine driver,
used when command believes that there Don Dunbar, under his engine. He landed up
is a potential for backdraft (a fire in the against the curb. He never returned to work
high-temperature, smoldering phase). after that day. Tim and I were not hurt.
Conditions indicative of a backdraft are the
pushing and pulling of smoke from inside a I have my opinion as to why most
structure, the absence of visible flame, the firefighters don’t see many backdrafts in
presence of an oily residue (condensation) their careers. If you’re like most of us, your
built up on windows, and doors that are firefighting duty mainly revolves around
too hot to touch. These conditions occur fighting fires in single-family residential
when the fire has been burning for some structures. Up until a few years ago,
time and has consumed the oxygen in these houses had exclusively single-pane
the area (or structure) below 16%, while glass windows. A more recent trend is
retaining the heat and a fuel load. If air energy-efficient windows consisting of more
(oxygen) is introduced into the area, the than one pane of glass, some having inert
fire will now have the third necessary item gases injected between the panes to assist in
for combustion. With the high heat and insulation qualities. But normal plate glass
vaporized fuel, the improper injection of fails at about 500°F. That’s not a very hot
oxygen into the atmosphere could lead to a fire. In the last 20 or 30 years, plastics have
violent explosion (backdraft). a become commonplace in the home. This
Although I’ve been to many fires in fact leads to hotter, more rapidly burning
my career, I have only been involved one fires and to a greater occurrence of flashover
significant backdraft. in rooms that become involved in fire. Either
prior to or shortly after our arrival, the
Scenario windows fail due to temperatures in excess
It was a cold night. I was the officer of of 500°F, allowing for an influx of fresh air
#7 Ladder. When we arrived at the scene, it into the room. This removes the conditions
seemed as though everyone was walking required for backdraft.
around in slow motion (this was before the On arrival to a structure where backdraft
incident management system). In my mind, I conditions do exist, two things must be done
knew that the chief felt the building had the to decrease the potential for a backdraft.
potential for a backdraft. Even though no orders First, a vent hole must be made in the top
were given, I had my crew ladder the roof of of the structure (hot gases rise) to safely
· >| 104 |< ·

remove the products of combustion from · > Take a break. Allow the heat to leave
the building without allowing air to enter the building.
the hot, fuel-laden atmosphere (heat and
smoke always go from areas of high pressure · > After the vent hole has been opened
to areas of low pressure). Second, and only and the crew has left the roof, a
after the vent hole is established and you small hole can be opened in a lower
have allowed for the heat to flow up and portion of a door panel, and a 60° fog
out the vent hole, the inside atmosphere stream should be injected through
must be cooled by injecting steam (or fog) the opening.
into the lower portion of the structure. The
heat and draft for the ventilation hole will · > Wait. There is little need to hurry
force the hot gases and steam outside of the here. There is no life-safety concern.
structure. (Remember that gases always flow Backdraft conditions can only exist
from high-pressure areas—like a hot fire—to in the absence of oxygen. Ironically,
low-pressure areas.) Additionally, the water flame production ceases with a 16%
injected into the super hot atmosphere will or less oxygen content, and human
condense into steam, which will expand beings cannot live in a 16% or less
approximately 1,700 times. This influx of oxygen content atmosphere. So if
steam with its expansion will force the steam anyone is in there, they are dead.
into hidden areas of the structure.
To be effective, an indirect fire attack · > After a 10- to 15-minute wait, the
must follow this sequence: ventilation team should return to
the roof and check the heat coming
· > Identify the conditions that indicate a out of the ventilation hole. If only
potential backdraft. a little heat is detectable coming
from the hole, it is safe to enter
· > Stop all efforts to enter the structure. the structure.
· > Create a ventilation hole in the roof or · > To enter the structure, open
the highest portion of the structure. the front door from the side and
Typically, this will be at the ridge wait a few minutes before going
board or at the highest portion of a inside. If nothing happens, (i.e., no
flat roof. In most regions, even flat explosion), then you can enter the
roofs have a grade or slope that allows structure with care. Be careful of
for the shedding of water. It is at the fire-weakened structural members,
highest portion of the flat roof where including floor joists. Send in an
the vent hole should be made. Ideally, attack crew of only three or four
after the hole is made, you will get a individuals to check for hot spots.
torch effect of heated gases igniting as Carefully open every door you
they reach the oxygen-sufficient air encounter after feeling each one for
outside the vent hole. This is a good heat. Do not open any door that is
thing and is normal, and no effort overly hot to the touch. If a hot door
should be made to extinguish this is encountered, punch a small hole
flame. It shouldn’t be hurting anyone in the lower portion of the panel and
or anything. inject a 60° fog stream through the
· >| 105 |< ·

whole as described earlier. Make to rotate the nozzle in a clockwise motion.

sure a firefighter holds the door Your intent with the swirling motion is to
knob if the door swings away from cool all portions of the atmosphere as evenly
you while the hole is punched in as possible, sweeping the ceiling, the side
the lower portion of the door. After walls, and floor with a rapid rotating motion.
waiting 5 to 10 minutes for the This will also create turbulence and have a
steam to cool the atmosphere, entry dramatic cooling effect on the fire. If done
can be made into the room in the correctly, this method will provide a quick
same manner as described above. knockdown with suitable protection for
the nozzle operator.
· > Command should be made aware of Note: The hose stream will put out all the
the attack crew’s specific location as fire it can reach in about 30 seconds. With
it moves through the building. any method, if the fire is not darkened down
in about 30 seconds, you don’t have enough
· > Once the entire building has been water. The fire is putting out more BTUs than
checked and opened, extensive your stream can absorb. Get a larger or an
overhaul probably will be in order. additional line.
Expect to find a lot of hotspots One last word of caution: never attempt
in a lot of areas. the defensive attack, if
Combination attack. This approach · > Conceivable victims may be inside

is used when an area of the structure has the structure.
reached the flashover stage and the structure
is approachable. This is the type of incident · > Crews are inside the structure.
at which you pull up to a vacant house on
fire that has an area accessible by a window Command must always know the location
or a door. That area is in flashover, and you of on-scene crews. If command determines
decide that it would be best to knock down that a defensive attack is warranted, IC must
the fire from the outside. Then let it sit for a ensure that all companies are outside prior to
few minutes until you can safely make entry the opening of any exterior hose strains. The
for overhaul and to check for extensions. head count and check-in system must be part
I have used this method many times as a of every fire department’s standard operating
line officer, and it works. This method can procedures (SOPs). Personal accountability
also be used on an occupied structure that reports (PARs) meet this criteria.
is at flashover stage on the first floor. It
may provide a quick exterior knockdown,
prior to beginning an offensive interior
attack. Remember, however, that using this
method in an occupied house will push
heat, smoke, and fire to uninvolved portions
of the structure.
With the combination attack, you
approach an open window or door with
the nozzle set between 30° and 60°. Move
your hands back from the nozzle to begin
· >| 106 |< ·

Table 10–2. Defensive attack methods I don’t usually announce that we are initially
Attack Type Advantages Disadvantages Comments going offensive; however, I always try to make
Direct Attack Reach and Not great Used for sure that all responding units understand
penetration. heat reach at when I want an initial defensive attack. I
absorption. buildings that
are in danger usually announce that fact throughout the
of collapsing. first several minutes of the incident.
Indirect Used Not too Could be In the offensive mode, I normally have a
Attack for high- many other used at picture of the location where I want the lines
temperature, practical shipboard to be taken in. If I am on the scene prior to
smoldering applications. fires if
fires. conditions the attack company and have the time to do
are right. so, I will tell the attack officer my preferred
Combination Allows for No You must location for taking in the lines and where
knock-down penetration. get in after I think the fire is. This leaves little room for
of fire in Extensive knockdown to the officer to make mistakes. It’s hard to
flashover. overhaul overhaul, or
Great heat needed. rekindle will criticize someone for not doing something
absorption. occur. Can we were only thinking about what they were
push fire to supposed to be doing. If you have the time to
other areas. tell them, then tell them. If we have taught
our officers and provided feedback to them
after previous fires (as in the form of tailboard
critiques), then they have an idea of what
The Relationship Between we want them to do. Communication is the
major key here. If they have a question while
Attack and Command inside, they should ask. If conditions change
inside, they should tell command.
As stated earlier (again, I hope it’s becoming a Unless command dictates differently, it’s
familiar theme), command’s responsibility is up to the attack officer to determine (1) how
to focus on the whole, not micromanage the and where to get into the building, (2) where
attack. If, as command, you are focused on the the attack line will be taken, and (3) the
attack, then you may be missing other aspects method of attack to be used.
of the incident. The attack officer should be If you are assigned to be the attack officer,
focusing on the attack. That officer’s task is to then as you approach the structure with
seek out and extinguish fire. That’s it! your crew, look at the building for visible fire
One question often asked is, “If command and observe the volume, force, and color of
has a specific method of attack or area from the smoke. Choose an entrance you believe
which he or she believes the attack should will give you the best chance of cutting off
be mounted, should he or she tell the attack the spread of fire. Listen to the radio and the
officer?” Absolutely! assignment command makes. The orders the
When I begin to make assignments, IC gives may provide information about how
my first consideration is, “Can we mount he or she perceives conditions. For example,
an offensive attack, or do we have to go to
a defensive operation first?” Most fires are · > If command orders a specific exposure
offensive fires. The defensive attack is rarely to be protected, it indicates the
mounted initially. Most times, companies are direction in which the fire is heading
picturing an offensive attack while responding. or venting itself from.
· >| 107 |< ·

· > If command orders ventilation on the One final note on the relationship between
roof, he or she believes the fire has command and attack. For lack of a better
gotten into the structure itself. It has term, I like to think of attack as the person
started to enter or is already in the in charge inside. He, above all other officers
attic or cockloft. (except maybe the backup officer), should
get the best idea of what is going on inside
· > If command orders PPV, he or and what else may be needed. If too many
she probably believes the fire is members are on the stairway or standing
small and has not yet entered into around, someone needs the authority to
hidden spaces. get them out of the way—or even out of the
building. If a line is pulled that does not need
· > If command orders additional attack to be charged or the fire has been knocked
lines to assist you, there’s probably down prior to the assignment or placement
more fire than was originally of a backup group, then attack makes that
thought. The IC should confirm call and informs command (who will still
attack’s location and inform attack have the last word). Basically, if things are
that the IC has assigned another going well inside, and a tactical decision
crew to operate with the original needs to be made, command wants someone
attack crew. to take control who will make the necessary
adjustments and then inform report back.
· > If command orders attack out, he Because of his or her position in the majority
or she knows something attack of fires, that someone should probably be
doesn’t. Attack should leave the the attack officer.
building, conduct a PAR, and report
to command when outside.
Scenario Basic Attack Rules of Thumb

Let’s say that Command assigns toy
(Engine 5) to be Attack and that your crew There is almost always more than one
starts inside. You kick in a door, advance a few right way to fight a fire. The final section of
feet, and determine that you can’t handle all this chapter deals with specific rules that
the fire in the building effectively. Suggest to have been passed down to me by a variety of
Command that there might need to be another sources. From my father, to past and present
attack company on Division 2. supervisors, to texts and articles I have read.
Attack to Command: We’ve got a lot of I am paraphrasing these concepts. If the
fire on Division 1. You might want individuals who shared these nuggets with
to get another company started on me are reading this, I want to say thank you
Division 2. for giving me the specific rules and nuggets.
Command: Okay! Engine 5, you’ll now I’ve applied them inside a structure, or
be Division 1 Attack. Engine 6, you’re crawling on my hands and knees with fire
Division 2 Attack! over my head, and from the outside while
Engine 5: Okay on Division 1. awaiting feedback from interior crews.
Engine 6: Okay on Division 2 Attack.
· >| 108 |< ·

If fire wants out, let it out Number 1 is a no-brainer, let it go. It’s
not hurting anyone. For number 2, cool
Avoid the temptation to push fire back the siding with a stream by hitting above
inside a structure. Heat flows from hot to the window or door and letting the water
cold. Gases flow from areas of high pressure flow down the side of the siding until the
(nearer the heat) to areas of lower pressure interior crews push the rest of the fire out.
(away from the heat). Fire will be drawn (Never direct the stream inside a window or
toward openings. If overly aggressive nozzle door when interior crews are advancing on
operators hit a self-venting fire, they might a fire.) The siding can be overhauled later,
push fire, heat, and smoke back toward its if necessary. In the case of number 3, begin
point of origin. This problem can manifest cooling exposed surfaces with a constant
itself in several ways, three of which stream of water until the production of
are listed here: heat is diminished and the amount of
radiant heat produced is not significant.
1._ Pushing fire back down through vent But again, never direct this stream inside
holes. A good rule to follow is to never a window or door when interior crews are
give a truck a handline. Time and time advancing on fire.
again, on television and in videos, I have
seen ventilation companies doing this.
When this is done, almost invariably the
nozzle crew that was inside attempting to
push the fire out gets very mad.
2._ Hitting the fire by venting from eaves and

exterior soffits. You’ll be knocking down
exterior fire, but you also maybe pushing
fire by fanning the flames with the
turbulence of your hose back inside the
structure, causing it to spread vertically
and laterally from the original point of
venting. If you observe fire venting in
this fashion, send an overhaul company
to that area and have them push the
fire out from the inside. That way, you’ll
have a much better way of controlling
spread and ensuring that you’re getting
all the fire.
3._ Fire venting from a window or door—the

“moth-to-flame” syndrome. Where are the
heat and flames going when they go out a Fig. 10–6. A crew stretching a line with the intent of cutting off
window or door? Outside where they will the spread of fire
dissipate, or up to scorch exterior siding
or spread radiant heat on an exposure?
· >| 109 |< ·

Attack from the uninvolved area Generally, a hose stream

toward the area of involvement will put out all the fire it can
Another way to say this is if the fire is reach in 30 to 60 seconds
in front, attack from the rear, and if the fire
is in the rear, attack the front (fig. 10–6). If you are at the top of the stairway and
This helps two ways. First, it diminishes have a line directing water into a well-involved
the spread of fire throughout the building second floor, and you don’t darken down
(this is the confine in confine, control, and the fire within 30 to 60 seconds— then get
extinguish). A hose stream, even a straight more water. I have observed companies
stream, can push a lot of fire around. It work a hoseline for many minutes at a time
pushes heat and smoke away from the and not be able to advance or darken down
advancing nozzle. The second way it helps the fire. The objective of every hose stream
is if fire is between you and savable victims, should be to advance. There are only three
you could be pushing heat, flame and smoke reasons why a hoseline can’t be advanced:
toward them. This will eventually diminish (1) There’s no more line to advance. You can
their survivability. For example, say the fire only pull a 150-foot bank of hose 150 feet.
is in the living room. The occupants started That doesn’t account for turns, corners,
to exit to the kitchen and passed out from and kinks. (2) You physically don’t have the
the smoke or lack of oxygen. A line taken resources to advance the hose. A two-person
into the front door has the possibility of crew may experience difficulty stretching a
pushing heat, flame, and smoke onto or 13⁄4-inch line upstairs and getting around
assuredly over the victim. If, however, the corners by themselves. (3) You can’t advance
line had been taken in the rear of the house due to the heat. As it relates to number 3,
into the kitchen, we probably would have you need water power to push back the fire
stumbled onto the victim and avoided the power. If the fire is eating up everything
possibility of steaming the victim to death. you’re throwing at it and still pushing down
If the fire is on the second floor or higher on you, then you don’t have enough water.
of the two-story house, I have found that
the quickest way to the structure works the
best—usually that would be the front door. Notify command prior to changing
In most homes, stairs to the second floor are
your floor of operation
off of or connected to the living room.
One of the cardinal rules of firefighting
is to keep command informed. Command
expects to see certain things after making
assignments. (There are also certain things
the IC does not expect to see after making
assignments.) As discussed earlier in this
book, command is responsible for knowing
the location and function of every crew of the
fireground. Company officers are responsible
for making sure command knows their
specific location and function. Always tell
command where you are.
· >| 110 |< ·

For multiple fires on the If you encounter opposing

same floor, bigger is first lines—bigger is better
When you encounter multiple fires on the If you pull a 13⁄4-inch line through the
same floor, you must first decide the location front door and another crew pulls a 21⁄2-inch
from which the line will be taken in. Work line in the rear, you lose!
toward the biggest area of involvement first.
Command should have already assigned
crews as backup to watch your back. Big fire, big water
I realize this is an old cliché but it bears
When you encounter fires on mentioning. Just as “Don’t go to a gun fight
with a knife” is sometimes appropriate, so is
multiple floors, start at the lowest
“big fire—big water. We all too often hear of
level possible without being cut initial operations at fires where the gallons per
off from your means of egress minute provided were too inadequate for the
amount of fire. Remember the NFA’s fire flow
With a fire on the first and second floor formula and then flow a little extra for luck.
of the two-story home, hopefully it is obvious
that you would attack the first-floor fire prior
to going up to work the fire on the second floor. Switch plans, if necessary
The one area of concern here is a fire where
the basement and floor above are involved. I If you’ve tried something, and conditions
don’t recommend taking a hoseline down to don’t seem to be improving, try something
fight a basement fire unless a backup line else. Go to Plan B. We used to have a chief
is in the stairway to the basement to ensure that would pull crews from inside a building
that a way out is always available. Remember, if something didn’t look or feel right, or if he
fire moves toward oxygen, and heat and didn’t think they were getting it. Outside,
gases flow from areas of high pressure to they would discuss it and go back in and try
areas of low pressure—in this case, to the something else. Try that for a second, and if
side or basement door. If the attack crew that doesn’t work, go to Plan C.
takes a line downstairs, fire (especially on
the upper floor) will move toward the open
basement door. If there is no backup line at
the top of the basement stairs, then fire may
cut off the only means of egress for the crew
in the basement.
· >| 111 |< ·

Questions Scenario Based Decision Making

1) The mission of attack is to ______________
________________________________________
suppression efforts in the area assigned.
2) What are the two basic attack strategies?

________________________________________
________________________________________
3) What are the three offensive fire attacks?

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
Fig. 10–7. Scenario
4) Of the three offensive fire attacks, which
one should be used to hold fire coming
down a hall? ___________________________ In the scenario above (fig. 10–7), you are
the first officer to arrive at this reported fire.
5) Aerials throwing water on ruins is an The complement of apparatus and manpower
example of what defensive attack? is what you normally receive on a report of a
________________________________________ fire in a residential occupancy. You are riding
the engine. Concern yourself with fire attack.
6) When is the defensive indirect attack used? The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a
________________________________________ Sunday morning. The weather is not a factor.
________________________________________ With that, you have all the information given
to you on dispatch.
7) Under most conditions, it is OK for the
officers to have their hands on the nozzle. 1) What are your initial concerns upon
True or False arrival? _______________________________
________________________________________
8) A fire stream will put out all the fire it ________________________________________
can reach in _______ to ______ seconds. ________________________________________
9) If fire wants out, ______________________. 2) What is your initial On-Scene report? ___
________________________________________
10) The initial line into a building should be ________________________________________
pulled with the intent of getting a hoseline ________________________________________
between the ____________________ and ________________________________________
_______________________________________.
· >| 112 |< ·

3) What is your objective at this moment? 1) What are your initial concerns upon
____________________________________ arrival? _______________________________
(Notice the line is short—your objectives should be short as well.) ________________________________________
________________________________________
4) What size line will you have pulled for
attack? ________________________________ 2) What is your initial on-scene report? ___
________________________________________
5) Where would you expect the line to be ________________________________________
taken inside? __________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________
3) What is your objective at this moment?
____________________________________
4) What size line will you have pulled for

attack? ________________________________
5) Where would expect the line to be taken

inside? ________________________________
________________________________________
In the scenario above (fig. 10–8), you are

the first officer to arrive at this reported fire.
is what you normally receive on a report of a
fire in a residential occupancy. You are riding
the engine. Concern yourself with fire attack.
The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a
Sunday morning. The weather is not a factor.
to you on dispatch.
· >| 113 |< ·

11
The Mission of Search
T
he mission of search is to coordinate search efforts in the area assigned.
In the above mission statement, coordinate is italicized. (If you’ve been paying
attention, you know the reason.) The search officer is the last person I believe should
be sweeping under beds, in closets, and bathtubs. It all goes back to focus. The incident
commander (IC) is responsible for focusing on the entire incident. The search officer is
responsible for coordinating the search. As you will soon find out, that means where we start
our search, where we are currently searching, where we search next, and how my search is
affecting and being affected by other suppression efforts. I don’t believe an officer, any officer,
can do that (and do that well) and still sweep under beds and corners and in bathtubs.
The Responsibilities of the Search Officer

The search officer has three responsibilities:
· > Keeping the search crew safe
· > Coordinating a primary search of the assigned area
· > Keeping command informed
The officer assigned to search cannot meet all three responsibilities if that officer is on
hands and knees, sweeping across beds. If the search officer is tunneled in on the search of a
specific room, then it’s hard to do anything other than search that room. The search officer (or
simply search), should be in the area being searched (let’s say an upstairs hallway), making
· >| 115 |< ·

sure that all the rooms are being searched

(and maybe re-searched) while ensuring that
conditions in the area are tolerable and safe
for the search crew. Additionally, the search
officer may need to communicate with other
sector officers or command concerning
ventilation and extension of fire. That’s hard
to do if you are involved in the search.
Personnel issues surface here again. Not
all departments run with four-person units
(although some run with even more than that).
How many firefighters does it take to conduct Fig. 11–1. A search crew exiting a house after giving an
a thorough search in our bread-and-butter “all clear” and a personal accountability report (PAR)
fires (single-family residential structures)?
That depends on the following: As already stated, it’s very hard if not
impossible for an officer to manage the above
· > The levels of training of the searchers three responsibilities while conducting a
search at the same time. If this becomes a
· > The structure type and number matter of staffing to you, don’t let it. I have
of rooms being searched proved to myself and others, by observing
hundreds of searches, that even one officer
· > The amount of “stuff” in the area and a single firefighter doing a proper search
being searched can do it faster and better than a firefighter and
an officer both searching at the same time.
· > The amount of fire in the structure I believe that of all the fireground evolutions
at the time of the search that we as a service do, we do poorest job on
searches. We miss rooms, we miss corners,
· > The length of time the fire had we don’t hit the center rooms, we spend far
been burning before the search too much time searching in areas where only
company arrived dead people could be while neglecting areas
where savable people could be. In fact, we
The sector officer assigned to be search spend too much time searching, and the
may have to assist in the actual search efforts continuity of search is not maintained.
under some circumstances, such as that one
fire in a thousand at which someone outside
is telling us exactly where to find a victim who Continuity of search
is still in the structure and there is no time to
muster an adequate search crew. This is the Continuity of search is the process
fire where you have one chance to get in, get whereby an officer ensures that the search
the victim, and get out (fig. 11–1). With the has been started, maintained, and finished in
oriented method of search, introduced later in a logical, uninterrupted manner. Continuity
this chapter, a two-person crew (including the of search is best maintained when the same
sector officer) can conduct an adequate search officer is put in charge of and finishes a
in the same time it would take two or three search operation in a specific structure or
searchers using standard search techniques. area. Continuity of search entails picking a
· >| 116 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Search |< ·
logical starting point, having a logical plan The keyword in the definition is savable.
to cover all the areas where savable victims The goal of any primary search should be to
could be located, and ensuring that all of locate and remove savable victims. If, during a
those areas are searched in a reasonable primary search, deceased victims are located,
amount of time—even if victims are located. then the search officer should be notified, and
the searchers should move on. It may seem
cold and heartless, but your objective here
Search strategies is to locate savable victims. Any time wasted
from accomplishing this task diminishes the
There are two search strategies. My survivability of any yet-to-be-located victim.
definitions for these two strategies conflict
with many textbooks. I often hear firefighters
describe what they did during a specific search Secondary searches
evolution. They say that they conducted a
primary search, let’s say on the second floor, Secondary searches are slow, methodical
and then switched positions and/or rooms searches directed at locating deceased victims.
and conducted a secondary search in the Under most circumstances, secondary
same area. I only have one question, “Why searches should be conducted with lights
didn’t you do it right the first time and then and under non-IDLH conditions. Under most
move on?” Do you actually want me to go to conditions, time is not a factor when conducting
the second floor of your home at 11 p.m. and secondary searches, and they should be done
do a primary search of all the bedrooms and in the safest manner possible.
search them a second time with different
personnel in the same rooms? Then finally
search the downstairs only to find your son
or daughter lying unconscious on the family Common Search
room sofa. That 2 or 3 minutes it took me to
conduct a secondary search on the second Techniques Used Today
floor may have meant the difference between
life and death for your child. I said it before I know of only three types of search that
and I’ll say it again, “Do it right the first time are used by most departments in the United
and then move on.” States. I have taught a lot of departments
over the last 10 years since I wrote the
first edition of this book. I have taught at
Primary searches Fire Department Instructors Conferences
(FDICs) in Indianapolis, Sacramento, and
Primary searches are defined as systematic Atlantic City. Anytime I teach and searches
searches to assure that all savable victims have are brought up, I ask the participants if
been located and removed from the atmosphere anybody can come up with any other type
that is IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and of search than the three that I discuss. No
health). Every search should be conducted one has ever said, “Oh yeah, we search using
as rapidly as possible while still maintaining the ____________ method. So, as far as I
continuity of search. The search officer should know, these three represent the majority of
never (and I rarely use the word never) conduct searches being conducted today.
a search without having a plan. This will be
discussed at great length later.
· >| 117 |< ·

Standard search on their hands and knees sweeping

around corners and under beds, little
The standard method of search is the focus is given to surrounding fire
method I was taught when I came on the and heat conditions.
job. It consists of two or three firefighters
all searching in the same area at the same · > Continuity of search may
time. Everyone in the team is searching. not be preserved.
There are different variations to this method.
I have seen one searcher go to the left and
the other searcher go to the right and they
meet somewhere in the middle of the room. Team search
Then they exit and move to the next area to
be searched. I have seen other variations Team search is a method of search where
of the standard method of search where a crew enters the area to be searched, using
one searcher follows the wall and another a rope. This rope is normally anchored to an
searcher holds on to his boot little further object outside the structure or a non-IDLH
out toward the center the room. Another area inside the building such as a stairwell
searcher holds on to the middle searcher’s hand railing. The crew plays out the rope
boot and they work their way around the as they progress into the fire area. Some
room to be searched. departments teach searchers to subsequently
Advantages of the standard method anchor the rope in other forward areas as
of search. All in all, the standard method of they advance. Crew members then use this
search is a very sound method of search. It rope as a way to find their way outside.
has the following advantages: My first concern is that team search is
generally used for large area searches. We
· > It conforms with two-in and two-out. need to rethink the practicality of these large
area searches. (I will get into the reason for
· > All members are searching together this later in the chapter.) My next concern is
in the same area at the same time. the fact that we are placing our sole reliance
Hence, if a member gets in trouble, he on how to get out of the building on a 5/8
or she is not far away from help. inch piece of rope. If something happens to
the rope (it gets cut, burned, disconnected
from the anchor, etc.), your only way of
Disadvantages of the standard method knowing how to exit may be gone.
of search.
Advantages of team search.
· > Only one area is searched at a time.
· > All members stay together and search
· > With all members searching at the together. Hence, it complies with
same time, no one’s focus is on the two-in and two-out.
safety of the crew. Trust me, I’ve
conducted hundreds of searchers in · > With orientation on the rope,
my career. When I was searching, my all members can participate
primary thought was, “What do I do if in the search.
I find somebody?” With all members
· >| 118 |< ·

Disadvantages of team search. victims. The second is self-preservation. The

oriented method basically divides these two
· > Sole reliance to orientation to the way concerns. One firefighter’s main concern or
out is on the rope. focus is knowing how to get out at all times
and ensuring the survival of the crew and
· > Crews searching seem to spend him- or herself. The other firefighter’s only
more time adjusting the rope concern is to focus on the search.
than searching. The oriented method is not a panacea or
the cure-all of search and rescues. Sometimes
· > Safety of crew may be lost due to it is impracticable, such as in buildings that
problems with the search rope. have large, open areas such as warehouses,
factories, restaurants, or banquet halls.
· > Continuity of search may not However, for residential single-family and
be preserved. multifamily structures (our most frequent
structure fire type), the oriented method
works extremely well. It also mirrors the
The oriented method of search incident management system (IMS): It
prohibits the officer from participating in the
Many different tactics are used for primary actual search and emphasizes focus.
searches. In 1984, I was introduced to the During tests in controlled situations
oriented method of search and rescue through (blacked-out mask with no smoke or fire),
an article given to me while I was preparing the following was found:
lesson plans for a recruit class. I taught the
oriented method to all 63 recruits in that · > The searches were conducted faster.
class. The deputy chief of training observed
me as I was teaching this method one day · > Search teams got lost less frequently,
and was so impressed by it that he asked me if at all.
to remain in training after the recruit class
graduated to introduce the oriented method · > The firefighter doing the search did a
to the entire department. much more thorough job.
The one-person oriented method of
search is an alternative to the standard · > The firefighter doing the search was
two-person search. In the standard method much more at ease and confident.
of search, a search crew enters the structure
together and goes to the area to be searched. · > The same number of victims was
One or two firefighters go to the left, and the found as in the standard model.
other firefighter(s) go to the right; they meet
somewhere in the middle of the room. In other Controlled situations were used at
methods of search, a single crew member first so that the searcher and the oriented
searches an individual room, and the crew person could be observed. Later, tests were
meets somewhere in the hallway to move on done in actual fires. The results remained
to another area or to exit the structure. the same. The idea behind the oriented
Firefighters conducting a search operation method of search and rescue is focus. The
inside a burning structure have two main oriented person (usually the search group
concerns. The first is to deal with any possible officer) remains in a central area (usually
· >| 119 |< ·

the hallway) and focuses on the environment

and the crew’s safety, allowing searchers to
focus on the search.
The most common argument against this
method is that personnel who could be used
for searching or other firefighting duties are
wasted by keeping a firefighter in a hall or
near a door, and that just as many victims
were found in a shorter time with other
methods. The response that the searchers
felt much more secure and confident knowing
someone was watching out for them should Fig. 11–2. A search crew entering the second floor via the porch
dispel this argument. roof to conduct a search.
Three things are necessary for a
successful search and rescues using the
oriented method: out at all times. Once the search begins, the
oriented person remains at the door or in the
· > There must be communication between hall, and the searchers go in and conduct
the oriented person (the search officer) the actual search. While the searcher is
and the searchers. The interaction not conducting the search, the oriented person
only lets the oriented person know can (and should) do the following:
where the searcher is at all times but
also helps put the searcher at ease. · > Remain aware of the searcher(s)
through communication.
· > The direction of search must be
determined (left- or right-handed). · > Determine where the searchers will
When doing a left-handed search, the search next.
searchers use the wall on their left as
a way of knowing where they are in · > Keep thinking, “How do we get out?”
relation to the exit in that particular
room. More will be said about this later. · > Stay alert to changing fire conditions
(buildup of heat or smoke, signs of
· > The number of walls in the room must impending structural collapse, etc.).
be determined. Basically, most rooms in
a residential structure have four or five · > Listen for fire and human noises.
walls. More will be said about this later.
· > Coordinate with any other sectors on
When conducting a search using the the same floor and with command.
oriented method, the two or three members
enter as a team and remain in voice contact When searching, remember that you
throughout the time the team is inside are looking for something about the size of
(fig. 11–2). The oriented person must at least a 1-year-old baby or a large doll.
concentrate on how he or she gets in and Children younger than this usually are not
where he or she is in relation to his exit. It is mobile and won’t be found on the floor. Don’t
this person’s responsibility to know the way stop and feel every small thing you find.
· >| 120 |< ·

Fig. 11–3. A left-handed, oriented search
That was a brief description of how

the oriented method works. Now, we will
get into some of the specifics that make
this method work.
Direction of search
One of the worst mistakes firefighters
can make is to lose or forget their way out
of a building. Unless you can see where you
are going, it is a bad idea to walk or crawl
into the center of a room. It’s very hard for
most people to travel in a straight line when Fig. 11–4. A very eccentric room with many walls and turns. By
they can’t see where they are going. To turn keeping track of “your wall,” working your way back to the exit
exactly 180 degrees and return to the place should be no problem should you have to escape in a hurry.
you entered is almost impossible. To eliminate
such problems when entering a room, first
decide if you are going to take the left or the The example shown in figure 11–4 is
right wall. Always keep that wall (sometimes extremely exaggerated, but it demonstrates
referred to in this text as “your wall”) to your that as long as you are aware of where
left or right. Use that wall as your point of your wall is, finding your way out should
orientation for that room (fig. 11–3). not be a problem.
· >| 121 |< ·

Number of walls
The next thing to concentrate on is the
number of walls in a room. Being told that
normal residential rooms can have four or
five walls may sound strange, but it can make
a big difference in searches and finding your
way out of a room. The key is the location of
the door on the wall. The room at the left in
figure 11–5 has four walls. Notice that the
door is located at the end of a wall. Now,
look at the room at the right in figure 11–5.
This is a five-walled room. Again, notice the
relationship of the door to its location on the
wall. The door is in the middle of the wall. (It
doesn’t have to be right in the center of the
wall to be a five-walled room.) If you believe
that most rooms (especially bedrooms) have
four walls, and you were working on the fourth
wall in the room on the right in figure 11–5 (the
five-walled room), you would expect the door
to be on the fourth wall. But, all you would
find on that wall would be wall and corner. At
exactly what point would you begin to panic?
However, if prior to working the room, you
had determined that this was a five-walled
room, you would have expected the door to Fig. 11–5. A room with four walls (top); a room with
be on the fifth, not the fourth, wall. five walls (bottom)
If the searcher tells the oriented person
that he or she is on wall 5, the oriented person
should know exactly where the searcher is
and exactly where to head if the searcher · > The oriented person and searcher(s)
gets in trouble or finds a victim. must not switch jobs in the middle
of a search. Doing so would make
finding the way out more difficult.
Other fine points One person, and only one person,
should be responsible for knowing
· > The oriented search works best if the how to get out.
search crew consists of two or three
members (the officer, or the oriented · > If the searcher finds a victim who
person, plus one or two searchers). can be moved, the searcher should
Communication can become difficult drag the victim back to the oriented
and confusing to the oriented person, who will lead the searcher
firefighter when there are more and the victim out. If more than
than two searchers. one victim may be in the area, the
· >| 122 |< ·

oriented person should go back and Note: The chances of the oriented
continue the search, either teaming person getting hurt are slim. The oriented
up with another searcher, joining person should be in the hall or doorway,
another team, or searching using the which usually doesn’t collapse. Also, the
one-person method. oriented person should always be aware of
changing fire conditions.
· > If the searcher cannot move the
victim, the oriented person should
enter the room and assist. Rooms off of other rooms
· > If the searcher gets injured and can If the searcher finds a room off the room
talk, the searcher should tell the being searched, he or she should tell the
oriented person on which wall he or oriented person and then determine the type
she is; the oriented person will take of room it is. If it is a closet or bathroom, the
the shortest route to the searcher. searcher should sweep the floor area quickly
and then continue to search the original
· > If the searcher gets injured and can’t room. If it is another bedroom, the oriented
talk (i.e., the oriented person can’t person should go to the new room and stay
get a response from the searcher), at the doorway while the searcher searches
the oriented person should go to the the new room. When that room has been
searcher’s last known location and searched, the oriented person should go back
start to search for him or her. to the original door or hall, and the searcher
should continue to search the first (original)
· > If the oriented person gets hurt room (fig. 11–6) (See Figure 12–13).
and can talk, the searcher should
backtrack to the door or hall where
the oriented person is; the oriented
person will tell the searcher how
to get out if the searcher doesn’t
know the way.
· > If the oriented person gets hurt

and can’t talk, the searcher should
backtrack to the oriented person’s
location, and
· > If the searcher knows the way out, take
the oriented person out.
· > If the searcher doesn’t know the way
out, take the oriented person back into
the room being searched, go to the last Fig. 11–6. Searching a room that is off another room
known window and summon help.
· >| 123 |< ·

Fig. 11–7. Searching in large apartment buildings
Fig. 11–8. Searching a ranch house demands concentration and imagination.
· >| 124 |< ·

Large apartment buildings One-person search

The oriented person should count the One of the most dangerous operations for
number of doors as he or she passes them. a firefighter is a one-person search. Avoid it if
If two teams are on the same floor, one at all possible. However, if you must conduct
team can take one side of the hall and the one, using some of the methods of the
other take the other side. If only one team oriented search, such as those listed below,
is on the floor, members should always can make the task safer.
try to work the same side of the hall. This
will avoid confusion if a fast exit must · > Use a left- or right-handed search.
be made (fig. 11–7). Unless you can see in a room,
never walk or crawl into the center
of a room, with the exception of
Ranch houses side-crawling toward the center of the
room keeping your shoulder oriented
The number of rooms off other rooms or closest to “your wall”.
in ranch houses and on the first floor of a
two-story home can create problems. The · > Count walls. Walls don’t move! (If the
searcher should do a left- or right-handed wall moves while you are conducting a
search until coming to another room, search, chances are you have a bigger
constantly informing the oriented person of problem than the search.) This is very
his or her location. When the searcher comes important when working alone. This
to another room, he or she should determine information may be your only point of
what type of room it is. If it’s a bathroom, reference in relation to your exit.
closet, or the like, the searcher should
sweep it quickly and then move on. If it is · > Remember the last window you
a living or sleeping room (the time of day, of passed (or door, if applicable). If you
course, would dictate priorities), the oriented need to get out, don’t keep crawling
person should go to that room’s entrance, forward unless you can see in front of
and the searcher should enter and search you. The next window or door may not
the room. The searcher should continue be close enough, if there is one at all.
to the next room while the oriented person Back out the way you came in.
remains at the last room searched. When the
next room is found, the oriented person will · > Remember what you are passing,
move up again. The oriented person must such as furniture. If you are backing
keep in mind how to get out if necessary. out and don’t run into it, you may
Coordination between two or more search have done something wrong.
crews will help this situation.
As you can see, this type of search calls The oriented method is a new technique;
for much concentration and imagination on many variations and methods can be used.
the part of the oriented person (fig. 11–8). As noted, it is an alternative method and not
the last word in search and rescue. However,
it has proved to be a good method so far and
deserves a try. The choice is yours.
· >| 125 |< ·

The Responsibility of The Relationship Between

Command During Searches Command and Search
The incident commander will prioritize Anytime a chief sends a crew inside
when a search will be conducted. If staffing a burning building, he or she should feel
is not available to do everything on the a bit of angst. Face it! It is not a natural
fireground, then someone needs to prioritize act. Besides, these are your friends and
what will be done first, second, and so on. That coworkers. Command must then make some
someone is command. Whether command assumptions about what is going on unless
orders a search depends on several factors. information is passed along to command by
the search officer or other officers. Some of
· > The probability of savable victims in these assumptions are:
the building or area of fire.
· > That the search officer is actually
· > The size of the fire. coordinating the search.
· > The location of the fire. · > That the search officer has a plan:
where to start the search, where
· > The location of the fire in relation to to go next, and where to end. This
the location of savable victims. If the is called “reading the building for
fire is on the top floor (say the attic) search,” and it will be discussed later
and the victims are all on the first in this chapter.
floor, then probably search is not on
the top of Command’s to-do list. If, · > That the search officer will keep
however, the fire is on the first floor safety first in mind. Search’s first
and victim(s) are believed to be on responsibility is to the safety of
the second floor, then search takes the search crew.
a higher priority.
· > That when search changes floors
If staffing is low and you have an equal or splits the crew, he or she will tell
fire problem, ventilation problem, search command. Command is handcuffed
problem, and so forth, and you can initially to some extent. He or she can’t see
only do one thing—put the fire out! If this inside the fire building. Unless explicit
is accomplished, all your other problems instructions are given, command can
will go away or diminish greatly. Then, only envision what the search crew
if you still don’t have the staffing, and will be doing by thinking what he or
you do knock the fire down—vent next. she (command) would be doing under
That way you accomplish two key things: the same circumstances. On top of
(1) You increase the survivability of yet-to-be this, it’s part of accountability. As
located victims by improving the air/oxygen I said earlier, always tell command
content versus carbon monoxide content when you change floors.
and other toxic gases, and (2) you can go in
and look for victims as opposed to blindly · > If the search officer believes that he
feeling for them. or she cannot cover the entire area
· >| 126 |< ·

due to “conditions” (the size of the located victims and make the rest of our
building, the “pack-rat” syndrome— operations easier. Tommy Brennan (God rest
where people can’t throw anything his Irish soul) said, “If you can’t see, crawl!”
away—or the heat/smoke conditions) Well, how many of you like crawling? Vent
in an acceptable amount of time, then the building, get yourself some visibility (from
he or she will inform command who your crouched head to the floor), and walk
can either send help or go to Plan B. into the fire building. That will also allow
you to look for victims as opposed to blindly
The search officer must also make some feeling for them.
assumptions as it relates to command. Some
of those assumptions are:
· > If command looks at the fire Reading the Building

conditions and believes they are
worsening, command will inform for Search
search and/or take additional steps to
protect the search officer and crew. As I said at the beginning of this chapter,
of all the evolutions we go through on the
· > If command receives information from fireground, I believe search is the poorest.
civilians (or anyone credible) about I think for the most part, the reason for
the potential location of victims, he or this is a lack of planning by the officer
she will tell search. in charge. We are good at size-up as it
relates to fighting a fire and making initial
· > Command will assign a backup crew assignments. How many of you, however,
to protect search as soon as possible. size up a building for search?
There are several factors that constitute
reading a building for search. Their order of
importance should be:
Prioritizing Search
· > The structure type and occupancy.
Staffing issues often prohibit concurrent Sometimes it’s best to start at the
firefighting operations. In fact, in most basics. Prior to starting a search, the
jurisdictions across the United States, the officer must weigh how and where
first arriving crew members (normally two the fire and other substances that kill
firefighters and an officer) are by themselves people in fires will travel and what will
on the fireground for a minute or so until the affect that travel, such as occupancy
next-in unit arrives. Good ICs can prioritize type or what’s in the building. A
the initial assignments for the betterment vacant concrete warehouse will cause
of the incident. It’s not all that complicated. only minimal fire spread. Conversely,
Under most circumstances, you can’t go a restaurant converted from a
wrong if you try to put the fire out. After that, balloon frame home or apartment
my next thought turns to ventilation. This is building, filled with tables, table
simply because with aggressive ventilation cloths, decorations, and people tightly
(yes, positive pressure ventilation—PPV!), we packed into booths and bar stools will
can increase survivability rates for yet-to-be probably spread fire faster.
· >| 127 |< ·

· > The location and intensity of the fire she and the team approach the building. After
and smoke. A fire in the truss loft of a rapidly sizing up the construction, occupancy
two-story truss-frame home poses less type, and fire conditions, the officer should
of a search problem than a fire in the be thinking about how they are going to get
basement. And obviously, a small fire inside. Under most circumstances, search
usually poses less of a problem than should follow the attack line in. Generally,
a larger fire. at the vast majority of fires I have been to,
the attack was the first assignment made.
· > The time of day. We know the saying Pretty sound strategy—first put the fire out!
about “assuming.” Unless known When the search team follows the attack
otherwise, we have to assume that line in, two things are accomplished. First,
at 3 a.m., occupants will probably be it lessens the likelihood of the search team
sleeping in a house fire, and there getting hit in the face with a hose stream.
are probably no occupants in an ice Second, it gets a hoseline between the search
cream store located in a strip mall. team and the fire. Attack should have been
“reading the building for fire attack,” and as
· > Where to start and stop your search. such, determined the location of the seat of
There is generally a definite, logical the fire. Thus, they should be advancing on
place to start and also a place to stop that area. If search follows the attack line, it
your search. protects them and helps them move in on the
initial search area.
· > Finding the stairs (if required), sleeping The rule for where to start the search is
area, or other area in a home people this: Start the search as close to the fire as
would be expected to be. Remember, possible where savable people could be and
in searches time is of the essence. then work out and away from the fire till
People can only live so long in IDLH you are out of area (you searched the entire
conditions. Any time you can save in floor or level) or the area is no longer IDLH.
locating them is to their advantage. The one exception to this is if the fire and its
by-products are in an area away from where
Some of the above are fairly important savable victims would be found. (If the fire is
to identify and relate to reading the building on the first floor of a two-story home and it’s
for search. I would like to concentrate on the 3 a.m., or if the fire is in the kitchen area of
last two for a few minutes. To me, they make a ranch or one-story home and again, it’s an
or break the search. early morning fire.)
So, the attack crew should get you as close
the fire as you need. As you follow the line in,
the officer should be observing the immediate
Where to Start environment for signs. These include heat
and fire damage. At a point where the officer
and Stop Your Search believes that human life could no longer be
sustained, he or she should start the search
There is a logical place to start and then a and then work back until the entire area has
logical place to search after that. A heads-up been searched or the area is no longer IDLH.
officer is thinking about how to get in the Generally, the area to start will be somewhere
building and where to start the search as he or in or at the opening to the fire room of origin.
· >| 128 |< ·

(The attack crew can search that area during We must always remember that children die
attack and or initial overhaul.) Once you have in fires. Their toys are ruined by fire, and
covered the remainder of that floor level, you firefighters also die in fires.
should work up to the next level and search One way to stay fresh in the absence of
there until you run out of area or the area is fire is to fight fires on emergency medical
no longer IDLH. This should continue until services (EMS) runs. Most departments are
you run out of building or IDLH. Then you now doing EMS. If you’re not, you should.
should go below the fire and work down It’s a job security thing. “Fight fires on EMS
following the same criteria. runs,” you say? As you and your crew walk
I mention that you should search until up to 1945 Vermont Avenue where Gertrude
you run out of area or the area is no longer Becker is having her umpteenth chronic
IDLH. Most searchers don’t carry carbon obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
monoxide or oxygen meters, nor should they. episode, ask the rookie, “Kid, where’s the
It’s a focus thing. My general rule of thumb stairway?” Learn to find stairways or the
is that when you have good visibility—say sleeping areas in one-story homes from
10 to 15 feet—and little (breathable) heat, for the outside. Any time you can save blindly
the purposes of search, the area is no longer searching for the stairs is time that can be
IDLH. especially if there are still unsearched used to save a life. It’s sad but true, there
IDLH areas in the building. are crews out there that simply go in the
Last, under where to start and stop your front door and begin to search right inside
search, when do you search an attic? My rule the door, regardless of the location of the fire
of thumb is that an attic should be searched or potential victims.
if it has a permanently affixed stairway to it.
That would include a pull-down attic ladder
that is down. Toledo is a college town. Many
people make rentable areas in attic spaces. How Long Should You Search?
Additionally, some young adults can’t afford
to move away from home but still want “their Just as there is a correct place to start
space.” Many parents update the attic area and finish a search, there is also a time frame
and let their children live up there. If you get beyond which search should not (or need not)
to the top of the stairs and have zero visibility, be conducted any more. There are human
sweep out with your hand. If all you hit is and common sense factors that apply here.
floor joists, don’t waste your time. If all you As far as human factors, the human body
hit is boxes and stored Christmas trees and can only live in 15% or less oxygen content
decorations, again, chances are no one is up for 4 to 6 minutes. Carbon monoxide levels
there. If you sweep out and hit a table leg or above 60% or 6,500 ppm can cause death
bed leg, then start searching. less than 20 minutes. Additionally, heat
can cause death. The human body can only
tolerate 130°F of moist heat and 160°F of dry
Finding the stairs or sleeping area heat for short periods of time. I like to use
the 200–2 rule. The body can only tolerate
I hear firefighters complain that fires two breaths of heat that is 200°F or higher.
are down. When I was younger, I too made We all know that’s not very hot as it relates
that complaint. As I grew older and wiser, to fire. As far as common sense factors, how
I learned that fire decrease is a great thing.
· >| 129 |< ·

can we justify spending 30 minutes or more Attorney for the plaintiff: So chief, let’s
searching a building when we know the above back up. They went in for about 14 minutes,
human factor figures? came out and changed bottles for 2 more
My rule of thumb is that under IDLH minutes, went back in again and ran out of
conditions, a primary search should be air, came out and changed bottles, and went
conducted for no more than 15 minutes. back in again. Shortly thereafter, they located
(That’s certainly giving the victim the benefit the victim. Is that correct?
of the doubt.) That’s one SCBA (self-contained You respond: Yes.
breathing apparatus) bottle on your back. Attorney for the plaintiff: So, let’s see,
If you can’t cover the entire area in under 14 plus 2 plus 15 plus 2 plus, say, 5 more
one SCBA bottle, either get more help or minutes. That’s about 35 to 40 minutes.
go to Plan B. (Hint: Plan B is explained in Now chief, how long can the human body
chapter 13, Ventilation.) live under those circumstances—heavy
smoke, low oxygen, heavy carbon monoxide,
and high heat?
Discussion You respond in a low voice: About 4 to
6 minutes.
Imagine sitting as a chief officer on Attorney for the plaintiff: Does it seem
a witness stand in your negligence trial. logical to search for 30 or 40 minutes when
Imagine the following conversation: you know the body can’t survive nearly that
Attorney for the plaintiff: Chief, can you long in a fire? Would either more firefighters
describe you search actions at this fire? searching or those firefighters who were
You respond: Well, Squad 1 arrived, and searching perhaps doing something else
I assigned them search. (such as aggressive ventilation) have
Attorney for the plaintiff: Go on. made a difference?
You continue: They went in and started
their search. About 14 minutes later they
came out and changed bottles and then went
back in to continue where they left off. Search Versus Rescue
Attorney for the plaintiff: Chief, can
you tell the jury about how long it takes to I have a lot of pet peeves. One of those
change a bottle? is the use of the term “search and rescue.”
You respond: We make sure they can I watch fire video and read articles where
do it in drills in under 2 minutes—so firefighters say, “Yeah! We were assigned
about 2 minutes. search and rescue, and we went in. . . . ”
Attorney for the plaintiff: Go on, what To me, search and rescue are two separate
happened next? and distinct evolutions, and they must be
You continue: Well, they went back in treated as such. When you are conducting a
and searched some more until again their search, where is your focus? It’s on looking
bells went off, so they came back out and or feeling for someone. When you locate that
changed their bottles and then went back someone and begin the rescue portion of
in. This time, they found the little girl on the search and rescue, where is your new focus?
second floor of the apartment building. It’s on removing the victim. At that time,
where is your search? It’s more than likely
gone, especially with today’s staffing.
· >| 130 |< ·

When we locate victims, we take them heat and or fire conditions, are there savable
outside. Rarely do we leave the victim. We people in that area? No! You’re looking in
may start resuscitation efforts, or we may the wrong area.
pass off the victims to emergency medical Second, it goes back to the “woodchuck
technician (EMTs) or medics, but we then factor.” Say, you are the typical three-person
stay with the victim. We assist with the efforts engine crew, and you take a line in with you
or simply watch and catch our breath. There to search. How many members will it take
seems to be this subconscious link between to pull and maintain that hoseline? It will
us and the victim. Rarely, if ever, do we take at least one. You have cut your search
reenter the structure to pick up the search. capabilities dramatically.
(I realize there have been times when very I advocate the use of a 21⁄2-inch hoseline
heroic and focused firefighters have brought when searching commercial buildings. Pull
out, reentered, and brought out again. But and stretch the line inside until you run
those instances are rare.) This really throws out of line or hit the back wall. Then the
continuity of search out the door. oriented firefighter turns back toward the
So, how can we combat this? For most engine/door/standpipe connection and
house fires, one crew can search, remove, literally sits on the line. In essence, this
and reenter the original structure. Discipline has just created a 21⁄2-inch wall to maintain
is needed to separate ourselves from the a point of orientation to the exit. The
victim, but you need to ask yourself, “Is this searchers would spread out laterally from
how I would want firefighters to look for me the 21⁄2-inch line (either using webbing or
and my family?” In apartment buildings, counting side-steps (crawls), then work back
my recommendation is the establishment to the 21⁄2-inch line. Once there, the oriented
of a rescue group. This would include two firefighter and the searchers move up 3 or
firefighters who can be dressed and at the 4 feet and then repeat the process until they
bottom of the stairs or at the door. When a are outside or the area is covered.
searcher locates a victim, the search officer
informs the rescue group of their location:
“Search to rescue: We have a victim and are
bringing the victim to the third-floor landing.” Searching with a Tool
The rescue group moves up and the victim is
passed off, then the searcher goes back to Some books say to never enter a
where he or she left off. Isn’t that how you building without a tool. There’s that never
would want us to do it? word. I am cautious when I hear the word
never. I can only think of a few nevers in
the fire service.
I have had the good fortune to observe
Searching with a Hoseline many firefighters conduct searches in live
hostile fires, training fires, and on the
In my department, I rarely if ever see a apparatus and training floor. One thing
search crew search a residential occupancy I learned is that searching with a tool only
(a house or apartment) with a hoseline. The slows down the search.
reason for this is simple. First, if you, in all First, you also have to take time to
your bunker gear, don’t feel comfortable (safe) position the tool prior to sweeping. You don’t
crawling in a particular area of a house due to sweep with the axe head end of an axe or the
· >| 131 |< ·

pick end of a Halligan. Next, you usually put Searching with a

the tool in your “sweeping” hand, or the hand
in the direction you are searching. As you Thermal Imager
sweep and hit something, you have to move
toward it (what you hit) and put down the tool I have been asked hundreds of times,
and feel what you hit with your gloved hand. who should have the camera? My answer is
After you determine that you hit a pillow, a simple, the officer or oriented person.
stuffed piece of furniture, or a dead animal, As the crew enters, the oriented person
you have to find the tool with your sweeping leads the way. As they locate the first room
hand and reposition the tool and then move to be searched, the oriented person scans
on with the search. the room and tells the searcher what’s
Is that the way you would want someone there, where to spend time, and where not
to look for your family? to waste time. The oriented person then
What are the two reasons they tell you to takes the next searchers to the next area
take a tool? First, to extend your reach. Well, to be searched and does the same. He or
to overcome that, take one more side crawl she scans the room and tells the searcher,
toward the center of the room. The second “The room is clear to the right, and the bed
reason they tell you to take a tool is to save is clear. Just check on the far side of the
your life if you get into trouble. Really, how bed to the left.”
many times while conducting a search did I have had a lot of people tell me how
you ever have to save yourself with a tool? wonderful these cameras are, and I agree.
I have asked that question to thousands of But until every firefighter has one, they
firefighters across the United States and still don’t answer the question of large area
Canada, and I have only seen one man raise searches or multiple victims. For example, a
his hand, and I think he was confused about four-person crew is searching an after-hours
the question. Do us (me and you) a favor. bar. It is believed that several people may be
Next drill night, have a recruit search in a inside. The crew enters, being led in zero
blacked-out face piece with a tool and stand visibility by the officer, who has a camera.
back and watch. Then have him or someone After moving through several small rooms,
else do it without the tool. You’ll see how they locate a victim. The adult male is average
much faster it is without the tool. size, and it will take two members to drag
One word of caution, I do believe that the victim. The officer has several choices.
a tool should go in with every crew. The He can let two members drag the victim out,
oriented person who should be in the but since they didn’t pay attention to how
close vicinity of all searchers and aware of they came in or where they are because they
the immediate environment should have don’t have the camera, the officer will have
a tool. If anyone gets in trouble, then it’s to lead them out. That will leave one member
a team effort. behind who also has no clue how he came
in or where he is, so everyone will have to
leave. You may say, the officer can be one of
the members dragging the victim, but then
you have two members inside who didn’t pay
attention to how they got where they are or
how to get out.
· >| 132 |< ·


1) What are the three responsibilities of the
search officer?
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
2) __________________________ is the process

whereby an officer ensures that the search
has started, maintained, and finished in
a logical, uninterrupted manner.
3) What is the difference between a primary Fig. 11–9. Scenario

and secondary search? _________________
________________________________________ In the scenario above (fig. 11–9), you are
________________________________________ on the third unit to arrive at this reported fire.
4) What are the three things necessary for is what you normally receive on a report of a
a successful oriented search? fire in a residential occupancy. You are riding
________________________________________ the unit assigned search. Concern yourself
________________________________________ with only search. The time of the incident
________________________________________ is 0630 hours on a Sunday morning. The
weather is not a factor. With that, you have
5) What is the maximum number of all the information given to you on dispatch.
searchers when using the oriented
search? _______________________________ 1) Where will you position your rig? _______
________________________________________
6) Once you start a search, it is OK to switch
positions with the oriented person. 2) What tools will you have your crew bring?
True or False ________________________________________
________________________________________
7) Who should prioritize when search will ________________________________________
begin? _________________________________
3) What safety precautions will you take? _
8) Where should the search start? _________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
9) What does IDLH stand for? _____________ 4) How will you enter the building? The first
________________________________________ in engine took a 13⁄4” line in the front door.
_______________________________________
10) What is the maximum length of time that
a search should take? __________________ 5) Where (what room) would you start your
________________________________________ search? _______________________________
· >| 133 |< ·

6) Where would you search last on that 1) Where will you position your rig?________
floor? __________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
7) After your initial floor is searched, where 2) What tools will you have your crew bring?
would you search next? ________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________
3) What safety precautions will you take?

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
4) How will you enter the building? The

first in engine took a 13⁄4” line in the
front door. _____________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
5) Where (what room) would you start your

Fig. 11–10. House at arrival search? _______________________________
________________________________________
In the scenario above, you are on the 6) Where would you search last on that
third unit to arrive at this reported fire. The floor? __________________________________
complement of apparatus and manpower is ________________________________________
what you normally receive on a report of a
fire in a residential occupancy. You are riding 7) After your initial floor is searched, where
the unit assigned search. Concern yourself would you search next? ________________
with search. The time of the incident is 0630 ________________________________________
hours on a Sunday morning. The weather
is not a factor. With that, you have all the
information given to you on dispatch.
· >| 134 |< ·

12
The Mission of Backup
T
he mission of backup is to protect the interior working crews (attack, search, and other
interior firefighters) by pulling and strategically placing protective lines between them and
obvious or potential areas of fire spread, and to ensure egress if retreat is necessary.
The backup group provided the impetus that led our department to create a mission
statement. Crews kept telling us about fires at which the backup crew was used as a second
attack line. Meanwhile, those of us on the outside thought the officer and crew assigned to
backup were inside looking out for the interior crews.
The last thing command wants the backup crew to do is seek out and extinguish fire. It’s
a focus thing. The backup crew cannot focus on protecting interior crews if they are looking
for fire to put out. In that case, they’re probably in the wrong location to actually protect the
interior crews, and their focus is on the fire, not on protecting crews.
Backup’s only purpose is to watch out for the safety of interior working crews. They cannot
effectively do this if they are looking for and extinguishing fire.
The Relationship Between Command and Backup

I like to think of backup as an interior safety valve. The backup team’s two primary
concerns should be ongoing monitoring of interior conditions and knowing the locations of all
companies operating within the structure. Command should assign a backup group anytime a
crew takes a handline inside (fig. 12–1). Procedure should dictate that initially no line smaller
than 11⁄2 inches be pulled to attack a fire inside the structure. If the attack officer thinks that
a 11⁄2-inch line is too large for the size of the fire, he or she can call for a booster line and keep
the 11⁄2-inch line inside as a backup. That means that a backup group should be assigned at
every working fire at which a line is pulled. After command has assigned a backup group, he
· >| 135 |< ·

or she should feel confident that inside is a location well suited for protecting interior
crew that is focusing solely on protecting all crews. That may be on a specific floor or in
the interior crews. between floors. Command and backup must
Command should have a good idea of trust each other. The backup officer should
where all companies assigned are operating. be a seasoned officer or firefighter who
Attack should be on the fire floor (or on a command believes will be able to identify
specific floor), with the intention of moving potential trouble areas and move away
up to the next floor as soon as soon as the from the backup crew and the line for short
fire on the current floor has been knocked periods of time to check on other crews. The
down (fig. 12–2). Search should be in the backup officer must trust that command will
area where victims are likely to be and where notify him or her of any changing conditions
their chance for survival is the greatest. observable from the outside (fig. 12–3).
The backup line should be positioned in a
Fig. 12–1. A crew assigned to backup should take the same way Fig. 12–2. A crew assigned to backup readies to enter
into the structure as the attack crew. the structure
COMMAND
Safety
Public Information Officer
Liason
Operations Planning Logistics Administration
Backup
Fig. 12–3. The relationship between backup and command
· >| 136 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Backup |< ·
The Responsibility the conditions within the structure

and report to command any changes
of the Backup Officer in heat (a buildup or reduction) or
smoke (color, intensity, or direction
Backup has three responsibilities: of movement). Comparisons between
interior and exterior conditions are
· > Ensure the safety of all interior necessary components in the on-scene
crews. Each group officer’s primary size-up and in prioritizing the
responsibility is the safety of his or her assignments on command’s to-do list.
crew. The officer assigned as backup
shares that responsibility. Just as
the relationship between command If the backup group is in place and should
and backup must be based on trust, find fire, backup can do one of two things:
so too must the relationship between
the backup officer and the backup · > If the fire is small or nonthreatening,
crew. As noted, the backup officer backup can inform the attack officer
may be remote from the crew for by radio or in person of the fire
periods of time (the reason for this will and its location.
become evident later in this chapter).
Firefighters assigned to backup, · > If the fire is of significant size or is
therefore, must know that they have to in an area that has the potential
stay put and hold their ground unless to threaten working crews or
their incident commander (IC) directs considerable property, backup
them to do otherwise. should inform command of the fire’s
size and scope.
· > Position and maintain a working backup
line. The backup officer’s first tasks are
to determine a suitable location for the On the receipt of this information,
backup line that will protect interior command will do one of the following:
crews and to locate a means of egress.
Next, the backup office takes his or her · > Send in a separate attack company to
crew to the location of the backup line work the fire.
and gives them detailed instructions.
Backup then leaves the area of the · > Request attack to move to the fire area
backup line (perhaps taking another as soon as possible.
crew member if one is available) and
moves from work area to work area · > Inform backup that another company
within the structure to ensure that is being sent to backup’s location,
other interior crews are safe and that and that when it arrives, backup
their means of egress is intact. will have a new division, group, or
attack designation.
· > Keep command informed. Backup
must tell command when interior · > Tell backup to knock down the fire
conditions change. More than quickly and that someone will be sent
anyone else, backup must monitor there shortly to overhaul the area.
· >| 137 |< ·

If this is the case, a member of the · > The fire has entered and is attacking
backup group should stay in the area the structure itself. If the structure is
in which the backup line is located of balloon-frame construction, I make
and attempt to remain focused on every effort to have the backup crew
the safety of the interior crews for the lay in its own line.
brief period. The backup officer must
be aware of time and avoid focusing · > The fire is in a large structure, and
on the fire longer than necessary. If multiple backup lines are in place.
possible, doors should be closed to
hold the fire in that specific area until · > The fire is in a commercial occupancy.
water for attack becomes available.
This last option should be used only If the fire is confined to one room, or I
as a last resort. think it can be handled by one attack line,
and I believe there is no unusual risk to
personnel, I take a line from the attack engine
to supply the backup engine (fig. 12–4). If the
Alternate Water Sources attack engine or its source of water were to
fail, I would still have 500 gallons of water
In rural America, it’s sometimes difficult in the booster tank of the backup engine
to supply the attack line from a continuous that could be used to back out crews. If used
water supply. Booster tanks may be the correctly, 500 gallons is a lot of water. If there
only option for an alternate water source. is any doubt about the safety of crews, an
Extra care must be taken to keep working alternate water supply should be established
crews out of harm’s way. In urban settings, for the backup line(s).
a supply line taken from a separate hydrant
should suffice as an alternate water supply.
If water is available and the fire’s intensity or
its hold on the structure is a concern, I have
no problem with having the engine assigned
to backup taking its own hydrant and laying
in. That way, if the engine supplying the
attack company fails, or if its water supply
is disrupted, water will still be available to
protect interior crews until they are able to
back out of the structure.
I order the backup crew to secure its
own supply (preferably from its own hydrant)
when the following conditions are present:
· > The fire is at or near the flashover

stage and I have committed to an Fig. 12–4. Backup is securing water from the attack
offensive strategy. engine’s hydrant.
· > Multiple fires are on multiple levels

of the structure.
· >| 138 |< ·

From Where Should Backup placement of the backup line has increased
to the point that it would be ineffective, I do
Enter the Building? not advocate moving the backup line once it
has been placed. If properly initially located, it
As a rule of thumb, the backup line should will rarely have to be moved during the typical
follow the attack line into the structure. single-family residential structure fire.
In most circumstances, the backup line The proper location of the backup line
should follow the attack line inside for and its crew depends on the following:
the following reasons:
· > The number of floors in the structure.
· > It decreases the possibility of opposing If the structure has only one living
lines. If the backup line follows the floor and the fire is on that floor, the
attack line in, crew members will be line should be placed approximately
less likely to be hit by a hose stream. two-thirds of the distance between
the point of entry and the location of
· > Backup’s purpose is to protect interior the attack crew.
crews and provide a way out of the
structure. Normally, when crews Shown in figure 12–5 is a single-family,
back out of a structure, they keep ranch-style home that has a fire in a rear
their line with them or follow the bedroom. The proper location of the backup
line out. If the backup crew takes line is somewhere near the entrance of the
a different way into the structure hallway. This leaves the attack crew plenty of
than the attack crew, the backup room to work; search (if assigned) an avenue
crew may not even know which way for moving in and out; and backup room to
the attack crew came in, let alone move among the backup line, the working
where they are. I have been in many groups, and the likely means of egress (the
homes where the back door does not front door). Once positioned, the line should
lead into rooms that are common to remain stationary.
the front and back doors. To locate
and protect interior companies, the
quickest and most efficient entrance
route for the backup group and its
line is the same entrance route used
for the attack lines.
Where to Position
the Backup Line
Unless it is necessary to protect firefighters
who are in imminent danger or the distance
between working crews (attack, search,
extension, salvage, etc.), and the initial Fig. 12–5. Fire on the first floor of a one-family, two-story home
· >| 139 |< ·

If the structure has two floors, the The placement of the backup crew will
backup line should be positioned according depend on several variables:
to the locations of the fire and the working
crews. These situations are covered · > The location of the fire (as it relates to
later in this chapter under the “location floor level). If the fire is on the first floor
of the fire” bullet. of a two-story home, backup crews
The officer assigned to backup should give should place the line as they would for
the backup crew instructions that include a single-level home—advance the line
the location where the officer is going (“I’m through the same path as the attack
going to follow the attack line up to attack. line and follow it in about two-thirds
I’ll be right back.”) and reminders to watch from the point of entry up to the nozzle.
for changing conditions (“Keep an eye on the If the fire is on the upper floor of
basement stairs; it may be below us.”). I advise a two-story home, line placement
using a count method in extreme conditions must be changed (fig. 12–6). When
(“I’ll be back in less than 45 seconds.”). If the a fire occurs on the second floor of
crew doesn’t hear from the officer in about a two-story home, the backup line
45 seconds (counts), someone will go check should be stretched up the stairs
on the officer or advance the line. (The officer (following the attack crew) into an
should be following the attack line up to the uninvolved room, then back to the
attack crew.) Under normal conditions, I tell second-floor landing or hallway near
the backup crew to just “camp out” at the the stairs. To decrease the time to
location their officer has chosen for them reach working crews, the line usually
and not to leave that area unless directed to should be on the same level as the
do otherwise or if problems should arise. working crews—except when the fire
Fig. 12–6. (a) The lines were advanced into the house and up to the stairway for this fire on the second floor of a two-story house.
(b) Placement of the lines on the second floor.
· >| 140 |< ·

Fig. 12–7. (a) Units are attacking the fire on the first floor first with the placement of a back line. (b) The lines were moved up the stairs
after the fire on the first floor was knocked down. (c) The backup line is on the landing near the stairs.
and working crews are in the attic · > If the fire is on more than one floor.
or basement (the reasons for this When there are multiple fires
are given later). The reason I tell the involving more than one floor, the
backup officer to take the line into job of the backup group becomes
an uninvolved room and then back much more demanding. As stated in
is to give the officer working line. chapter 11, if fires are on different
It is easier to pull line lying behind levels of a house, the rule of thumb is
you than it is to pull it up the stairs, to start at the lowest level and work
especially in an emergency situation. your way up. If the fire involves the
The 10 seconds it takes to pull the first and second floors of a two-story
line into an uninvolved room may save house, the attack group usually will
30 to 60 seconds; those seconds could head first toward the fire on the lower
make all the difference in the world floor. The backup line at that time
when it comes to the safety of working should be positioned as if the fire were
crews. Figure 12–6 shows the correct only on the first floor, approximately
placement of a backup line for a fire two-thirds of the way between the
on the second floor of a two-story point of entry and the attack crew.
dwelling. Note that the line was taken The backup officer must pay greater
in and up the same way as the attack attention to the means of egress and
line. If, at the top of the stairs, the the stairway if the stairway is in close
attack line goes to the left, the backup proximity to the lines (fig. 12–7). On
line should go to the right to find a occasion, fire has dropped downstairs
room to pull some working line. and involved the lower levels of a
· >| 141 |< ·

structure. (If ventilation is on the roof and an additional working line must
and opening up, then the ventilation be pulled so advancement is not
hole will provide a natural upward hampered. There is little likelihood
means for fire movement.) of opposing streams in a basement;
After the attack group has knocked there usually is only one way in or
down the fire on the first floor, the out. Basements are wide open, and
attack officer will have the crew the attack crew will advance directly
advance the attack line up toward on the area of the fire. If the intensity
the fire on the second floor. After of the fire or smoke in the basement
the attack group has advanced its gives the backup officer concern, the
line up the stairs, the backup group line should be taken downstairs. If
should advance its line up the stairs, this is done, an additional backup
then pull an additional working line crew line should be assigned to the
in an uninvolved room. After the top of the stairs prior to the original
working line has been pulled, the backup line going downstairs. Keep
backup line should be positioned on in mind that basement stairs are not
the landing or in the hallway near as wide as other stairways and have
the stairs (fig. 12–7). At this time, the smaller railings to steady firefighters
backup officer and a crew member should they lose their balance while
should ensure the safety of the attack ascending or descending. The backup
crew, and then quickly move back line should be moved to the side of the
downstairs to ensure that they and stairs so firefighters don’t trip over it if
the attack crew are not going to be they must make a quick exit.
cut off by any flare-ups or hidden
fire downstairs. The backup officer
should move back and forth between
these potential problem areas until
command declares the fire under
control, and the attack officer has
given the benchmark1: “The fire
is knocked down.”
If the backup officer is concerned
about the intensity of the fire
downstairs, he or she may move the
backup line back down the stairs
to avoid being cut off upstairs. If
the officer moves the backup line
downstairs, he or she must ensure
that there is adequate line to quickly
advance back up the stairs if it
becomes necessary.
· > Fire in the basement. The backup

line should be positioned near the Fig. 12–8. A backup line is stretched to the top of the
top of the basement stairs (fig. 12–8), basement stairs.
· >| 142 |< ·

Fig. 12–9. (a) The lines for this attic fire are going in at the first-floor level. (b) The attack lines going to the second floor. Note that the
attack lines move up to the attic stairs, while the backup line pulls extra line and remains on the second-floor landing.
· > Fire in attic areas. If the fire is in be left alone. One possibility is to assign
the attic, the backup line should another firefighter to backup as soon as one
be positioned at the bottom of the is available. Until then, the backup officer
attic stairs (fig. 12–9). Additional line should remain within view of the crew (on
must be pulled onto the second floor the line). Another possibility may be to leave
so that advancement of the line will the single member on the backup line with
not be hampered. a portable radio. This firefighter will have
a line for protection and should be within
In attic and basement fires, if the line 10 to 20 feet of a working group. That way,
is not actually advanced to the level of the the officer will have a member alongside as
working crews, the backup officer must they move among the groups. The decisions
rotate among the backup line, the working relative to the number of personnel on lines
crews, and the means of egress, or the and who can be left alone should be up to
backup officer must assign that task to the department chief and be incorporated
members of the crew. I don’t advocate into a written procedure.
leaving one firefighter alone in an area of
a structure that is on fire. I also do not
advocate allowing a single firefighter to roam Review
a structure on fire. This creates a problem.
If the backup group is a four-person crew, · > If the fire is on the first floor of
two members can be left on the backup a single- or two-story home, the
line, while the officer and a crew member go backup line should be advanced
among working groups of the fire. However, approximately two-thirds the way
if the backup group is a three-person crew, between the point of entry into the
a decision must be made as to who will structure and the attack crew.
· >| 143 |< ·

· > If the fire is located on the second Most of us can close our eyes and envision
floor of a two-story home, the line fires at which we would insist that the backup
should be taken up the stairs into an line be charged and others at which we
uninvolved room, then positioned at would feel it need not be charged. Command
or near the stairs. is ultimately responsible for the outcome
of the incident, including the safety of the
· > If the fire is on more than one floor, working crews. If command does not assign
the line should be taken up to the a backup group (if personnel are available)
location of the attack crew. When the when fire conditions dictate that a backup
attack crew initially enters the first line be pulled and charged, command should
floor, the lines should be positioned be held responsible if a firefighter is injured
approximately two-thirds of the because a backup line is not in place.
way between the point of entry and If the attack group gets inside and makes
the attack crew. When the attack a quick knockdown and the extent of the
crew has knocked down the fire on fire is small, I have no problem with attack
Division 1, the line should follow telling command that a charged backup line
the attack crew up the stairs into an is not needed.
uninvolved room and be positioned at “Attack to command: We have the
or near the stairs. fire knocked down. Hold up on charging
the backup line.”
· > If the fire is in the basement, the “Command to attack: OK.”
line should be taken to the top of “Command to backup: Get the line in
the stairs, and the working line place; but we’ll hold up charging the line
should be pulled. unless you tell us to.”
“Backup to command: OK.”
· > If the fire is in the attic, the line In most single-family house fires, we
should be taken to the bottom of allow the backup line to be positioned before
the attic stairs, and the working line it is charged. It is much easier to pull a dry
should be pulled. line. Once the line is in place, the backup
officer can make one of two transmissions:
“Backup to Engine 13: Charge the
backup line.”
To Charge or Not to Charge Or
“Backup to command: The backup line is
the Backup Line in place, but I’m going to hold up on charging
the line. It looks like they got it.”
When we introduced the concept of Command can always override the
backup lines in the Toledo Fire Department, decision and order that the line be charged. If
one of the big concerns was, “Do we always that is the case, the line will be charged, and
need to charge the backup line?” To me, any concerns will be discussed after the fire.
the answer is, “It is situational.” The Safety
Bureau felt that the backup line should always
be charged. I felt it was up to command or
backup and recommendations from attack.
· >| 144 |< ·

Switching the Backup charged line in your hands, but the safety
of your crew and the working crews inside
Line to an Attack Line must take precedence over the temptation to
open that bale.
As noted, our department developed and We have compromised with our officers
implemented mission statements in response to an extent. In the instance described
to companies’ accounts of how crews earlier—attack is yelling for another line,
assigned as backup aggressively sought out and the backup crew is standing there
and attacked fire. with a charged line in their hands—a
If the backup group does what it is little communication, common sense, and
supposed to do, it might get to open the coordination should solve all concerns. If
bale of the nozzle once in a thousand attack asks for another line, we allow the
assignments, if at all. Normally, the backup backup group to assist attack once another
group is a safety valve. In reality, backup can backup crew has been put in place. It is
be a boring assignment. Most fires are small, impractical to have a crew pass another
and usually actions to protect interior crews crew inside a building. However, if a fire is
are not needed. burning with such intensity that additional
About the time we were learning that it hose streams are needed to extinguish it, it
was “customary” for the backup group to be is unwise to remove backup or even delay or
looking for fire to put out, we had a rash of postpone its operation. Common sense must
fires involving attic areas. At several of these prevail over aggressiveness to ensure the
fires, the attack group called for additional safety of interior companies.
lines because of the difficulty of fighting the
fire in the attic. We learned that at several
of these fires, the backup line was used for
additional firefighting power. That could have Using Backup for
been a fatal mistake.
If the backup group leaves its position Subsequent Assignments
to work as an additional attack line in the
attic stairway area, who is looking out for the The backup group should not be removed
crews? No one! At one fire, the attic flashed until someone has checked for fire extension.
over, and several firefighters came out of the Until you’re sure the fire hasn’t spread to other
attic area with their bunker coats on fire. After undetected areas, leave the backup group in
tempers (and a few individuals—literally) place. No matter what the assignment, the
cooled down, we looked at this problem. If backup group should not be terminated until
you have an attic “rolling” to the point where the following has occurred:
attack needs another line inside to help the
crew advance, I do not believe that is the time · > All visible flame has
to pull out the backup group and convert it been extinguished.
into an attack group.
Now, I’m not naïve, and it hasn’t been that · > Attack has given the benchmark,
long since I was a company officer. I realize “The fire is knocked down.”
the temptation that is present when you’re
standing 10 feet from a company yelling for · > All areas have been checked
more water (another line), and you have a for extension.
· >| 145 |< ·

· > Command has observed that no area, the backup line should be
smoke is “forcibly” leaving the about two-thirds between the point
structure, and that the color of the of entry into the house and the
smoke has lightened. working crew.
· > Most important, command has given · > If the attack and search groups
the benchmark, “Under control.” (working crews) are working on the
second floor, the backup line should
Once command believes that the fire is be pulled up the stairs and the
under control, he or she can consider using working line pulled into a previously
the backup line for other assignments. searched room or down a hallway.
Typically, the backup crew will be reassigned Be careful not to interfere with the
to assist attack with the overhaul. search group. If the second floor
is small, the nozzle can be taken
up the stairs, and a firefighter can
be left down at the bottom of the
Protecting Other stairs to feed line up if it is needed.
Common sense should dictate.
Divisions and Groups
· > If the attack and the search
The majority of this chapter has dealt groups are operating on different
with the relationship between the backup floors, the backup line should be
and attack groups. Other interior groups can positioned as if fires were on both
and should be working inside the structure. floors of the structure—up the
The search group comes to mind first. As stairs with an additional line with
stated in chapter 11, I do not believe the which to advance. Since the attack
search group should take a hoseline with it, crew has a line, and the search
because if search pulls a line, the number crew does not, if there is a need
of available searchers is decreased (because to choose which group to stick
someone has to stretch and hold the line, close to, the edge should be given
and a line lying in the hall when you’re in to the search team, which has no
the bedroom does little good), and the search line at all and needs protection the
crew is forced to divide its focus between most. The location of the fire and
victims and nozzles. the search officer’s proximity to a
Moreover, this option is unnecessary. In means of egress will help determine
the normal house fire, backup can position where to place the backup line.
itself to protect the attack and search groups
even if they are operating in different areas Other interior groups that may need
of the structure. Most of the same rules that protecting are extensions, overhaul, salvage,
apply to protecting two different groups: and in some instances, ventilation. All are
part of the working crews.
· > If the attack and search groups
(working crews) are working on
the first floor in the same basic
· >| 146 |< ·

Is One Backup Line Enough? When multiple backup lines are used,
more than one group officer may be assigned
In some situations, the intensity of the to manage each backup group, or the backup
fire and its hold on the structure may dictate group may be under the direction of the same
that multiple attack lines, multiple search group (branch) officer. The approach to be
crews, and subsequently, multiple backup used depends on the following factors:
lines should be employed. As command,
I have established two separate backup · > The span of control. No officer—
groups at several fires. Just as there can especially a backup officer, because he
be a Division 1 and Division 2 attack, there or she may have to leave the backup
also can be a Division 1 and Division 2 crew unattended for short periods
backup (fig. 12–10). If the size of a specific of time—should have more than five
floor is large or cut up, with fire inside the subordinates. However, if a five- or
structure (inside walls and running floor or six-person crew is assigned and the
ceiling joists), a Division B and a Division C officer designated as backup can
may be assigned. control the activities of two separate
COMMAND
Safety
Liason
Backup Backup Backup

Division 1 Division 2 Division 3
Fig. 12–10. Backup sectors assigned to protect crews on specific floors (divisions)
· >| 147 |< ·

COMMAND
Safety
Liason
Backup Backup Backup

Sector A Sector B Sector C
Fig. 12–11. Backup sectors assigned to protect crews in specific areas of a floor (divisions)
COMMAND
Safety
Liason
Backup
Branch
Division 1 Backup
Division 2 Backup
Division 3 Backup
Fig. 12–12. The backup branch is directly under the control of the branch officer.
· >| 148 |< ·

backup crews working in different Assigning Backup First

areas of the structure, one officer may
be sufficient to control both lines. To put it simply, a backup should be
assigned every time you go inside a structure
· > The distance between the individual to fight a fire.2 No one should argue that using a
backup lines. The distance between backup group doesn’t make sense. Firefighters
the two (or more) backup lines may perform their tasks better and quicker and feel
make individual control impractical or better while doing them if they know someone is
impossible (fig. 12–11). there looking out for them. There are personnel
concerns; but more than anything else, the
· > The tasks being covered. Attack fire conditions will dictate where backup falls
companies have their own line (and on command’s to-do list. I recommend that
defense). This does not nullify the a backup group also be assigned anytime
need for a backup company. One command orders an attack group. I realize the
backup line can cover two or more staffing may dictate that attack, ventilation,
attack groups. However, if multiple and search group assignments be at the top
groups that normally do not use of the to-do list. Backup should be assigned
hoselines are assigned, then multiple when staffing permits.
(and individual) backup lines Command determines when backup
may be warranted. comes to the top of the to-do list. Sometimes
the complexity of the situation will push
If two or more backup groups are aside the thought of assigning a backup. In
required, it may be advisable to designate those situations, it may be even more vital
backup as a branch. As fig. 12–12 illustrates, that a backup be assigned immediately.
the backup branch is directly under the I have been to fires where backup was the
control of one officer, the branch officer, first assignment. Keep in mind that the
and each specific backup group also has an backup group is basically a stationary
officer assigned to it. group. If the situation calls for an offensive
The backup branch officer may need to attack strategy with numerous or unknown
move from working area to working area to rescues, it may be prudent to get a backup
ensure that his group officers are providing group established from the onset of the
the best coverage possible to their specific operation. The line might be positioned in a
working crews. stairwell and be expected to remain in that
stairway for the duration of the incident
until command gives the “under control”
benchmark (fig. 12–13).
· >| 149 |< ·

Fig. 12–13. Fire in an apartment building where command may Fig. 12–14. The backup crew is protecting the interior stairs in
choose to assign the first sector as backup this apartment fire.
In the example described earlier, the first At this time, command would tell the
officer on the scene faces an obvious working crew to take a line inside and protect the
fire. He knows the structure, the occupants, stairs (fig. 12–14). (In doing so, ideally the
and the fire potential. The strategy at this fire backup crew would pull a charged line into
would be offensive. (To go defensive at this the structure and find the fire apartment.)
fire would only push the fire around inside If the door to the apartment is not closed,
the structure and afford little opportunity they should attempt to close it. The chance
to rescue any occupants.) It would be of finding a viable victim in the involved
wise to make the backup group the first apartment is slim, and the effort must be
assignment at this fire. weighed against protecting savable victims.
The radio transmission would be similar From that point on, the backup group
to the following: should do everything to prevent the fire from
“Engine 5 is at 1945 Vermont Avenue. We spreading into the hall and the open stairway
have a working fire in an occupied apartment for the following reasons:
building. Engine 5 is Vermont Command.”
“Command to Engine 5: You’re Backup!” · > Occupants attempting to leave their
apartments will have an easier time
descending the stairs (if that is their
chosen exit route and exiting.3
· > Crews assigned to search will have

an easier time getting into the upper
floors (and working there) if they
know a crew is preventing the fire
from entering the stairs.
· >| 150 |< ·

· > Once an attack group has been When to Assign Backup

assigned, it can open the door to the
fire-involved apartment and start to Assigning backup is a situational
work on controlling the fire. decision. Normally backup is assigned after
the attack groups, and perhaps even search
· > At the time the working groups enter, groups, have been assigned and have begun
they already have a backup crew working. However, there may be times when
assigned and working. command may want to assign a backup crew
immediately on arrival. The crew could be
The order in which groups are placed on used to do the following:
command’s to-do list at this fire is indeed
out of the norm. However, a logical approach · > Protect the means of egress
was given to an extreme problem. In this and access if the location and
case, the positioning and application of one involvement of fire warrants, as in
hoseline with the objective of holding a fire the above scenario.
to a specific area while keeping the stairs
operable allowed occupants to escape under · > Provide a protective line for search
their own power and provided a safe means of crews if the first priority (item on the
access for firefighters to trapped or frightened to-do list) is search.
occupants who chose not to leave.
For example, let’s say that command · > Ensure a safe and continuous means
assigned the first crew as attack. The attack of egress for interior crews if the fire
group would have taken the line into the involves more than one level or area
structure by way of the front door and up and it could affect the outcome.
into the involved apartment. As the crew
advanced on the fire, the first problem it
would have encountered was that the door
to the fire apartment could not be closed
because of the hoseline. Consequently,
smoke, heat, and fire would have passed into
the hallway and eventually banked down the
stairs. Remember, it’s not always prudent to
put out fire as soon as possible.
· >| 151 |< ·


1) Backup’s only purpose is _______________
_______________________________________.

backup officer? ________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
_______________________________________
3) Anytime backup finds fire, it should put

it out.
True or False
4) Small fires in commercial occupancies do
not require that the backup engine have
its own water supply. In the scenario above (fig. 12–15), you are
True or False on the third unit to arrive at this reported
fire. The complement of apparatus and
5) As a rule of thumb, the backup line should manpower is what you normally receive on
follow _______________ into the structure. a report of a fire in a residential occupancy.
You are riding the unit assigned back up.
6) For a fire on the first floor of a residential The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a
home, the backup line should be Sunday morning. The weather is not a factor.
positioned _____________________________ With that, you have all the information given
_______________________________________. to you on dispatch.
7) For a fire on the second floor of a 1) What are your initial concerns upon
residential occupancy, the backup line arrival? _______________________________
should be positioned ___________________ ________________________________________
_______________________________________. ________________________________________
8) For a basement fire, the backup line 2) Where will you get your line? ___________
should be positioned ___________________ ________________________________________
_______________________________________. ________________________________________
9) For an attic fire, the backup line should 3) What size line do you pull? _____________
be positioned __________________________ ________________________________________
_______________________________________.
4) How will you enter the building? The first
10) The only person who can order the in engine took a 13⁄4” line in the front door.
backup line charged is the officer assigned ________________________________________
to backup. ________________________________________
True or False ________________________________________
· >| 152 |< ·

5) Where will you position the backup line? 1) What are your initial concerns upon
________________________________________ arrival? _______________________________
________________________________________
6) When would you charge the line? _______ ________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________ 2) Where will you get your line? ___________
________________________________________
7) After the line is in position, what would ________________________________________
you as the officer do next? ______________
________________________________________ 3) What size line do you pull? _____________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
4) How will you enter the building? The first

in engine took a 13⁄4” line in the front door.
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
5) Where will you position the backup line?

________________________________________
6) When would you charge the line? _______

________________________________________
________________________________________
Fig. 12–16. Scenario 7) After the line is in position, what would
you as the officer do next? ______________
In the scenario above (fig. 12–16), you are ________________________________________
on the third unit to arrive at this reported ________________________________________
fire. The complement of apparatus and ________________________________________
manpower is what you normally receive on
a report of a fire in a residential occupancy.
You are riding the unit assigned back up.
to you on dispatch.
· >| 153 |< ·

Endnotes
1. Benchmarks are specific announcements given by
group officers. They are covered in chapter 18.
2. Backup groups may be assigned at incidents
other than structure fires. These incidents are
explained within their specific areas. This section
covers only structure fires.
3. Civilians normally attempt to leave a building
from the same location they entered. Unconscious
occupants are most often found within the area
leading to the exit they selected.
· >| 154 |< ·

13
The Mission of Ventilation
T
he mission of ventilation is to remove or channel the products of combustion,
mechanically or naturally, from the fire structure into a nonthreatening area.
Ventilation, the last of the Big Four
essential functional groups used at structure
fires, lessens the burden on working crews at
fires by removing heat and smoke from working
areas and improving visibility. If done correctly,
ventilation also provides additional survival time
for trapped or fleeing occupants.
In chapter 11, “The Mission of Search,”
I discussed Plan B if staffing or the size of the
structure prohibits the completion of a search.
Ventilation is that Plan B. In fact, since the first
edition of this book, I have concluded that under
most circumstances, ventilation is the second
most beneficial (and hence important) task that
needs to be accomplished on the fireground. This
is for two reasons. It increases survivability for
victims and it facilitates a safer extinguishment
by providing the by-products of knockdown a
place to go. Outside ventilation (OV) keeps us
from streaming ourselves out of buildings. OV
was a necessity when my father fought fires, when
there were no SCBAs (self-contained breathing
apparatus) and no hoods. They crawled in as far
as possible. When they heard the window break Fig. 13–1. A truck crew performing outside ventilation (OV)
· >| 155 |< ·

to the room on fire, they opened the door and Just as an improperly applied hose
hit the fire. That was called the “coordinated stream can push fire to unaffected areas of
fire attack.” That was the buzzword when a structure, a ventilation hole improperly
I came on, and then it died. Well, it shouldn’t located on a roof can pull heat and smoke
have. Outside ventilation is a necessity in to unaffected areas within the structure.
today’s firefighting world, also. Command must understand the principles
When attack approaches the fire room or that apply to and affect ventilation. Most
area, he or she instructs the OVM (outside important, command needs well-trained,
vent man) via radio, and the OVM takes competent officers.
the glass in the window or area of the fire With the incident management system
(fig. 13–1). The attack crew then moves (IMS), command need not focus on ventilation,
into the area and darkens the fire. In doing but should do the following:
so, all the steam generated is forced (high
pressure to low pressure) out the window · > Logically place ventilation somewhere
to a nonthreatening area, making the on command’s to-do list.
whole operation safer.
· > Assign ventilation to the most
appropriate unit on the scene when
it pops to the top of the list.
The Relationship Between
· > Be confident that the group
Command and Ventilation officer assigned to ventilation will
accomplish the task with expedience,
Ventilation is an art and an acquired enthusiasm, and expertise.
skill. Good truck officers have certain
instincts that make them successful in It all goes back to training and experience.
ventilation operations. Even seasoned fire Some smaller departments do not have the
officers who have little experience on a truck luxury of having permanently assigned truck
have difficulty in determining where, when, officers. (Many departments do not even
and how to vent a structure being attacked have trucks.) This does not mean they need
by fire. Good truck officers don’t just “gut” not vent single-family residential structures
a fire out (although opening a gable roof involved in fire. What it means is that they
with a fire axe is the most consistently need to cross-train their officers in numerous
demanding work on the fireground). Some firefighting evolutions and techniques.
logic—not just brute force—must be behind When, as command, I assign ventilation,
the truck officers’ actions. I have in the back of my mind a picture of
what I believe needs to be done, whether it
is to open the roof or only the windows. If
I have the time and I know how I want the
building ventilated, I tell the truck officer
when making the assignment, “Command
to Truck 9, you’re ventilation! I need
the roof opened!”
· >| 156 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Ventilation |< ·
The transmission to the truck officer Scenario

leaves little doubt as to:
· > Who is to vent
· > How ventilation is to be accomplished
· > What tools should be brought

up to the fire
I do not believe command needs to tell

ventilation where to put the hole or place the
fan. This truck officer gets paid more than
the firefighters on the truck because the
officer has more expertise. However, relief Fig. 13–2. The second floor of this residential structure is heavily
officers, newly promoted officers, or officers involved in fire. This fire has vented itself.
on trade might ride the officer’s seat of the
truck. In these instances, the time command Command is at the scene of a working
spends giving a little direction may save much fire in a single-family house with heavy
time and effort later—and even parts of the involvement on the second floor. Command
structure. When a less experienced officer is assigns the lieutenant responding on the truck
commanding a truck company, I may take to be Ventilation; the lieutenant has seven
the time to tell this officer how and where years of experience.
I think the structure should be vented. That’s Command to Truck 7: You’re Ventilation.
part of my job as command. If the structure That is the only transmission Command
is not vented at all, vented poorly, or vented makes concerning ventilation. As Command is
in a manner that is counterproductive, that standing at the command post, he sees out of
reflects not only on command but also on the the corner of his eye the truck company walking
department as a whole. toward the building with ground ladders and the
chainsaw. In his mind, he now knows the truck
crew is going to vent the building, and by the
means he had in mind (opening the roof). A hole
at the ridge board of this structure, preferably
over the attic stairs, is the best location for
the hole. A hole approximately 36 inches by
36 inches (approximately two rafters square)
would be adequate. Command has worked
with this officer for years and knows the officer
will vent as directly over the dominant vertical
channel as possible, and with a hole two rafters
square. Command need not walk up the ladder
to ensure the location of the hole or its size.
Let’s look at this a little more closely by

considering another scenario.
· >| 157 |< ·

Scenario Command makes the following assignments:

Command to Engine 5: You’re Attack
Command to Truck 5: You’re Ventilation
As soon as the transmission is completed,
the occupant starts telling him about the puppy
still in the house. Command has no time to give
additional instruction to the new truck officer.
In Command’s mind, two things will happen:
· > The attack officer will take a 11⁄2- or

13⁄4-inch line through the front door and
push the fire out the back, and
· > The truck company will set the

positive-pressure ventilation (PPV) fan
and also push the smoke out the back.
Fig. 13–3. Light smoke is showing from the first floor As Command is explaining to the rescue
of a structure. squad officer where to look for the puppy,
he sees out of the corner of his eye the truck
Command is at the scene of a small kitchen fire company approaching with a ladder and the
on the first floor of a two-story house (Fig. 13–3). He chainsaw. This time, he tells Ventilation that
knows that a newly promoted officer is riding the ventilation is to be accomplished with a PPV
truck today. Many things are going on in the front fan and not by punching a hole in the roof.
of the house. The occupants are concerned about
their pet dog. The first-in engine took a hydrant Would command be responsible if he or
that was frozen and can provide only booster-tank she did not see the truck company coming up
water. On top of that, the second-due engine is with the ladder, and if the crew had started
held up by a train three blocks away. Command to open the roof? No! To be responsible, you
knows several things: must have knowledge that a specific situation
exists or an action is being taken.
· > At the present time, the fire involves only the There has to be trust between command
kitchen near the stove and some cupboards and all the group officers. The ventilation
directly above the stove. group will affect the outcome of the incident,
as will attack, search, backup, exposure,
· > The fire is small and should be extinguished by and so on. The problem may be different,
less than 500 gallons of water on the scene. but the trust must be the same. If command
has information that will (1) aid the officer,
· > Water must be put on the fire quickly, or it (2) take the mystery out of the assignment,
may spread to other parts of the house and and (3) not lead to micromanagement, then
beyond the capability of the 500 gallons of command should give it.
water available.
· > The truck coming has a new officer with

three members.
· >| 158 |< ·

· > Left to collect at the upper levels of

the structure to either accumulate
further or dissipate naturally.
Therefore, we ventilate for the following

reasons:
· > To stop the damage that smoke and

the other products of combustion do
to objects in the fire area. The leading
cause of fire damage is smoke. Smoke
Fig. 13–4. A crew venting a commercial roof coats everything and leaves an
unpleasant odor.
Why Ventilate? · > To assist escaping or trapped

occupants, including pets. Trapped
I myself have asked, “Why ventilate?” and fleeing occupants stand a better
at many fires. The following basic physical chance of surviving if quick, properly
facts make ventilation (for the most part) a placed, and channeled ventilation
necessary aspect at every structure fire. As takes place. Smoke, which includes
substances burn, the combustion process carbon monoxide, is the leading killer
produces heat and toxic gases. These gases, at fires. At fires where occupants are
generally referred to as smoke, become lighter still in danger and exposed to heat
than the surrounding air and rise until they and smoke, ventilation should be one
meet an obstruction. The smoke then will of the first actions taken. This is a
travel horizontally until it can rise again. difficult task, and it may cause the
If contained by walls and a ceiling, smoke fire to spread to other parts of the
will bank down through an opening such building. However, it should always be
as an archway, window, or door until it can considered when lives are in jeopardy.
rise again. This is a blessing for firefighters
(and everyone else). Think of what the world · > To make our job easier. Ventilation
would be like today if heated gases from helps visibility. When searching, it is
fire (hostile or friendly) were heavier than much easier to look for victims than to
air! We wouldn’t be burning for too long—or feel for them. The quicker ventilation
even more correctly, everything would have can be completed, the quicker
burned long, long ago. visibility returns to the area—making
As the by-products of combustion rise, the operation safer and facilitating
they can either be a more complete search. Ventilation
allows us to enter areas that have an
· > Let out at the top of the structure overabundance of heat. I have been
through a hole provided; on the top of a stairway unable to
advance because of the heat. With
· > Pushed out of openings in a more every passing second, I would be
horizontal fashion; or forced back down the stairs. As soon
· >| 159 |< ·

as the truck crew opened the roof, by a burning fire to rise. Smoke and
it was as if a blanket had been lifted other products of combustion will
off me. Almost instantly, I was able naturally be drawn out of the structure
to advance. Ventilation makes the if an unobstructed path is provided.
work area more comfortable. In the
hot summer months, I have placed · > Wind. A significant factor in
electric fans in windows on fire floors firefighting, wind will move smoke
to provide horizontal ventilation. and other products of combustion
During overhaul, this can mean the throughout a structure. It will affect
difference between OK and spent smoke movement in direct proportion
crews. Adequate ventilation during to the following:
overhaul can reduce the time needed · > Wind velocity.
in rehab. Although I haven’t seen · > Height of the building. Normally,
studies to substantiate it, there must ground-level winds are less forceful
be a direct correlation between good than winds at higher elevations, due to
ventilation during the later phases the friction of the ground.
of firefighting (overhaul, salvage, · > Size and arrangement of openings.
and button up) and improved vital The larger the opening, the more
signs during rehab. movement. Equal openings on the
windward and leeward sides create
the most movement.
Types of Ventilation · > Stack effect.1 Present in high-rise

buildings and more prevalent in
There are two basic types of ventilation: very cold or very hot weather, this
natural and mechanical. Both are effective phenomenon—a flow of air in vertical
under certain conditions and ineffective shafts created by the difference
under others. The ventilation group officer between the air densities and
determines which venting method should pressures on the inside and outside
be used unless the command or operations of the building—helps to remove the
officer orders otherwise. products of combustion from the
structure. If the inside or outside air
temperatures are equal, there is little
if any air movement. If the outside
Natural Ventilation temperature is less than the inside
temperature, the movement flows
In natural ventilation, the products of from bottom to top openings. However,
combustion are removed or channeled from if the outside temperature is greater
the structure using natural processes, such than the inside temperature, the air
as the following: will move from the top to the lower
portions of the structure. In addition
· > Convection currents. This physical to inside and outside temperatures,
process allows smoke and other building height, the air tightness of
products of combustion (e.g., gases, exterior walls, and air leakage between
burned and unburned fuels) produced floors are factors in the stack effect.
· >| 160 |< ·

Fig. 13–5. Air enters the windward side; smoke, heat and gases exit the leeward side.
Methods used in natural ventilation Make a hole in the upper level of the
structure (normally the roof), allowing
Open windows to allow the wind to push convection currents to draw out smoke and
the smoke out of the structure. Normally, other by-products of combustion. Normally a
this process is used at small fires where truck company (although any company with
the production of smoke and heat are an axe can chop a hole) will get to the roof
small. The process includes opening the top of the structure and cut a hole to let out the
portion of the windows on the lee side and heat and smoke.
then opening the lower portions of windows
on the windward side across from the fire
area (Fig. 13–5). This method can be slow,
depending on the wind speed and access to
the fire area (basement or areas not in direct
line with the wind). Additionally, it may
take considerable time to remove smoke
that is above the window line if the wind
speed is slight to moderate. Since most of
the fires to which we respond are handled
by one line or less (e.g., when the fire was
extinguished with an extinguisher before
the fire department’s arrival), this process
is used a large part of the time, particularly
in rural America, where truck companies
are not prevalent. Fig. 13–6. At this first-floor residential fire, smoke from the sofa
fire rises until it finds the dominant vertical channel.
· >| 161 |< ·

Rules of thumb for venting a roof

When venting a roof, cut the hole as
directly over the dominant vertical channel as
possible (fig. 13–6). Communication between
ventilation and attack may be required. If
the heat has an unobstructed path to the
roof (if there is no ceiling or other horizontal
obstruction such as in an attic floor, cockloft,
or one-story warehouse fire), place the
hole as directly over the fire as possible.
If the fire is in an area where the path is
obstructed, make the hole over whatever
vertical avenue—called the dominant vertical Fig. 13–7. Fire on the second floor. The attack crew pulls the
channel—the heat is taking. If the attack ceiling in the bedroom to let the smoke up into the attic, where a
crew punched a hole in the ceiling with a pike vent hole is directly over the fire.
pole, make the ventilation hole directly over
that hole (fig. 13–7). If the heat is allowed to Each tool has its place on the roof. I have
move up natural openings such as skylights, found that the chain saw is quicker and safer
attic stairs, and scuttle holes, the hole on the for use on the flat commercial and newer
roof should be directly over the natural hole plywood roofs. However, being of the old
(or dominant vertical channel). When this school, I am not yet convinced that a truck
cannot be done, the movement of the heat crew cannot cut a hole as quickly and more
and smoke up into one opening may cause safely on an older gable roof with a fire axe.
additional damage at the stairs up to the attic. It takes considerably more time to carry the
The traditional tool for opening a hole on the saw up the ladder and start it than to carry
roof has been the fire axe. Opening the roof the axe up the ladder with you. The majority
with an axe takes strength and endurance. of the gable roofs in my jurisdiction can be
The newer tool used in topside ventilation is opened without the use of a roofer. You can
the carbide-tipped chain saw, which is similar use an axe without a roofer. You can’t use
to the normal home chain saw except that it a chain saw without a roofer. Look at the
has greater running speeds (which is helpful time lost carrying, raising, and positioning a
for cutting through nails and other roofing roofer. The fire axe has its place on a roof.
materials) and saw teeth with carbide-steel
tips for strength.
· >| 162 |< ·

Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation, the use of
mechanical (along with natural) processes
to remove smoke and other products of
combustion from the structure, normally is
accomplished by one of three means: fans;
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC); and fog.
Fig. 13–8. A carbide-tipped chain saw.

Fans
Don’t let yourself be cut off by the heat
(and possible fire) that comes out of the Probably the most common method
vent hole. Keep yourself between the ladder of mechanical ventilation, fans are of two
and the hole. The hole for a normal house basic types—negative pressure and positive
fire should be cut as near the ridge board pressure. Negative-pressure fans are the
as possible. It should be a minimum of two older electric fans carried on the trucks or
rafters square. If the rafters are on 16-inch other apparatus. (In some departments,
centers, then the hole will be approximately they may have been put on the apparatus
32 inches by 32 inches. If the rafters are floor to make way for the new, more
on 24-inch centers, the hole will be about powerful positive-pressure ventilation fans.)
48 inches by 48 inches. Negative-pressure fans still have a place
To use the stack effect, open the door on the apparatus. They normally are hung
or hatch above the vertical opening in the by hooks on windows, moldings, ledges, or
high-rise building (normally a stairway or door frames and pull smoke from inside the
elevator shaft). Open the door on the fire floor structure to the outside, thereby creating a
to allow the smoke to be pulled by an effect negative pressure inside the structure (or
similar to the Venturi effect, and then make area to be vented). They generally are smaller
an opening in the lowest level on the shaft and can move only approximately 5,000 cfm
(normally the street level or lobby door). The (cubic feet per minute) of air, although larger
stack effect will pull air from the lower level “smoke ejectors” can move up to 15,000 cfm.
up through the shaft and out the top. In The smoke ejectors can move quite a bit of
doing so, the flow moving past the open door smoke but are heavy and hard to maneuver.
on the fire floor will draw smoke from the fire Additionally, you can’t just plug them into any
floor out and into the shaft and up. household electric socket. Special generators
are usually required for their use.
· >| 163 |< ·

Fig. 13–9. A negative-pressure electric fan.
Positive-pressure fans are very effective Fig. 13–10. A positive-pressure fan

for ventilating a structure if used correctly.
They average about a 20,000 cfm capacity.
The fan is placed outside the structure This method has several advantages:
and forces air inside, creating a positive
pressure of air within the structure. If there · > Smoke from almost anywhere can
is no avenue for this forced air to leave the be channeled inside a structure
structure, the air will back up and seep out to almost any exhaust location. If
of small natural openings, as well as back out done correctly, a fan set in front of
of the same openings into which it is being the house can move smoke from a
forced. This can be very dangerous. However, first-floor bedroom with no windows,
if an opening to the outside is made in an down a hall, and out another room
area where the products of combustion are, without filling other areas with
this positive air pressure will force the smoke smoke. Additionally, properly placed
out of that opening. and channeled positive pressure
ventilation (PPV) can temporarily
move smoke and heat away from
trapped or fleeing victims to less
threatening areas.
· > Smoke from a specific fire can be

forced out a window in that area
without being dragged throughout the
house. You can virtually localize the
ventilation process.
· >| 164 |< ·

· > It helps to locate small hidden fires. Heating, ventilation, and

If looking for such fires, start the fan
air-conditioning (HVAC)
and stand back. Fanning the fires
with a blast of air will intensify them. The HVAC systems present in newer
We have used this technique many commercial buildings such as high- and low-rise
times when overhauling fires. office buildings may be used for ventilation.
These systems are quite sophisticated and may
require that an engineer be on duty 24 hours
Some distinct precautions, including the a day to operate them. HVAC systems can pull
following, must be taken with this form of any and all products of combustion from the
ventilation. It is not a ventilation panacea. fire area to the outside, or they can pull smoke
If used improperly or at the incorrect time, and heat throughout the entire structure.
it can worsen fire conditions and possibly Preplanning is the key. Know your buildings.
harm fleeing victims.
· > Do not start the fan until you know Fog

where the seat of the fire is. If you pull
up and have considerable smoke and A fog stream is often overlooked as a means
no open flame coming from the front of emergency ventilation. A 11⁄2-inch line flowing
of the structure, and you blindly turn 60 gpm at 100 psi nozzle pressure can produce
on the PPV fan without knowing the from 10,000 to 30,000 cfm of air movement,2
location of the fire, you could fan this depending on the size of the ventilation
fire with additional fresh air and push opening and the application method. This
it toward any opening in the building. is one of those rare times I advocate using
It may be nice to have fresh air at our a fog stream inside a structure (fig. 13–11).
backs while advancing toward a fire, Since the stream is directed outside through
but at what cost? Find the fire, make an open window, not much steam, if any, is
sure there is an adequate exit to push generated. Use this form of ventilation only in
the air out that you are forcing in, rare instances, such as to facilitate a search.
and then turn on the fan. The only I used it when I was a lieutenant assigned to
exception to this is if the location of Squad 1. We were at a single-family two-story
the fire is clear and the area where the residential structure fire conducting a search
heat and smoke will be exiting is of on the second floor. The first thing one of my
benefit to firefighting efforts. In those crew members yelled to me when we made the
instances, you can certainly turn on second floor was that he had found an empty
the fan even prior to advancing. When crib. About that time, another member yelled
using the PPV fan, consider the same that he had toys on the floor. We now knew
rule of thumb as for a fire attack: If children might be inside. A company came
the fire is in the rear, put the fan in up behind us with a hoseline. I had the team
the front; if the fire is in the front, put quickly vent the area with a fog stream. Almost
the fan in the rear. immediately, smoke conditions improved.
Now, instead of feeling for victims, we could
look for them. Luckily, we found no one. This
form of ventilation can quickly clear a room if
you need to look for someone.
· >| 165 |< ·

Which Type of
Ventilation to Use?
Which type of ventilation should be used
depends on the following factors:
· > The location of the fire. If the fire is

on the ground or second floor of a
residence and it has not spread to
the attic, mechanical ventilation,
using fans, is probably called for. The
proper use of PPV is proving to be the
most effective means of selectively
Fig. 13–11. Firefighter venting using a fog stream channeling smoke to or from areas.
If the fire has entered the attic or
cockloft or the structure itself (inside
floor or wall assemblies), you may
The procedure need to open the roof. If this is the
case, then, you may not want to turn
Open or break an entire window. Put on the PPV fan.
the nozzle on 60-inch fog, and stand back
from the window. Open the nozzle, and move · > The group assigned. There will
forward or back until the majority of the be times when fans will be
stream is flowing out of the window. counterproductive to other working
Some problems are associated with this groups. When this is the case, topside
means of ventilation. You can pull heat and ventilation may be considered. In
fire into your area of operation if you are other cases, simply opening windows
not careful. It may be wise to close the door may help for the short term.
behind you (if the line does not stop you) to
keep any heat, fire, and smoke out of your · > The stage of the fire. If the fire is at
area. Backup should be notified to take a the flashover stage, I don’t advocate
more defensive position between you and the putting the PPV fan in front of a door.
original fire area. If the fire is in the high-temperature,
“Attack to backup: We’re going to have to low-oxygen smoldering stage, you
vent a room on Division 2 with fog. Keep the don’t want to open the door and turn
fire from moving down the hall on us.” on the fan (i.e., if you could turn it on
You will cause additional water damage prior to the “boom”).
to the structure. It’s hard to throw a perfectly
round stream through a rectangular window. Experience is the answer. By watching
To cover as much of the opening as possible, what works and what doesn’t, you gain an
some water will be thrown on the floor and understanding of the principles and concepts
walls. If you must use this method, use discussed in this text and others.
it only until you can see; then have the There are a few keys. When I was a
stream shut down. young lieutenant, I tried to fit all the signs
· >| 166 |< ·

and symptoms of firefighting into neat little · > The extent of the fire. Is there a small
packages and came up with little cure-alls: fire in a single room, or is the entire
If this, then that. Sadly, it isn’t that simple. floor (or are floors) in flashover?
Fire situations are dynamic, complicated, If only a part of a floor (excluding
and unique. the attic) is involved, ventilation
should be high on command’s list.
The rule is, the more involvement
(or flashover), the higher the place
When to Vent ventilation takes on the to-do list,
up to the point of total involvement.
Ventilation should be started as soon as If the fire is in the high-heat,
possible. Some factors must be considered low-oxygen smoldering stage
when determining where ventilation should (backdraft potential), ventilation
appear on command’s to-do list. Ventilation must be the first item on the
begun too soon or in the wrong location can to-do list.
cause the fire to spread to unwanted areas
and intensify. I was at a fire recently where · > The location of the fire. If the fire is
a firefighter freelanced and broke several in an area where the smoke and
first-floor windows from the outside on the heat being produced are or could
“D” side of the structure, giving additional be affecting the efforts of those
oxygen to the fire. Within seconds, the fire attempting to flee, ventilation must
flowed toward that opening. If backup had be very high on the to-do list.
not been doing its job, we might have cut Conversely, if the by-products of the
off several firefighters doing a search on fire are not affecting the occupants,
Division 1. That was the wrong time and way the structure, its contents, or
to vent that fire. The proper time to ventilate firefighting efforts (such as in an
a building depends on the following: attic fire), ventilation can be placed
lower on the to-do list. A rule of
· > The stage of the fire. If the fire thumb that could be applied is that
is at the incipient, free-burning, in an occupied dwelling, the lower
or high-smoke-producing stage, the level of the fire involved, the
ventilation should be relatively high higher the priority ventilation takes.
on command’s to-do list. Quick (There is more area above that can
ventilation, probably the second or be affected.) Some factors such as
third assignment made (as long as location of victims, time of fire, and
search is not a major concern), will be extent of involvement may change
required. If the fire is in the flashover this rule, but it works.
stage, more heat is being produced.
Normally there is plenty of oxygen in · > The occupancy type. For the most part
the area during the flashover stage. (unless otherwise indicated), this book
Topside ventilation probably will be deals specifically with single-family
necessary. In the high-temperature structure fires. If a fire involves a
smoldering fire (backdraft potential), plant that manufactures explosives,
ventilation is the first item ventilation may not be a concern
on the to-do list. (depending on a few items). Ventilation
· >| 167 |< ·

in public-assembly occupancy will Look at the picture! If a specific rescue

take precedence over many other or a quick knockdown can be made, then
functional groups. Ventilation in a it may take precedence over the need to
vacant single-family structure that ventilate immediately. Keep in mind that
has had previous fires would have a the biggest hole in the roof would help
lower place on my to-do list than if only a little if the fire were allowed to burn
the fire were on the first floor of an uncontrollably. You have to get in and put
occupied home at 1530 hours on a the fire out to be effective.
Saturday afternoon in the wintertime. The personnel and equipment on-scene
Know your buildings! and responding will make a difference.
You can’t expect your crews to do it all. If
· > The other needs of the incident. It’s your department is like mine, personnel
hard to make blanket statements normally is not a concern. I have a minimum
about the priority of specific group of 103 personnel on duty 24 hours a day,
assignments at incidents. There are 365 days a year. However, I realize that my
so many variables. Keep in mind the type of department is the exception and not
four priorities of command discussed the rule. Most departments need to rely on
in Chapter 9: firefighter safety, civilian mutual aid to fight even the normal working
safety, stopping the problem, and fire in a single-family residence. Additionally,
conserving property. the first few minutes on the scene do not
provide the 15 to 25 firefighters I usually get
What may be key at a fire in a building one (normally within the first 3 minutes). I read
day may be insignificant in a fire in the same an article in Fire Engineering concerning
building 3 weeks later. I hope several key a firefighter who became trapped on the
phrases and concepts that I have repeated third floor of an exposure.3 The author was
(at times ad nauseam) have stuck and will discussing a fire in a large, three-story,
stick with you for years. One of those is “look multifamily apartment. He said the incident
at the picture.” Speculation while responding commander (IC) “recognized he had a working
is fine and many times beneficial. Good, fire involving the top floors and cockloft area.”
up-to-date preplans are worth their weight in The IC special-called an additional third truck
gold. However, it all changes when you pull up company and ordered the truck company to
in front of the structure. If there is no evidence split into two teams of three to check the
of a fire, and no one is waving you down with exposures. Split the truck company into two
breathless anticipation, then the location of teams of three?! I don’t think so. I’ve never
the gas meter and the name of the key holder seen a five-person truck crew in Toledo,4 let
are worthless pieces of information. If you alone a six-person crew. How do we survive
pull up to a four-family apartment building with three-person truck companies? We do
and have only very light smoke showing from what we can. My point is that command must
the rear door of a unit, ventilation may be look at the picture, develop a to-do list, and
relatively low on the list. However, if you pull then assign on-scene crews to accomplish
up to the Valentine Theater and have people the task. Know your crew’s capability. If
hanging from the second-floor windows and you know you have about 3 minutes to vent
occupants being trampled to death trying to the roof if you expect to find viable victims
escape the smoke, then ventilation should inside, and the normal time to open a roof for
pop to the top of the list. a truck crew is 6 minutes, go to Plan B.
· >| 168 |< ·

Outside Vent Man OVM The Responsibilities

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, fire of Ventilation
departments used OV (outside ventilation)
out of necessity since firefighters went inside As noted several times (I believe
burning buildings with water to extinguish repetition is vital to learning), group officers
fire. It was a necessity. The human body are responsible for the safety of their crews.
cannot tolerate moist heat (the heat produced When venting a roof, this is a key concept
after the knockdown of fire) much over 130°F. (fig. 13–12). The officer assigned to ventilation
To avoid steam burns, firefighters learned a needs to determine the stability of the roof
long time ago that if they opened a window (which is an acquired skill). Sagging rafters,
or door in the fire room or area and then sponginess, and warm or hot spots are
knocked down the fire, the stream and heat indications that the fire has entered the attic
would be forced out the window and not back or cockloft area. In the winter, specific and
on the firefighter throwing (at first literally) uncharacteristic melting of snow or ice is a
at the fire. clear indication that the fire has entered the
Today, OV is still required. It can be done space below you. Once on the roof, crews
more easily today than in the old days with must not cut themselves off from their means
portable radios. As the attack crew advances of egress. Place vent holes with the wind and
on the fire, a single firefighter moves to a situate yourself so that your way off of the
window or door in the fire area opposite the roof is to your back.
oncoming attack crew. When attack, over the
radio, indicates they are ready to hit the fire,
the OVM takes (breaks) the window or door.
As soon as attack hears the breaking glass,
they open the nozzle.
This is called “coordinated fire attack.”
This is one of the few times I will advocate
the IC to be hands-on. In rural America,
if staffing only allows for a single attack
crew, a driver operating the pumps and an
IC (two-in, two-out), I’m OK with command
grabbing a pike pole and performing the
function of OVM. Quickly take the window
and then get back to the command post Fig. 13–12. Using an aerial to provide access to the roof. An
and run the fire. aerial is the safest means of gaining access to a roof.
· >| 169 |< ·

Mandatory mask policies dictate that Questions

SCBAs be worn while venting. I am glad this
policy was adopted after I made chief. It’s 1) What are the three reasons why we vent
hard enough to cut a hole, let alone trying a fire? _________________________________
to do it with an SCBA on and in service. ________________________________________
However, if a department has a mandatory ________________________________________
mask policy, the group officer is responsible
for seeing that the members under his or her 2) Gases always flow from areas of ________
command follow all safety procedures. pressure to areas of __________ pressure.
Ventilation officer is responsible for
ventilating the assigned structure or area. 3) What are the two broad types of ventilation?
If command can’t take the time to give ________________________________________
detailed instructions on how he or she would ________________________________________
like ventilation to be handled, it is up to
ventilation officer to choose what he or she 4) When venting by windows using the wind,
believes to be the most appropriate means of which side of the fire is opened first? ____
venting and then to direct the ventilation crew ________________________________________
while they accomplish that task. It may be as
simple as rolling the PPV fan up to the front 5) How big should the vent hole on a roof of
door and turning it on when command gives a residential structure be? _____________
the word. Or, it may be as complicated as ________________________________________
channeling smoke through a manufacturing
plant away from fleeing workers. 6) How big should the vent hole on a roof of
Ventilation must keep a commercial structure be? _____________
command informed. ________________________________________
If ventilation is on the roof looking at
a 48-inch hole, and the attack crew is still 7) What are the two types of ventilation
screaming that it can’t make the second-floor using fans? ____________________________
stairs, command needs to know that. Once ________________________________________
the hole has been opened and smoke is
coming out, give the appropriate benchmark. 8) It is never advocated that a firefighter
When command gets reports contrary to use a hose stream to vent with.
what he or she has been told, the IC can start True or False
to pinpoint the problem.
9) Outside ventilation is one part of a fire
attack called “_______________ fire attack.”

ventilation officer? _____________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
· >| 170 |< ·

Scenario Based Decision Making 3) What tools will be required? ____________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
4) Where will you vent the building? _______

________________________________________
________________________________________
5) What are your safety concerns? ________

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
In the scenario above (fig. 13–13), you are

the second officer to arrive at this reported
manpower is what you normally receive on
a report of a fire in a residential occupancy.
You are riding the unit assigned Ventilation.
to you on dispatch.
(I realize that smoke is exiting the
building. That does not mean that the Fig. 13–14. Scenario
building is vented. If you believe that it is, go
lay on the floor with the smoke on it without In the scenario above (fig. 13–14), you are
a SCBA and breathe for awhile.) the second officer to arrive at this reported
1) Where will you spot your apparatus? manpower is what you normally receive on
________________________________________ a report of a fire in a residential occupancy.
________________________________________ You are riding the Unit assigned Ventilation.
________________________________________ The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a
2) How are you going to vent the building? With that, you have all the information given
________________________________________ to you on dispatch.
________________________________________
________________________________________ 1) Where will you spot your apparatus?
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
· >| 171 |< ·

2) How are you going to vent the building? Endnotes

________________________________________
________________________________________ 1. O’Hagan, John T. High-Rise/Fire and Life Safety.
1977. Saddle Brook, NJ: Fire Engineering
________________________________________
Books, 155.
3) What tools will be required? ____________ 2. Clark, William E. Fire Fighting/Principles and
Practices. 1974 (2nd printing 1976). Saddle Brook,
________________________________________ NJ: Fire Engineering Books.
________________________________________
3. Pressler, Bob. “Firefighter Trapped.” Fire
Engineering, December 1995, p 56.
4) Where will you vent the building? _______
4. A three-person crew on a truck is a minimum in
________________________________________
Toledo. We rarely exceed that number.
________________________________________
5) What are your safety concerns? ________

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
· >| 172 |< ·

14
The Mission of Exposure
T
he mission of exposure is to prevent the spread of and extinguish any fire in the
assigned area. This means gaining access to the exposed building or area to check for
and mitigate any fire spread into the assigned area or exposure.
The Extinguishment Process

The extinguishment process has three components:
· > Confine the fire.
· > Control the fire.
· > Extinguish the fire.
This concept fits the evolutions required for proper and effective exposure protection to a T.
The extinguishment process and exposure protection

In large part, exposure protection involves the first part of the extinguishment process—
confining the fire. Any fire attack strategy should include confining the fire to its area of
involvement at the moment of the initial attack. I say initial attack because there may be a
significant lapse between time of arrival and the time the initial attack has commenced. At
high-rise fires, this lapse can be more than 20 minutes. An astute incident commander (IC)
would not commit forces to the area where the fire currently is on arrival but to the area where
the fire will be when the water starts to flow.
· >| 173 |< ·

Heat Transfer Convection

To fully understand exposure protection, Convected heat moves through a
you must have knowledge of how heat is circulating medium. Watch a campfire. The
transferred (spreads). There are four methods plume of smoke and heat rising up from
of heat transfer: conduction, direct flame the fire is caused by (and is) convection.
impingement, radiation, and convection. Convection is responsible for most of the fire
spread inside a structure.
Although radiant heat is released from
Conduction a convection current, the major spread is
upward. Convection current (and smoke that
Heat is transferred from one molecule to rides these currents) will travel upward until
another as molecules come in direct contact it dissipates or meets an obstruction. If an
with each other. Heat always flows from obstruction is met, the current will travel
hotter objects toward cooler objects. This horizontally until it finds another way up.1
method of spread is indicative of spread from If no outlet is found, the heat will bank down
one area to another via steel beams, cable, until it finds a way up or dissipates.
wire, and even nails in hidden areas within
the structure.
Types of Exposures
Direct flame impingement
There are two types of exposures: interior
The flame of a burning object comes in and exterior. Protecting these exposures is
contact with another object—most significant discussed later in this chapter.
in incipient fires. Impingement also affects
fires in the free-burning and flashover stages.
Direct flame impingement is a factor in fire Interior exposures
spread to exposed buildings.
We don’t usually refer to interior fire
spread, from room to room or floor to floor,
Radiation as interior exposures.2 We generally enter
the structure and make an “unconscious”
The transfer of heat by radiation is in the effort to stop the spread of fire and limit it
form of electromagnetic waves that travel to the smallest area of involvement. Interior
in straight lines from the source of the fire. exposures are areas within a structure that
When these waves strike the surface of a could become threatened by the spread of
material, it causes the atoms within the fire. Interior exposures are most frequently
molecules of the material to move faster, thought of as fire spread from room to room,
creating heat. The closer the source, the including hallways, although fire spread can
stronger the electromagnetic waves, hence also be from floor to floor.
more radiated heat. Radiation is a concern There are two basic forms of interior
with exterior exposures and to a lesser extent fire spread, and thus two forms of interior
with interior exposures. exposures: horizontal and vertical.
· >| 174 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Exposure |< ·
Horizontal interior exposures Exposure Protection

Fire spreads horizontally, basically In general, the need for protecting
from room to room (or from furniture to exposures depends on the number of BTUs
furniture within a room). This form of spread being produced and the ignition temperature
is caused mostly by radiation and direct of exposed material and the distance the
flame impingement. material is from the source of heat. If the
amount of heat being produced from the
source fire is small, the need for immediate
Vertical interior exposures exposure protection is not great. If the heat
from the source fire is significant, but the
Fire spreads to upper portions of a exposed material—such as concrete wall—has
room or from floor to floor, normally by a relatively high ignition temperature, the
convection currents. need for immediate exposure protection
again is not urgent. If the distance between
the material and the source is significant,
Exterior exposures the radiant heat will be dissipated. The
interior exposures are affected mostly by
These exposures are items of value convected heat (although radiant heat will
outside the structure or area of origin that ignite materials in an area more horizontal
are or could be threatened by fire or the to the fire). This indicates that for interior
products of combustion. Exterior exposures exposures the fire tends to spread upward
are normally, but not exclusively, other rather than horizontally. With exterior
structures. Command or department exposures, the converse is true. Radiant
procedure determines what constitutes heat, the culprit here, travels in a straight
an item of value. Other homes (vacant or line from the source. The radiant heat from
occupied),3 vehicles parked in the driveways, the burning fire travels horizontally from
barns, sheds, and garages are considered windows, doors, and exposed wall surfaces
exposures. Questionable exposures would be to adjacent exposed surfaces (fig. 14–1).
plants and shrubs, toys, bikes, and fencing.
All of these could certainly have value, but
their relevancy as it relates to dollar loss and
the use of personnel is questionable. The
insurance company that underwrites the
individual property owner will determine the
value of these sundry items.
Fig. 14–1. Aerials are great tools in exposure protection.
· >| 175 |< ·

Interior horizontal exposure protection impingement. To protect materials from both

of these forms of heat transfer, you need
To protect horizontal interior exposures, to cool the exposed material. Cooling the
locate the seat of the fire and place a hose surface of the exposed material with water is
stream between the fire and its expected the most effective way to protect exposures
avenue of spread (sources of spread). from these forms of heat transfer. Apply a
Hallways work well as these cutoff vantage straight stream onto the upper surface of the
points if the room is well involved. (By the exposure and let the water wash down over
way, simply closing the door to an involved the face of the exposed surface. This flow of
room will stop horizontal interior exposure water helps to keep the material below its
spread. Most home doors are rated for ignition temperature. Water normally does
20 minutes. Older homes do not have rated not flow upward. Direct your stream to the
doors, but older doors seem to have more upper portion of the exposure.
mass, which is directly related to resistance.) I see crews (and officers) assigned as
For smaller fires, advancement into the room exposure commit two big errors. The first is
or fire area will help cut off the fire. Finally, directing their stream predominantly onto
the amount of convected and radiant heat the original fire, neglecting the exposure.
being produced must be reduced. If a vantage point for applying the stream to
an exposure permits effectively hitting both
the exposure and the original fire source,
Interior vertical exposure protection then it is permissible to occasionally hit the
source. Remember that until the source is
To protect vertical interior exposures, knocked down, radiant heat will continue to
locate the source of the heat and stop or check be generated. A balance must be maintained
the spread of heat by convection currents. between extinguishing the source and
As noted in chapter 11, I prefer the indirect protecting the exposures. The officer
attack for interior firefighting. In this method assigned to exposures must remind crews to
of attack, a straight stream is bounced off the keep cooling the exposure. If the source is
ceiling onto the burning object. An indirect burning to the extent that crews can’t keep
attack begins to check vertical interiors up with cooling the exposure, an additional
exposures. It is mandatory to get above the line may be needed to continuously hit the
fire as soon as it is knocked down to check for source while the exposure line constantly
vertical extension. (Checking for extension is cools the exposure.
covered in chapter 15). The second most common error exposure
crews make is not starting with a large enough
line. Serious exposure fires call for a line larger
Exterior exposure protection than 13⁄4 inches. A 21⁄2-inch preconnected
line should be the first line pulled at a fire
To protect exterior exposures, it is involving a significant exposure problem.
necessary to understand that the majority What it lacks in maneuverability (which is
of heat transfer to exterior exposures not needed if initial line placement is correct),
will be from radiant heat or direct flame it more than makes up for in fire power.
· >| 176 |< ·

The roof area Exterior exposures

The exposure line may have to be moved Determining the order in which
back so that an effective stream can cool the exterior exposures should be protected is
roof in the same manner as the exterior side a little more complicated. Several factors
walls are cooled. must be considered.
Finally, streams should be directed toward The availability of additional companies.
the other exposure items listed earlier in this In urban departments, the availability of
chapter. Vehicles may be moved if the keys personnel usually is not a concern. These
are available. Fences and other pertinent larger departments normally get two or
objects must be cooled. Placing water on three engines on every structure fire. In
exposed objects can keep them below their some areas in the outlying districts, the
ignition temperature. second engine may be 5 minutes away from
the first-in engine; however, the first engine
officer knows another is on the way. In
rural America, this is not always the case.
Prioritizing Exposures Personnel on a structure fire in rural fire
departments range from plenty of personnel
to one or two members on a single apparatus
Interior exposures (while other members respond in their private
vehicles to the scene). In these situations, the
Normally, there is no doubt as to which first-in officer must look at the picture while
interior exposure deserves your attention considering the items below (among others):
first. To a large extent, nature takes the Wind direction. Wind probably is as big
guesswork away from you. For interior an influence as any on exposure protection.
exposures, convection currents will demand It will direct the course of interior fire spread.
that you check extensions to the upper This spread, which follows the direction of
exposures first. If the attack group takes the wind, will move and possibly intensify
the correct avenue into the structure—from the fire. Wind also pushes direct flame and
the unburned portion toward the burning convection currents, which will affect the
area—then they, to a large extent, are spread. All things being equal, choose the
prioritizing the interior exposures. At fires exposure on the lee side of the fire.4
in large occupancies such as nursing homes Wind speed. There is a direct correlation
and public assembly buildings, the priority between the speed of the wind and the effect
of interior exposures will need to be carefully on exposures. The more force behind the wind,
considered. For now, I am concentrating on the more the fire (and its spread) is affected.
the normal house fires we experience day The proximity of the exposed buildings.
in and day out. All things being equal—life safety potential,
economic value, wind direction and speed,
and so on—the closet building to the source
deserves the first attention.
Life safety. Make every attempt to
protect the greatest number of people first.
If, for example, a source fire is affecting
· >| 177 |< ·

two exposures equally, and one is a Make sure that fire has not entered the
single-family frame home and the other structure. When I came on the job, every
a nursing home, direct initial efforts at apparatus had a “water curtain,” a half-circle
protecting the nursing home. device with a 11⁄2-inch coupling for a hoseline.
Economic value. Again, all things Water would come out of an open pipe (just
being equal (including the fire threat to past the coupling) and strike the half circle,
the exposed structures), you probably will making the prettiest spray stream. The intent
protect what you believe to be the structure was to place this stream between the source
of the most value. In most instances, this is and the exposure and let the stream do the
a judgment call. rest. Well, it just didn’t work!
Occupancy type. Is either structure First, it tended to straighten out the
vacant? Is the structure on the B side an line between the houses. We couldn’t put a
unoccupied warehouse whereas Exposure D firefighter on the water curtain because fire
is an unoccupied museum? Again, this will burning to the extent that it would jeopardize
be a judgment call. nearby houses would endanger the firefighter
Pick your exposure, and then get a line as well. Second, and more to the point, it has
between the source and the structure you’re been determined that a water spray absorbs
protecting. Cool the face of the exposed side only about 15% of the radiant heat produced
as described earlier. by a fire. Another way of saying this is that
water spray will stop only 15% of the radiant
heat passing through it.
Don’t let this fact confuse you with regard
Protecting Exposed Structures to what was previously discussed. Water
allowed to wash down the face of an exposure
The usual picture that comes to mind keeps the surface of the material exposed
when the word exposures is mentioned is a below its ignition temperature. However, a
single-family residential structure. Perhaps spray of water thrown into the air between
in larger urban settings in the East, it the source fire and the exposed surface will
may be another row house (attached by a stop only 15% of the heat radiated. Glass,
party wall to the source structure). In rural too, will stop only about 15% of the radiant
America, it may be outbuildings such as heat being produced by a fire (the source).
barns and storage buildings. No matter what Radiant heat will pass though streams and
the picture, getting a line between the source glass and enter windows and other openings.
fire and the exposed building is the first This heat can and will warm up stuff, like
step in exposure protection. Apply a stream curtains and bedding, above the ignition
of water with sufficient gallons per minute temperatures. Openings in the underside of
to allow water to wash down the face of the eave soffits and other areas also can permit
structure to cool the exposed material below heat to pass into a structure.
its ignition temperature. Make sure that smoke and water are not
To totally ensure that fire will not attack entering the exposed building. Open windows
the exposure, you need to get inside the in the summer and broken glass from heat
structure and make sure of two things: and hose streams can permit smoke and
that (1) fire has not entered the structure water to enter the exposed structure. Even
and (2) smoke and water are not entering though fire may be kept from entering the
the exposed building.
· >| 178 |< ·

exposure, smoke and water damage may Expanding the Assignment

occur. Steps must be taken to ensure that
these two elements are not permitted As with most assignments, the group
into the exposure. officer may need to ask for more help. In
Normally after a line has been put into one respect, the exposure group has a
place to protect the exposure, the officer unique problem. The group officer assigned
assigned to exposure should instruct the to a specific exposure could become
nozzle operator and then send at least one command (for lack of a better term) of his or
member of the crew into the structure to her own structure.
check for fire, smoke, and water damage. Command must still be the only member
It may be necessary to force entry. If the on the fireground who asks for and receives
possibility exists that heat, smoke, or water additional equipment. It would not be prudent
can enter or has entered the structure and or within the scope of responsibility for
the occupant of the exposure is not home, Exposure B to ask for additional units from
I would advise forcing entry. Check and dispatch. Exposure B may be on another fire
recheck areas on the side of the fire source frequency and may not have heard command
and attic. Close any open windows on the ask for additional equipment to be staged.
side of the fire source. If the window cannot Additionally, dispatchers must never send
be closed (if it has broken from the heat), units at the request of anyone on the scene
you may have to place a hoseline inside the except command. Command’s task is to
window to cool the area. focus on the whole. The exposure is only a
It is extremely important to get into the part of the whole. Someone needs to account
attic or cockloft. Heat rises. If the structure is for the entire scene.
of balloon construction, there may be spread As figure 14–2 indicates, command
up to the attic even though the fire came in has not exceeded his span of control at
through the lower levels of the structure. this fire. He still is responsible for only five
Once you have access to the attic, you must subordinates. Under most circumstances,
recheck this area often. I would feel comfortable retaining command
One question often asked is, “Do we at a fire of this magnitude without assigning
need to take a line into the exposure?” If it is an operations officer. However, I would let
possible that fire has entered or could enter Exposure B run his or her fire. If the exposure
the exposure, then get a line. It’s better to get officer needs something, he or she can report
one in now than to play catch-up later. The to me physically (this officer would probably
size of the line should be commensurate with be out in front of these two houses and within
the amount of heat being produced from the 30 feet of me) or by radio. I would want to be
source, the proximity of the exposure, and kept informed, but I would want the officer to
the efforts outside on the side of the source handle the exposure in its entirety. I probably
fire. Big (or potentially big) fire, big water! would insist that the officer move him- or
herself and the group officers to anther radio
channel if one is available. This will go a long
way toward minimizing fireground confusion
(units calling for attic ladders, more water
pressure, or pike poles).
· >| 179 |< ·

COMMAND
Exposure 2 Ventilation Attack Search Backup
Exposure 2 Attack Division 1 Attack
Exposure 2 Backup Division 2 Attack
Exposure 2 Ventilation
Fig. 14–2. Fire that has exposures. Sectors with dotted lines indicate sectors working at original fire building.
This type of incident presents an As indicated in figure 14–2, command

excellent opportunity for observing members still has sole control of the scene. He has not
who are on the promotion list for chief officer yet assigned an operations officer. The dotted
or captain. You can allow the candidates to box indicates units assigned to the original
get their feet wet at what basically would fire building. It would be assumed from the
be their own incident while you are only a chart that he has assigned an attack group
few feet away. only to the original fire (probably exterior
Using the previous scenario as an lines). Exposure B has blossomed into a first-
example, it should be clear that if the need alarm assignment. The original exterior line
arises, an officer assigned as exposure (Exposure B extension line) operating outside
(whether one exposure or all exposures) between the source fire and Exposure B is
can have the same basic responsibilities as still in place. Exposure B now has an attack
command at a fire. If the exposure officer’s group on Division 1 and Division 2. Both are
incident (the exposure) enlarges, so must protected by a backup group and a ventilation
the exposure officer’s responsibilities and, group (probably on the roof).
subsequently, his or her to-do list. Exposure C (in the rear) is a two-story
As can be seen in figure 14–3, the original garage with storage space over the garage.
fire (source fire) is in a two-story frame home. An exterior line has been placed between the
There is heavy involvement throughout the source fire and Exposure C. A group has been
structure. Exposure B already has begun to assigned to attack the fire on the second floor
display involvement on side D. The garage in and in the attic, and ventilation has begun to
the rear (Exposure C) also has involvement open a hole in the roof.
at the eaves line. Exposure D is the least Exposure D is another home. The
problematic area at the current time. The wind is helping to abate the problem
winds are mild. If they increase, Exposure D in Exposure D, but an exterior line has
may become a real concern. been stretched between the source and
· >| 180 |< ·

Fig. 14–3. The original fire building (source fire) with exposures on all sides
Exposure D. A group company (Exposure D “Exposure B to command: We’ll need

extension) is inside checking to see if the fire the electric company to cut the drop
has entered Exposure D. to Exposure B”.
Through all of this, command has been “Command to Exposure B: OK. I’ll
in control and has not been responsible for notify dispatch.”
more than five subordinates. Each exposure “Exposure D to command: It got into
has an officer whose prime responsibility is to the attic. I’ll need an engine company for
focus on the whole (in this case, the particular Exposure D Division 2 attack and a company
exposure building), while command makes for topside ventilation.”
sure every base is covered. Just for a second, “Command to Exposure D: OK. You’ll get
think of how your department would have Engine 6 as Exposure D Division 2 attack
handled this type of fire without some form and Truck 13 as Exposure D ventilation.”
of incident management system (IMS). A chief If command had time to focus on the
officer is literally running around the source whole, he or she would have staged units as
building, attempting to make sure that all a precautionary measure. When Exposure D
the exposures and their specific nuances asked for additional units, command already
are being covered. I can remember chiefs would have had them staged and ready to
running back and forth around garages and go! Command has control over the entire
jumping fences to cover all the exposure scene while staying at the command
problems effectively. Doesn’t it make sense post, and therefore should let someone
to assign a specific officer to each exposure else do the walking.
and allow command to stand back and wait
for the officers to present the problems?
· >| 181 |< ·

The Relationship Between · > The safety of the crew. The member
on the exterior hoseline will need to
Command and Exposure be reminded of his or her location and
the effects of radiant heat. The officer
There needs to be trust between exposure does not always remain with the crew
and command. As command, I want an in his or her group. If the exposure
experienced officer assigned as exposure. In becomes significant, one crew member
many cases, I will assign an exposure officer should remain to operate the exposure
and then “turn my back” to the exposure. line while the exposure officer and a
I may never even see the exposed structure crew member go to check the inside of
until after the fire has been extinguished. the exposed building. The officer must
I need to know that I have an officer who choose the best-qualified firefighter to
will ask for only what is needed to handle remain outside with the hoseline.
the situation and not make a third alarm out
of a curtain that has caught fire in an open · > Protecting the assigned exposure. This
window on the second floor. Having said that, will require not only the application of
I also want to know that the officer I have a hose stream but also gaining entry
assigned to exposure will not be afraid to get into the exposed area to ensure that
all the help needed to confine the fire to the the fire is kept out.
smallest area possible.
Exposure officers need to know a variety · > Keeping command informed.
of firefighting strategies and tactics. They, Command must be updated
like command, also must know which other periodically on the condition of the
officers are on the scene and their specific assigned exposure area.
personality strengths and weaknesses.
Which officers are alarmists? Which are the
lone rangers who want to handle everything
within sight by themselves at the expense Endnotes
of their crews? That is the reason command
should choose the exposure officer wisely. 1. These horizontal and vertical movements
are influenced by the wind, even in an
Experience and trust are the keys.
enclosed building.
2. The major spread of fire from floor to floor via exterior
windows is called autoexposure or lapping.
Responsibilities of Exposure 3. Often misused terms are occupied and unoccupied.

Both words indicate that the home (or structure) is
inhabited. Occupied means the structure is being
The exposure officer must keep in mind used for habitation, whether the occupants are
three responsibilities as he or she moves home at the time or not. Occupied is the opposite
throughout the structure: the safety of the of vacant. Unoccupied (which often is substituted
crew, protecting the assigned exposure, and for vacant) indicates the occupants (who do live
keeping command informed. there) are not home at the present time.
4. Lee side refers to the side to which the wind is
moving. Windward side is the side from which the
wind is coming.
· >| 182 |< ·

Questions
1) The mission of _______________________ is
to prevent the spread of and extinguish 6) _______________________________________
any fire in the assigned area. probably is as big an influence as any
on exposure protection.
2) What are the three parts of the
extinguishment process? _______________ 7) Glass will stop only about _______% of
________________________________________ the radiant heat being produced by a fire
________________________________________ (the source).
_______________________________________
8) As soon as the line protecting an exposure
3) What are the four methods of heat transfer? is in place, the next step in exposure
________________________________________ protection is to ________________________
________________________________________ _______________________________________.
________________________________________
_______________________________________ 9) Normally, what is the minimum number
of firefighters required to operate an
4) What are the two types of exposures? exposure line? _________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
_____________________________
10) What is the first responsibility of
5) In general, the need for protecting exposure? _____________________________
exposures is dependent on ____________ ________________________________________
and ___________ of the exposed material. ________________________________________
· >| 183 |< ·

Scenario Based Decision Making
Fig. 14–4. Scenario Fig. 14–5. Scenario
In the scenario above (fig. 14–4), you are In the scenario above (fig. 14–5), you are
the second officer to arrive at this reported the second officer to arrive at this reported
fire. The complement of apparatus and fire. The complement of apparatus and
manpower is what you normally receive on a manpower is what you normally receive on a
report of a fire in a residential occupancy. You report of a fire in a residential occupancy. You
are riding the Unit assigned Exposure “B”. are riding the Unit assigned Exposure “B”.
The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a The time of the incident is 0630 hours on a
Sunday morning. The weather is not a factor. Sunday morning. The weather is not a factor.
With that, you have all the information given With that, you have all the information given
to you on dispatch. to you on dispatch.
1) What are your initial concerns upon 1) What are your initial concerns upon
arrival? ________________________________ arrival? ________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
2) What will the first action of you and your 2) What will the first action of you and your
crew be? _______________________________ crew be? _______________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
3) How will you accomplish that __________ 3) How will you accomplish that? _________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
4) What is your next concern? ____________ 4) What is your next concern? ____________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
5) How will you handle that next concern? 5) How will you handle that next concern?
________________________________________ ________________________________________
________________________________________ ________________________________________
· >| 184 |< ·

15
The Mission of Extension
T
he mission of extension is to check the areas above, surrounding, and below the
main body of fire for extension and to report the findings back to command.
For the most part, it is attack’s responsibility to check for extensions. If command
designates one attack group (not differentiating between geographical areas), then attack is
responsible for the fire in the entire structure or area. Once all visible fire is knocked down, the
attack group should notify command. Command should begin to see noticeable differences in
fire and smoke conditions as soon as the main body of fire has been extinguished. The color of
the smoke will be lighter, the force with which it is exiting the structure should lessen, there
should be less glow, and visibility should begin to improve throughout the structure. The next
step is to check for extension.
This doesn’t mean the fire is out. We have all heard of units leaving the scene too soon.
Rekindles occur. The insurance industry is beginning to file lawsuits against departments that
have had rekindles occur, and they’re winning! This puts a whole new slant on checking for
extensions and overhaul.
When Extension Should be a Separate Group

As already stated, we normally do not need to assign a specific and separate company to
check for fire extensions. More than 90% of our fires are handled by one line, and attack can
check for extensions after the fire has been knocked down but prior to overhauling the area.
This usually is done as a deliberate effort immediately after the main body of fire has been
knocked down or during the overhaul process. However, there will be fires where the attack
· >| 185 |< ·

officer has more than enough to do just · > High-rise structures. These buildings
putting out fire or when fire conditions are prone to fire spread by interior
necessitate that command receive an earlier chases, stairwells, and shafts, or by
accounting of the fire’s traveling pattern. At autoexposure—that is, fire spreading
these times, command may choose to assign from floor to floor through outside
an extension group. fire extension via windows, also
Instances in which command may want called lapping. In a working high-rise
a timelier accounting of the extension of fires fire, it is essential that companies
include the following: quickly get above the fire to check
for vertical spread.
· > Occupied wood-frame structure
other than a single-family dwelling. · > Structures that share the same
Apartments, such as garden type, cockloft or attic areas. Row houses,
are prone to vertical spread by their brownstones, and commercial
very design. Fire can quickly enter two- and three-story buildings
construction voids and plumbing of ordinary construction in older
chases, which are in line from floor districts are especially susceptible to
to floor, and travel to upper units quick vertical and horizontal spread.
and common attics (fig. 15–1).
Additionally, older balloon-frame, · > Strip malls. A relatively new
multifamily structures are extremely phenomenon in commercial
prone to fire spread in all directions. America, these malls—known as
today’s “taxpayer”—are constructed
to be put up quickly and cheaply.
Almost all of them have lightweight
steel-bar joist or wood-truss
roof assemblies, which are very
susceptible to early collapse. We
must look at these structures as
disposable buildings. A common
practice is to remove ceiling tiles in
storage areas in these occupancies,
which facilitates fire spread. Once
fire enters the truss loft area,
horizontal spread is rapid. Many fire
stops or fire walls are insufficient or
have otherwise been compromised.
In these instances, and others, it is crucial

that command have someone immediately
check to determine whether fire has spread
beyond the area of origin.
Fig. 15–1. A truck crew checking for extension of a fire in the roof
· >| 186 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Extension |< ·
Critical Factors Influence of the United States are incendiary.1 Normally

(although I have never seen any statistics to
the Extension in Fire substantiate this), when a fire is deliberately
set, the arsonist will set several fires, usually
Heat rises as a result of convection in closets or natural openings in the structure
currents. These currents rise until they such as stairways and around ductwork. This
meet an obstruction. Once they meet an fact makes it wise to send crews around the
obstruction, they travel horizontally until structure to look for additional fires. These
they can rise again. This fact dictates that fires may also be trailered in the means of
the spread of fire is generally higher than the egress of the arsonist, which is another
point of origin. Radiant heat (and, to a lesser reason to check for extension.2
degree, direct-flame impingement) spreads
fire horizontally from the point of origin. For
the most part, however, the most significant
spread of fire is upward. Where to Check for Extension
Construction type and method, to a large
extent, influence spread and thus extension Three places need to be checked when
of fire. Concrete construction can be made looking for fire extensions. In order of
to be virtually spread-free—the contents importance, they are above the fire(s), around
will be susceptible to fire, but any spread the fire(s), and below the fire(s).
from compartment to compartment must be
stopped. With rated and properly installed · > Above the fire(s). As stated earlier,
and maintained doors, concrete structures heat rises. Convective currents will
tend to become very compartmentalized. carry heat upward, toward the ceiling,
That’s the good news: There is little spread. while pulling oxygen and cool air
The bad news is that there is no place for the down to the lower portions of the fire
heat produced in fires in these structure types room. This rising heat is the reason
to go, so fires in these structures tend to be that areas directly over the fire or
extremely hot and, consequently, difficult to over its direction of travel should be
approach. Wood-frame structures, especially checked first. (The wind and other
balloon frame, are extremely prone to spread natural factors will influence interior
and thus extension of fire. Contrary to spread and thus the direction of
common belief, the spread of fire in balloon- travel.) Heat rises not only in open
frame structures is fairly predictable: It can be air but also in construction voids
spread everywhere! My rule: If fire enters the and channels. Holes in ceilings due
structural framing system, open everywhere to lighting or other fixtures will allow
you believe fire could be. Platform-frame heat and fire to pass to upper regions
construction is less prone to spread than of the structure. If fire enters a stud-
balloon construction, but the structure still wall assembly, construction features
is made primarily of a combustible material, or worker error may permit heat to
and, as such, spread should be anticipated. pass to upper areas.
The last critical factor I want to discuss
concerning spread of fires, otherwise called · > Around the fire(s). Next, check the
extension, is that of multiple fires. It is wall assemblies in the room around
predicted that 40% of the fires in urban areas the fire area. Normally, attack crews
· >| 187 |< ·

should handle the wall surfaces in When checking for horizontal spread
the fire room.3 Usually fire will spread around the fire room, consider the following
from room to room by convective three factors:
currents inside wall assemblies,
radiant heat, conduction, and direct · > Location of the original fire. Fires
flame impingement. Fire can enter started by whatever means in the
wall assemblies and ignite lath on the center of a structure will require
opposite side. Exterior wall surfaces more horizontal checking than fires
must also be checked. No matter originated in areas bordering exterior
what the fire route, horizontal spread walls. Mathematically, there are just
must be considered. more areas to check.
· > Below the fire(s). Fire can drop · > Wind direction and speed. These
down into the floor joist system factors significantly influence interior
and travel horizontally. This is fire travel and thus areas of possible
true of platform as well as balloon horizontal extension. Give priority
construction. I have seen fire to rooms adjoining and downwind
drop down stairways, igniting of the fire room. The greater the
combustibles near the ceiling wind speed, the greater the chance
level and traveling horizontally in of horizontal spread.
an attempt to find another way
up. Fire and hot embers will drop · > Construction features. These elements
down laundry chutes and heating influence construction type and thus
ducts. Fire, heat, and embers extensions. Drywall4 on steel studs
will travel inside exterior wall is certainly less prone to extension
assemblies in balloon-constructed than lath-and-plaster walls. Old
frame buildings. homes may have wall registers that
allow furnace heat to pass from one
When looking for extensions above the duct to be shared between rooms,
fire, check the area immediately above the allowing for horizontal spread.
room of origin first. In two-story homes, use
the stairways, if possible, for the quickest The same rules basically hold true for
access. Areas at the tops of stairs should also checking for extensions above the fire as for
be checked. This is the general avenue of areas below the fire. Start in areas directly
travel from floor to floor. Remember that heat below the room of origin and move into
traveling convectively can reach 1,400°F and areas in the direction in which the wind is
higher—higher than the ignition temperature traveling. Check open passageways and shaft
of most common combustibles. (Areas in the areas like laundry chutes and ductwork that
vertical path of travel can be subjected to come off or are contiguous with the chutes
extreme heat.) Check the exterior walls above or ductwork. A newer aspect of wood-frame
the fire room to make sure that fire did not construction is that of truss floor assemblies.
climb the exterior walls. Finally, the check for The good news is that this type of floor-joist
fire extension should proceed in the direction system is in newer homes and structures
of the wind. If fire is pushed by the wind, it that are of platform construction, which is
will move in that direction. less susceptible to spread and should be
· >| 188 |< ·

up to code. The bad news is that if, due to say, “It’s not hot, chief,” there is no fire
worker error or neglect, fire is allowed to in the wall. Remember that this rule
pass into this truss floor area, fire loads of thumb probably originated prior
and oxygen content are great. All that would to the use of drywall. This rule works
be needed is heat. best on lath-and-plaster assemblies.
Drywall’s ability to collect and retain
heat (an endothermic material) makes
it extremely hot to the touch. However,
Checking for Extension barring rare exceptions (normally
caused by improper taping or other
Specific tools are needed to check for installer error), fire has a hard time
extension. My first tools of choice are the entering drywall assemblies.
firefighters’ senses.
Also, feel floors for excess heat. Before the
· > Sight. Look! Normally, an experienced advent of bunker pants, it was not uncommon
firefighter will have a gut feeling as to to have your knees warm up considerably
whether the fire has spread just by while crawling over a floor assembly that had
entering an area. Look for fire, glowing fire inside it.
embers, or smoke coming from wall Hand tools of choice are fire axes, pike
openings, behind floor moldings, and poles, and closet hooks (fig. 15–2). An
moving up the face of a wall. Smoke economic way to check for extension above
will naturally be present in upper and around the fire is to carefully remove the
areas of a structure being assaulted floor molding on the fire floor and the area
by fire. The force behind the smoke (room) directly above the fire. (Some of this
and the smoke’s color are good molding is old and hard to replace. If the extent
indicators of potential spread. The of fire is questionable, care should always be
more force and the darker the smoke, taken.) After a small section of the molding
the more problems. has been carefully removed, a hole can be
punched where the molding was. If there is no
· > Sound. Listen for crackling noises and extension of fire, the occupant can easily put
the hiss of air being forced through the molding back with no visible side effects.
tight spaces.
· > Feel. Check the heat directly over

wall channels in the attic area of
balloon-frame structures. In platform
structures, check for heat in areas
around the locations at which the
double plate and rafters meet. Utility
holes may have been drilled through
the double plate to allow for the
passage of cable, wire, and the like.
Feel exposed wall surfaces. The old
rule of thumb is, if you can put your Fig. 15–2. The three hand tools the author suggests for checking
bare hand on the wall long enough to for extension
· >| 189 |< ·

If in doubt, open up. Placing a small hole company assigned to two functional groups
in the ceiling or wall is certainly better than at once, a working fire in a multifamily
coming back 20 minutes after leaving the structure may dictate that a company be
scene and finding the house rolling again. assigned to search and to check for obvious
Remember that conserving property is extensions as they go along.
one of the four priorities of command. The A final word: At normal working house
aspect of checking for extension plays a great fires, I rarely assign an extension officer, for
role in property conservation. It would be two reasons. First, most fires are handled
easy (other than being physically tiring) to by one line. The extent of the fire allows the
open up an entire structure every time we attack group time to check for extensions
have a fire. That, however, would be a waste after the bulk of the fire has been knocked
of effort and owner/insurance company down. I have faith in my officers, and I know
money. First, check for extension to ensure that if they get inside and suspect that they
that the fire has been confined to the area can’t effectively and expeditiously check for
of original involvement. Get ahead of it, extensions, they’ll tell me. Second, like most
around it, and below it to cut off its spread of you, I just don’t have the personnel. The
and reduce dollar loss. Second, open up with Big Four, discussed earlier, tends to take
caution and prudence. If in doubt, open up a up my personnel allotment. To special-call
section for inspection, but only if you believe for an additional engine to do what attack
that fire could have entered there. The less probably can do before that engine gets there
damage done while checking for extension, doesn’t make sense.
the lower the dollar loss will be.
Should Extension
When to Assign Extension
Have a Hoseline?
As stated earlier, attack usually checks
for extension. If the magnitude of fire is Whether extension should have a hoseline
great and attack’s hands are going to be full is for command and the extension officer to
for quite a while,5 command should assign determine. If fire conditions indicate that
another crew to extension. If the structure fire likely entered other areas in significant
is vacant, command probably can assign proportions, it would be prudent to give
a company to extension and, after it gives a line to the extension group. The primary
the benchmark,6 reassign the company responsibility of the group officer is the safety
to search. (These assignments could be of the crew. No line—less protection!
switched if the situation dictates and search But let’s think about this. If I believe the
is higher on command’s to-do list than fire has extended to other portions of the
checking for extensions.) structure, and attack cannot handle all of the
At multifamily residential structures and fire, then why not just assign the company
apartment fires, the extension group probably as another attack group? Instead of...
would have a high place on the to-do list. “Command to Engine 6: You’re extension.”
This is due to construction features and the Try...
potential for problems with civilian safety. “Command to Engine 6: You’re Division
Although I normally do not like to have a 2 attack.”
· >| 190 |< ·

Now the focus and expectations are clear. The Relationship Between
Additionally, you’re telling the initial attack
officer you are aware that there is or may be Command and Extension
fire in another area and you don’t want the
original attack group to worry about it. Command needs to have faith in the
I normally take the above route over extension officer. Extension’s judgment may
worrying whether extension needs a line. If have a great bearing on the outcome of the fire.
I feel that chances are that the fire has not An experienced officer with an understanding
extended from one area to another—but of construction features is ideal for the
I want to be sure—I’ll assign an extension assignment of extension officer. There must
group, and I do not expect it to take in a line. be communication among command, attack,
I should have a backup crew in place, and and extension concerning probable and
so I inform the backup officer that I have potential problem areas. Command needs to
a company inside checking for extensions, determine the construction type if it is not
which may be another crew for backup known. This information needs to be relayed
to worry about, possibly necessitating to attack and extension as soon as possible.
repositioning the backup line. If it is likely Conversely, extension can’t check out areas
that the fire has extended, I’ll just assign and then leave command or attack guessing.
another attack group. Once an area has been checked, the outcome
If the extension officer gets to the area(s) must be relayed over the radio immediately so
being checked and feels uncomfortable subsequent moves can be made. Up-to-date
about going farther, the officer should inform communication among these three groups is
command. Once notified, command has vital to the quick, efficient extinguishment
three options: of the fire.
· > Tell the extension officer to come out

and assign another company to attack
in that area. The Responsibilities
· > Tell the extension officer to come out of Extension
and get a line, and that command will
change extension’s designation from The extension group officer has the
extension to Division _________ attack. following responsibilities:
· > Have the extension crew come out · > The safety of the crew. Extension
and have the original attack move to may have a hoseline. If the officer
extinguish that fire. assigned to extension believes he
or she may be cut off by fire or will
otherwise be placing the crew in
jeopardy, he or she should stop
moving toward areas where fire could
be spreading (fig. 15–3). Extension
should inform command, who will
· >| 191 |< ·

(1) have the crew get a line and Questions

reassign them to attack in that area,
(2) assign another company to attack 1) The mission of ________________ is to check
in the area in question, or (3) have the areas above, surrounding, and below
backup move into a better position the main body of fire for extension and to
while the extension crew moves in to report the findings back to command.
check the area.
2) For the most part, it is _________________
responsibility to check for extensions.
3) Heat rises as a result of ________________

_______________________________________.
4) _______________________________________,
to a large extent, influence spread and
thus extension of fire.
5) What are the three places that need to be

checked when looking for fire extensions?
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
6) When checking for horizontal spread around

the fire room, consider three factors:
a) ______________________________________
Fig. 15–3. A crew checks for extension on the exterior eves area. b) ______________________________________
Safety of the crew is a key concern here. c) _____________________________________
7) What are the three human senses used

· > Check the area above, around, and in checking for extension? ______________
below the fire extension. ________________________________________
________________________________________
· > Keep command informed. Command ________________________________________
created an extension group because
of concern about the possible spread 8) Why doesn’t the bare hand method
of fire within the structure. Before of checking for extension work in wall
moving from between, above, around, assemblies constructed of drywall work?
and below the fire, extension must ________________________________________
inform command of the extension
group’s findings. Command will 9) Generally, checking for extension is left to
confirm extension’s findings or change the _____________________________ group.
the “direction” or assignment, but
command must be informed first. 10) What is the first responsibility of extension?
________________________________________
· >| 192 |< ·

Endnotes
1. DeHaan, John D. Kirk’s Fire Investigation
(3rd Edition). 1991. Brady/Prentice Hall
Publications, p. 2.
2. Trailers are long, narrow pools of liquid fuel or
pieces of paper soaked in fuel. They act as a fuse
for arson fires. Arsonists will construct a fire
area and then pour or arrange a trail of fuel in
the direction of the exit. The trailer is ignited just
before exiting the building or fire area.
3. Discussion of normal overhaul practices is covered
in the next chapter. Overhaul and checking for
extension are similar but distinct phases (groups)
of a structure fire.
4. Drywall (gypsum) is extremely endothermic. Steel
studs will absorb some heat from the drywall; the
heat will spread by conduction but normally not
to the extent that the ignition of combustibles
would occur.
5. “Quite a while” is a relative term. If the fire has
gained a sufficient hold on an entire room, and
command estimates that attack will not be able to
check above the fire for at least 5 minutes, then
command should assign someone else to get started
up above the fire. This is contingent on having
available units staged at the scene or close by.
6. Benchmarks are specific announcements given by
group officers. They are discussed in chapter 18.
· >| 193 |< ·

16
The Mission of Overhaul and Salvage
T
he mission of overhaul is to ensure that the fire is completely out and to pinpoint
the area of origin.
In most departments, there seems to be a smooth transition from attack to extension
to overhaul. Normally, these three individual (and I must add distinct) functional group
assignments are carried out by attack during our bread-and-butter fires. (As I write this, I am
convincing myself that this should be the exception, not the norm, at a working fire.) These
functions should be distinctly assigned by command. They can, and in most circumstances
are, given to the same company after the company has given the appropriate benchmark.
I distinguish “working fire” because at a small, part-room fire, such as one in a closet or
mattress, the one or two units that end up handling the fire—normally an engine and a truck
company—handle all of these functional groups and more.
· >| 195 |< ·

COMMAND
Safety
Liason
Salvage
Fig. 16–1. The relationship between overhaul and command
Scenario
Battlion 1 is now Vermont Command.
Pretend you are a chief officer responding to a After the fire has been knocked down and the
working fire in the west end of town. The first unit on building vented, you go inside to determine the
the scene reports fire showing from the second floor origin and cause. You meet Attack on the first floor
of a two-story occupied home and takes command. and ask him where he believes the fire started.
Engine 7 at 1945 Vermont: We have fire He responds, “Looks like the bedroom in Sector A.”
showing on the second floor of an occupied home. You go up, and it looks as if the fire started in an
Engine 7 will be Vermont Command. area where a curling iron was plugged into the wall
Command assigns the remainder of his crew to outlet. There is beading about one inch beyond the
attack and has the second-in engine lay a supply wall plug on the curling iron cord. You go outside
line in to them and then assigns them backup. and talk to the occupant. She says she was using
Command assigns the truck topside ventilation the curling iron and that she has had problems with
and the rescue squad search. the iron’s not heating up all the time and that she
Command to Engine 7: You’re Attack. Engine 5, was going to buy another one today. She explains
lay into Engine 7 and then take Backup. Truck 7, that the phone rang as she was doing her hair and
you’re Ventilation. I need you on the roof. Squad 7, that the detector went off while she was talking on
you’re Search. the phone. She adds that she ran to her room and
You, as chief, listen while responding. You believe found the curtains near the wall plug burning.
that all the initial bases are being covered. “I’ve You now believe you have your cause and
trained them well,” you say to yourself. You arrive origin. You tell Attack you’re going to leave the
on the scene, get a briefing from Command, and then scene and that he will be Command. You give him a
assume command and send the officer of Engine 7 few last-minute instructions concerning the electric
to join his crew and take over as attack officer. company and where to put the debris. You leave.
· >| 196 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Overhaul and Salvage |< ·
Battalion 1 will be returning to service “Command to attack: OK. Your new

on Channel 1. Engine 7 will now be designation is overhaul.”
Vermont Command. Someone would have been responsible
Dispatch: Okay, Battalion 1, 1347. for the overhaul process, and there would
At 1358, Dispatch notifies you on Channel 1 have been no assuming or guessing.
that the incident on Vermont is complete. Hopefully, the officer of Engine 7, who
At 1438, you are dispatched to a fire at was left in charge after the chief left, knew
the same home on Vermont. Engine 7 reports better than to have left the scene of a fire
on the scene that there is heavy smoke on in the second floor of a two-story frame
Division 2 and takes command. structure without checking the attic. The
After this fire has been extinguished, you chief should have asked or should have been
determine that the fire had extended up an specific in making the assignments. Finally,
exterior wall on Side 2 of the structure and the chief should have ensured that the attic
heated up some cellulose insulation in the attic. was checked prior to leaving or checked it
The PPV fan may have helped push the fire up him- or herself.
the wall. You question the officer on Engine 7, The officer on Engine 5, who was left inside
who said that when you left, he had his crew to clean up the room, is not without guilt at
clean up the bedroom with Engine 5. He said this incident. After the chief left the scene,
he thought Engine 5 would check the walls the officer of Engine 7, who was command,
and the attic. Truck 7 officer said that they’d went outside and had his or her crew and
had smoke but not much heat coming from the the crew of Engine 5, including the officer of
vent hole they’d put in the roof. He added that Engine 5, clean up the fire room. The cause
he thought someone else had checked that had been determined, so what needed to be
attic. Squad 7 said they left right after you did. done could have been done?
Engine 5 officer said that after they cleaned A prudent officer would have removed the
up the burned “stuff” in the room, they helped wall plug and checked the area behind the
pick up hose while the officer on Engine 7 went plug. (This area is prone to dust accumulation
back inside to take one last look around. and even cobwebs, both of which burn at very
low temperatures.) Additionally, the officer
Who is responsible here (fig. 16–1)? Is would have felt the wall surface in the area
this a rekindle that could have been avoided? of ignition (as well as the walls in the entire
Does any of this sound familiar? Officers room) for heat and then again later to see if
have to assume certain things at incidents. the walls were cooling down. The officer also
This can lead to problems if communication should have sent someone up to the attic just
and assignments are not specific. As stated to watch over the area of ignition for a while,
throughout this text, command is ultimately looking for wisps of smoke.
responsible for the outcome of the incident. Because no one was actually assigned to
In this case, everyone was a little guilty. overhaul, responsibility for this incident had
Command should have assigned attack to fall back on the chief officer and the officer
to overhaul as soon as the fire was knocked of Engine 7. Both neglected to assign a group
down and the benchmark given: that should have been assigned.
“Attack to command: We have the fire
knocked down.”
· >| 197 |< ·

What Overhaul Entails

an investigator can survey the area, look
As stated in the mission statement, for specific clues, take samples, and then
overhaul has two tasks to complete: document the area as completely as possible
using photos or video. After these processes
· > Ensure that the fire is completely out. have been completed, the area can then be
completely overhauled.
· > Pinpoint the area of origin. Once the area of origin has been
pinpointed and the scene investigation
Overhaul is one of the few functional process is completed, all fire-damaged
groups that can be assigned at a fire incident property and all hot spots (not only evident
that has this dual role. Other groups, to be ones) must be extinguished or removed for
sure, have many things to do to complete final extinguishment.
their mission, but they have only one basic
task—search, put out the fire, vent the
building, and so on. Overhaul has two specific
(and basically different) tasks. The order in When to Assign Overhaul
which overhaul completes these tasks may
appear to be obvious; however, they need to Let’s start out by saying that if overhaul is
be done in reverse order of that which might not assigned, the scenario provided earlier in
be chosen by an untrained person. You this chapter may end up being a reality. The
would think that it is more important to put beauty of the incident management system
the fire out than to determine the point of (IMS) is that roles and responsibilities are
origin. However, the bigger picture needs to defined. If no assignments are made, the
be looked at here. responsibility falls back to the individual
Fire cause and determination are in charge—command. If assignments are
directly related to the area of origin. Once made, then the group supervisor should be
the area of origin has been determined, absolutely, positively sure of his or her role
the actual cause of the fire must be and responsibility. If mission statements are
accurately pinpointed through a thorough used, there should be no misunderstanding.
and systematic investigation by a trained If command assigns overhaul, and a rekindle
individual. If firefighters are allowed to occurs, there is no question as to who should
overhaul (and overhaul completely), they have located and extinguished any and all
may (and chances are, they will) destroy potential hot spots. However, the IMS is
all evidence needed to pinpoint the cause not—and should not be—a vehicle for placing
of the fire. If a crime has been committed blame. It is a tool that defines “who is doing
(arson), and evidence has been taken from what—where” and what every respondent’s
areas related to the point of origin due to role and area of responsibility are in that
the overhaul process, then conviction(s) may particular incident.1
be difficult, if not impossible. To accurately Overhaul should be assigned as soon as
determine the cause, the point of origin must the main body of fire has been knocked down
not be disturbed during the overhaul process. (fig. 16–2). Delays in assigning an overhaul
This means that the point of origin must group can allow hot spots to flare up and, if
be determined before beginning overhaul. undetected, can allow hidden fire to gain in
Once the area is isolated and protected, size and strength.
· >| 198 |< ·

Where to Overhaul
After the area of origin has been
determined, overhaul should be conducted
above, around, and below the fire (following
the same rules as when checking for
extension). If the fire was small with little
vertical or horizontal spread, the areas above
the fire can be quickly checked, and the
overhaul crew can move on to more localized
areas around the fire. The most problematic
areas are stuffed furniture, wall assemblies,
closets, and certain floor coverings in areas
in close proximity to the fire. When the fire is
Fig. 16–2. A firefighter overhauls the ruins of a garage fire.
confined to one room, the entire room should
be checked. Look for soot and signs of heat
(char) on ceilings surfaces. If decorative wood
surfaces (moldings and the like) have very
little charring, the wall plates can be removed
Who Should be Assigned and checked for signs of excessive heat.
to Overhaul?
For normal fires, this is a natural. How to Overhaul
Attack is there and should have all the tools
necessary to commence overhaul. Once the The overhaul process should be
main body of fire has been knocked down systematic. The first step is to determine the
(and after the appropriate benchmark has areas that can be immediately overhauled
been given), command should reassign and the area that cannot be overhauled
attack to overhaul: initially, specifically the area of origin. Start
“Attack to command: We have the main in an area remote from any visible heat
body of fire knocked down. I don’t think it damage and work back toward the fire area.
went anywhere.” Begin by looking for char on door frames and
“Command to Engine 6: OK. Your new moldings. The areas or sides that have the
designation is overhaul” most char and heat damage are the areas
“Engine 6 to command: OK on overhaul.” from which the fire came. This should lead
The one exception to this is when staffing you to the room of origin. Once the room of
is low and fires are or may be in other areas origin has been determined, notify command
of the structure. If command assigns one and seek permission to commence overhaul
attack group and more than one area may in other areas. If only one room is involved,
be involved, attack should move to the next you may have to wait for a fire investigator to
logical area to seek out and extinguish fire. arrive on the scene (if the chief officer is not
responsible for determination). Either way,
· >| 199 |< ·

once the area of origin has been determined system is intact. If the wall system
and the on-scene investigation completed, is of ordinary brick veneer, it may be
the second phase of overhaul can begin. necessary to determine what is behind
When overhauling, remove all materials the wall surface and what the brick is
that are or have been smoldering to the laid up against. I have never seen or
outside of the structure. Upholstered heard of an interior brick veneer wall
furniture should always be suspect. If it has with the brick on the inside (except
burn marks on it, it should be taken outside for the face of a fireplace). It normally
and overhauled there. If only cushions are is on the outside of the structure.
affected, they can be taken outside. Hot spots The interior side of the brick veneer
in upholstered furniture can smolder for wall often will be one of the three wall
hours. If there is any doubt, take it out! Open systems listed below.
dresser drawers, and check the condition of
the clothing inside. If the dresser is charred · > Lath and plaster. This type of wall
but extinguished (no longer burning) and the system exists in older homes. For the
clothing inside is not affected, the dresser can most part, it was discontinued after
be left inside or moved to another room.2 World War II, after drywall became
Walls must be checked for hidden the norm in new construction during
heat. You will need to know what the walls the 1950s. Lath-and-plaster walls are
are constructed of to determine if fire is constructed by nailing small strips
behind the wall without opening it up. Note: of wooden lath onto wooden studs.
Heat detectors are now available. These Plaster then is spread over the lath
battery-operated handheld detectors can be and either painted or wallpapered over
an aid in the overhaul process. You must for a final interior finish. I was taught
practice with them to become proficient in to find out whether fire had entered
their use. The age of the structure and the a lath-and-plaster wall system by
general construction type will help determine touching it. The old axiom was: If you
the type of wall system. If the fire has entered could put your hand on the wall long
the structure in the area in which you are enough to say “It’s not hot, chief,” there
going to overhaul, or in other areas, then you wasn’t any fire behind the wall. I have
may already have an opening and an idea used this “scientific” system many
of the type of wall system. Basically, four times, and it has worked every time.
types of wall systems are used in single- and Once fire gets behind a
multifamily (up to four units) residential lath-and-plaster wall, everything you
structures: ordinary, lath and plaster, drywall need for a good fire is there: the heat,
on wood studs, and drywall on steel studs. the fuel (from the wooden lath), and
the oxygen (normally, the construction
· > Ordinary. This system generally is of these houses permits air to move
used for exterior wall systems only. within the structural framing). If
The walls may be solid or veneer. you think there might be fire in a
If the wall system is solid ordinary lath-and-plaster wall system, you
construction, extensive overhaul can feel the wall and then wait a little
normally is not required. The brick while. Check above in the attic (any
or block will hold heat, but little, if smoke will rise, and you can detect
any, fire will pass through if the wall smoke and heat in the wall channels
· >| 200 |< ·

in the attic). Feel the wall again for Accumulation of Debris

an increase or decrease in heat. Have
someone check the attic again. If One of the concerns of overhaul and
you’re still in doubt, open it up. command is where to put the “stuff” shoveled
out of a structure—usually materials such as
· > Drywall on wood studs. This wall lath and plaster, furniture, floor and ceiling
system replaced the lath-and-plaster moldings, floor coverings, and so on. At
wall system in the 1950s. Drywall (also certain fires, you can end up with quite a pile
called gypsum board, Sheetrock®, and of damaged debris. These piles of debris are
plasterboard, among other names) two things: unsightly and dangerous.
is made of gypsum, an endothermic
material. As such, it absorbs heat in · > Unsightly. If at all possible, overhaul
great quantities. The old axiom “It’s should attempt to place debris in
not hot, chief” won’t work on a drywall an area where it will be out of view.
assembly because of the amount of If there is access to the rear of the
heat absorbed. The bad news is that building via an alley, the backyard
these walls get very hot when involved would be an ideal storage area.
in fire. The total wall system is only Alongside homes in driveways is
as good as the drywall hanger and another location that may keep
the drywall finisher. If not hung and neighbors and the owner happy.
taped correctly, part or all of the total
wall system can be lost. If you feel · > Dangerous. Flare-ups of removed
you want to open a drywall system material are quite common. The
to check for fire, punch a hole. The debris must be watered down for a
higher up the wall, the better. Why long time. Usually this is done after
higher up? Heat rises. It costs the the fire has been extinguished—
same to patch a hole that is high on a during the overhaul/salvage/pickup
wall as it does one that is low. Why not phase of the fire. The engine driver
check the area where most of the heat will pull a booster line off the rig
will be concentrated? and hose down the pile. To save the
embarrassment of having to respond
· > Drywall on steel studs. This is a newer to a second fire at the same structure,
form of construction. It generally is the smoldering rubbish should not be
found in commercial occupancies placed too close to the structure. As
or in remolded sections of existing mentioned in the previous chapter, it
homes. These wall systems should is becoming standard practice in some
be overhauled in the same way as a areas to have insurance companies
drywall on a wood stud wall system, go after departments that are involved
but note the following. First, there is in rekindles. In this case, if a pile of
the potential for an electrical shock. hot debris that was not completely
These studs can become excellent extinguished is left too close to a
conductors of electricity. Second, the structure, who would be liable?
possibility—even though slight—exists
that the metal stud can conduct heat In some departments, truck companies
to other parts of the structure. carry plastic garbage cans to carry out
· >| 201 |< ·

materials shoveled up in fire-damaged these scenarios point to the area of origin but
rooms. The cans are cheap and sometimes not the cause. The fire in the bedroom could
less labor-intensive than carrying shovels have been caused by arson, a child playing
full of debris through several rooms to an with matches or a lighter, an electrical short
appropriate window. near the bed, careless smoking, or a variety
In our community, legislation requires the of other things. In the kitchen scenario, the
owner to remove any fire-damaged debris left obvious cause might be considered careless
outside by the fire department within 72 hours cooking or food left unattended. However,
of the fire. If the debris is not removed, the this fire may very well have been intentionally
city removes it and bills the owner. The city’s set for profit, to obtain sympathy from a
Neighborhood Department3 follows through loved one, or for other reasons. Isolating and
on this. Chiefs carry a Polaroid camera with identifying the area of origin is the beginning,
them. They take a picture of the debris and but not the end of determining the cause.
attach it to the fire report, along with a form Once the area of origin has been identified, it
the owner (if on the scene) has signed. This is up to command or a qualified investigator
seems to be working well. to determine the actual cause.
Determining the Area of Origin The Responsibilities of Overhaul

If the area of origin is not obvious, it Overhaul is responsible for the following:
must be determined prior to overhaul if
evidence relating to the actual cause of the · > The safety of the overhaul crew.
fire (suspicious, incendiary, or accidental) is Except for the initial attack, more
to be preserved and examined. firefighters are injured during
It is difficult to get a conviction for arson. the overhaul process than during
Allowing firefighters to overhaul the area of any other group activity. Nails are
origin prior to the investigation makes the stepped on and hands are cut.
task of the investigator and prosecutor more Members take off their self-contained
difficult. The scene must be kept intact as breathing apparatus (SCBA) too
much as possible so that the actual cause of soon and experience breathing
the fire can be determined and all evidence difficulty and lightheadedness
can be collected and documented. from accumulations of carbon
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the monoxide. The overhaul supervisor
task of the officer assigned to overhaul is to must continually monitor the crew
determine the area of origin. In most cases, to ensure that the safest possible
the area is obvious. Burned cupboards over conditions exist. Lights should be set
a gas range, a burner left on under a pan up. Fans should be running to move
of frying meat, and no burn marks below air within the area.
the cooking surface of the range pretty well
isolate and pinpoint the area of origin. The · > Locating the area of origin and then
corner of a bedroom where the bed had been completely extinguishing the fire.
that has the obvious V pattern would indicate
that it was the area or room of origin. Both of · > Keeping command informed.
· >| 202 |< ·

Overhaul Versus Extension “Overhaul complete.”). Extension looks for

fire spread. Overhaul ensures that the fire is
After reading chapter 15 and this chapter, completely out (fig. 16–4).
there may be still some confusion concerning
the difference between extension and overhaul.
To refresh your memory: Extension’s mission
is to check the areas above, surrounding,
and below the main body of fire for extension
and report these findings back to command.
This says nothing about extinguishing
any discovered fire. It says, “Report the
findings back to command.” The assigning of
extension to attack is a natural progression;
it fits neatly between attack and overhaul.
However, extension usually is assigned only
if command needs a quick accounting of the
fire and its travel prior to the attack group’s
knocking down all visible fire. If the extension
group finds that the fire has extended to other
areas, command must be notified. Command
will then decide whether:
· > Attack should move to the area Fig. 16–3. Overhaul requires ensuring the fire is completely out.
to which the fire has extended to Sometimes this is not as easy as it sounds.
put it out
· > To assign another company to put out

the fire extension
· > To have extension take a line and

extinguish the fire as an attack group
Overhaul’s task is clear. The mission is

to determine the area of origin and to ensure
that the fire is completely out (fig. 16–3).
There is only one way to ensure that the fire
is completely out: Extinguish it. As stated
before, for most fires, checking for extension
and overhauling normally are assigned to
the initial attack company. (Most fires are
handled by one line or less.) These three
tasks should be assigned separately and after
the appropriate benchmark has been given
(Attack: “Fire is knocked down”; Extension:
“Extension areas checked”; Overhaul: Fig. 16–4. A crew overhauls the ruins of an apartment fire.
· >| 203 |< ·

The Mission of Salvage · > Overhaul. During the overhaul process,

savable items (including parts of the
The mission of salvage is to protect structure itself, such as floor moldings
as much material within the structure and stained-glass windows) will be
as possible from the effects of fire, its accounted for and removed or otherwise
by-products, and suppression efforts. protected. Overhaul should only
Recall the four priorities of command overhaul what was damaged by fire.
discussed earlier in the book: firefighter
safety, civilian safety, stopping the problem, Communication, coordination, and
and conserving the problem. Salvage is understanding among these groups at a
conserving property. But, it is more than structure fire are musts. Salvage is not a
that: It is an attitude. To some, it’s part of complicated concept. The key is to protect
the job only as an afterthought. To some, it’s the contents of the structure, fire control
a burden—that is, if we spread tarps, we’ll efforts, and the firefighters themselves from
have to go back later to pick them up; or the effects of the fire and its by-products.
maybe it will stop dripping before we leave.
Salvage should be conducted regardless of
neighborhood or economic status.
Salvage is directly related to the following What Salvage Entails
functional groups: ventilation, attack,
extension, and overhaul. Salvage can be broken down into four
basic categories:
· > Ventilation. We ventilate to remove
the products of combustion from the · > Covering furniture and other items
structure. Removing heat and smoke with salvage covers. These covers
is directly tied to salvage; it reduces are available in numerous types and
heat and smoke damage to materials sizes and for various applications
within the building. (throws). These evolutions will not
be covered here.
· > Attack. The sooner the production of
heat and smoke is stopped, the less · > Separating areas from the fire and
damage will occur. Properly placing its effects. Simply closing doors can
and advancing the attack line also protect areas from heat and smoke.
minimizes damage to materials in
adjacent areas. Cut off the fire to the · > Protecting valuables. In my opinion,
smallest area possible, then push the this entails more than covering items
fire and its by-products toward the with salvage covers. It also includes
area of involvement. Finally, nozzle quickly removing photos and other
discipline helps minimize damage to memorabilia from walls and taking
materials within the structure. Water them outside or to other safe areas as
damage is a key factor in fire loss. well as not allowing overhaul to shovel
the family Bible out with debris, for
· > Extension. By rapidly checking above, example. This approach to salvage
around, and below the fire area, spread probably does as much for our public
and consequent damage can be image as putting out the fire.
minimized or stopped.
· >| 204 |< ·

· > Reminding group supervisors that they supplemental water from a source other than
should prevent unnecessary damage. the booster tank), but it will also reduce the
This can be accomplished in large damage caused by moisture. Attack should
part through training. not indiscriminately destroy property for the
sake of suppression.
Realistically, it may be a while into the fire
before a crew becomes available to focus on
Who Should be Assigned gathering, covering, or removing valuables. In
many departments today, staffing is not ideal.
to Salvage? It is up to command to assign salvage as soon
as lifesaving and control efforts are in place.
Truck companies usually are trained to
accomplish salvage. They generally carry
salvage covers and rug runners and more
squeegees than other units. However, if Where to Salvage
salvage pops to the top of command’s to-do
list, any company could be assigned to this Salvage operations should take place in
group; therefore, all companies should be areas that are most likely to contain savable
trained in basic salvage operations. property and usually should begin in areas
away from the fire area. This makes the
task a little easier. There is plenty of room
to work away from other working groups.
When to Assign Salvage Check the areas below the fire floor for water
dripping—or, sometimes flowing, if the attack
At vacant houses that have had previous crew is not practicing nozzle discipline—from
fires, command may never assign salvage. ceiling lights or fan fixtures.
The contents are gone, and whatever is left Closing bedroom, adjacent, and closet
probably is of little or no value. At an occupied doors on the fire floor, above the fire, and below
structure, salvage should be assigned as the fire will greatly reduce smoke damage.
soon as possible—after the Big Four (attack, To determine the proper areas to be
ventilation, search, and backup)4 have been overhauled, the structure must be viewed from
assigned. Some texts say salvage should the outside. If command does not give salvage
begin with arrival of the first unit. This is a an indication of where salvage should begin,
simplistic approach. Although that statement salvage should determine the locations after
is true, I believe it represents more of an consultation with command. Questions that
attitude than actions individuals can take. salvage should ask command would include:
The best approach is to confine, control, and
extinguish. Attack the fire from the area of · > Where is the seat of the fire?
least involvement, and proceed toward the
area of most involvement. Check above, · > What divisions (floors) are involved?
around, and below the fire for extension,
and so on. Attack should always strive · > Where are the attack and other
to eliminate unnecessary water damage. working groups operating now?
Nozzle discipline may not only save our
lives (by preserving water prior to receiving · > Are occupants on the scene?
· >| 205 |< ·

If the second floor has major involvement, overhaul process, more property will be
salvage will want to concentrate on the preserved. Our task, of course, is to put the
first floor and below initially. If the major fire out, but if savable property can be moved
area of involvement is on the first floor, or removed prior to the overhaul process, we
salvage should go up to the second floor can put the fire out and save property.
and try to check or stop smoke damage,
then move to the basement to see if any
materials there can be protected from smoke
and water damage. Responsibilities of Salvage
The responsibilities of salvage are
as follows:
How to Salvage
· > The safety of the salvage crew.
Several techniques are involved in the
salvage process. Fire companies usually · > Protection of savable items from the
carry plastic or canvas covers which can effects of the fire and working crew.
be folded, carried, and placed in unique
ways to protect objects. Salvage covers, for · > Keeping command informed. If
example, can be made into little cisterns that observations relevant to other groups
will collect water dripping from upper floors. or the fire as a whole are observed,
I will not cover here what already has been command must be notified.
covered in individual drill manuals and other
texts covering firefighting basics. One final word concerning salvage.
To protect furniture most effectively, Several times in my career, I have seen
move it to areas where the water flow is occupants actually cry from happiness
least, push it together, and cover it. After the even though their home was damaged by
furniture has been gathered and covered, fire. They cried because they thought they
look at walls and on shelves for photos had lost everything in the fire and then saw
and other objects that can be collected us walking out carrying a photo album, a
and placed under salvage covers or taken painting, or a family Bible that had been
outside the building. spared from fire (and the overhaul shovel).
If personnel are available, an officer A save is a save! Such moments are almost
may be assigned to salvage to focus on as rewarding as pulling a victim from a fire.
the areas being overhauled. Overhaul and Most of the personal thanks I have received
salvage generally are at opposite ends of from victims at fires have been prompted
the spectrum when it comes to intent. The by our attempts to save their property. This
intent of overhaul is basically to tear stuff also is our job!
apart to ensure that the fire is out. The
intent of salvage is to protect property that
has not already been destroyed by the fire,
its by-products, or firefighters. If an officer
whose focus is on preserving as much
property as possible is present during the
· >| 206 |< ·

Questions Endnotes
1) The mission of ________________________ 1. Assignments and areas of responsibility change
from one incident to another.
is to ensure that the fire is completely out
and to pinpoint the area of origin. 2. Remember that the occupants may or may not
have fire insurance. Regardless, the concern here
is to conserve property. Throwing items outside
2) What are the two steps in overhaul? through windows without regard for their past,
________________________________________ current, or future condition is just plain wrong
________________________________________ and, in my opinion, the same as destroying
someone’s property when no fire is involved. Our
3) Of the two above steps, which is task is to conserve property, not just throw items
done first? _____________________________ out of windows so we can get back to bed sooner.
3. The Neighborhood Department is a city
4) Lath and plaster walls are very resistant department established to maintain harmony and
uniformity within the community. Department
to fire spread and thus require little
members handle complaints concerning housing,
overhauling. abandoned buildings, rubbish accumulations,
True or False and so on.
4. See chapter 8 for a review of the Big Four.
5) When checking drywall for extension,
open up high.
True or False
6) Extension looks for ___________. Overhaul

ensures that the fire is ______________.
7) The mission of _________________________

is to protect as much material within the
structure as possible from the effects of fire,
its by-products, and suppression efforts.
8) Nozzle discipline is a key factor in salvage.

True or False
9) Salvage is directly related to what four

functional groups:
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
10) Salvage operations should take place

in areas that are most likely to contain
_______________________________ property
and usually should begin in areas ______
__________________________ the fire area.
· >| 207 |< ·

17
The Mission of Rapid Intervention Teams
T
he mission of the rapid intervention team (RIT) is to search for and remove
trapped, lost, or injured firefighters.
The concept of rapid intervention is still relatively new to the fire service. I do not
know how or when this concept originated. Perhaps it was mirrored from water rescue teams,
which as standard practice have an individual(s) suited up and ready to enter the water in
case the rescuer gets in trouble. Perhaps it sprang from concepts established by HazMat
technicians, whereby a backup team suited in the appropriate level of clothing stands by while
the entry team works to mitigate the situation. Wherever the concept came from, I believe it has
validity and needs to be considered. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) has used rapid
intervention teams, called FAST (Firefighter Assist and Search Teams), for many years now.
FAST teams in FDNY are primarily truck companies used at the call of the on-scene chief.
Since the first edition of this text, RIT has grown in use across the United States. Many
departments utilize RIT in different ways. Some departments send a dedicated crew as an
RIT on the initial alarm. Others wait until it is determined that there is a working fire. Others
await the call of the incident commander (IC). What works for you, works for you!
The Concept
As we know, command’s task is to focus on the whole incident. A sector officer’s task is to
tunnel in on the specific assignment. Attack should put the fire out. Search should look for and
remove viable victims. Backup should focus on protecting working crews. At some incidents, a
backup crew is not enough. The situation is such that there is reason to suspect two things:
· > Savable people or things are inside the structure. (If there were no savable victims or
things in the structure, there would be no reason to have crews at risk inside.)
· >| 209 |< ·

· > Crews working inside to remove companies in rapid intervention. Cross drills
victims or protect these savable things should be held in this concept. These teams
are at a more-than-usual risk of can be valuable in those rare but deadly
injury or entrapment. touch-and-go fires.
The purpose of the RIT is to have on-scene

a specific crew all dressed and ready to go
should fire personnel within the structure Who Should be the RIT?
become trapped, lost, or injured. This crew
does not enter the structure at any time during Any available unit that has been trained
the incident unless it is needed to rescue fire in the concept can serve as the RIT. A good
personnel operating therein. It has no other RIT uses some specific tools and actions, but
assignment. It is there specifically to find and rapid intervention is not a hard concept to
remove firefighters who, for any reason, cannot grasp. If I didn’t have a unit trained in rapid
remove themselves from the structure. intervention, I would try to get an experienced
crew to take the assignment.
The Implications of NFPA 1500

When Should an RIT
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
1500 defines the need for an RIT. The standard be Established?
specifies that in the early stages of an incident,
an RIT “can be either specific and standing by In my professional opinion, a unit trained
to be deployed if needed or a crew with another in RIT should be sent on every regular
assignment that can be redeployed at any (initial structure fire) alarm assignment.
time.”1 The standard goes on to state that “as On average, firefighters are injured within
the incident expands in size or complexity,” the first 22 minutes on the scene. With this
an RIT can be “on-scene” or a specific “staged” knowledge, delaying the response of an RIT
unit.2 Although the standard says the RIT makes little sense.
can be a crew with another assignment, I do
not advocate this. It all goes back to focus. If
I assign search to be the standby RIT, where
will the search team’s focus be? In addition, How Rapid Intervention
the RIT should have specific tools with it, and
it has specific tasks to perform. Teams Work
Of course, certain personnel constraints
must be considered. We all have had situations Members of any unit assigned to be the
in which the tasks to be accomplished RIT must understand one thing: They should
(command’s to-do list) exceeds the number act only if a fire company (or individual) is lost
of personnel available to do them. It seems or trapped inside the structure.3 To allow the
that in today’s firefighting world, this is the team to focus on civilian rescue or fire attack
norm rather than the exception at working removes or divides its focus, which must be
incidents. One consideration for smaller specifically directed toward the interior crew’s
rural departments is to train mutual-aid safety. Additionally, the same crew should be
· >| 210 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Rapid Intervention Teams |< ·
used for rapid intervention throughout the devices, and portable radios), the following
incident. It goes back to focus. should be taken to the command post:
The team must be instructed to focus on
the following only: · > An extra (full) SCBA bottle for every
member of the team
· > Its mission
· > A complete extra SCBA in the event
· > The tools required the downed firefighters SCBA failed
· > Its staging location · > Door chocks
· > Its on-scene survey · > Hand lights
· > Rescue ropes and necessary tools

(carabineers, figure-8 descenders, etc.)
The RIT Mission
· > Hauling line or a guide rope, if your
The mission of rapid intervention teams is department uses either
to search for and remove trapped or injured
firefighters. That’s all. Jim Cline says it · > At least one pry bar, preferably
all in “Rapid Intervention Companies: The a Halligan
Firefighter’s Life Insurance”.4 Cline pointed out
that other sectors have specific missions. The Heavy squad companies could fill a bag
same is true of RITs. They are not to be used with the above equipment, label it “RIT,” and
for victim searches. They are not to be used as store it on the heavy squad. Extra SCBA
exposure or extension sectors. And, although bottles can be taken from any unit. If the
the mission may be similar, they should be need arises and command calls for an RIT,
separate and distinct from backup. They enter the bag then could be grabbed. No time
the structure only if needed; and if needed they would be wasted looking and checking for
get in, they should get the affected personnel the appropriate tools.
and get out. This is firefighters’ insurance. If
I have a claim, I want my insurance agent to
focus on my problem to ensure that my needs
are met. At a fire, I want the unit(s) assigned Where the RIT Stages
to protect me to focus on meeting my needs if
I get into trouble. Once the tools have been collected, the
team, if not previously assigned to intervene,
should report to the command post or other
area designated by command. If the command
The Tools Required post is within easy walking distance of the
fire building, it is a logical place for the team
The RIT should carry some specific to report. Usually the information concerning
tools.5 Apart from the obvious (full turnouts, the structure, the assignment of companies
self-contained breathing apparatus [SCBA], (sectors), and other pertinent issues is
personal accountability safety system [PASS] available at the command post.
· >| 211 |< ·

Command (or operations) may choose · > Exterior features of the

to have the RIT stage at a location more structure—porch roofs, roof
advantageous for making quick access into type (gable, flat, truss, etc.),
the structure’s trouble areas. (At high-rise ledges, manwalks, window type,
fires, a more logical staging area for the RIT and configuration
is staging6 two floors below the fire). Once
at the command post or other designation, · > Construction type and any positive or
the RIT officer should report to command or negative effects it may have
operations that the team is staged and will
be conducting an on-scene survey unless it While the RIT is staged, the officer and
is otherwise directed (fig. 17–1). crew can review any preplan drawings or
written materials concerning the structure
and the command board, which should
indicate company assignments, sector
designations, and locations in the structure.
After doing all that, they just wait and play
the “what-ifs.” The officer and crew should
continually be discussing, “What if we get
a firefighter trapped on the second floor?”
“What if we get a collapse of the D side wall
while crews are inside?” Keep anticipating
problems that could surface that might
require an RIT’s assistance (fig. 17–2).
Fig. 17–1. An RIT crew staged at the command post with

command at a restaurant fire
The On-Scene Survey

After the RIT has reached its staging
area, the final act it is required to accomplish
(hopefully) is a quick on-scene survey to
determine the following:
· > Quick ways into (and out of) the

structure—fire escapes, exterior
stairs, normal interior stairs,
prepositioned ground ladders, and
aerial ladders, for example
Fig. 17–2. An RIT crew staged at a house fire
· >| 212 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– The Mission of Rapid Intervention Teams |< ·
What Happens If an · > Any crew that can hold or push

fire away from the area where the
RIT is Activated? lost/trapped firefighter(s) are
· > Any crew operating a backup line in
Hopefully, this “insurance policy” will the area of concern
never have to be used. But if it is needed, · > Any crew searching in the
some specifics need to be addressed. area where the lost/trapped
firefighters are
· > If a crew becomes lost, trapped, or · > Any crew conducting ventilation
otherwise endangered to the point efforts that will assist in the rescue
that it needs assistance in leaving
the structure, then command
must first clear the fire frequency Unnecessary crews are:
of unnecessary radio transmission
by asking for “emergency traffic.”7 · > Most other crews operating at the
This is not the time to have an fire or staged.
engine company calling for 10 more
pounds on its 13⁄4-inch line. I can guarantee one thing: If firefighters
know that a firefighter is lost, trapped, or
· > Command should immediately injured in the structure—and if they are not
attempt to determine who is in controlled—they will head en masse toward
trouble and where they are. This the area where the firefighter is thought to
probably will save time in the long be. Most times, this is not a good thing to
run. To immediately send in an RIT have happen. Freelancing at such a time
at the first call of a Mayday may can become deadly.
lead to confusion and lost time, If command or operations believes that
especially if they have no clue about more than one RIT is needed, he or she can
who is in trouble or where they are. assign another trained crew or divide the
Once command determines that a original RIT into groups and assign additional
crew member or an entire crew is in firefighters to work with them. Remember
trouble and where the members are, that they have specific knowledge about
command should activate the RIT. the lost or trapped crew that other sector
Explicit directions concerning the officers did not need to concern themselves
lost or trapped crew—its assignments with until now.
and location and the number of crew Remember: Unless otherwise directed,
members—must be given to the RIT. only the rapid intervention team searches for
and removes trapped or lost firefighters. It all
· > Command should evacuate all goes back to focus. Other crews left inside to
unnecessary groups and divisions assist RIT can sweep close adjacent areas to
from the structure. Notice I said where they are operating, but to lose focus on
“unnecessary.” Necessary crews holding or attacking fire to search may not
inside are: be prudent. All other sectors left inside the
· > Crews operating hose streams in the structure are there to support and protect
vicinity of the fire or where the lost/ the RIT. They are not to focus on looking for
trapped firefighters are believed to be or removing firefighters.
· >| 213 |< ·

Questions Endnotes
1) The mission of the _____________________ 1. NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department
Occupational Safety and Health Program,
_____________ is to search for and remove
section 6–5.
trapped, lost, or injured firefighters.
2. NFPA 1500, section 6–5.
2) RIT can have another task and work as 3. Although RITs are discussed here only in relation
RIT as a secondary assignment. to structure fires, these teams are also used
at incidents involving water rescues, HazMat
True or False
incidents, and confined spaces. The RITs at
these incidents are in place before the entry or
3) RIT’s minimum size is _____ firefighters. rescue teams advance.
4. Cline, Jim. “Rapid Intervention Companies: The
4) Crews need not be trained in RIT but Firefighter’s Life Insurance.” Fire Engineering,
rather should be a crew that is young June 1995, p. 67.
and well trained. 5. Cline, “Rapid Intervention Companies,” p. 67.
True or False 6. Many cities that use the incident management
system designate the area two floors below the fire
5) RIT needs a lot of tools. One tool for them in a high-rise as “staging.” In Toledo, we found
to bring is a SCBA backpack without that confusing. Companies already were familiar
the face piece. with staging as it relates to an outside area where
True or False uncommitted apparatus/companies gather. With
a strong IMS, you should not have unassigned
companies anywhere in the building. To us, it
6) Initially after activation, RIT should report just flows better if there is only one staging area.
to the _________________________________. For that reason, we designate the areas two floors
below the fire floor as “base.” I understand this
7) At a high-rise fire, RIT should stage violates the definition of base and staging, but it
___________________ floors below the fire. works for us and those who respond with us.
7. Emergency traffic is a term that indicates that a
8) After doing the scene survey, the RIT team firefighter is in trouble and that all unnecessary
radio transmission must cease. Command must
stages and plays the __________________.
call for and terminate emergency traffic. This
term came to my attention in Fire Command, by
9) If a Mayday goes out, once command Alan V. Brunacini (NFPA Productions, 1985). In
activates RIT, command should evacuate Toledo, we use the term emergency traffic just as
all _____________________________________ they do in Phoenix.
groups and divisions from the structure.
10) Give an example of a necessary crew.

________________________________________
________________________________________
· >| 214 |< ·

18 Benchmarks
B
enchmarks are announcements that a particular activity or assignment has been
completed. They serve three purposes. First, they let command know that a specific
activity has been completed. This information enables command (or operations), who is
outside, to eliminate items that are on the to-do list and move other items up on the list. Command
may have no other way of knowing when some of these particular activities are complete.
Second, benchmarks lend an air of closure, if you will, to a sector assignment. Time
announcements or notations should be made to indicate when specific activities have been
completed. If legal actions or questions concerning the incident arise, the incident timeline
can give a relatively true picture of the incident.
Third, benchmarks are designed to give command a better understanding of the progress
being made. Again, command can’t (and probably shouldn’t) go inside. If attack gives the
benchmark indicating that the fire has been knocked down, and command still sees open
flame in the area of the attack sector, then command will be aware that attack may not
have gotten all the fire and that there’s something attack’s not seeing. If ventilation indicates
that the ventilation hole is opened up and the interior attack company still can’t make the
second-floor stairs, it would indicate that something is stopping the heat from going up and
out of the vent hole and that that condition will have to be corrected.
Benchmarks provide a systematic check-and-balance system that permits command
to determine whether what sector officers believe to be happening is indeed happening.
Benchmarks are brief and specific. Those that we use in Toledo are given below. You can use
some, all, or none of them. You can make up your own. Just remember the following:
· > They should be brief. There’s no need to tie up radio airtime with a lot of words.
· > They should be uniform. The benchmark for ventilation should always be the same,
no matter which form of ventilation is used. This makes it easier for the officer and
· >| 215 |< ·

command to understand exactly the fire, most of the other problems begin
what is being said and what it to diminish, and I (as command) know
actually means. I have a line on the fire. When Attack
gives the benchmark, the fire is knocked
· > They should be used all the time and down, it indicates that attack has knocked
by virtually all sector assignments. down the main body of fire. Attack gives
this benchmark to command as soon as
practical. As indicated above, if attack gives
his benchmark and command still sees fire
Command’s Benchmark showing or heavy volumes of black smoke
pushing out from the structure, then attack
Under control is the benchmark knows something is wrong.
given by command to dispatch when After attack gives this benchmark,
conditions warrant. It basically is the only command can respond “OK,” and say nothing
benchmark command needs to give. It else. In that case, attack may begin to check
indicates the following: for extension if attack believes that action
is required to complete his or her mission.
· > The fire is under control or the major Once the structure has been checked for
portion of the incident is over. extension (if necessary), attack should begin
to overhaul the fire area. However, note that
· > The need for additional equipment if no additional assignments are made over
or mutual aid no longer exists or has the radio that connect attack to extension or
been substantially diminished. Some overhaul, the timeline is disrupted, and, as
departments put other units (or other far as an attorney is concerned, extension
departments) on standby time during and overhaul have not been done. Get used
incidents. This benchmark could serve to making the new assignments.
to let the standby units stand down. Remember that extension has only the
specific tasks of checking for additional
fire. The extension crew should not put out
the fire unless command directs them to
Attack’s Benchmark do so. Overhaul is responsible for putting
out the last vestiges of the fire, no matter
Attack has several benchmarks, where it is, and for determining the area of
depending on the progress of the attack. origin. The normal progression is for attack
First, we require attack to announce to go from attack to extension to overhaul
water on the fire when they initially hit the or to have command reassign attack to be
fire. We require this for several reasons. overhaul (or extension):1
First, we time or track the five major “Command to attack: I’m changing your
benchmarks given: water on the fire, under designation to overhaul.”
control, ventilation commenced, all clear, Now command no longer has an attack
and backup line in place. We do this for sector, but instead a crew whose focus is to
training purposes and quality assurance put out the remaining fire. It must be kept
for firefighting evolutions. We then compare in mind that the benchmark given by attack
times among shifts, stations, and battalions. (the fire is knocked down) does not mean
Second, generally when the initial line hits that the fire is out—just knocked down.
· >| 216 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Benchmarks |< ·
A final note. As command, I hesitate to Remember the complaint of having too

give an “under control” immediately after many people in the building, as discussed as
I get a benchmark from attack. A lot of things the beginning of this chapter? This approach
may still be going on, and it’s embarrassing helps to control that situation.
to have to start special-calling for equipment
after you have given an “under control.”
“Everyone is out” versus “all clear”
A problem we ran into when we first used
Search’s Benchmark benchmarks in Toledo was that civilians or
police officers would come up to the first
Search’s all clear benchmark, given unit on the scene and report, “Everyone is
to command immediately on completion out of the building.” Some of our officers
of the primary search, indicates that a were confusing this with an “all clear.” That’s
primary search has been conducted and wrong. An “all clear” means specifically that
that all savable victims have been removed a search sector was assigned, and they
from the structure. (Command should have entered the structure and completed
repeat his benchmark to dispatch for a primary search. An occupant or the police
the incident timeline.) saying that everyone is out of the structure
Several specifics must be noted in relation means nothing—absolutely nothing—even if
to searches benchmarks and incident the occupant is the one telling us everyone
timelines. First, you can have several DOAs is out and that he or she is the only one who
at an incident and give an “all clear.” By lives there. What if a neighbor should run in
design, this benchmark indicates that all the back door looking for the occupant, and
savable victims have been removed from the no one knows this? What if a police officer
structure. If on arrival the structure is in total had attempted to rescue prior to our arrival?
flashover on all floors, a search should still be What if the fire has been deliberately set, and
done. It will not be on top of command’s to-do the arsonist is still in there? If someone is
list because it should evident that no savable out front telling you that everyone is reported
victims are in the structure. If on arrival the to be out, then state just that!
structure is heavily charged with thick black “Command to all units and dispatch:
smoke, and responders have been on the The police report that everyone is out
scene for 10 minutes, there is little need for a of the structure.”
primary search. For both of these scenarios, Now command can make some
a secondary search is indicated later in assignments, keeping in mind that a search
the operation, when it can be done safely sector still needs to be on the to-do list,
and effectively. If on arrival it is not known although possibly not at the top.
whether anyone is in the structure, and
fire conditions indicate that savable victims
may be inside, a search sector is warranted.
Once the search has been completed and Backup’s Benchmark
the “all clear” has been given, command can
assign search to start a secondary search, The benchmark backup line in place is
reassign search to another sector, or bring given by backup to indicate that the backup
the crew out of the structure.2 line has been pulled, stretched, and charged
· >| 217 |< ·

in the appropriate area of the structure. Once command hears that an officer
Backup gives this benchmark to command is looking out for the exposed structures,
immediately on placement of the backup command can again step back and look for
line. Once command knows a protective line other problems to solve.
is inside the structure for the sole purpose
of keeping an eye on the working crews,
command can think about the possibility of
extending things a little more. It is imperative Extension’s Benchmark
that command be informed after the backup
line has been positioned, not while it is being Extension relays to command the
positioned. It all goes back to focus. If the extension areas checked benchmark as soon
officer assigned to backup is in the process as extension has checked the area surrounding
of looking for the appropriate location for the the fire. Command now knows that an officer
backup line, he or she hasn’t had adequate and crew checked above, around, and below
time to focus on much else. When the backup the fire for extension. Had the extension officer
sector gives the benchmark, command knows found any extension of fire, he or she would
that the backup sector is ready to focus on have informed command of that fact as well as
the safety of interior crews. the location of the extension. The officer would
then let command (or operations) determine
how best to control it. Attack handles the
extension of fire and extinguishes it, while
Ventilation’s Benchmark command either reassigns extension or tells the
officer and crew to get out of the structure.
When ventilation gives command
the benchmark ventilation commenced,
it indicates that natural or mechanical
ventilation has commenced, or that an Overhaul’s Benchmark
adequate hole has been opened on the roof or
in another appropriate area. We started out The benchmark overhaul complete
years ago using “ventilation complete” but is given to command by overhaul as soon
decided to change it to paint a truer picture as the area of origin has been determined
of what actually is occurring in the fire area. and the last vestiges of the fire have been
extinguished. It should be given prior to
removing the last line within the structure
and after the overhaul officer has taken his
Exposure’s Benchmark last walk through the structure to look for
any traces of smoke or fire.
Exposure gives command the benchmark
exposures covered as soon as protective lines
have been placed and are in operation.
Note: Exposure will then, if necessary, Salvage’s Benchmark
enter the exposed building to determine
whether fire has entered the structure. This The salvage complete benchmark is
fact should be relayed to command as soon given by salvage to command after all savable
as entry has been made. property has been protected from the effects
· >| 218 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Benchmarks |< ·
of the fire. This benchmark does not mean all directions should initially be
that the ceiling has stopped dripping and established as the hot, warm
the tarps can be removed. It means that and cold zones.
the tarps have been spread and are keeping
water off of valuables. b. Material identified. This benchmark
will be given by the IC or HazMat
officer when the material
has been identified.
Rapid Intervention
c. H.M. intervention determined. This
Team Benchmarks benchmark will be given by the IC
or the HazMat officer when the need
The benchmarks crew located and crew for H.M. team interventions has
outside are given by the rapid intervention been determined.
team (RIT) to command at the appropriate
time. “Crew located” indicates that the lost d. Decon established. This benchmark
or trapped crew members have been found. will be given by the IC or the officer
It says nothing about their condition. The assigned to decon has set up a
benchmark “crew outside” is given when decontamination area.
the crew has been taken outside. Remember
that the RIT might choose to remove the e. Entry team suited. This benchmark
crew by a route that may be out of view will be given by the IC or the HazMat
from the command post. Ideally, this will be officer when the Initial Entry team is
the extent of the benchmarks and similar suited and ready to begin entry into
announcements that the RIT has to make. the hot zone.
2. Trench rescue
Other Incident Benchmarks a. Intervention identified. This
benchmark will be given by the IC
Although this text centers on residential when it has been determined that
structure fires, benchmarks for other incident the trench rescue team will or will
types have proved helpful. Below is a list of not make an entry.
additional benchmarks.
b. Metering in place. This benchmark
1. HazMat incidents will be given by the IC or the trench
a. Zones established. This rescue officer when the appropriate
benchmark will be given by the metering has taken place.
incident commander (IC) when
hot, warm and cold zones have c. Shoring in place. This benchmark
been established. According to the will be given by the IC or the trench
Department of Transportation (DOT) rescue officer when the appropriate
guide book, for an unidentified shoring has been set.
material, a minimum of 250 in
· >| 219 |< ·

d. Excavation started. This benchmark e. Backup team in place. This

will be given by the IC or the trench benchmark will be given by the IC or
rescue officer when dirt and or the confined space officer when the
similar material has begun to be backup team is suited and in place.
removed from the trench or area.
f. Entry team on air. This benchmark
e. Entry and backup ready. This will be given by the IC or the
benchmark will be given by the IC or confined space officer when the
the trench rescue officer when the entry team is going on air.
entry and backup team are ready to
enter the trench. g. Backup team on air. This
benchmark will be given by the IC or
f. Victim extricated. This benchmark the confined space officer when the
will be given by the IC or the trench back up team is going on air.
rescue officer when the victim(s)
have been removed. h. Victim extricated. This benchmark
will be given by the IC or the
confined space officer when the
3. Confined space incident victim(s) have been removed
a. Intervention identified. This from the space.
benchmark will be given by the IC
when it has been determined that
the trench rescue team will or will 4. Water rescue
not make an entry. a. Safety zone established. This
benchmark is given by the IC
b. Lockout/tagout. This benchmark when a safety zone has been
will be given by the IC or the officer established where no personnel or
assigned to lockout/tagout when civilians are allowed without proper
all power to the area of the rescue personal protective equipment
has been shut off and locked (PPE), including personal flotation
and tagged out. devices (PFDs).
c. Metering in place. This benchmark b. Water rescue on scene. This

will be given by the IC or the benchmark is given by the IC
confined space officer when when the water rescue team is
the appropriate metering has on the scene.
taken place.
c. Diver dressed. This benchmark is
d. Entry team in place. This given by the IC or the dive master
benchmark will be given by the IC when the initial diver is dressed and
or the confined space officer when ready to enter the water.
the entry team is suited and in
place for an entry.
· >| 220 |< ·

––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Benchmarks |< ·
d. Water rescue intervention Endnotes

determined. This benchmark is
given by the IC when it has been 1. Review the mission statements of attack,
extension, and overhaul if you’re confused about
determined whether a diver will be
the responsibilities of each.
put in the water.
2. Several departments pull the search company out
of the structure after search has been completed
e. Diver under water. This benchmark and use it as a rapid intervention team.
is given by the IC or the dive master
when the diver submerges.
f. Victim located. This benchmark is

given by the IC or the dive master
when the victim has been located.
What Benchmarks Mean

Benchmarks mean the end of incident
confusion. Areas that needed to be visually
checked by command in the past now
can be verbally “checked” by systematic,
standardized statements.
Once command is informed that an
activity has been completed, he or she can
reevaluate the scene and to-do list and do
one of the following:
· > Give that crew a new assignment.
· > Have that crew report to another

sector under another officer.
· > Have that company report outside for

a break, go to rehab, or go back home.
It’s command’s choice. Benchmarks help

give command total control of the incident.
· >| 221 |< ·

Index
A area command, 16–17

command post and, 41
accountability, 34, 126–127 area of origin, 24, 83, 85, 89, 188, 195, 198,
of command, 144 199–200, 202, 203
communication v., 91 arrival
IC’s responsibility for, 89–91 fire and smoke upon, 82–83
of incident, 12 occupants and bystanders actions upon, 85
officer, 56 arson, 187, 193, 202
operations v., 12 assignment(s), 4, 34, 73–74, 96, 197, 207
radio and, 34 availability of personnel and apparatus for,
reports, personal, 106 81
action(s) of backup, 145–146, 149–151, 154
information v., 87 combination, 55, 58–59
of occupants and bystanders on arrival, 85 completion of, 215
administration, 10, 42, 72, 89 expanding exposure, 179–181
advanced life support (ALS), 14, 67 of extension, 190
aerials, 169, 175 face-to-face, 3
alarm(s), 56 of freelancing, 7–8
fires, multiple, 40, 70–72 functional, 54, 55, 59
staging v. false, 46 geographical, 54, 55–56, 59
all clear, everyone is out v., 217 from IC, 61–62
ambulance, 67 initial, 78
apartment buildings, 186 interior floor, 58
backup for, 150 making, 80–81
doors of large, 125 new, 216
oriented search of, 124–125 NFA, recommendation of, 54
apparatus overhaul, 198–199
availability of, 81 preincident, 2–3
riders of, 90 pressure of, 46
self contained breathing, 170, 211 prioritization of, 62
· >| 223 |< ·

putting out fire in area of, 97

revolving, 59
B
RIT, 210
backdraft, 104
of salvage, 205
oxygen v. conditions of, 105
sector officers and, 60
backup(s), 62, 81, 143, 191, 209
tunnel vision and, 53–54
for apartment buildings, 150
of ventilation, 156
assignment of, 145–146, 149–151, 154
assumptions, 25, 197
attack and, 136, 139, 142, 145, 150–151
attack, 55, 60, 62, 88, 204
in basement, 142–143
backup and, 136, 139, 142, 145, 150–151
benchmark of, 217–218
branch, 148–149
combination, 106, 107
branch officer, 149
command v., 107–108, 144
into building, entrance of, 139
concepts, fire, 97
command and, 135–137
coordinated fire, 156, 169
count method of, 140
coordination of, 95
focus of, 135
crew, safety of, 96–97
group, 137–138, 154
defensive, 101–107
mission of, 135
direct, 99, 101, 102–104, 107
for MVA, 68
extension and, 190, 191, 193, 203
number of, 147–149
exterior, 102–103
staff availability for, 143
fog, 99–100, 101
water supply of, 138
indirect, 96, 100–101, 104–106, 107, 176
backup line(s)
initial, 173, 191
to attack line, switching, 145
interior, 96, 98
into attic, 143
line, switching backup line to, 145
into basement, 142–143
mission of, 95
charging and, 144
mode, command of fast, 29–30, 47
floor level v., 139–144, 146
offensive, 98–101, 149
multiple, 147–149
officer, 107
positioning of, 143–144
one-person, 95
backup officer, 141
overhaul and, 199
backup crew and, 137, 140
responsibility of, 96–97
branch, 149
of room and contents fire, 64–65
interior crew and, 137–138
rules of thumb, basic, 108–111
search and, 128
span of control of, 147–149
steam of, 99–101
balloon-frame structures, 186, 187, 188, 189
strategy, 97–98, 173
base, 45
from uninvolved area, 110
basement, backup lines into, 142–143
ventilation and, 100, 104–105, 162
basic life support (BLS), 67
water for direct, 99
benchmark(s), 142, 215–216
attic, 145, 186
attack’s, 216–217
backup line into, 143
backup’s, 217–218
of exposure, 179
command’s, 216
search of, 129
confined space incident, 220
smoke in, 200–201
exposure’s, 218
attitude, 21
extension’s, 218
of command presence, 22
HazMat incident, 219
audio tapes, of working fires, 87
meaning of, 221
autoexposure, 182, 186
other incident, 219
axe, fire
overhaul’s, 218
for extensions, 189
RIT’s, 219
for ventilation, chainsaw v. fire, 162–163
· >| 224 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Index |< ·
salvage’s, 218–219 command(ers), 2, 4, 42, 63.

search’s, 217 See also incident commander
Trench Rescue, 219–220 accountability of, 89–91, 144
ventilation’s, 218 area, 16–17, 41
water rescue, 220–221 assumption of, 17
Big Four, 61–62, 65, 155, 190, 204, 205 attack v., 107–108, 144
booster tanks, 138 backup and, 135–137
branch, 59 benchmark of, 216
Brennan, Tommy, 127 board, 91
Brunacini, Alan V., 214 chain of, 48, 53
building(s). See also apartment buildings chiefs v., 5
collapse of, 103–104 elimination of multiple, 5
entrance of backup into, 139 exposures and, 180, 182
exposures v. source, 57 and extension, 191
exterior sides of, 56–57 formal, 14–15, 29, 39, 40, 71, 76
height of, 160 freelancing v., 8
interior floors of, 58 functional assignments and, 54
materials, 83–84 informal, 14, 67
for search, reading, 127–128 mission of, 75–76, 92
bunkering up, of IC commander, 22–23 Murtagh on, 88
bystanders, actions of, 85 objectives of, 78–80
operations v., 5–6, 70–71
to outside agency, transferring, 33–34
overhaul and, 196
C
passing, 30–33
perception of, 8
presence, 22, 28
California, 13 priorities of, 76–78, 80–81, 190, 204
carbon monoxide, 129, 159 responsibility of, 6, 9, 12, 18, 86, 89, 107, 126
oxygen v., 76–77 RIT and, 212
ceilings, 96. See also roof search and, 126
chain saw, for ventilation, fire axe v., 162–163 sector officers information for, 60–61
char, 199 span of control, 179
charging, of backup line, 144 staff positions, 8–11
chief(s), 15, 23–24, 35, 60–61 staging area and, 49
battalion, 64, 86 tasks of, accountability, 89–91
command post and, 37 tasks of, adjusting to changes and updates, 88
commanders v., 5 tasks of communication and information, 87
officers, 47 tasks of, coordination of resources, 88
rank of, 15, 30, 32 tasks of, directing division and group
children, trapped, 28. See also victims officers, 91
Clark, William, 73, 172 tasks of, focusing on incident, 86–87
Cline, Jim, 211, 214 teams, 13–14
closet hooks, 189 to-do-list of, 82, 85–86, 149–151, 167, 205, 215
collapse unified, 15–16, 40–41
strip malls and early, 186 ventilation and, 156–158, 170
of structure, 103–104 command mode(s), 27
combination command, 30
assignments, 55, 58–59 command post type v., 41
attack in defensive strategy, 106, 107 fast attack, 29–30, 47
Combustion, 76–77, 159 nothing showing, 28, 46
products of, 155, 160, 163, 175, 204
· >| 225 |< ·

command post(s), 37–38 confined space incident, benchmark of, 220

additional help at, 65 conservation, of property, 78, 83, 98, 190,
command mode v. type of, 41 204–206, 207
exterior sides of building and, 56–57 consistency, of IC, 23
formal command and, 40 construction, 187, 188, 200
IC leaving, 75 methods, 83–84, 187
IMS and, 37 control
informal command and, 40 backup officer’s span of, 147–149
location of, 41 command and, 6
mobile, 38–39 of emotions, 22
operations at, 42 of fire, 98
revolving assignments and, 59 span of, 18–19, 53–54, 59, 147–149, 179
stationery, 39 convection currents, 174, 176, 177, 187, 188
unified command and, 40–41 ventilation from, 160
command structure, 32 coordinated fire attack, 156, 169
basic, 66 coordination, 75–76
for Level 1 HazMat run, 68–69 of attack, 95
for Level 2 HazMat run, 70–71 of resources, 88
for medical emergency, 67 of search, 115, 126
of multiple-alarm fires, 70–72 count method, for backup crew, 140
for MVA, 67–68, 69 crew(s), 25, 33–34
of room and contents fire, 64, 65 backup, 81, 135–136
of single-family residential structure fires, 65 capability of, 168
with volunteers, 66 first-in, 12, 28
common sense, 12 geographical assignments and, 54
communication(s), 19, 55–56, 87, 197 interior, 135, 137–138, 139
accountability v., 91 needs of, 31–33
between attack and extension, 191 for RIT, evacuation of unnecessary, 213
between attack and ventilation, 162 safety of, 60, 96–97, 118, 126, 144, 169,
between backup officer and backup crew, 140 182, 190, 191–192, 202, 206, 209–214
between command and ventilation, 170 staging and perception of, 46
of IC, 23, 60–61 three person, 96
between IC and backup officer, 137 in trouble, 213
between IC and crew, 7–8, 87, 96, 97, 107, 110 critique, 25
between IC and ventilation, 156–157
IMS establishment of, 18
of liaison officers, 11
of search officer, 115–116
between search officer and searchers, 120, 122 D
concrete, structures, 187
concurrent fireground operations, 2–3 damage
conditions heat, 199
of backdraft, 104–105 salvage and unnecessary, 205
to change, waiting for fire, 77–78 smoke, 206
changing fire, 77–78, 87 water, 205, 206
determining fire, 81–86 death, 61, 129
extreme firefighting, 65 debris, 201–202
flashover, 76, 85, 91, 102, 103, 106, 138, decision(s)
166, 167, 217 of IC, 23
heavy smoke, 77 making, scenario-based, 92–94, 112–113,
interior, 61 133–134, 152–153, 171, 184
smoke and fire, 86–87 deck gun, 77
conduction, 174 defensive attack, 101–107
· >| 226 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Index |< ·
DeHaan, John D., 193 exposure(s), 80, 82, 109

demobilization, 24 assignment, expansion of, 179–181
direct attack, 102 attic of, 179
advantages of, 99, 101 auto, 182, 186
in defensive strategy, 102–104, 107 benchmark of, 218
disadvantages of, 99, 101 command and, 180, 182
direct flame impingement, 174, 176, 187 direction of fire and, 107
directing exterior, 84, 174–175, 176, 177–178
group and division officers, IC, 91 forced entry into, 179
without interfering, 25, 157 hoseline between source and, 178
over radio, 32–33 ignition temperature of, 175, 176, 177, 178
division(s), 54, 55–56, 59 IMS and, 181
floor, 58 interior, 84, 177
officers, IC direction of, 91 mission of, 173
documentation, of unified command, 16 potential, 84
dominant vertical channel, 162 prioritization of, 177–178
door(s) protection, 173, 174–176, 178–179, 182
chocks, 211 proximity of, 177
of large apartment buildings, 125 roof of, 177
location of, 122 smoke v., 178–179
rating of, 176, 187 source building v., 57
ventilation from, 109 source of fire v., 176
drywall, 188, 189, 193 strip mall, 57
on steel studs wall system, 201 value, 175, 178
on wood studs wall system, 201 water v., 178–179
ductwork, 188 extension(s), 204, 216
attack and, 190, 191, 193, 203
benchmark of, 218
checking for, 187–190
E command and, 191
critical factors of, 187
hoseline v., 190–191
ego, 35 mission of, 185
egress, 169 overhaul v., 203
of arsonist, 187, 193 as separate group, 185–186
protection of, 151 extension officer, 191–192
electromagnetic waves, 174 exterior exposures, 84, 174–175, 177–178
emergency(ies), 25 protection of, 176
command structure for medical, 67 extinguishment process, 173–174
operations, non-emergency v., 18–19 extrication, for MVA, 68
traffic, 213, 214
ventilation with fog stream, 165
emergency medical services (EMS), 14, 47, 67, 129
emotions, control of, 22
engine(s) F
companies, 46
first-in, 79 fans, ventilation from, 163–165
second-in, 79 fatalities, firefighter, 87
stationery command posts and first-in, 39 Federal Emergency Management Administration, 42
environments, IDLH, 117, 128–129 feeling, to check for extension, 189
everyone is out, all clear v., 217 finance, 13, 42
evidence, 198, 202 fire(s). See also incident(s)
evolutions, 6, 25, 116, 127, 216 attack concepts, 97
· >| 227 |< ·

audio tapes of, 87 fire department

axe, 162–163, 189 manual of, 73
in basement, 142–143 mission statement of, 73–74, 145, 198, 221
change in location of, 85 Fire Department Instructors Conferences (FDIC), 117
checking for extensions above, 187 Fire Engineering magazine, 1, 168, 211, 214
checking for extensions around, 187–188 firefighter(s)
checking for extensions below, 188 to check for extension, senses of, 189
complicated, 5 fatalities, 87
condition of, 77–78, 81–86, 87 needs of, 31–33
confinement of, 98, 173 property conversation v., 98
control of, 98 psychology of, 149
darkening down, 83 for response, number of, 66
electromagnetic waves from, 174 RIT rescue of injured, 209–210
exposures v. source of, 176 safety of, 76, 82
extension of multiple, 187 Firefighter Assist and Search Teams (FAST), 209
extent of, 29, 82–83, 167 firefighting
extinguishing, 98, 173–174 extreme conditions of, 65
fatal, 61 Plan A, 77
horizontal spread of, 174–175, 186, 188 Plan B, 77–78
IC looking for change in, 85 sequential, 82
ICS at simple house, 8–9 wildland, 9, 13, 14, 16, 45, 63
incendiary, 187 Firefighting Principles and Practices (Clark), 73, 172
involving hazardous materials, 13 Fireground operations, 2–3
kitchen, 158 Fireground Size-Up (Terpak), 81
large, 103 FIRESCOPE, 2, 9, 10, 14, 27
location of, 128, 140–141, 146, 165, 166, 167 five-walled room, 122
location of original, 188 flashover, 76, 85, 91, 102, 103, 106, 138, 166,
on multiple floor levels, 111, 138, 141–43 167, 217
multiple-alarm, 40, 70–72 floor level(s)
origin and cause of, 24, 83, 85, 89, 188, backup line v. number of, 139–144, 146
195, 198, 199–200, 202, 203 changing, 110
oxygen v., 105, 111 differentiation of, 57–58
picture of, 80 for extension, heat of, 189
PPV v. location of, 165 fire on multiple, 111, 138, 141–43
room and contents fire, 24, 31 multiple fires on same, 111
as salvage, separating areas from, 204 search change in, 126
single-family residential structure, 65, 89 search of, 129
sizing up, 81–86 focus, 21, 53–54, 60, 129
and smoke on arrival, extent of, 82–83 of backup crew, 135
source of, 83, 84 of command post, 38, 41
spread of, 109, 110, 127, 159, 174, of IC, 75, 95, 107, 115, 156
186–187, 190 IMS and, 86–87, 156
stage of, 166–167 on incident, command’s task to, 86–87
starting search close to, 128 of RIT, 210–211, 213–214
with steam, pushing, 110, 156 of search v. rescue, 130–131
stopping problem of, 78 fog
strategy, offensive, 98–101, 149 attack, 99–100, 101
time of day of, 128 as ventilation, 165–166
by venting from exterior, hitting, 109 Forcing entry, into exposures, 179
vertical spread of, 174–175, 186 Formal command, 14–15, 29, 39, 71, 76
wanting out, 109–110 announcing assumption of, 17
water v., 111 command post and, 40
Fire Command (Brunacini), 214 four-walled room, 122
· >| 228 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Index |< ·
freelancing, 61, 213 help, 65

assigned, 7–8 high-rise structures, 186
command v., 8 High-Rise/Fire and Life Safety (O’Hagen), 172
definition of, 6 horizontal fire spread, 174–175, 186, 188
staging v., 45 horizontal interior exposures, 174–175
function, 89, 110 hoseline. See also line(s)
functional assignments, 54, 55, 59 advancement of, 110
furniture, 199–200 extension v., 190–191
salvaging, 204, 206 searching with, 131
between source and exposure, 178
human body
in dry v. moist heat, 100, 129
heat tolerance of, 76, 129–130, 169
G hydrant, 138
gable roofs, 162

gases, flow of, 109, 159
geographical assignments, 54, 55–56, 59
glass, plate, 104, 178
I
going mobile, 38
Goldfeder, Billy, 89 IDLH environments, 117, 128–129
group(s), 55, 59 ignition, area of, 197. See also origin and cause, of fire
backup, 137–138, 154 ignition temperature, 188
extension as separate, 185–186 of exposures, 175, 176, 177, 178
officers, 169, 190 incident(s)
officers, IC direction of, 91 accountability of, 12
protection of search, 146 command’s task to focus, 86–87
ventilation v., 166 confined space, 220
EMS, 47
in fast attack mode, extent of, 29
multiple, 16
needs of, 31–33, 38, 39, 168
H other, 219
priorities of, 76–78
HazMat, 13, 64 RIT at early stages of, 210
benchmark of, 219 sizing-up, 81–86
command structure for, 68–71 staging for calming of, 45–46
Level 1, 68–69 timeline, 215, 217
Level 2, 70–71 incident command system (ICS), 9
health department, 16 IMS v., 2
heat at simple house fire, 8–9
damage, 199 incident commander (IC), 3, 15, 21, 63–64
detectors, 200 assignments from, 61–62
dry v. moist, 100, 129 availability of staff and, 81
of floor for extension, 189 bunkering up of, 22–23
flow of, 109, 174 choice of staff, 23–25
furnace, 188 communication between backup officer and, 137
hidden, 200 communication between crew and, 7–8, 87,
radiant, 103, 175, 176, 178, 187 96, 97, 107, 110
tolerance of human body, 76, 129–130, 169 communication between ventilation and,
transfer, 174, 176 156–157
ventilation and, 159–160 communication of, 23
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC), 163 communication to, 60–61
· >| 229 |< ·

coordination of, 75–76 interior conditions, 61

focus of, 75, 95, 107, 115, 156 interior exposures, 84, 177
geographical divisions and, 55–56 horizontal, 175
leaving command post, 75 vertical, 174–175
listening of, 22 interior horizontal exposure protection, 176
location of, 86 interior vertical exposure protection, 176
looking for changes in fire, 85 investigation, overhaul v., 202
mixed scanning of, 87
occupants and, 31
policy, 74
J
posture of, 22
responsibility of, 23, 25, 31, 89–91, 158
rule of thumb for, 72
safety and, 11 jurisdiction, 33
incident management system (IMS), 9, 27, 63, 198, 214.
See also National Incident Management Systems
attitude of, 21
K
basic premise of, 5–14, 15
command post and, 37
definition of, 1–2
effects and benefits of, 18 Kirk’s Fire Investigation (DeHaan), 193
expansion of, 32 kitchen fire, 158
exposures and, 181
focus and, 86–87, 156
ICS v., 2
as management tool, 3–4
objectives of, 53–54 L
oriented method of search and, 119
responsibility and, 32, 198 lapping, 182
three parts of, 17 lathe and plaster wall system, 200–201
incident management teams (IMT), 13–14 laundry chutes, 188
indirect attack, 96, 100, 176 leadership, 22–23
advantages of, 101 left-handed search, 120–121
in defensive strategy, 104–106, 107 one person, 125
disadvantages of, 101 Level I staging, 46
informal command, 14 Level II staging, 47–48, 50
at BLS runs, 67 liaison officer, 11, 42
command post and, 40 line(s). See also hoseline
information, 87 backup, 139–144
officer, 11, 42 backup v. attack, 145
up-to-date, 61 for exposures, size of, 176
injury between source and exposure, 178
of firefighters, 209–210 listening, of IC, 22
of oriented person, 123 location, 89–90, 110
during overhaul, 202 of door, 122
of searcher, 123 of fire, 128, 140–141, 146, 165, 166, 167
insurance of fire, PPV v., 165
companies, 190 logistics, 10, 13, 42, 67, 89
fire, 207 luxuries, of staging officer, 51
rekindles and, 185, 201
interior attack, 96, 98
· >| 230 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Index |< ·
M of incident v. ventilation type, 168

of occupants, 31, 89, 92
negative pressure ventilation, 163
management
The Neighborhood Department, 202, 207
IMS as tool for, 3–4
New York City Fire Department (FDNY), 66, 88, 209
universal, 9
non-thinking syndrome (NTS), 89
Managing Major Fires (Coleman), 42
nozzle discipline, 204, 205
Manual, of Fire Department, 73
nozzle placement, 98
mask policy, 170
for combination attack, 106
math, 98
numbering system, of structures, 56–57
McAniff, Edward P., 73
mechanical ventilation, 163–166
media, 11
medical emergency, command structure for, 67
mission
of attack, 95 O
of backup, 135
of command, 75–76, 92 objectives
of exposure, 173 defining, 78–80
of extension, 185 from picture, 80
of overhaul, 195 occupancy, 127, 178. See also victims
of RIT, 209, 211 large, 177
of salvage, 195, 204 types of, 84
of search, 115 ventilation type v., 167–168
statement, of Fire Department, 73–74, 145, occupants, 182. See also victims
198, 221 actions of, 85
of ventilation, 156–157 needs of, 31, 89, 92
mixed scanning, of IC, 87 property and, 206
mobile command posts, 38–39 ventilation and, 159
motor vehicle accidents (MVA) occupied, 182
command structure for, 67–68, 69 offensive attack, 98–101, 149
stopping problem of, 78 officer(s). See also specific types
multitasking, 61 chief, 47
Murtagh, Jim, 88 first-in, 27, 28, 29, 30, 39
group, 169, 190
IC direction of division and group, 91
incoming, 79
responsibilities of sector, 60–61
N to-subordinate ratio, 18–19, 53
truck, 156, 157
National Fire Academy (NFA), 27, 41, 42, 55, 59 O’Hagen, John T., 172
assignment recommendation of, 54 one-person search, 125
water flow formula, 98, 111 on-scene survey, of RIT, 212
National Fire Incident Management System openings, ventilation from natural, 162
Consortium, 27 operations, 10, 24–25, 42, 89
National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA), 12, 83, 210, 214 accountability v., 12
National Incident Management Systems (NIMS), 42 of command post, 42
natural ventilation, 160–163 command v., 5–6, 70–71
necessities, of staging officer, 51 emergency v. non-emergency, 18–19
needs at multiple-alarm fires, 70–72
anticipation of future, 88 RIT and, 212
of firefighters, 31–33 sequential fireground, 3
of incident, 31–33, 38, 39, 168 staging area and, 49
· >| 231 |< ·

opposing lines, 111 plans, switching, 111

orders, violation of direct, 32 platform-frame construction, 187, 188
ordinary wall systems, 200 policy, 12, 28, 34
oriented method of search, 119–120 IC, 74
direction of, 121 mask, 170
for large apartment building, 124–125 positive pressure ventilation (PPV), 96, 163
number of walls in, 122 avantages of, 164–165
of ranch house, 124–125 precautions for, 165
of rooms off of other rooms, 123–124 posture, of IC, 22
with thermal imager, 132 preincident assignment, 2–3
origin and cause, of fire, 24, 83, 85, 89, 188, 195, prevention, 89, 98
198, 199–200, 202, 203 primary searches, 117, 217
outside agency, command transfer to, 33–34 priorities
outside vent man (OVM), 156, 169 of assignment, 62
outside ventilation (OV), 155, 169 of command, 76–78, 80–81, 190, 204
overhaul, 160, 198, 204, 216 command’s to-do-list v., 82
assignment of, 198–199 of exposures, 177–178
attack and, 199 of incident, 76–78
benchmark of, 218 of search, 126, 127
cause and origin of fire v., 198 procedure, 35. See also standard operating procedures
command and, 196 for fog ventilation, 165–166
debris of, 201–202 property, conservation of, 78, 83, 98, 190,
extension v., 203 204–206, 207
how to, 199–201 protection
investigation v., 202 of egress, 151
mission of, 195 exposure, 173, 174–176, 178–179, 182
responsibility of, 202 of search group, 146
where to, 199 of valuables as salvage, 204
oxygen, 129
carbon monoxide v., 76–77
fire v., 105, 111
Q
levels of backdraft, 104
questions, 19, 35, 43, 52, 62, 92, 112, 133, 152,
170, 183, 192, 207, 214
P
pack-rat syndrome, 127
paperwork, 35, 67, 89
passing command, 30–33
R
patient care, 76
radiant heat, 103, 175, 176, 178, 187
for medical emergency, 67
radiation, 174
for MVA, 68
radio, 3, 22, 51, 87, 191. See also communication(s)
personal accountability reports (PAR), 106
accountability and, 34
personal protective equipment (PPE), 11
assumption of command through, 17
picture, 80, 168
command and, 12
pike poles, 189
command post location over, 39–40
Plan A, 77
direction over, 32–33
Plan B, 77–78, 155
going mobile announcement over, 38
planning, 10, 42, 89
passing command announcement over, 32
pre, 81, 168
transfer of command over, 33
for search, 117
· >| 232 |< ·

––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Index |< ·
transmission, command mode, 30 rope, as anchor in team search, 118–119

transmission, fast attack, 29–30 rural America, 161, 169, 177
transmission, unnecessary, 213, 214 water supply in, 138
unified command and, 16
ranch house, oriented search of, 124
rank
of chief, 15, 30, 32
privilege of, 35
“Rapid Intervention Companies: The Firefighters
S
Life Insurance,” 211, 214
safety
rapid intervention teams (RIT), 209, 214
Bureau, 144
activation of, 213
civilian, 76–78, 82–83, 190
additional, 213
of crew, 60, 96–97, 118, 126, 144, 169, 182,
benchmark of, 219
190, 191–192, 202, 206, 209–214
command and, 212
firefighter, 76, 82
mission of, 211
life, 177–178
on-scene survey of, 212
officer, 11, 42
operations and, 212
salvage
search as, 221
rekindles, 185, 197
how to, 206
in debris, 201–202
mission of, 195, 204
rescue
responsibilities of, 206
benchmark of trench, 219–220
when to, 205
benchmark of water, 220–221
where to, 205–206
of firefighters, 209–210
search(es), 62. See also specific types
search v., 130–131
of apartment buildings, oriented, 124–125
resources, coordination of, 88
attack and, 128
responsibility, 207
of attic, 129
of attack, 96–97
benchmark of, 217
of backup officer, 137–138
command and, 126
blame v., 198
continuity of, 116–117, 131
of command, 6, 12, 18, 86, 89, 107, 126
direction of, 120–121
of exposure officer, 180, 182
group, protection of, 146
of extension, 191–192
with hoseline, 131
of IC, 23, 25, 31, 89–91, 158
length of, 129–130
IMS and, 32, 198
mission of, 115
of overhaul, 202
officer and searchers, communication
of salvage, 206
between, 120, 122
of sector officers, 60–61
officer, communication of, 115–116
sectorization and, 53
officer, responsibilities of, 115–117
of staging officer, 48–49
one-person, 125
of ventilation, 169
oriented method of, 119–123
revolving assignments, 59
planning for, 117
right-handed search, 120
primary, 117, 217
roof, 169
prioritization of, 126, 127
of exposures, 177
reading the building for, 127–128
venting, 162–163
rescue v., 130–131
room(s)
responsibility of IC during, 126
and contents fire, 24, 31, 64–65
as RIT, 221
five-walled, 122
four-walled, 122
of rooms off of other rooms, oriented, 123–124
of origin, 199–200
secondary, 117, 217
rooms off of other, 123–124
ventilation with fog to clear, 165–166
· >| 233 |< ·

standard, 118 staging, 2, 4, 17, 45–52, 49

starting and stopping, 128–129 area, 45, 48–49
team, 118–119 level I, 46–47
techniques, 117–125 level II, 47–48
with thermal imager, 132 in nothing showing mode, 28
with a tool, 131–132 officer, 48–49, 51
ventilation and ease of, 159 of RIT, 211–212, 214
victims v., 126 termination of, 51
secondary searches, 117, 217 stairs, 128, 150
sector(ization), 17, 53–54 finding, 129
backup, 147–149 standard operating procedures (SOP), 12, 106
criticism of, 57 standard search, 118
functional, 54, 55 steam, 110, 156
geographical, 54 backdraft conditions v., 105
officers, 60–61 of direct attack, 99
self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 170 of fog attack, 100
for RIT, 211 of indirect attack, 101
sight, to check for extension, 189 ventilation with, 165
single-pane glass windows, 104 stopping the problem, 78, 83
size-up, 81–86, 127 Strategic Concepts in Firefighting (McAniff), 73
sleeping areas, finding, 129 strategy, 5
smoke, 128, 158, 159 attack, 97–98, 173
in attic, 200–201 defensive attack, 101–107
of backdraft, 104 divide and conquer, 86
change in color of, 85 fire attack, 173
change in force of, 85 offensive attack, 98–101, 149
channeling of, 164, 166 search, 117
conditions, 86–87 stream
damage, 206 fog, 165–166
ejectors, 163 pushing fire with, 110, 156
exposures v., 178–179 straight, 99–101, 102–103
from extensions, 189 strip malls, 186
and fire on arrival, extent of, 82–83 exposures at, 57
heavy, 77 structure(s)
removal, 161 balloon-frame, 186, 187, 188, 189
water v., 96 collapse, 103–104
snow, 169 concrete, 187
sound, to check for extension, 189 first view of, 81
source building, exposures v., 57 fog stream inside, 165–166
span of control, 18–19, 53–54, 59 high-rise, 186
of backup officer, 147–149 indirect attack and entering, 105–106
of command, 179 numbering system of, 56–57
squads, 47 occupied wood-frame, 186
stack effect, 163 with shared attic/cockloft areas, 186
ventilation from, 160 type, 83–84, 127
staff, 65, 190 wood-frame, 186–187, 188
availability of, 81, 168, 177 subordinate(s)
for backup, availability of, 143 of backup officer, 147–149
base of operations for command, 42 ratio, officer-to, 18–19, 53
of command, 8–11
IC choice of, 23–25
low, 95, 126, 199
for search, availability of, 116
search v., 127
· >| 234 |< ·

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T unoccupied, 182
urban America
task(s). See also multitasking incendiary fires in, 187
of command, 86–91 water supply in, 138
of overhaul, 198
team(s). See also incident management teams;
Rapid intervention teams
command, 13–14 V
search, 118–119
work, 4, 5 value, of exposures, 175, 178
temperature(s) vent hole, 157, 161, 163
glass and, 104 ventilation, 62, 204
high, 76 advancement and, 159–160
ignition, 175, 176, 177, 178, 188 aggressive, 80
outside v. inside, 160 assignment of, 156
Terpak, Michael, 81 attack and, 100, 104–105, 162
thermal balance, 99, 100, 101 for backdraft, 104–105
thermal imager, searching with, 132 benchmark of, 218
time of day, 128 chainsaw v. fire axe for, 162–163
timeline, of incident, 215, 217 command and, 156–158, 170
to-do-lists, 149 communication between attack and, 162
command’s, 82, 85–86, 126, 149–151, 167, communication between command and, 170
205, 215 communication between IC and, 156–157
Toledo Fire Department, 73, 144 from convection currents, 160
tool(s) from doors, 109
for checking for extension, 189 emergency, 165
fire axe v. chainsaw as ventilation, 162–163 from fans, 163–165
for RIT, 211 fog as, 165–166
searching with, 131–132 fog attack and, 100
of staging officer, 51 heat and, 159–160
trailers, 187, 193 for indirect attack, 104–105
train(ing), 25, 45, 216 initial, 78
cross, 156 mechanical, 163–166
manual, 73 mission of, 155–156
trench rescue, benchmark of, 219–220 natural, 160–163
truck companies, 46 negative pressure, 163
salvage and, 205 occupancy v., 159, 167–168
truck officer, 156, 157 officer, 170
tunnel vision, 53–54 positive pressure, 96, 163–164, 165
200/two rule, 76 pushing fire back down holes for, 109
reasons for, 159–160
U from roof, 162–163
unified area command, 16 topside, 167
command post and, 40–41 type of, 166–167
union contracts, 34 vertical, 77
unit(s) victims v., 127, 155, 159
appropriate, 49 visibility and, 155, 159–160
in fast attack mode, location of other, 29 when to use, 167
for Level II staging, 50 from wind, 160
staging v. freelancing of incoming, 45 from windows, 109, 155–156, 161
· >| 235 |< ·

venturi effect, 163 weapons of mass destruction (WMD), 16

verbalization, of objectives, 78 wind
vertical channel, dominant, 162 direction, 177, 182, 188
vertical fire spread, 174–175, 186 speed, 161, 177, 188
vertical interior exposures, 174–175 ventilation from, 160
victims, 77–78, 83, 110, 116, 122–123, 128, 132, windows
150, 217. See also occupants remembering, 125
deceased, 117 single-pane glass, 104
defensive attack v., 101–102, 106 ventilation from, 109, 155–156, 161
exiting of, 154 woodchuck factor, 81, 131
PPV and, 164 wood-frame structures, 186–187, 188
removal of, 130–131
savable, 117
search v., 126
steam v., 100
ventilation v., 127, 155, 159
visibility, 129
ventilation and, 155, 159–160
from ventilation with fog stream, 165–166
volunteers, command structure with additional, 66
W
wall(s), 188
hidden heat in, 200
in one-person search, counting, 125
for search, knowing number of, 120–122
system, drywall on steel studs, 201
system, drywall on wood studs, 201
system, lathe and plaster, 200–201
system, ordinary, 200
water
alternate sources of, 138
backup crew supply of, 138
curtain, 178
damage, unnecessary, 205, 206
for direct attack, 99
exposures v., 178–179
fire v., 111
flow formula, NFA, 98, 111
flow of, 176
rescue benchmark, 220–221
smoke v., 96
supply in rural America, 138
supply in urban America, 138
· >| 236 |< ·

Libro Fire Engineering Incident Management For The Street Fire Officer 2ed

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Incident Management

for the Street-Smart Fire Officer Second Edition

SkipColeman.indb 1 9/15/08 4:06:39 PM

John F. “Skip” Coleman

SkipColeman.indb 3 9/15/08 4:06:43 PM

Marketing Manager: Julie Simmons

Director: Mary McGee

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Coleman, John, 1950-

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 12 11 10 09 08

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2. The Essence of Command . . . . . . 21 8. Mission Statements . . . . . . . . . . . 73

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16. The Mission of Overhaul Backup’s Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . 217

17. The Mission of Rapid

18. Benchmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

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Incident Management Defined

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a fire in a single-family residence, and others provided direction and encouragement to

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The Basic Premise of the

One person will be in charge of

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The Four Types of Command

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Fig. 1–6. A chief officer operating at a formal command post

There are still some cities in the United

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Unified command Area command

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Three Parts of the Incident

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Effects and Benefits of IMS

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