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CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE OF STUDY

The drainage basin accepted as an ideal areal unit for the interpretation and analysis o f

fluvially originated landforms, exhibits an example o f open system operation wherein its

various components viz., stream segments, basin length, basin perimeter and basin area

experience orderly growth in terms o f law o f allometric growth indicating dynamic nature

o f basin development, but tectonic, biotic and climatic characteristics have been selected

to study the nature o f development o f open and closed links o f drainage network (Singh

andUpadhaya, 1981).

Efforts have been made by some geomorphologists who gave emphasis to the

mathematical symbolization o f landforms characteristics, especially in the field o f drainage

network. Numerous works have been done by Horton (1932, 1945), Langbein (1947),

Strahler (1952a), Schumm (1956) etc., on fluvial geomorphology

The term niuiphomelry is used in several disciplines to mean the measuiemenl and

analysis o f form characteristics. In geqmorphology it is applied to numerical examination

o f landform and is properly termed as geomorphometry. This may be concerned with

landform as a whole or with a particular type o f landform Morphometry is the key in the

study o f geomorphology, which provides actual basinal character from its source to the

confluence.

In the present study an attempt has been made to evaluate statistically the trend o f

different morphometric parameters o f twenty two sixth order as well as four seventh

order constituent basins o f Dhansiri (South) basin which covers about 13,000 sq km
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area from the soince to the confluence point, where it joins with the mighty Biahmaptitia

By morphometric study a complete and comprehensive lay out o f the area is

obtained. Since 1940 number o f geomorphologist have applied these techniques in their

studies. Gardiner (1973) has given a review o f drainage basin morphometry and assessed

present day status and potential. He has stressed that morphometry is potentially a most

important approach to geomorphology since it affords quantitative information on large

scale fluvial landforms, which make up the vast majority o f the earth surface

Professor William M orris Davis, introduced the subject in 1890 L ater

geomorphologists like Horton (1932,1945), Langbein (1947), Sfrahler (1950) and Dury

(1969), attributed mathematical parameters for quantifying landform characteristics,

especially in the field o f drainage network The numerical data thus helps in quantifying

the purely quantitative study.

Now-a-days geomorphology has been keeping pace with the changes in other

earth sciences in terms o f techniques and concept o f aims. The most significant change

has been the impact of quantitative methods specially in the field of fluvial geomorphology

On the basis o f geomorphological findings one can plan for rapid economic transgression

During the present century morphometry has been widely used to facilitate

description o f surface relief features, erosion surfaces, slopes, valleys and that of the

character o f relief as a whole. It has also been used as direct and indirect evidence for the

genesis and evolution of certain landforms

Morphometric analysis is best employed in studying the three aspects o f drainage

network, viz., linear, areal and relief (giadient) aspects Linear aspect includes stream

order, stream length, stream number, bifurcation ratio and length o f overland flow

Areal aspect includes parameters like basin area, basin shape, drainage density, stream

frequency etc.
 It is very important to apply the numerical data obtained fiom the morphometric

analysis. This numerical data and statistical principles qualify the geomorphologieal aspects

and thus characterise the drainage network, by yielding a clear picture o f the whole

geomorphologieal formations. It is very difficult to determine the all characteristics of a

vast system of drainage basin depending on field data and hence statistical analysis are

widely used for proper conclusions.

Channel morphology also plays an equally important role especially in planning

and implementing flood control measures, navigation and many engineering projects

Study o f channel pattern changes indicates the trend o f channel migration which in turn

helps in taking up effective river training measures as well as in stabilising the bank line

Morphometric analysis has its application in geography, hydrology, geology,

pedology, mining, forestry, agriculture and military sciences. The mathematical data

collected from the morphom etric studies provide fundamental background for

multidisciplinary planning for development

1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT

The Dhansiri (South) river basin constitutes one o f the major south-bank tributary'

subbasins ofthe mighty Brahmaputra river system, (fig l.l) Its catchment aiea bounded

by East longitudes 93° 1110" and 94°13'00" and North latitudes 26°22,00" and 26o48,00".

occupies an area in the tune of about 13000 sq km o f which about 50 percent ofthe area

towards north falls within the territory o f Assam while Nagaland constitutes the rest of

the area towards south (Fig 12).

Rising from the southwest corner o f the Naga hills, the Dhansiri river tins its total

length o f about 350 km from its source to the conlluence point It Hows in an extremely

meandering course almost throughout its length with an average sinuosity index of 2 5

and shows a gradual widening tendency o f its meanders towards north 1fence the channel
Fig. 1.la A view o f Dhansiri river about six km north o f Golaghat showing heavy bank
erosion in the right concave bank of the river, partially eroded natural levee
gently sloping toward the south bank is seen townrds the led side of the river

Fig. 1.1 b A straight section of the Kaliyani river controlled by lineament west of Chokihola
in the KarbiAnglong district.
 H )

lype of Dhansiri river is assigned as meandering aiier Miall ( I ‘JK2 >

The area is covered by Survey of India Toposheet Nos 8? 173, 7, 8. in. II. 12. M,

15, 16; 83G/6, 7 , 9, 10, II, 13, 14, 83J/7, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.8. II, 12; 83K/I, 2. 3. 3.o. 7.

of the 1 : 50,000 scale (Fig 13).

1.3 COMMUNICATION AND ACCESSIBILITY

The basinal area of the Dhansiri river covers Golaghat, Jorhat and Karhi Anglong

districts of Assam and Diniapur, Kohima and Wokiia districts of adjacent Nagaland

state. The upper hilly region of Nagaland comprising upper most catchment area is

covered by dense forest and thus is not easily accessible. Bui the lower part of the

Nagaland towards Dimapur in north is well communicated bv National hiuhways

Nos. 36 and 39 and railways with the rest of the country Not onlv the district

headquarters are interconnected by very good surface communication system even

the road transport connection to the interior towns are also convenient Theie is

direct communication from Guwahati to the district headquarters like Jorhat.

Golaghat, Dimapur and Diphu by frequent public transport system through N il 37

and 39. The road distance from Gauhati to Jorhat is about 308 km One can

straightway go to Golaghat town by N il 37 either via Komargaon oi Deigaon and

the distance is aU-ut 288 km from Guwahati. From Guwahati to Dimapur one can

go by N.IT 37 and .39 via Numaligarh and Bokajan Theie is one aliemaiiw siiamhi

connection to Dimapur from Nagaon town by N.H 36 through Doboka town and

via Manza of Karbi Anglong district of Assam

The railway network also covers all the district headquaiters I lie N I iailwa\

division covers this region and the Diphu and Dimapur towns are connected by the mam

railway line with Guwahati, the premier city of North-Fast, which is also ver\ well

communicated by air route to the rest of the country.

FIG 1 2
LAYOUT OF THE TOPOSHEETS COVERING DHANSIRI BASIN

SC AL E : : I .’ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0

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STUDY AREA

FIG 1.3
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1.4 GENERAL BASIN FEATURE

The Dhansiri river from its source initially flows in a north-westerly direction for a

distance of about 155 km down to Dimapur. From Dimapur to Golaghat it traverses a

northerly course but thereafter takes an abrupt turn and flows in a westerly course down

to its confluence with the Brahmaputra river. The greater part of its course flows through

forest except the neighbourhood of Golaghat. The river is fed by many tributary streams.

The major tributaries of the river on the right bank are the Dayang, Diphupani and

Bhogdoi while Daigurung and Kaliyani constitute the major left bank tributaries Besides

these there are also many important sub tributaries.

The ordering of the stream segments for entire drainage network for the catchment

area has revealed that the Dhansiri basin is constituted by 452 fourth order, 95 fifth

order, 22 sixth order and 4 seventh order tributary subbasins while Dhansiri itself is a

eighth order tributary basin of the Brahmaputra river system The basinal area is elongated

in shape with a maximum basinal length of about 450 km.

Development of characteristic point bars, in the convex bends of the meandering

loops are frequently observed especially in the lower reach of the river (Fig 1.4)

Abandoned channels sometimes in the form of ox-bow lakes are also observed at places

Characteristic development of two tier terrace levels in the left bank of the river has

been noticed near Numaligarh location (Fig 1.5). From the study of the basinal area it is

observed that the lithology controls the amount, time and space distribution of stream

flow. The average annual rainfall is very high in the upper hilly region and due to heavy

rainfall the most p.iit of the basinal area is coveted by thick finest In the lower teaches.

deposition of sediments as well as erosion of banks after flood leads to the development

of oxbow lakes, swamps etc Vegetation in the lower reaches are of different types than

the upper reaches due to different climatic and topographic conditions

Fig. 1.4 A typical point bar of Dhansiri river developed on the led convex band near
Numaligarh. The upper point bar in the right foreground of the photograph is
slightly elevated and partially vegetated. The lower slopeward non vegetated
part of point bar is gently sloping (3° to 4°) toward the river.

Fig. 1.5 Distinct two tier terrace level (T, and T3) at left bank of the river south of Nl I-
37 bridge. The lower level terrace (T,) is used for cultivation and the higher
level (T,) is used of tea plantation
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1.5 CLIMATE AND RAINFALL

The basinal area o f Dhansiri river is characterised by humid climate, abundant rain and

general coolness. The cold season from December to February is followed by season o f

severe thunder storm from March to May The monsoon season is usually commenced

from June and continued upto the beginning o f October and November constitutes the

post monsoon season. In the winter season the river becomes dry while during monsoon

it becomes flooded due to heavy rainfall in the entire catchment area

The average annual rainfall in the lower region is about 176 cm The climate o f the

area has also been classified according to Thornthwaite's climatic classification

(Thornthwaite, 1948) Thornw aite used the term precipitaion effectiveness and

temperature efficiency in his classification. Based on Thornthwaite’s formulae the P E -

and T.E. - indices calculated in the plain areas comprising the alluvial plain are found to

be o f 90.66 and 127 respectively. Thus the climate o f the area can be classified as

‘Mesothermal Humid with Forest Type o f Vegetation’. However, towards the upper

reach o f the basin comprising the hilly tracts ofNagaland, the higher rainfall and lower

temperature indicate a climate o f ‘Mesothermal Wet Rain Forest Type o f Vegetation’.

Annual rainfall and mean monthly t ainfall data ofthc lower pait of the basin aiea

for a period o f fourteen years (1972-1985) collected from Jorhat, Naharbari T E and

Dolowjan T.E. are analysed and studied From the histogram showing average monthly

rainfall (Fig. 1.6), it has been observed that rainfall gradually increases from March-

April onwards and with the onset o f monsoon from May it increases sharply and m June

and July it shows maximum rainfall and thereafter it decreases ai adually and in November

and December it attains a minimum level. December and Januaiy aie the diiest months

with scanty rainfall.

From the graph (Fig 1 7) showing the distribution o f annual rainfall it. is found
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that the highest rainfall of 2236.8 mm is recorded in the year 1983 during the period o f

1972 to 1985. During the period o f 1976 to 1985 almost equal amount o f rainfall occured

annually. Rainfall during these fourteen years is found to be somewhat irregular in pattern.

The average annual rainfall is found to be 1760 mm near Jorhat situated in the lower

alluvial plain.

The temperature recorded during these period (1972-1985) reveals that maximum

temperature o f about 32°C is attained in the months o f June, July and August while

minimum temperature of about 10°C is found during the months o f December and January.

1.6 REVIEW OF LITERATURES

Though Dhansiri is a major tributary river o f the Brahmaputra no such serious attention

has yet been given by fluvio-geomorphologist and as a result published literatures on it

are not available. While considerable works have been done by various geomorphologists

on the other major river basins o f India. As far as global scenario is concerned, an

enormous information have been gathered on basin geomorphology till date and as such

there is no dearth o f published literatures on basin gcomoiphological aspects

Geomorphology is the scientific study o f landforms and constitutes the building

blocks o f regional landscapes. Drainage basin is the landform, most commonly analysed

in morphometry. Drainage basin morphometry originates with the work of Horton (1932,

1945) and Strahler (1950, 1952, 1954, 1956, 1958) and widely published by other

geomorphologists like Kesseli (1946), Russell (1949), Miller (1953), Morisawa (1962),

Robinson (1963), Leopold el al., (1964), Clark (1966), Chorley (1966) etc.

Horton (1932) describes some early and little known attempts on quantitative

geomorphology. Horton (1945) evolved the method o f ordering o f stream segments

which was later modified by Strahler (1952). Horton (1945) also used hydiophysical

principles to examine how infiltration, run-off and slope surface characteristics were
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combined to initiate stream channels and ultimately lead to an orderly drainage network

that is amenable to statistical analysis. On quantitative geomorphology this paper (Horton,

1945) seems to be the initial attempt. He also suggested that the number o f channels o f

eah order o f a given basin form an inverse geometric series with the order and this law is

termed as first law o f drainage composition and is widely used in geomorphology. He

also suggested that the slope o f the best fitted lines represent the mean bifurcation ratio

o f the series. He considered the bifurcation ratio as an index o f relief and dissection.

Horton (1945) evolved a second law o f stream length, suggesting that the mean length

o f stream segments o f a given order increases exponentially with increasing order.

Regarding the stream slope Horton (1945) also suggested that there is a fairly definite

relationship between slope o f the streams and streams order, which can be expressed by

an inverse geometric series law and this is termed as third law o f stream slope

Horton (1945) defined length o f overland flow as the length o f flow path projected

to the horizontal and also noted that the length o f overland flow is one of the most

important independent variables effecting both the hydrologic and physiographic

development o f drainage basin. He also introduced the term drainage density and stream

frequency which are the factors related to stream length and number o f stream present

per unit area respectively. I lorton's woi ks later supplemented by I ,angbein (1947), then

developed in detail by Strahler (1950).

Strahler (1952b) adopted a dynamic basis for geomorphology In Strahler's dynamic

model, processes are analogous to stresses acting on different geological materials to

produce charateristic varieties o f strain or failure The featuies manifest response to

stress and ultimately express the mechanics o f weathering, eiosion, transpot tation and

deposition as accomodations between stress and strain Furthermore, he suggested that

such dynamic approach which inquires that ptoccsses be analysed in lei ms o f open

system which tend to achieve a steady state condition and may be self regulating
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Strahler (1952b) introduced some modifications o fllo rto n 's works on drainage

basins such as stream ordering and this method is the most commonly used method

Strahler and his co-workers introduced indices such as relief ratio (Schumm, 1956), and

ruggedness number (Strahler, 1958) which have since been widely employed,

Schumm (1956) expressed the term elongation ratio, which indicates the shape o f

the drainage basin and it is the ratio o f the diameter o f a circle with that o f the area o f the

same basin. Schumm (1956) also defined the ratio between the total relief o f a basin and

the longest dimension o f the basin parallel to principal drainage line as the relief ratio.

He (Schumm, 1956) also used the inverse o f drainage density as constant o f channel

maintenance. On gradient aspect o f the master stream, Schumm (1956) opined that

when the gradient o f master channel and valley side slope are almost same, the tributary

virtually parallels the main channel. On the other hand, where the gradient in valley side

is steep the tributary tends to join at almost right angles. Millei (1953) used a measure o f

basin shape which is the ratio o f the basin area to the area o f a circle having the same

perimeter as the basin and termed it as circularity ratio. Strahler (1954) stated drainage

density as the most sensitive indicator o f the faetoi s controlling the crosional development

He (Strahler,, 1958) introduced ruggedness number, the product o f basin relief and

drainage density,

Chorley (1950) published a series o f papers on geomorphology and these papers

are published in internationally circulated journals (Chorley, 1957a, 1957b, 1958) which

not only further developed and examined the techniques available but also brought the

attention o f geomorphologists throughout the globe.

Melton (1958) discussed about the sample size requirement foi the statistical test

by collecting enormous data on drainage basins. Morisawa (1957) suggested the use of

contour crenulations to identify channels which exist in the Held, but this procedure o f

contour crenulations was later criticised by Gregory (1966)

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M orisawa( 1959) suggested ‘the law ofstieam areas', by plotting logarithmically

the mean stream length and cumulative length against basin area, for each order o f

representative basins From this plotting he obtained a highly linear relationship and

thereby confirmed the regression analysis as suggested by Schumm (1956). Horton

(1945) expressed the view that mean basin areas in progressively higher orders increase

in geometric sequence as do stream length. ‘Law o f stream num bers’ received

verification by accumulated data from many localities (Sltahlcr. 1952a, 1956, Smith,

1958; Melton, 1958) and it is found that most drainage net-work show a linear

relationships with small deviation.

The random model o f drainage composition is a quantitative formulation o f general

ideas originally put forwarded by Leopold and Langbein (1962) It was initiated by

Shreve (1966) and has subsequently been extensively tested and developed, as reviewed

by Shreve (1975), and Jarvis (1977) and Smart (1978). Shreve (1974) suggested that

the channel source should be defined as that point where the channel slope decline to a

predefined value. Smart (1978) has successfully employed this and Gardiner (1981)

reviewed several alternative procedures. Gregory (1977) has argued that network extent

should incorporate some allowance for channel volume and has suggested how both

channel cross section area and stream length may be iucot poiated into an index ofnetwoi k

volume. This he subsequently refined in the form o f an index incorporating relief and

termed network power. Analysis o f morphometric characteristic may also be performed

by non-statistical method and Gregory (1978) had given considerable importance on

this special variations o f morphometric parameters

In India a considerable works have been carried out by number o f workers on

drainage basin morphology during the last five decades. Chatterjee (1945) threw a light

on some o f the important aspects o f geomorphology o f the Ranchi Plateau Ahmed

(1958) reviewed some o f the earlier works on geomorphology and forwarded his opinion
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in his published paper, where he woikcd on Cholanagpur plateau Ahmed (1958) has

treated the geomorphology of the Peninsular India by tracing the landscape characteristic

o f different segments o f Indian Peninsula. Singh (1966) made a critical review o f the

various methods o f geomorphological mapping. Singh (1966) also presented the concept

o f relicts features as interpreted primarily in geomorphology Singh (1968) treated

successfully geomorphology o f Shillong plateau o f Assam

Agarwal (1972) worked on the drainage basins o f Jabalpur plateau and explained

his views on morphometric analysis in his published paper. Subramanyam (1974) has

carried out a comparative study o f two drainage basins around Sagar, M.P. on the basis

o f quantitative drainage basin analysis. Kumar and Pandey (1977) made a systematic

numerical analysis o f small drainage basins o f Hazaribagb plateau Region and made a

quantitative classification on it. Kumar (1978) also made some observations on slope

profiles. Satpathi (1976-1977) made a systematic study o f meander mechanism, geometry

and meanders, sinuosity indexes o f some o f majoi livers of Singhbhum Sarma and

Padmaja (1981) attempted to study the morphometric parameters o f the Mejbasins and

discussed their significance in principles on drainage basin composition suggested by

Horton (1945), Strahler (1968) and others.

1.7 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Geomorphology has been undoubtedly remained a specialisation of geologist who profess

the origin and evolution o f landforms. These aims and objectives have persisted through

time and in recent years these have been strengthened by the application o f physical laws

governing the origin o f the landforms. In the present study attempts have been made to

study the relationship between the morphology and the dynamics o f the evolution of

landforms. Development o f landforms are most commonly related with the stream system

It is a well known Tact that a drainage basin can be taken as fundamental quantitative

geomorphic assesment o f a region. The fluvial environment as a system is controlled by

 02 )

the interaction of three parts or phases, the water, the channel and floodplain and also

the network of channel comprising the drainage basin. The system is undergoing

evolutionary changes and adjust itself by maintaining a delicate balance or equilibrium of

action, the basins, the streams, their characters, bifurcation ratio, their elongation ratio,

texture, all these are related to fluvial processes.

The main objectives of the present study are •

1. To construct the broad geologic and geomorphic framework of the basinal area

and identification and study of associated fluvial landfoims

2. To evaluate the channel behaviour in terms of channel morphology and channel

pattern changes.

3. To demarcate and study o f drainage network pattern and their significance.

4. To evaluate the drainage basin composition in terms of various morphometric

variables of the main basin as well as constituent subbasins.

5. To study the interrelationships of morphometric vai iables and to testify their validity

in the light o f established laws and principles of drainage basin composition.

6. To evaluate the lineament control on drainage regime of the basinal area

7. To study the lithological and structural control on the drainage network composition

of the basinal area in terms of statistical analysis of morphometric variables.

1.8 DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY

The drainage net for entire basinal area is prepared using Survey of India Toposheet of

1 : 50,000 scale. The layout of toposheet covering the Dhansiri basin is shown in Fig.

1.3. The ordering of the stream segment is done following the method suggested by

Horton (1945) and modified by Sti abler (1952) The ordering of the stream segment

shows that the Dhansiri basin is of eighth order magnitude The basinal boundaries of all
 ( 13)

fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh order subbasins within the eight order master basin are

demarcated on the drainage map on the basis o f contour configuration o f toposheet

wherever possible and extent and distribution o f tributary streams o f lower orders

especially in the plain areas. Stream segments for individual orders for each o f the

demarcated subbasins are counted separately and tabulated Length o f the stream segments

are also measured using a digital curvimeter (COMCURVE-8) and are also recorded

separately for each o f the subbasins. The measurement o f basinal area for the subbasins

are being done using a digital planimeter (PLACOM).

Important morphometric parameters are evaluated on the basis o f definition and

methods suggested by Horton (1932, 1945), Millet (1953), Schumm (1956), Melton

(1957), Strahler (1958, 1964) etc. All the morphometric attributes like drainage density,

frequency, elongation ratio, circularity ratio, bifurcation ratio, slope and relief have been

enumerated, classified, tabulated and reproduced in the form o f maps and diagram

following standard methods and cartographic devices

W 09/
 AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL DATA FOR A PERIOD OF FOURTEEN YEARS
(1972 — 1985)
o
o
ro
N
to
O
RAINFALL IN MM.-
ro
o
o
AVERAGE M ONTHLY
oin
tn
o
o
o

FIG. 1.6
“ T-------------------- 1 ----------------1-------------------- 1-------------------- 1-------------------- 1---------------------1-------------------- 1—
1972 1974 1978 1978 I960 1982 1984 1988

YEARS----- *»

FIG. 1.7