Techonology of Food Course Articles. I, 2019.

MA. Jeremías Pimentel. Sánchez. Code: H 102. Cell Phone: 6247-2103 / 6624-0594.
E-mail: /thenewcovenant@hotmail.com
ESP Section.
Topic 1. Food Technology.
(part of) The food technology building of Wageningen University.
The food technology room at Marling School in Stroud, Gloucestershire.
Food technology, or food tech for short is the application of food science to the selection,
preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and use of safe, nutritious, and wholesome food.
Food scientists and food technologists study the physical, microbiological, and chemical
makeup of food. Depending on their area of specialization, food scientists may develop ways to
process, preserve, package, or store food, according to industry and government specifications and
regulations. Consumers seldom think of the vast array of foods and the research and development that
has resulted in the means to deliver tasty, nutritious, safe, and convenient foods.
Early history of food technology
Research in the field now known as food technology has been conducted for decades. Nicolas
Appert’s development in 1810 of the canning process was a decisive event. The process wasn’t called
canning then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, but canning
has had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
Louis Pasteur's research on the spoilage of wine and his description of how to avoid spoilage in
1864 was an early attempt to put food technology on a scientific basis. Besides research into wine
spoilage, Pasteur did research on the production of alcohol, vinegar, wines and beer, and the souring of
milk. He developed pasteurization—the process of heating milk and milk products to destroy food
spoilage and disease-producing organisms. In his research into food technology, Pasteur became the
pioneer into bacteriology and of modern preventive medicine.
By the 1940s to 1950s, the original four departments that had taught the subject under different
names in the US (including those at the University of Massachusetts and the University of California)
had been retitled "food science", "food science and technology", or a similar variant
Developments in food technology
Scientific English Course for the Science Faculty, UNACHI. Page ______
Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee
Several companies in the food industry have played a role in the

development of food technology. These developments have
contributed greatly to the food supply. Some of these
developments are:
 Instantized Milk Powder - D.D. Peebles (U.S. patent

2,835,586) developed the first instant milk powder, which has
become the basis for a variety of new products that are rehydratable in cold water or milk. This
process increases the surface area of the powdered product by partially rehydrating spray-dried
milk powder.
 Freeze-drying - The first application of freeze drying was most likely in the pharmaceutical
industry; however, a successful large-scale industrial application of the process was the
development of continuous freeze drying of coffee.
 High-Temperature Short Time Processing - These processes for the most part are characterized
by rapid heating and cooling, holding for a short time at a relatively high temperature and filling
aseptically into sterile containers.
 Decaffeination of Coffee and Tea - Decaffeinated coffee and tea was first developed on a
commercial basis in Europe around 1900. The process is described in U.S. patent 897,763. Green
coffee beans are treated with steam or water to around 20% moisture. The added water and heat
separate the caffeine from the bean to its surface. Solvents are then used to remove the caffeine
from the beans. In the 1980s, new non-organic solvent techniques have been developed for the
decaffeination of coffee and tea. Carbon dioxide under supercritical conditions is one of these new
techniques. U.S. patent 4,820,537 was issued to General Foods Corp. for a CO2 decaffeination
process.
 Process optimization- Food Technology now allows production of foods to be more efficient,
Oil saving technologies are now available on different forms. Production methods and
methodology have also become increasingly sophisticated.
Food industry
Packaged food aisles at Fred Meyer, an American grocery

store
Parmigiano reggiano cheese in a modern

factory.
The food industry is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that together supply much of
the food energy consumed by the world population. Only subsistence farmers, those who survive on
what they grow, can be considered outside of the scope of the modern food industry.
The food industry includes:
1. Regulation: local, regional, national and international rules and regulations for food production
and sale, including food quality and food safety, and industry lobbying activities
2. Education: academic, vocational, consultancy
3. Research and development: food technology
4. Financial services insurance, credit
5. Manufacturing: agrichemicals, seed, farm machinery and supplies, agricultural construction,
etc.
6. Agriculture: raising of crops and livestock, seafood
7. Food processing: preparation of fresh products for market, manufacture of prepared food
products
8. Marketing: promotion of generic products (e.g. milk board), new products, public opinion,
through advertising, packaging, public relations, etc.
9. Wholesale and distribution: warehousing, transportation, logistics-
Definitions
It is challenging to find an inclusive way to cover all aspects of food production and sale. The Food
Standards Agency, a government body in the UK, describes it thus:
"...the whole food industry – from farming and food production, packaging and distribution, to
retail and catering."[1]
The Economic Research Service of the USDA uses the term food system to describe the same
thing:
"The U.S. food system is a complex network of farmers and the industries that link to them.
Those links include makers of farm equipment and chemicals as well as firms that provide
services to agribusinesses, such as providers of transportation and financial services. The
system also includes the food marketing industries that link farms to consumers and which
include food and fiber processors, wholesalers, retailers, and foodservice establishments.
Industry size
Processed food sales worldwide are approximately US$3.2 trillion (2004).[citation needed]
In the U.S., consumers spend approximately US$1 trillion annually on food, [3] or nearly 10
percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Over 16.5 million people are employed in the
food industry.
In the United Kingdom, the food industry is extensive. It employs well over half a million
people and has a turnover in excess of £70bn. It is the largest manufacturing sector in the UK
and represents around 15% of the total manufacturing sector in the UK. Around 13% of the
people working in manufacturing in the UK work in the food and drink industry.[4]
Agriculture
Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by the
cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). The practice of
agriculture is also known as "farming", while scientists, inventors and others devoted to
improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture. More
people in the world are involved in agriculture as their primary economic activity than in any
other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Universidad Autónoma De Chiriqui

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ESP SECTION.
Topic 2. Food Processing
Food processing is the methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into
food for human consumption. Food processing takes clean, harvested or slaughtered and
butchered components and uses them to produce marketable food products. There are several
different ways in which food can be produced.
One Off Production This method is used when customers make an order for something
to be made to their own specifications, for example a wedding cake. The making of One Off
Products could take days depending on how intricate the design is and also the ability of the
chef making the product.
Batch Production This method is used when the size of the market for a product is not
clear, and where there is a range within a product line. A certain number of the same goods will
be produced to make up a batch or run, for example at Gregg's Bakery they will bake a certain
number of chicken bakes. This method involves estimating the amount of customers that will
want to buy that product.
Mass production This method is used when there is a mass market for a large number
of identical products, for example, chocolate bars, ready meals and canned food. The product
passes from one stage of production to another along a production line.
Just In Time This method of production is mainly used in sandwich bars such as
Subway. All the components of the product are there and the customer chooses what they want
in their product and it is made for them fresh in front of them.
Wholesale and distribution
A vast global transportation network is required by the food industry in order to connect
its numerous parts. These include suppliers, manufacturers, warehousing, retailers and the end
consumers. There are also companies that add vitamins, minerals, and other necessary
requirements during processing to make up for those lost during preparation. Wholesale
markets for fresh food products have tended to decline in importance in OECD countries as
well as in Latin America and some Asian countries as a result of the growth of supermarkets,
which procure directly from farmers or through preferred suppliers, rather than going through
markets.
The constant and uninterrupted flow of product from distribution centers to store
locations is a critical link in food industry operations. Distribution centers run more efficiently,
throughput can be increased, costs can be lowered, and manpower better utilized if the proper
steps are taken when setting up a material handling system in a warehouse.
Retail
With populations around the world concentrating in urban areas, [5] food buying is
increasingly removed from all aspects of food production. This is a relatively recent
development, having taken place mainly over the last 50 years. The supermarket is the defining
retail element of the food industry, where tens of thousands of products are gathered in one
location, in continuous, year-round supply. Restaurants, Cafes, Bakeries and Mobile trucks are
also ways consumers can purchase food.
Food preparation is another area where change in recent decades has been dramatic.
Today, two food industry sectors are in apparent competition for the retail food dollar. The
grocery industry sells fresh and largely raw products for consumers to use as ingredients in
home cooking. The food service industry by contrast offers prepared food, either as finished
products, or as partially prepared components for final "assembly".
Food industry technologies
Sophisticated technologies define modern food production. They include many areas.
Agricultural machinery, originally led by the tractor, has practically eliminated human labor in
many areas of production. Biotechnology is driving much change, in areas as diverse as
agrochemicals, plant breeding and food processing. Many other areas of technology are also
involved, to the point where it is hard to find an area that does not have a direct impact on the
food industry. Computer technology is also a central force, with computer networks and
specialized software providing the support infrastructure to allow global movement of the
myriad components involved.
Marketing
As consumers grow increasingly removed from food production, the role of product
creation, advertising, publicity become the primary vehicles for information about food. With
processed food as the dominant category, marketers have almost infinite possibilities in product
creation.
Media & Marketing
A key tool for FMCG marketing managers targeting the supermarket industry includes
national titles like The Grocer in the U.K., Checkout in Ireland, Progressive Grocer in the U.S.,
and Private Label Europe for the entire of the European Union.it
Labour and education
Until the last 100 years, agriculture was labor intensive. Farming was a common
occupation. Food production flowed from millions of farms. Farmers, largely trained from
generation to generation, carried on the family business. That situation has changed
dramatically. In North America, over 50% of the population were farm families only a few
decades ago; now, that figure is around 1-2%, and about 80% of the population lives in cities.
The food industry as a complex whole requires an incredibly wide range of skills. Several
hundred occupation types exist within the food industry.
Research and development
Research in agricultural and food processing technologies happens in great part in

university research environments. Projects are often funded by companies from the food
industry. There is therefore a direct relationship between the academic and commercial sectors,
as far as scientific research.
Prominent Food Companies
 Nestlé is the world's largest food and beverage company.

 PepsiCo is the largest U.S.-based food and beverage company.
 Unilever is an Anglo-Dutch company that owns many of the world's consumer product
brands in foods and beverages.
 Kraft is apparently the world's second largest food company, following its acquisition of
Cadbury in 2010.
 DuPont and Monsanto Company are the leading producers of pesticide, seeds, and other
farming products.
 Both Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill Process Grain into animal feed and a diverse
group of products. ADM also provides agricultural storage and transportation services,
while Cargill operates a finance wing.
 Bunge Limited is a global soybean exporter and is also involved in food processing, grain
trading, and fertilizer.
 Dole Food Company is the world's largest fruit company. Chiquita Brands International,
another U.S.-based fruit company, is the leading distributor of bananas in the United States.
Sunkist Growers, Incorporated is a U.S.-based grower's cooperative.
 JBS S.A. is the world’s largest processor and marketer of chicken, beef, and pork.
Smithfield Foods is the world's largest pork processor and hog producer.
 Sysco Corporation, mainly catering to North America, is one of the world's largest food
distributors.
 General Mills is the world's sixth biggest food manufacturing company.
 Grupo Bimbo is one of the most important baking companies in brand and trademark
positioning, sales, and production volume around the world.
Universidad Autonoma De Chiriqui. Natural Science Faculty. School Of Biology. 30

Words Glossary on: _________________________________.
# English Spanish Illustration Sentences

1. MRI Escaneador de My father was sent to
Scanner. resonancia practice an
magnética. examination with the
MRI Scanner.
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School:_______________Level: ____________________ Professor: Jeremías Pimentel Sánchez.
Date: _____________________________

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rammar______________________________________________________________________
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ESP Section.
Topic 3. Food Preparation Equipment
Cutting, shaping & mixing equipment found in the professional kitchen.
French Cook's or Chopping Knife Filleting Knife for filleting fish. Vegetable Knife for paring
vegetables.
for chopping, dicing, slicing &
shredding.
Grater Coarse for cheese &

vegetables.
Steel Knife used for sharpening Fine for nutmeg & rind. Mandolin for cutting vegetables.
other knives.
Rolling Pin for rolling out Pastry Cutter for shaping

Palette Knife for turning, lifting, pastry, pastry dough.
spreading & coating. scone & biscuit dough.
Hand Whisk for whisking &

Piping Bag for piping soft Spoons blending.
mixtures for blending, mixing and
e.g. icing, mashed potatoes. stirring.
2. The Food Technology Web Site. Food Preparation Techniques
Each technique offers a distinctive way of presenting food.
Jardiniere Julienne Shred

Slice Mirepoix Paysanne

Macedoine Brunoise Chop
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because_____________________________________________________________________I
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rammar______________________________________________________________________
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ESP SECTION.
Topic 4. The Food Technology Web Site. Cookery Processes.
Each cookery process is distinct. Each one has advantages and disadvantages.
 Boiling  Steaming  Grilling

 Poaching  Baking  Shallow Frying
 Stewing  Roasting  Deep Frying
 Braising  Pot Roasting  Microwaving
 BOILING:
Definition: Boiling is the cooking of prepared foods in a liquid at boiling point. This could be water,
court-bouillon, milk or stock. Methods: There are two ways of boiling.
1. Place food into boiling liquid, reboil, then reduce the heat for gentle boiling to take place. 2.
This is known as simmering. 3. Cover the food with cold liquid, bring to the boil, then reduce
the heat and simmer.
Advantages: 1. Older, tougher, cheaper joints of meat and poultry can be made palatable and
digestible. 2. It is appropriate for large-scale cookery. 3. It is economic on fuel. 4. Nutritious,
well flavoured stock is produced. 5. It is labour saving, as it requires little attention. 6. It is safe and
simple. 7. Maximum colour and nutritive value is retained when cooking green vegetables, provided
boiling time is kept to the minimum.
Disadvantages: 1. Foods can look unattractive. 2. It can be a slow method. 3. There is a loss of
soluble vitamins in the water.
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by boiling:
Farinaceous, e.g. pasta, noodles, Fish, e.g. cod,

Stocks, e.g. beef, mutton, chicken, fish. Glazes,
turbot, salmon
e.g. fish, meat
Meat, e.g. beef silverside, leg of mutton, joint of
Sauces, e.g. brown, white, curry, jam
bacon
Soup, e.g. tomato, lentil, Eggs
Vegetables, e.g. carrots, cabbage, potatoes.
 BAKING
Definition: Baking is the cooking of food by dry heat in an oven in which the action of the dry
convection heat is modified by steam.
Methods: Three methods of baking can be identified.
 Dry baking: when baking, steam rises from the water content of the food; this steam combines
with the dry heat of the oven to cook the food, e.g. cakes, pastry, baked jacket potatoes.
 Increased humidity baking: when baking certain foods, e.g. bread, the oven humidity is
increased by placing a bowl of water or injection steam into the oven, thus increasing the water
content of the food and so improving the eating quality.
 Bain marie: when baking, place food in a container of water (bain marie) which modifies the
heat so that the food cooks more slowly, does not overheat or overcook.
Advantages: 1. A wide range of savoury and sweet foods can be produced. 2. Bakery products yield
appetising goods with eye-appeal and mouth-watering aromas. 3. Bulk cooking can be achieved with
uniformity of colour and degree of cooking. 4. Baking ovens have effective manual or automatic
controls. 5. There is straightforward access for loading and removal of items
Disadvantages: 1. Requires regular attention. 2. Ovens are expensive to heat.
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by baking: Eggs, e.g. Apples, Fruit flans,
in cocottes, Meat, e.g. steak and kidney pie, cornish pasties , Chicken, e.g. Baked egg custard,
vol au vent, Vegetables, e.g. potatoes Cakes, Bread
 ROASTING
Definition: Roasting is cooking in dry heat in an oven or on a spit with the aid of fat or oil. Radiant
heat is the means of cooking when using a spit; oven roasting is a combination of convection and
radiation.
Methods: There are two ways of roasting:
 Placing prepared foods, e.g. meat, poultry, on a roosting spit over or in front of intense radiated
heat;
 Placing prepared foods in an oven with either:
o applied dry heat
o forced air convected heat
o convected heat combined with microwave energy.
Advantages: 1.Good quality meat and poultry is tender and succulent when roasted. 2. Meat
juices from the joint are used for gravy and enhance flavor. 3. Use of both energy and oven
temperature can be controlled. 4. Ovens with transparent doors enable cooking to be observed. 5.
Access, adjustment and removal of items is straightforward. 6. When roasting on a spit, skill and
techniques can be displayed to the public. 7. Continual basting with the meat juices gives a distinctive
flavour
Disadvantages: 1.Requires regular attention. 2. Ovens are expensive to heat
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by roasting:
Meat e.g. lamb (best end), beef (sirloin), pork (leg), veal (stuffed breast) Poultry and game e.g.
chicken, duck, pheasant Vegetables e.g. potatoes, parsnips.
 GRILLING
Definition: This is a fast method of cooking by radiant heat and is also sometimes known as broiling.
Methods: Grilled foods can be cooked in several ways:
 Over heat e.g. charcoal, barbecues, gas or electric heated grills

 Under heat e.g. gas or electric grills, gas or electric salamanders (over fired grills)
 Between heat e.g. electrically heated grill bars or plates
Advantages : 1. Speed of grilling enables food to be quickly cooked to order. 2. Charring foods gives
a distinctive appearance and improves flavor. 3. Control of cooking is aided because food is visible
during grilling. 4. Grills may be situated in view of customers
Disadvantages: 1. More suitable for expensive cuts of meat. 2. Requires skill
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by grilling:
Fish, e.g. cod, herring, mackeral, plaice. Meat, e.g. brochette, mixed grill, chops, steak. Vegetables,
e.g. mushrooms, tomatoes. Savouries, e.g. Welsh rarebit Toasted items e.g. bread, tea cakes, muffins.
 SHALLOW FRYING
Definition: Shallow frying is the cooking of food in a small quantity of pre-heated fat or oil in a
shallow pan or on a flat surface (griddle plate).
Methods: There are four methods of frying using a shallow amount of fat or oil.
 Shallow Fry: cooking of food in a small amount of fat or oil in a frying pan or saute pan. The
presentation side of the food should be fried first as this side will have the better appearance
because the fat is clean, then turned so that both sides are cooked and coloured.
 Saute:
o cooking tender cuts of meat and poultry in a saute or frying pan. After cooking, the fat is
discarded and the pan is deglazed with stock or wine. This forms an important part of
the finished sauce. Only tender foods can be used.
o also used when cooking, for example, potaoes or onions when they are cut into slices or
pieces and tossed in hot shallow fat or oil in a frying pan till golden brown.
 Griddle: e.g. hamburgers, sausages, sliced onions, are placed on a lightly oiled, pre-heated
griddle (solid metal plate), and turned frequently during cooking.
 Stir Fry: fast frying in a wok or frying pan in a little fat or oil, e.g. vegetables, strips of beef or
chicken
Advantages: 1. Quick method of cooking. 2. No loss of soluble nutrients. 3. Good colour
Disadvantages: 1.Only suitable for expensive cuts of meat. 2. Not easily digested. 3. Requires to be
supervised
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by shallow frying:
Eggs, e.g. omelettes; Fish, e.g. sole, plaice, trout, Vegetables, e.g. onions, cauliflower, chicory;
cod, herring; Meat, e.g. lamb noisettes, kidneys, Potatoes, e.g. saute, byron, macaire; Sweets and
beef Stroganoff; Poultry, e.g. chicken saute pastries, e.g. jam omelette, pancakes; Savouries,
chasseur, chicken parmentier; e.g. croque monsieur.
 DEEP FRYING
Definition: Deep frying is the cooking of food in pre-heated deep oil or clarified fat.
Methods: Conventional deep-fried foods, with the exception of potatoes, are coated with milk and
flour, egg and crumbs, batter or pastry to:
 protect the surface of the food from intense heat

 prevent the escape of moisture and nutrients
 modify the rapid penetration of the intense heat.
The food is carefully placed into deep pre-heated oil or fat, fried until cooked and golden
brown, drained well and served.
Advantages: 1. Quick method of cooking. 2. No loss of soluble nutrients. 3. Ensures good

colour.
Disadvantages: 1.Not easily digested. 2. Safety hazard.
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by deep frying:
Eggs, e.g. Scotch eggs; Fish, e.g. haddock; Chicken, e.g. cutlets; Savoury, e.g. cheese fritters;
Potatoes, e.g. croquettes, chips; Vegetables, e.g. onions; Pastry & sweets, e.g. pineapple fritters,
doughnuts.
 MICROWAVING
Definition: Microwave cookery is cooking or reheating food using electromagnetic waves in a

microwave powered by electricity. Microwaves activate the water molecules or particles of food,
causing heat by friction which cooks or reheats the food.
Advantages: Very quick method of cooking
 1. Fast method of defrosting. 2. Economical on electricity and labour. 3. Food is cooked in its
own juices so flavour and goodness are retained. 4. Minimises food shrinkage and drying-out
Disadvantages: 1. Not suitable for all foods. 2. Limited space restricts use to small quantities. 3. Can
only penetrate 5cm (1.5 inches) into food (from all sides)
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by microwave:
Farinaceous, e.g. pasta, noodles; Fish, e.g. trout, salmon; Vegetables, e.g. potatoes; Pre-cooked
meals, e.g. convenience foods
 STEAMING
Definition: Steaming is the cooking of prepared foods by steam (moist heat) under varying degrees of
pressure.
Methods: There are two methods of steaming: atmospheric or low pressure and high pressure.
 In low pressure steaming food may be cooked by direct or indirect contact with the steam.
o direct, in a steamer or in a pan of boiling water, e.g. steak and kidney pudding;
o indirect, between two plates over a pan of boiling water.
 High pressure steaming takes place in purpose-built equipment, which does not allow the steam
to escape, therefore enabling steam pressure to build up, increasing the temperature and
reducing cooking time.
Advantages:
1. Retention of nutritional value, 2. Makes some foods lighter and easier to digest, 3. Low pressure
steaming reduces risk of overcooking, 4. High pressure steaming enables food to be cooked or reheated
quickly because steam is forced through the food cooking it rapidly, 5. Labour-saving and
suitable for large-scale cookery,6. High speed steamers used for 'batch' cooking enable the frequent
cooking of small quantities of vegetables throughout the service. Vegetables are freshly cooked,
retaining color, flavor and nutritive value, 7. With steamed fish, the natural juices can be retained by
serving with the fish or in making an accompanying sauce, 8. Steaming is economical on fuel as a low
heat is needed and a multi-tiered steamer can be used
Disadvantages:
1. Foods can look unattractive

2. It can be a slow method
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by steaming:
Fish e.g. sole; Meat, e.g. tongue, ham and bacon, Vegetables, e.g. almost all vegetables are suitable,
Sweet puddings, e.g. suet, sponge
 Stewing
Definition: A long, slow method of cooking where food is cut into pieces and cooked in the minimum
amount of liquid, water, stock or sauce. The food and the cooking liquid are served together.
Methods: All stews have a thickened consistency.
 Stewed foods may be cooked in a covered pan on the stove.

 Stewed foods may be cooked in a covered pan in the oven.
Advantages: 1. The meat juices are retained as part of the stew, 2. Correct slow cooking results in
very little evaporation, 3. It is economic on fuel. 4. Nutrients are conserved, 5. Tough foods are
tenderized, 6. Economical in labour because foods can be bulk cooked
Disadvantages : Slow method
Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by stewing:

Fish, e.g. bouillabaisse (French fish soup/stew) , Meat, e.g. goulash, minced beef, Irish stew, white
stew of veal, Poultry, e.g. chicken fricassee, curried chicken, Vegetables, e.g. ratatouille
Universidad Autónoma De Chiriqui

English Department. TECHNIQUE SUGGESTED:
SQA Technique
What do we know about the What I want to know about What I have learned
content of the article. it and deepen on it. after scanning the
S Q article.
A
1. 1. 1.

Activities Format. Name:_____________________ School:_______________Level:
____________________ Professor: Jeremías Pimentel Sánchez. Date:
_____________________________

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2.__________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________________
4.___________________________________________________________________________
5.___________________________________________________________________________

because_____________________________________________________________________I
didn’t like: __________________________________________________________
because___________________________________________________________________
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stening______________________________________________________________________
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ding_________________________________________________________________________
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ng__________________________________________________________________________
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ammar_______________________________________________________________________
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nciation____________________________________________________________
Professor’s
ESP SECTION.
Topic 5. The Food Technology Web Site. Methods Of Transferring Heat To Food
When cooking, heat is transferred by one of three methods or by a combination of those methods.
 Radiation
 Conduction
 Convection
Radiation
Using a toaster and grilling food are good examples of using radiation to transfer heat. When heat is
radiated it travels in straight lines and any object in its path becomes heated.
Conduction
Heating a pan on a hob is a good illustration of conduction. In this method, heat travels through a solid,
e.g. the pan. Metal objects are good conductors of heat and so these are used in the making of
saucepans. Cotton is a less effective heat conductor and hence it is used in the production of oven-
gloves.
Convection
A gas oven or cooking in boiling water are good illustrations of heat being transferred by convection.
When heated, the particles of a liquid (e.g. water) or a gas (e.g. air) become lighter and rise, while
colder particles sink to the bottom and are then heated in turn.
The Food Technology Web Site. Explaining the Scottish Dietary Targets
By: Morag MacKellar, SRD, FDBA, Head of Nutrition & Dietetic Services, Forth Valley
Primary Care NHS Trust.
The Scottish Office policy statement "Scotland's Health - A Challenge to Us All" (published in
1992) signaled a series of initiatives aimed at improving Scotland's poor health record.
The critical influence of diet on health was recognized in the setting up of a working party
under the chairmanship of Professor James of the Rowett Research Institute in Aberdeen, by the Chief
Medical Officer.
It was set up to survey the current diet of the Scottish people; to assess the relevance of diet to health;
to make proposals, if appropriate, for improvement in the Scottish Diet; to assess their likely impact.
The Scottish Diet Report was issued as a result of this initiative.
It traces the historical changes which have taken place in Scottish eating habits, provides
extensive data and reviews the current dietary patterns in Scotland.
The report found that people of all ages are disadvantaged by a diet low in cereals, vegetables and fresh
fruit; but rich in confectionery, meat products with high saturated fat content, sweet and salty snacks
and baked goods of inappropriate composition, accompanied by excessive amounts of sugary drinks.
Children's diets were identified as particularly poor, with school meals of especial concern. Of
particular note was the large proportion of children who eat neither green vegetables nor fruit, while up
to one fifth of men and an eighth of women fail to eat green vegetables on a regular basis if at all. As a
result the Scottish diet is characteristically low in vitamins E, C, in beta-carotene and fiber; additionally
it also contains an excess of saturated fats, refined sugars and salt.
Universidad Autónoma De Chiriquí. English Department.

Technique Suggested: Pregunta Guía Guided Question.
What …?
Objective
How much Which

Quantity Cooncept
Encephalo
Why…? Reason
gram. Personages
Who…?
Process Time
How…? When…?
Place
Where…?
1. What is the objective of this article?

Answer: To make the students understand and know about the effectiveness of the encephalogram to
detect any heart disease.
2. Which is the concept the article deals with?

Answer: The concept of this article is the electrometric device named encephalogram.

Date: _____________________________

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1.___________________________________________________________________________
2.__________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________________
4.___________________________________________________________________________
5.___________________________________________________________________________

because_____________________________________________________________________I
didn’t like: __________________________________________________________
because___________________________________________________________________
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stening______________________________________________________________________
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rammar______________________________________________________________________
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unciation____________________________________________________________
Professor’s
comments and signature: ______________________________________.
ESP SECTION.
Topic 6. The Food Technology Web Site, Food Labelling
Food labels provide information from the manufacturer to the consumer.
They are useful to the consumer because they:
 provide information about the product so that the consumer knows exactly what they are
buying;
 provide instructions for storage and preparation so the consumer is able to store and prepare the
product safely;
 enable the consumer to make choices for dietary or other reasons;
 allow consumers to compare food products for value for money.
Labelling Requirements
Most food products must, by law, include the following information, though some products may be
exempt from one or more of these conditions.
 the product name

 an ingredients list (in descending order of weight)
 the shelf-life (use-by or best-before date)
 storage instructions
 the name and address of either the manufacturer, packer or EC seller
 the country of origin
 the weight
 instructions for use
Date Coding
Food labels carry date codes to ensure that the safety and quality of the food is maintained and
to prevent food poisoning. Date codes refer to the product before it is opened.
Use By...
The 'use-by' code must be used for foods that are microbiologically.
highly perishable, foods which deteriorate and become a danger to human

health after a short time. This type of code is often used for chilled foods
such as sandwiches and cook-chill meals which should be stored in the
refrigerator.
Best Before... This type of code is used for products where a 'use-by' date is not applicable
or required.
The 'best-before' date must be expressed as a day and month and year, in
that order. For products with a shelf-life of three months or less, for example
bread, crisps, biscuits and sweets, the 'best before' date may be expressed as
a day and month only.
Best Before End... This is an alternative form of the 'best-before' date for products with a shelf-
life of more than three months, for example canned and bottled goods,
drinks and frozen foods. It may be expressed in terms of a month and year
only, or if the product has a shelf-life of more than 18 months, in terms of a
month and year or a year only.
Display Until...
This is not required by law but may be used by stores to ensure staff know
when to remove products from the shelves. It is usually a few days before
the 'use-by' date so that the consumer has a number of days left in which to
use the food.
Foods without Date Codes
Some products are not required to be date-marked, for example, wines and spirits which have a
long shelf-life and fresh fruits and vegetables. Foods which are not pre-packed such as delicatessen
products do not require a date mark.
Nutritional Labelling
Food manufacturers are not required by law to provide nutritional labelling.

However, if they make a claim such as 'low sugar' or 'high fibre' they must
support it with nutritional labelling. Many manufacturers do show nutritional
labelling which allows consumers to make healthier choices. Two systems of
nutritional labelling have been agreed by the European Community.
The first includes details about energy, protein, carbohydrate and fat and the
second supplies details about those as well as sugars, saturates,fibre and sodium.
Information is given per 100g or 100mls.
Food labelling requirements are explained in more detail in the Food Safety Act, 1990 and an
update of that provision in the UK Food Labelling Regulations, 1996.
Microwave
Four out of five American homes have at least one microwave oven. Because they heat food
very rapidly, microwave ovens are extremely popular. A microwave oven is a device that generates
microwaves from electricity. Microwaves are electromagnetic energy that have an electric and a
magnetic component. Other forms of electromagnetic energy are radio waves, sunlight and electricity.
Scientists refer to microwave energy as radiation because, similar to other radiation energy, it
travels through space. Microwave radiation is often called non-ionizing radiation to distinguish it
from other forms of radiation, like x-rays, which are called ionizing radiation. Ionization refers to
breaking atoms or molecules into two electrically charged groups.
Microwave energy, like all electromagnetic radiation, travels in a wave pattern. The waves are
reflected by metals, pass through air, glass, paper and plastic, and are absorbed by food. Most
microwave containers are designed to transmit microwave energy without reflecting or absorbing it,
and thus are made of paper or plastic. The microwaves will travel through the container to the food.
When food is exposed to microwaves, it will absorb that energy and convert it to heat. Food
composition (mainly water content) is a key factor that determines how fast it will heat in a microwave
environment. The higher the water content of a food, the higher its loss factor thus, the faster it will
heat. Solutes, like sugar and salt, also influence the loss factor of foods exposed to microwave energy.
For foods to heat in a microwave oven, the electromagnetic waves must penetrate the food. There are
limits to the depth of their penetration. This makes container geometry a very important factor in
heating foods by microwave energy.
Food composition does not only influence the loss factor, but also penetration depth. For
example, when salt is added to water, it will change its microwave heating characteristics in two
different directions. On one hand, it will increase the water's loss factor causing the water to heat faster.
On the other hand, salt will decrease the penetration depth of microwaves into the salt/water solution,
decreasing the heating rate. If salt is added to water to enhance its loss factor and, at the same time, the
container geometry changes to minimize the drop in penetration depth, the heating rate will be greatly
increased.
There are increasing numbers of food scientists who are dedicated to developing microwavable
foods that can heat quickly and evenly while maintaining high quality. Heating foods evenly in a
microwave oven is difficult at best, particularly with solid foods of different composition. A frozen
dinner tray is an example of a solid food with varying composition. Have you ever tried to warm a
jelly-filled donut in a microwave oven? If you have, you would have noticed that the filling gets
extremely hot while the cake part is hardly warm. This is because the jelly and the cake parts both have
different loss factors and therefore will absorb the microwave energy at variable rates and heat to
totally different temperatures. A simple way to avoid this problem is to let the food stand for a short
period with the microwave oven off. This will permit heat to travel from the hot regions of the food to
the cooler ones, through a process called conduction. Eventually, the food will equalize at a
temperature somewhere between the hot and the cold regions.
Understanding how food composition influences microwave heating is a skill needed by those
developing microwavable foods. Developing new microwavable meals and snacks is a growing
segment of the food industry. Aside from using microwave energy to heat meals at home, there have
been many attempts to utilize microwave energy to heat food at processing plants. Microwave energy is
also utilized in the textile and paper industries to remove moisture from the products. We are likely to
hear more about microwave energy application for the future.
Universidad Autónoma de Chiriquí.

English Department. SYNOPTIC CHART. Technique.
1. Get a considerable
Amount of peanuts.
Step 1. 2. Prepare the lab
Peanut 3. Heat the ovens.
Butter
MODERNA MEC CUANTITATIVA
GRAVITACIÓN
FISICA NUCLEAR
FISICA ATOMICA

Date: _____________________________

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2.__________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________________
4.___________________________________________________________________________
5.___________________________________________________________________________

because_____________________________________________________________________I
didn’t like: __________________________________________________________
because___________________________________________________________________
Speaking_____________________________________________________________________
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stening______________________________________________________________________
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ding_________________________________________________________________________
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ng__________________________________________________________________________
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Vocabulary___________________________________________________________________
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rammar______________________________________________________________________
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unciation_____________________________________________________________
Professor’s
ESP SECTION.
Topic 7. Food Safety And Quality Assurance Explores The Raw Materials
Necessary To Process Food And The Quality Standards They Need To Meet.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should know:
 How milk is processed

 The importance of food safety
 The quality assurance process
Milk Processing
Milk fresh from the cow is virtually a sterile product. All post-milking handling must maintain
the milk's nutritional value and prevent deterioration caused by numerous physical and biological
factors. In addition, equipment on the farm must be maintained to government and industry standards.
Most cows are milked twice a day, although some farms milk three or four times per day. The milk is
immediately cooled from body temperature to below 40°F (5°C), then stored at the farm under
refrigeration until picked up by insulated tanker trucks at least every other day. The milk tanker driver
records the amount of milk and notes the temperature and the presence of any off-odors. If the milk is
too warm or has an off-odor, it will not be picked up, and the farmer will have to feed it to his animals
or dump it. When the milk is pumped into the tanker, a sample is collected for later lab analysis.
When the milk arrives at the milk plant, it is checked to make sure it meets the standards for
temperature, total acidity, flavor, odor, tanker cleanliness, and the absence of antibiotics. The butterfat
and solids-not-fat content of this raw milk is also analyzed. The amounts of butterfat (BF) and solids-
not-fat (SNF) in the milk will vary according to time of year, breed of cow, and feed supply. Butterfat
content, solids-not-fat content, and volume are used to determine the amount of money paid the farmer.
Once the load passes these receiving tests, it is then pumped into large refrigerated storage silos
(nearly half-million pounds capacity) at the processing plant.
All raw milk must be processed within 72 hours of receipt at the plant. Milk is such a nutritious
food that numerous naturally occurring bacteria are always present. The milk is pasteurized, which is a
process of heating the raw milk to kill all "pathogenic" bacteria that may be present. A pathogen is a
bacteria that could, if allowed to grow and multiply, make humans sick. It should be noted that
pasteurization is not sterilization (sterilization eliminates all viable life forms, while pasteurization does
not). After pasteurization, some harmless bacteria may survive the heating process. It is these bacteria
that will cause milk to "go sour." Keeping milk refrigerated is the best way to slow the growth of these
bacteria. Some bacteria do not cause spoilage, but are actually added to milk or cream after
pasteurization to make "cultured" products such as cheese, cottage cheese, yogurt, buttermilk,
acidophilus milk and sour cream.
There are different ways to pasteurize milk. The "batch" method heats the milk to at least 145°
and holds it at that temperature for at least 30 minutes.
Since this method may cause a "cooked" flavor, it is not used by some milk plants for fluid milk
products.
High Temperature/Short Time (HTST) pasteurization heats the milk to at least 161° for at least 15
seconds. The milk is immediately cooled to below 40° and packaged into plastic jugs or plastic-coated
cartons. Most milk plants have at least one HTST processor. This piece of equipment is considered the
"heart" of the plant.
Butterfat content accounts for several different types of products. Whole milk, 2%, 1%, Nonfat,
and Half & Half are some examples. A machine called a separator separates the cream and skim
portions of the milk. A separator is really a large centrifuge that spins about 2,000 rotations per minute.
The different types of milk products are then "standardized" by blending the components (skim milk,
raw milk, cream) in the correct proportions to yield the desired end-products. Water is never added to
lower the butterfat content of fluid milk. Excess cream is used to make ice cream and butter.
Milk is homogenized to prevent the cream portion from rising to the top of the package. The
expression "cream rises to the top," is accurate because cream is lighter in weight than milk. The cream
portion of un-homogenized milk would form a cream layer at the top of the carton. A "homogenizer"
forces the milk under high pressure through a valve that breaks up the butterfat globules to such small
sizes they will not "coalesce" (stick together). Homogenization does not affect the nutrition or quality
of the product; it is done entirely for aesthetic purposes.
Vitamin quantities may be reduced by the heating process and removal of the butterfat.
Therefore, to replace the natural nutrition of nature's perfect food, liquid vitamins are added to fortify
most fluid milk products. Many states have milk standards that require the addition of milk solids.
These solids represent the natural mineral (i.e. calcium, iron), protein (casein), and sugar (lactose)
portion of nonfat dry milk. You will see this shown as an ingredient on those products needing
fortification.
Quality Control personnel conduct numerous tests on the raw and pasteurized products to insure
optimum quality and nutrition. A sample is analyzed for the presence of microbiological organisms
with a standard plate count (SPC) and ropey milk test. The equipment used to analyze butterfat and
solids-not-fat is calibrated on a regular basis to insure a consistent, quality product that meets or
exceeds government requirements.
All milk products have a sell-by date printed on the package. This is the last day the item should
be offered for sale. However, most companies guaranty the quality and freshness of the product for at
least 7 days past the date printed on the package. Samples of each product packaged each day are saved
to confirm that they maintain their freshness 7 days after the sell-by date.
Once the milk has been separated, standardized, homogenized and pasteurized, it is held below
40°F in insulated storage tanks, then packaged into gallon, half-gallon, quart, pint, and half-pint
containers. The packaging machines are maintained under strict sanitation specifications to prevent
bacteria from being introduced into the pasteurized product. All equipment that comes into contact with
product (raw or pasteurized) is washed daily. Sophisticated automatic Clean-in-Place (CIP) systems
guarantee consistent sanitation with a minimum of manual handling, reducing the risk of
contamination.
Once packaged, the products are quickly conveyed to a cold storage warehouse. They are stored
there for a short time and shipped to the supermarket on refrigerated trailers. Once at the store, the milk
is immediately placed into a cold storage room or refrigerated display case.
Food Safety
Food safety is a very broad topic. Pesticides, herbicides, chemical additives, and spoilage are all
of concern, but food scientists, food processors, and consumers focus most on microbiological quality.
Microorganisms pose a challenge to the food industry and most food processes are designed with
microbial quality in mind. Microorganisms are often too small to be seen with the unaided eye and
have the ability to reproduce rapidly. Many of them produce toxins and can cause infections. For all of
these reasons, the microbiological quality of the food we eat is scrutinized closely.
Centuries ago, Genghis Khan was able to rule vast stretches of

land through the mobility of his army. With very little food, he was able to engage in swift attacks over
long periods of time. As the story goes, each horseman carried two leather bags. The larger one held
dry milk produced by drying fluid milk in the sun during periods of rest. The smaller bag was used to
rehydrate some of the milk powder with water, which was consumed during an offensive. The lightly
equipped army of Khan thus could cover long distances in weeks, and eventually controlled most of the
Asian continent. Yet, one has to wonder how many people suffered food-borne illness in those days.
Today, food-borne illness is of serious concern. Its frequency is not known because a great
majority of the cases go unreported. Reporting food-borne diseases to public health authorities is not
required in the United States. Estimates claim as many as 200 million cases in the U.S. per year. Only a
small percentage of these are hospitalized. Most are passed off as traveler's diarrhea, 24 hour flu, or
upset stomach. Salmonellosis, one of the more serious food-borne diseases, is said to be reported only
about 1% of the time. About 42,000 cases of salmonellosis are reported in the U.S. annually, with about
150 deaths. So, there are potentially 4.2 million cases of Salmonella food poisoning annually despite
the fact that the U.S. food supply is considered very safe and processed under the best conditions
available.
Testing the foods we consume for the presence of pathogenic microorganisms is very important.
Although 100% of the food cannot be tested, it can be deemed "safe" through proper audit of the food
supply. In many instances, the pathogenic microorganisms are present in very small numbers, but for
many of these pathogens, small numbers are all that are necessary to transmit disease or illness. For
that reason, the presence of other microorganisms is monitored. These microorganisms provide an
index of the sanitary quality of the product and may serve as an indicator of potential for the presence
of pathogenic species. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is commonly employed as an indicator microorganism.
Because E. coli is a coliform bacteria common to the intestinal tract of humans and animals, its
relationship to intestinal food-borne pathogens is high.
Total counts of microorganisms are also an indication of the sanitary quality of a food. Referred
to as the Standard Plate Count (SPC), this total count of viable microbes reflects the handling
history, state of decomposition or degree of freshness of the food. Total counts may be taken to indicate
the type of sanitary control exercised in the production, transport, and storage of the food. Most foods
have standards or limits for total counts. This is especially true for milk.
It must be remembered that a low SPC does not always represent a safe product. It is possible to
have low-count foods in which toxin-producing organisms have grown. These organisms produce
toxins that remain stable under conditions that may not favor the survival of the microbial cell.
In adopting microbiological standards to milk, the first concern is product safety, followed by
shelf-life. The following bacterial counts are standards for milk as recommended by the U.S. Public
Health Service:
Grade A raw milk for pasteurization Not to exceed 100,000 bacteria per milliliter (ml) prior to
commingling with other produced milk; and not exceeding 300,000 per ml as commingled milk prior to
pasteurization.
Grade A pasteurized milk Not over 20,000 bacteria per ml, and not over 10 coli forms per ml.
The objective of pasteurization is to reduce the total microbial load, or SPC. In addition, pasteurization
must destroy all pathogens that may be carried in the milk from the cow, particularly undulant fever,
tuberculosis, Q-fever, and other diseases transmittable to humans. This is accomplished by setting the
time and temperature of the heat treatment so that certain heat-resistant pathogens, specifically
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii (causative agents of Q-fever and tuberculosis,
respectively) would be destroyed if present. Milk pasteurization temperatures are sufficient to destroy
all yeasts, mold, and many of the spoilage bacteria.
Quality Assurance
Of all functions in the food industry, Quality Assurance (QA) requires many diverse technical
and analytical skills. QA personnel continually monitor incoming raw milk and finished milk products
to insure compliance with compositional standards, microbiological standards, and various government
regulations. A QA manager can halt production, refuse acceptance of raw material, or stop the
shipment if specifications for a product or process are not met. This department does not usually have
control over the product unless something has gone wrong.
The major functions of the QA Department are:
1. Compliance with specifications Legal requirements, industry standards, internal company

standards, shelf-life tests, customers' specifications.
2. Test procedures Testing of raw materials, finished products, and in-process tests.
3. Sampling schedules Utilize a suitable sampling schedule to maximize the probability of

detection while minimizing workload.
4. Records and reporting Maintain all QA records so that customer complaints and legal
problems can be dealt with.
5. Trouble shooting Solve various problems caused by poor quality raw materials, erratic
supplies and malfunctioning process equipment; and investigate reasons for poor quality
product to avoid repetition.
6. Special problems Customer complaints, production problems, personnel training, short

courses, etc.
7. A typical QA Department may have a chemistry lab, a raw materials inspection lab, a sensory
lab and a microbiology lab. All of these disciplines work together to assure that the food we
consume is of the highest quality. After all, it is quality which will bring a customer back again
and again.
Universidad Autónoma De Chiriquí.

English Department. The QQQ Technique.
Instructions:
Read the present articles (2 in 1) and fill the spaces in blank on the following technique.
Q Q Q
What do I see? What I don’t see? What do I infer?

Date: _____________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
1.___________________________________________________________________________
2.__________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________________
4.___________________________________________________________________________
5.___________________________________________________________________________

because_____________________________________________________________________I
didn’t like: __________________________________________________________
because___________________________________________________________________
Speaking_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________Li
stening______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________Rea
ding_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________Writi
ng__________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Vocabulary___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________G
rammar______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________Pron
unciation____________________________________________________________
Professor’s
ESP SECTION.
Topic 8. Processing Food Illustrates The Various Processing Steps In Making

Bread, Peanut Butter, Strawberry Jam And Milk.
Learning Objectives
 How peanut butter is made.

 How bread is made.
 How strawberry preserve is made.
Making Peanut Butter
The first step in making peanut butter is growing the peanuts, of course! All of the peanuts used
for peanut butter are grown in the USA, either in the Southeast (Georgia) or the Southwest (Texas and
Oklahoma). The two best-tasting varieties for peanut butter are Spanish and Runners (so Safeway used
only these two varieties).
From the harvest the nuts go to shelling operations. These plants, located near the growing
fields, remove the shells, clean the nuts, and pack them into huge bags for shipment to the peanut butter
plant. Each bag holds more than 2,000 pounds of peanuts!
At the plant, the bags are unloaded into bucket conveyors that move the nuts from each
processing step to the next one. The first step is to insure that all impurities, such as stems and sticks
from the peanut plants, are removed from the product stream. This is done by gravity separators,
which sort out objects that are heavier or lighter than peanuts.
The peanuts are now ready for roasting. This is done by a continuous roaster. The nuts are
slowly carried through the roaster on a belt while hot air is circulated. It is extremely important that the
nuts be roasted evenly and properly so that flavor and color are just right. The roaster operator adjusts
the roast as required by changing the air temperature, belt speed or peanut layer thickness on the belt.
The peanuts are cooled and conveyed to the blanching machines, which remove the skins. This
prevents the peanut butter from having dark specks from the skins.
The last step before the peanuts can be ground into peanut butter is the final inspection for
quality. The nuts are conveyed through an electronic color sorter which removes nuts that were under
or over roasted. The peanuts also pass a trained inspector who looks them over and picks out any that
do not look right.
The peanuts are now ready to be conveyed to the grinders. (If we are making 'chunky' peanut
butter, some of the nuts are diverted to a chopper, and are then added back to the peanut butter just
before filling the jars.) The grinders are like giant milkshake machines.
Although peanut butter consists of mostly peanuts (at least 90%), small amounts of other
ingredients are added while the nuts are being ground. In the case of 'old fashioned' peanut butter, we
add a little bit of salt for flavor and a special vegetable oil called a stabilizer. This keeps the peanut oil
from separating out to the top of the jar.
At this point the peanut butter is pumped through a metal detector to insure that no metal got
into it during the grinding. Then it is pumped into a deaerator, which removes trapped air. Finally, the
peanut butter, quite hot from all that grinding, passes through a heat exchanger to cool it down so it
can be packed into containers on the filling line.
The filling machine is carefully timed to put the correct amount of peanut butter in each jar.
The jar then is conveyed to the capping machine.
Capped jars are sent through an induction sealer, which seals the inner liner to the top of the
jar. Then, another machine applies the label to the jar.
The jars are now ready for packing into the shipping case. This is done by hand so that the
packer can inspect each jar's label and general appearance.
All that's left is to glue the cases closed and put the peanut butter in the warehouse, then wait a
few days before shipping it to the stores. This allows for 'microbiological tests to make sure no molds
or bacteria have found their way into the peanut butter. After the tests come back 'clean' we can release
it for our customers to enjoy.
Making Bread
Making bread involves many ingredients and advance

preparation steps. Flour is received by bulk rail or truck and stored in
100,000 pound bins. All other raw materials are received by truck. Two
hours before production begins, a liquid sponge or broth is prepared
and allowed to ferment to ensure that the finished loaf will rise properly.
The broth is a blend of flour, water, sugar, salt, yeast and yeast foods.
To combine the ingredients necessary for bread making, a scaler

measures out the smaller increments of the mix, some as little as one
ounce. A dough mixer operated by a control panel takes the ingredients
from the scaler and adds the larger increments to the mix to create the proper dough consistency.
This mixture can weigh anywhere from 400 to 2,000 pounds. The dough is then 'kicked' out of
the mixer into a trough and allowed to 'relax' and ferment. This is called floor time. Then it goes to a
hopper and is divided into loaf-sized pieces, then to the rounder for shaping.
Once again the dough is set aside in an overhead proofer to relax and continue fermenting for
approximately 10 minutes. The dough is then sent to the head rollers for flattening and removal of
excess air. This is a key step in bread making. Removing excess fermenting gas helps ensure good
inner structure and grain in the finished loaf.
The next stop is the molder, where the bread is shaped for the final baking process. The molder
is also helpful in removing air from the dough. Once molded, the bread is dropped into a large pan
divided into five separate loaf pans. These pans travel along a conveyor to another proof box. Here
they will stay for 55 minutes. The temperature in the proof box is monitored closely to maintain 90%
humidity level and 105º temperature level at all times.
Now the bread is sent to the ovens for baking. The oven temperatures and baking times will
vary as to size and density of the loaf. The loaves bake for 22 minutes at approximately 400º. The
baked bread is conveyed to a depanner. This is just what it sounds like; suction cups and vacuum
pressure remove the baked loaf from the pan. The pan is sent back to storage to be used again, and the
loaf is sent to cool.
The bread cools for about an hour and is then sent to be sliced. Once sliced, the bread is
wrapped by an automatic bagging machine. Now that the loaf is in the bag, it is sent to be tied and
fastened. The finished product is conveyed to where it is sorted and stacked for store distribution. Total
production time for a loaf of bread is about three hours. The total lapsed time from the beginning of
production to when the bread is on the shelf in the store is 24 hours.
Making Strawberry Jam
The fruit preserves you buy in supermarkets are the product of

many dedicated people whose efforts are coordinated into a complex
team effort. The process or recipe for making preserves is fairly simple
and has been done in home kitchens for many years. Through more than
30 years of experience in the application of food science and processing
engineering, Processors/marketers, such as Safeway, have been able to
develop large-scale processing methods to improve quality and
consistency found in the home kitchen.
The starting point is the farmer's field. The coastal valleys of California, Oregon and
Washington produce the finest fruit in the world. Safeway buys the best of this crop from the premier
growers of the region. Fruit is hand picked in the fields and quickly transported to packing houses
where it is cleaned and quick frozen to maintain color, flavor, texture and to prevent spoilage.
Properly frozen fruit, when held under the right conditions, will maintain its quality for several years.
However, the freeze/thaw cycle does cause some damage to the fruit regardless of how carefully the
process is done.
The best preserves are made with fresh fruit (never frozen). The fruit is chilled and shipped
directly from the packing house to the preserve plant where it is processed within 24 hours. In addition
to buying only from premier growers and packing houses, field inspectors regularly visit the packing
houses to ensure that the fruit meets the quality standards.
The frozen fruit is held in cold storage warehouses. These warehouses, which are gigantic
freezers, keep the fruit at the proper temperature to insure that it maintains its optimum quality. Just
prior to cooking and packaging the fruit is shipped by truck to the preserves plant, inspected by trained
food chemists and thawed under careful observation to the proper point.
As stated earlier, the starting point is the field, but the real beginning is when the marketing
manager makes the decision as to the number and kinds of preserves to pack. This decision is made
from 18 to 20 months in advance and is the result of many hours of research and consultation. This
advance forecasting of future demand must be done so that the purchasing agent can make buying
commitments during or prior to the harvest.
Within one to two weeks of the actual pack date, the plant's production control manager will
make a detailed schedule of which products will be produced on any given day. At that time he and his
staff will issue purchase and release orders for the elements needed to produce the finished product
such as: jars, caps, labels, glue, etc. It is the production control manager's responsibility to have all the
items needed in the plant at the right time.
Once the production schedule has been made, the plant operations people meet and review the
schedule in detail. This group includes the departmental foreman, the maintenance manager, the quality
control manager, the production control manager, the production manager and supervisors. It is at this
meeting that the final details are decided on and all the activities of the various departments are
coordinated.
From three to five days prior to production, the fruit is received at the plant, inspected by the
quality control food chemist and set out to thaw. The fruit is thawed to the point that it can be managed
but is still at the freezing temperature of 32º F. Once the thawing process has begun, the packaging
process is committed. The fruit cannot be re-frozen without harm.
The commercial production of preserves uses two to three kinds of sugar, depending on the
variety. Different kinds of liquid sugar and dry sugar may be used. The sugars are received in bulk by
truck and stored in tanks and silos. In addition to the fruit and sugars, a small amount of pectin is used
to provide the set to the liquid portion of the preserve. The original preserve recipes used gelatin, an
animal product. However, gelatin has been replaced by pectin, a natural fruit product, from which the
term jelly comes. A small amount of citric acid, another natural fruit product, is used to adjust the
acidity for flavor consistency.
The evening before the pack begins, plant mechanics are busy preparing the equipment. All the
machinery is thoroughly inspected and lubricated. Any worn or otherwise damaged parts are replaced
and equipment is adjusted. In coordination with the mechanics, the clean up crew is cleaning the
cooking and packaging equipment so that everything will be ready for production.
At 5 a.m., on the day of production, the cooking crew arrives. The first thing they do is inspect
the kettles and other equipment to verify that everything is thoroughly cleaned and ready for use. While
the inspection is conducted, others in the cooking crew are preparing the fruit and other materials.
The first step is to blend the fruit and other materials in the pre-cook kettles at a relatively low
temperature. A single batch will make enough material to produce approximately 1,500 jars of
preserves. The proportion of fruit and sugar is regulated by the federal government; therefore, the
blending operation as well as all other operations must be carefully controlled to comply with all
regulations and maintain high quality standards. The fruit blend is transferred to vacuum pans where
excess water is cooked off and the proper balance of sugar between fruit and juice is obtained. (A
recent development has been the introduction of all-fruit spreads. These products are similar to
preserves, but they are made with concentrated grape juice instead of sugar.)
The water is cooked off in vacuum pans so that the product can be brought to a boil at a low
temperature, improving quality. If the product were cooked in open kettles, it would darken and the
texture and flavor of the fruit would not be as good. The cooking process is consistently monitored by
quality control personnel. The cooking operation, along with the fruit buying and selection, is the most
important factor in determining the quality of the finished product.
Once the quality control department has determined that the batch is cooked to perfection, the
product is transferred to a holding tank where it is held for a short time. Depending on the ripeness and
variety of fruit, the cooking process takes approximately three hours. The filling line is the next
process. The product is passed through a heat exchanger and then over inspection tables where any
leaves or stems that may have been missed at the packing house are removed.
The preserves must be hot filled and capped to prevent spoilage. This is a moderately fast
operation involving 200 jars per minute. Immediately after the filling/capping operation, the jars move
into a cooling tunnel and the product is cooled to room temperature. The final step in the packaging
process is the labeling and casing operations. The labeling and packing machines are highly
complicated and perform delicate gluing and application procedures at very high speeds. Once the jars
are in the case, the case is glued, closed and printed to identify the product, date and time.
The finished product is then stored in the plant warehouse to await shipment to regional
warehouses around the country. These warehouses then distribute the preserves to the stores. Although
the basic process is rather straightforward, it requires a dedicated team of professionals to maintain
consistently high quality standards.
Universidad Autónoma de Chiriquí. English Department.
The PNI Technique.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE INTERESTING

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Professor’s
ESP SECTION.
Topic 9. Nutrition, Labeling And Packaging Explores The
Environmental And Government Regulations
Regarding Food Packaging And Labeling As Well As The
Increasing Role Nutrition Plays In The Marketing Of Food
Products To The Consumer.
Learning Objectives
 Basic Nutrition concepts and information to help you select a healthy diet.
 How to evaluate your food intake.
 Major food labeling issues.
 How to design a label for a food product.
 The history of food packaging development.
 How packaging protects food.
 The many functions of a food package.
 The various basic materials utilized in food packaging.
Nutrition
Do you know which foods you should eat to help you stay healthy? Do you know how to read a
food label to help you choose the healthiest food products in the supermarket? Nutrition is the process
by which the foods we eat provide the nutrients we need to grow and stay healthy. Nutrients are
naturally occurring chemical substances found in food. There are six categories of nutrients: proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and water.
Proteins contain amino acids, sometimes referred to as the building blocks of protein. Dietary
protein is supplied from plant and animal sources. Proteins are needed to build and repair body tissue
and for the metabolic functions of our bodies.
Lipids include fats and oils from plants and animals. Cholesterol is a fat found only in animal
products. Lipids are of special interest because they are linked to the development of heart disease, the
leading cause of death among Americans.
The carbohydrates in our diet come from plant foods. Simple carbohydrates include the
different forms of sugar, while complex carbohydrates include starches and dietary fiber.
Vitamins are chemical compounds in our food that are needed in very small amounts (in
milligrams and micrograms) to regulate the chemical reactions in our bodies.
Minerals, also needed only in small amounts, have many different functions. Some minerals
assist in the body is chemical reactions and others help form body structures.
Fifty to sixty percent of our body weight consists of water. It is the substance in which the
metabolic reactions occur. We need about two quarts (2 liters) of water every day.
Protein, fats and carbohydrates in food provide the energy, or kilocalories (kcals), our bodies
need to function. Each gram of protein and carbohydrate has 4 kilocalories; each gram of fat has 9. You
might have noticed that we use the metric system - grams, milligrams and micrograms - to measure the
amounts of nutrients in foods.
Evaluate Your Food Intake
What should we do to stay healthy?
Recommendations for nutrient intakes have been developed by the Food and Nutrition Board of
the National Academy of Sciences National Research Council. The Recommended Dietary Allowances
(RDA) are standards believed to be adequate to meet the nutrient needs of most healthy people. The
RDA are established for age and sex groups.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services (DHHS) have developed the "Dietary Guidelines for Americans" which recommend we:
-Eat a variety of foods. - Maintain a healthy weight. - Choose a diet low in fat, saturated fat
and cholesterol. - Use sugars only in moderation. - Use salt and sodium only in moderation.
- As adults, if we choose to drink alcoholic beverages, we should do so in moderation. -
These recommendations have been made for Americans older than two years of age. It is
believed that by following these suggestions, Americans could reduce their risk for obesity
(overweight), hypertension (high blood pressure), stroke, heart disease, the most common
form of diabetes, certain forms of cancer, and alcoholism.
What is a "healthy" diet?
"Food guides" are designed to help us learn the types and amounts of foods we need to eat every
day for adequate nutrition. These guidelines divide foods into different groups based on the amounts of
nutrients the foods contain.
Other guidelines, based on the recommendations in the "Dietary Guidelines for Americans,"
have been developed to help people choose a healthy diet.
In 1992 the U.S. Department of Agriculture released the "Food Guide Pyramid" to replace the
"Basic Four Food Groups." The leaflet entitled, "The Food Guide Pyramid: Beyond the Basic 4," also
is available in the reference library.
There is a national nutrition education campaign, co-sponsored by the National Cancer Institute
(NCI) and the Produce for Better Health Foundation (PBH), to encourage Americans to eat at least five
servings of fruits and vegetables daily. The "5 a Day" health promotion was developed in 1988 by the
California Department of Health Services. The "Eat More Fruits & Vegetables" leaflet explains the "5 a
Day" plan and is available in the reference library.
Food Labeling
Which federal agencies regulate food labeling?
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), operating under the Federal Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act, regulates the labeling for all foods other than meat and poultry. Meat and poultry
products are regulated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) under the Federal Meat
Inspection Act.
What is "food labeling"?
Food labels for most of the food products sold in the United States must have the product name,
the manufacturer’s name and address, the amount of the product in the package and the product
ingredients. The ingredients are listed in descending order, based on their weight. Under the current
laws, fresh fruits, vegetables and meat are exempt from these labeling requirements.
In 1973 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) established "nutrition labeling" or guidelines
for labeling the nutrient and caloric content of food products. Nutrition labeling is mandatory only for
those foods that have nutrients added or make a nutritional claim. Manufacturers are encouraged, but
not required, to provide nutrition labeling of other food products.
The current nutrition labeling regulations from the FDA require a label and have the percentage
of the U.S. Recommended Daily Allowances (U.S. RDA). These standards are based on the 1968
edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), but the RDA and the U.S. RDA are not the
same!
For each nutrient, the U.S. RDA are the highest RDA for any of the RDA age and sex groups.
The U.S. RDA usually apply to people four years of age and older.
FDA nutrition labels must have the serving size; servings per container; calories per serving;
grams of protein, carbohydrate and fat per serving; and the percent of the U.S. RDA for protein, five
vitamins and two minerals.
There is less nutrition information on labels regulated by USDA. USDA labels list only the
serving size; servings per container; calories per serving; and grams of protein, carbohydrate and fat per
serving.
Why is food labeling important?

Food labeling provides basic information about the ingredients in, and the nutritional value of,
food products so that consumers can make informed choices in the market place.
What are the trends in food labeling?
In the 1990 Food Marketing Institute (FMI) survey, over 70% of food shoppers identified taste,
nutrition and product safety as being very important factors in making food purchases. In the same
survey, 36% of shoppers reported they always read the ingredient and nutrition labels, and another 45%
said they sometimes read nutrition labels.
The growing importance of the role of nutrition in promoting health and preventing disease, and
consumer demand for clearer and easier to understand information, has led to the passage of the
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990. The federal regulations, detailing the format
and content of food labels, are now in effect.
Food Packaging
Food packaging development started with humankind’s earliest beginnings. Early forms of
packaging ranged from gourds to sea shells to animal skin. Later came pottery, cloth and wooden
containers. These packages were created to facilitate transportation and trade.
Utilizing modern technology, today’s society has created an overwhelming number of new
packages containing a multitude of food products. A modern food package has many functions, its
main purpose being to physically protect the product during transport. The package also acts as a
barrier against potential spoilage agents, which vary with the food product. For example, milk is
sensitive to light; therefore, a package that provides a light barrier is necessary. The milk carton is ideal
for that. Other foods like potato chips are sensitive to air because the oxygen in the air causes
rancidity. The bags containing potato chips are made of materials with oxygen-barrier properties.
Practically all foods should be protected from filth, microorganisms, moisture and objectionable odors.
We rely on the package to offer that protection.
Aside from protecting the food, the package serves as a vehicle through which the manufacturer
can communicate with the consumer. Nutritional information ingredients and often recipes are found
on a food label. The package is also utilized as a marketing tool designed to attract your attention at the
store. This makes printability an important property of a package.
The food industry utilizes four basic packaging materials: metal, plant matter (paper and wood),
glass and plastic. A number of basic packaging materials are often combined to give a suitable package.
The fruit drink box is an example where plastic, paper and metal are combined in a laminate to give an
ideal package. This concept can be easily seen in your peanut butter jar. The main package containing
the food (primary package) is made of glass (or plastic), the lid is made of metal lined with plastic, and
the label is made of paper.
Each basic packaging material has advantages and disadvantages. Metal is strong and a good
overall barrier, but heavy and prone to corrosion. Paper is economical and has good printing properties;
however, it is not strong and it absorbs water. Glass is transparent, which allows the consumer to see
the product, but breakable. Plastics are versatile but often expensive. Therefore, combining the basic
materials works well in most cases. So, for a product like milk, which is an essential food for children
and young adults and therefore cannot be very expensive, paper makes a good economical material. It
also provides a good printing surface. However, since paper absorbs water, it will gain moisture from
the milk, get weaker and fail, thereby exposing the milk to spoilage factors. It may even break and
waste the product. When a thin layer of a plastic called polyethylene is utilized to line the inside of the
milk carton, it serves as a barrier to moisture and makes an economical, functional package.
After making a food product and placing it in the appropriate package, a number of these
individual packages must be placed in a large container to facilitate shipment. These larger containers
are called secondary packages. The paperboard box is a very common secondary package. Plastics also
can serve as secondary packages. The milk case in which a number of milk cartons are delivered to the
supermarket is a good example.
We cannot discuss food packaging without discussing the effects of packaging waste on the
environment. Clearly, recycling is a sound approach. However, the problem often lies in feasibility of
collection, separation and purification of the consumer’s disposed food packages. This mode of
recycling is called post-consumer recycling. While it offers a logistic challenge, recycling is gaining in
popularity, and the packaging industry is cooperating in that effort. Aluminum cans are the most
recycled container at this time. Plastic recycling is increasing, yet most plastic is recycled during
manufacturing of the containers; not as post-consumer recycling. For example, trimmings from plastic
bottles are reground and reprocessed into new ones.
The plastics industry is helping to facilitate consumer recycling by identifying the type of
plastic from which the container is made. A number from 1 to 7 is placed within the recycling logo on
the containerís bottom. For example, 1 refers to PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate), the plastic used for
the large 2 liter soft drink bottles. Plastics have the advantage of being light. This helps to conserve fuel
during transport and also reduces the amount of package waste.
There are many interesting packaging concepts being explored by the industry to keep up with
the changing life style of the consumer and new technologies. Many professionals are involved in
designing and manufacturing the modern package. Today's package is designed with the consumer's
safety and convenience in mind. Examples are microwaveable popcorn packages, squeezable ketchup
bottles and the tamper-proof milk bottle cap.
ESP SECTION
Topic 10. Integrated Resource Management Focuses On Integrated Management
Of All Resources Within A Processing Manufacturing Environment And Shows
How Forecasting And Master Production Scheduling Affect Material Requirements
Planning. It Introduces The Concept Of Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP
II) And The Role Computers Play In The Manufacturing Process.
Learning Objectives
 The concept of integrated resource management.

 The importance of computers in manufacturing management.
 The meaning of acronyms such as CAD, CAM, CIM, MRPII.
 Manufacturing control system at Safeway
 Planning, execution and management as used in process manufacturing.
 The Traditional American Manufacturing Organization
 Hierarchy of functions
 Working Together
Integrated Resource Management
In today's competitive environment of world-class manufacturing, food processing companies

need to manage all resources effectively in order to design and produce the right food products, at the
right time, in the right quantities, right the first time. This is what is referred to as integrated resource
management.
Computers in Design and Manufacturing
Computers are playing an increasingly important role in our lives. Keeping pace with the
application of the latest technology is a challenge for all of us. In the food industry, as in manufacturing
in general, computers are being put to use designing food products, processing foods and managing the
operations and resources of a food processing plant. A manufacturer needs to keep up with the latest
technology to remain competitive.
Computer-based systems in manufacturing are known as CAD, CAM,MRPII, and CIM.

Although their use is more limited in the food industry than in other manufacturing environments, these
concepts are gaining importance rapidly in their application to food processing.
APICS, the American Production and Inventory Control Society, defines the acronyms representing
the various computer-based systems as follows:
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) - The use of computers in interactive engineering drawing and storage
of designs. Programs complete the layout, geometric transformations, projections, rotations,
magnifications and interval (cross-section) views of a part and its relationship with other parts.
CAM (Computer- Aided Manufacturing) - Use of computers to program, direct and control production
equipment in the fabrication of manufactured items.
MRPII (Manufacturing Resource Planning) - A method for the effective planning of all resources of a
manufacturing company.
CIM (Computer-Integrated Manufacturing) - The integration of the total manufacturing organization

through the use of computer systems and managerial philosophies that improve the organization's
effectiveness; the application of a computer to bridge various computerized systems and connect them
into a coherent, integrated whole. For example, budgets, CAD/CAM, process controls, groups
technology systems, MRPII, financial reporting systems, etc., are linked and interfaced.
More about MRP II
MRP II is a computer-based, business information management tool that helps manufacturers

produce the "correct" products at the "correct" time. MRP II, used effectively, integrates all company
functions in support of overall corporate strategy, utilizing accurate, consistent and timely information.
MRP II is an American technology that has evolved gradually over the last 30 years. Benefits to
MRP II users include reduced delivery lead times, reduced product shortages, reduced investment in
inventories, immediate performance measurements and reporting, faster new product introductions,
better cost controls, increased productivity and improved quality of work life.
Companies that have been highly successful at implementing MRP II, or the Class A users, all
have two things in common: 1) Detailed education programs for their employees and 2) Employees
who are committed to supporting and maintaining the data integrity of the system.
The purpose of this module is to give you a high-level overview of the multiple, interconnecting
disciplines that must be joined in a single, people-oriented system of checks and balances to
accomplish the MRP II style of management. You will see that MRP II, used effectively, is a top-down
management control system using a computer- based model to guide decision making. This model
relies on feedback from the bottom up to correct its assumptions and to reflect reality. This process is
called closed-loop management.
Manufacturing Control System at Safeway
The Safeway SISF Division is implementing over the next 5 years a new Manufacturing
Control System (MCS), based on MRP II principles, at its 38 food and consumer-product plants in the
United States. MCS is the largest enterprise the SISF Division has ever undertaken and ranks among
the largest at Safeway Inc. MCS is not just a "tool" or technological conversion. It is a new way of
managing the business that will enable Safeway to be better equipped to meet the competitive
environment of the food manufacturing industry in the future.
ESP SECTION.
Topic 11. The Traditional American Manufacturing Organization
Classic or traditional manufacturing organizations in the United States have reflected the
specialist-oriented educational degree programs offered through American universities and colleges.
Students graduate with degrees in engineering, accounting or marketing and go to work as specialists,
often for their entire professional career.
A stereotypical career path for a person with a degree in Engineering after joining a traditional
American manufacturing firm could include several years as a design Engineer, a promotion to
Engineering Supervisor and retirement after becoming the Vice President of Engineering. Specialists in
traditional American companies do not communicate effectively with other departments, develop
separate systems and goals, and incur an "us against them" attitude within the organization.
A traditional company with specialist-oriented roles does not foster the team effort needed to
become a "world-class" enterprise. By contrast, team effort and support is essential to maintaining the
sharedMRP II data base integrity.
Three Levels of Manufacturing Management
In the MRP II concept of formal management each company should be managed at three levels:
1. Finance and Administration Focus
2. Manufacturing Focus
3. Sales and Marketing Focus
It is essential that the management practices at each of these three levels support one another
and, together, implement the business plan. Each management level must carry out its management
mission by continuously cycling through the three steps of "plan, execute and measure". Closing the
loop consists of using the measurement information from the previous cycle to update the planning
assumptions for the next cycle. This is a continuous process for improvement.
Each level of manufacturing management is supported by specific system elements, procedures,

policies and computer programs. The computer programs that provide automated support of the three
steps by level are:
Financial: Software needs include budgets and allocations (plan); accounts payable and accounts
receivable (execute), and general ledger and product costing (measure).
Sales and Marketing: Software requirements for the demand level include forecasting (plan); order
entry and billing (execute); and sales analysis (measure).
Manufacturing: Software requirements include master production scheduling, distribution

requirements planning, material requirements planning and capacity requirements planning (plan);
purchasing and receiving, shop floor control and inventory control (execute); and performance
measurement (measure).
Hierarchy of Functions
Most industry experts when discussing MRP II are referring to 10 or 12 discrete business
functions from the highest level of planning (business planning) to the lowest level of execution
(purchasing & receiving).
Each management planning level receives its vision and constraints from the prior level.
Decisions are "pushed down" (top-down) through the hierarchy and performance measurement
information is pushed back up (bottom-up) to compare the actual performance with the planned
performance. When there is a discrepancy between actual performance and planned performance,
replanting is done at the appropriate level. This on-going process of top-down, bottom-up replanting
can best be visualized as a circular joining of the three words: Plan, Execute, and Measure.
Working Together
You should by now understand that integrating the various functions within a manufacturing
plant's operation requires that manufacturing people (responsible for how we make it, how much
inventory is needed, how much labor is required) work closely with the sales and marketing folks
(responsible for what the product should look like, how it is packaged, promoted, who will buy it, how
many will be sold, at what price, etc.) and in close concert with the financial people (responsible for
costing, capital and financial management in general).
While computer systems greatly enhance the capabilities of having real time, on-line, organized
data available to the enterprise, it is worthless unless people from various backgrounds and disciplines
work together toward accomplishing the same goals and objectives.
This kind of teamwork has proven itself in new product development initiatives where
engineers, production people, sales people, marketers, and financial people are linked from the
inception of a new product to its ultimate delivery to the customer. The result has been drastic
reduction in the time it takes to bring a product to the market place.
LESSON 5: From the Plant to the Store. From the Plant to the Store Deals with inventory
management and transportation of foods from the plant to the store. It also focuses on how stores
forecast demand.
Learning Objectives
 The relationship between inventory management and sales forecasting.

 The concept of optimal inventory.
 How to calculate optimal inventory.
 The difference between a purchase order and a customer order.
 The difference between "manufacture to inventory" versus "manufacture to order."
 The various means by which to transport finished goods.
 The role of a distribution center or warehouse.
Inventory Management
Stores must "inventory" products ahead of sales and "forecast" (or estimate) which products
customers will purchase (when and how much) to establish appropriate inventory levels for the various
products they carry. What the stores are doing is called inventory management and sales forecasting.
Not a simple task, considering that a grocery store carries as many as 30,000 different items, many of
which are perishable foods with a very short shelf life. Due to the complexity of managing inventory
and forecasting sales, companies are increasingly using computer systems to control their inventory.
In this unit, we will explore a number of issues related to inventory replenishment, distribution
and transportation. More specifically, we will see how a retail store such as Safeway figures out its
inventory, places an order and transports its goods from the warehouse.
Optimal Inventory
From the perspective of a retail store, the inventory is the stock of tangible goods to be sold at
that store. A store is interested in carrying an "optimal" inventory. Various factors come into place
when considering what is an ideal inventory level, such as having the necessary products available in
the right quantity at the right time, while minimizing the cost of ordering and carrying the goods.
Before calculating a store's optimal inventory, we need to give a simple definition of some basic
inventory management terms, such as:
Optimal Inventory (OI) - How much of a product a store should have
(Re) Order Point (OP) - When they should get more
Replenishment Quantity (RQ) - How much they should get
Safety Stock - How much additional inventory they should carry as a buffer for changes in sales,
production and lead time.
Optimal inventory can be computed using the following formula:
OI = OP + 1/2 RQ
Where OI = optimal inventory, OP = order point and RQ = replenishment quantity
On the average, all items in the store should be halfway through their replenishment. The goal
of any store is to minimize the optimal inventory. Stores can do that by better forecasting their demand
(this will lower inventory) and by reducing lead time (this will lower replenishment quantity).
Paths to Ordering
When stores place an order, the finished goods come either directly from the manufacturing
plant, or from the store's distribution center or warehouse (which ordered it from a manufacturer).
Increasingly, orders are being placed electronically by a computer linking the ordering and supplying
parties.
The same "order" means two different things depending on who ships or receives the goods.
The entity placing the order (in this case, the store) issues a purchase order; the party supplying the
merchandise (in this case, the manufacturing plant or the distribution center) considers it a customer
order.
When a plant receives an order from a store, it needs to check whether it has enough inventories
to ship, or if it needs to produce or manufacture the products. Real perishable goods with short shelf
lives, such as bread and milk, are "manufactured to order." This means that the products are processed
after the order is placed. Other products are "manufactured to inventory" or made to stock in a
warehouse. For example, ice cream is made at Safeway's ice cream plant then transported to the
distribution center and stored in freezers. The ice cream subsequently will be shipped to the Safeway
stores when they place a replenishment order.
Transportation
When goods are made to inventory, they are usually stocked in a warehouse or distribution
center. Whether they are ordered from the plant or the distribution center, the goods need to be
transported to the store. A variety of carriers are used to transport the grocery products to the store:
trucks, airplanes, trains and boats. Supermarkets may have their own fleet of trucks to transport goods,
and supplements its shipping with common air, land and water carriers. They may also have a state-of-
the-art distribution center.
Distribution Center
As an example, Safeway recently opened a new distribution center in Tracy, California at a cost of
$120 million. Statistics alone don't tell the story about this state-of-the-art facility. The size of this new
distribution center is "large." It will store dry grocery, general merchandise, perishables and produce
destined for shipment to Safeway's Northern California stores. A few comparisons might give you an
idea of the size of this warehouse:
 If you took a shopping cart and strolled through the aisles at an average shoppers pace, without
stopping, it would take you 15 hours.
 14,000 different items are stored under one roof the size of 32 football fields.
 142 receiving dock doors and 125 outgoing shipping dock stations.
 Incoming products are stored in 13 mile or 20.8 km aisles.
 36 state-of-the-art, fast folding doors allow refrigerated products to move in and out of cold
storage with a minimum of temperature fluctuation.
 26 million cubic feet of cold storage holds 18 million gallons of ice cream, 1 billion hamburger
patties and 27 million heads of lettuce.
 30 rooms serve as banana ripening areas.
 10 miles or 16 km of four-lane freeway facilitates delivery trucks and trailers.
With these numbers, you must agree, "Large doesn't begin to describe how big it really is!"
ESP SECTION.
Topic 12. From The Store To The Shopper Focuses On The Role Of Marketing
And Various Strategies To Push The Products Out Of The Plant Into The
Distribution Chain (Promotions And Sales Incentives), And Pull Them Into The
Hands Of The Consumer (Advertising).
Learning Objectives
 The various marketing processes and tasks of a company.

 The importance of product development.
 The role of advertising as a promotional tool.
 How companies price their commodities.
 The distribution process.
Marketing
You may have heard these words sung on radio and television to the tune by Marvin Hamlisch.
It is the theme of a major supermarket's (Safeway) latest national advertising campaign. This high-
quality advertising campaign is aimed at increasing traffic in the stores and improving the
supermarket's image. Radio, television and newspaper ads are only one aspect of an overall marketing
strategy. Many other marketing activities relate to improving one's performance in the market place.
Before exploring these, let's pause a minute and reflect upon a business activity called " marketing".
A Working Definition of Marketing
Marketing can be defined as "the activities of a business to acquire knowledge of the market
place and improve its performance." The primary measure of performance is satisfying customer needs
by meeting, exceeding and anticipating their requirements. If a firm can manage customer satisfaction
appropriately (within certain resource and time considerations), it will achieve "profit" as the ultimate
result. After all, maximizing profits is dear to the shareholders of a company. The business processes
and tasks that make up marketing include marketing information, product development, pricing,
distribution and promotion.
Marketing Information
A company needs to have timely, accurate, well-organized data so it can make decisions based
on information that has a high degree of integrity. The types of information a company is interested in
include knowledge about customers and their buying patterns, knowledge about competitors, and
knowledge about the market factors affecting the business. Companies obtain that information by using
secondary sources (materials that are already published) or by gathering their own primary data (mainly
through marketing research).
Safeway is rich in primary data on the movement of competitive food and consumer products in
most U.S. markets through the availability of scanner data. Data is obtained on each product that is
purchased by a consumer at a Safeway store when the food clerk "scans" the UPC (an acronym for
Universal Product Code) at the cash register. Safeway is in a position to use that information
strategically to promote its performance in the market place.
Promotion
Every business needs a means of communicating with its customers (and potential customers) to
promote its products or company image. Promotional activities tend to fall into two categories:
strategies that "pull" the product toward the end user by enticing the consumer to buy the product, and
"push strategies" strategies that force the product through the entire product distribution channel by
focusing on salespeople to sell the product.
The best known promotional pull strategy is advertising. Advertising is geared to attract a
customer's attention to help win his/her loyalty. Radio, television, billboards and the printed press carry
the bulk of the advertising messages. Most companies out-source (hire outside companies) to develop
their advertising campaigns. Consumer sales promotions such as coupons, double coupons, free
samples, contests and point-of-purchase displays are aimed at convincing a customer to "try" the
product at a relatively low risk.
Push strategies include personal selling, sales incentives and sales promotions geared at
members of the distribution channel to stock the product and sell it to the next "buyer".
For example, Safeway will spend an estimated $35 million on a current advertising campaign
aimed at promoting the company and its products in the market place.
Although companies such as Safeway may have an overall "standardized" promotional strategy,
individual retailers or stores may focus on communicating with particular consumer groups within their
target area. For example, a promotional campaign might be geared at elderly customers in
neighborhoods with large concentrations of older adults. Such a group of customers with specific
requirements and market potential is referred to as a market "niche."
Pricing
Competitive pricing is another pillar of a merchandising strategy. Supermarkets strive to offer

consumers the ultimate shopping experience by providing total value. Total value is defined as a
combination of superior quality, selection and service at competitive prices -- all provided in attractive,
well-maintained facilities.
Distribution
The term "distribution" is used to refer to the channels through which a product is sold in the
market place. Often, a distinction is made between wholesaling and retailing channels. Wholesaling
refers to those functions of gathering products, breaking lots into smaller units and distributing to
retailers. Retailing refers to the location where the end customer can directly purchase the product.
For example, Safeway Inc. with 1,100 retail stores in Canada and the United States, is one of
the largest grocery retailers in the world. These stores carry products from thousands of food and
consumer goods manufacturers, including Safeway brand products produced at its 56 manufacturing
locations.
CONCLUSIÓN.
Al final de estos apuntes, podemos decir que hemos logrado lo propuesto al inicio del semestre
en los ejes temáticos. En primer lugar, vimos artículos relacionados a la industria de preparación de
alimentos, formas de cocimiento, preparación de alimentos, empacado, etiquetado y demás aspectos de
la industria de la preparación de alimentos.
Al final de este semestre, podemos asegurar que el estudiante tiene una mejor perspectiva y
preparación académica sobre su carrera.
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
* Internet websites specified in the book, regarding the psychology field.

* Gomm Helena. (2005) In Company, Introductory Level, Student’s Book. Madrid, Spain.
Editorial Macmillan.
* Gomm Helena. (2005) In Company, Introductory Level, Teacher’s Book. Madrid, Spain.
Editorial Macmillan.
Internet web sites applied to the pharmacy field:
*. The Food Technology Web Site. Food safety and Quality. Food Safety and Quality Assurance
Explores the raw materials necessary to process food and the quality standards they need to meet.
*. The Food Technology Web Site. Processing Food Illustrates the various processing steps in
making bread, peanut butter, strawberry jam and milk.
*. The Food Technology Web Site. Nutrition, Labeling and Packaging Explores the environmental
and government regulations regarding food packaging and labeling as well as the increasing role
nutrition plays in the marketing of food products to the consumer.
*. The Food Technology Web Site. Integrated Resource Management Focuses on integrated
management of all resources within a processing manufacturing environment and shows how
forecasting and master production scheduling affect material requirements planning. It introduces
the concept of Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) and the role computers play in the
manufacturing process.
*. The Food Technology Web Site. From the Plant to the Store. From the Plant to the Store Deals
with inventory management and transportation of foods from the plant to the store. It also focuses
on how stores forecast demand.
*. The Food Technology Web Site. From the Store to the Shopper Focuses on the role of marketing
and various strategies to push the products out of the plant into the distribution chain (promotions
and sales incentives), and pull them into the hands of the consumer (advertising).

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MA. Jeremías Pimentel. Sánchez. Code: H 102. Cell Phone: 6247-2103 / 6624-0594.

Topic 1. Food Technology.

(part of) The food technology building of Wageningen University.

The food technology room at Marling School in Stroud, Gloucestershire.

Early history of food technology

Developments in food technology

Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee

Several companies in the food industry have played a role in the

 Instantized Milk Powder - D.D. Peebles (U.S. patent

Packaged food aisles at Fred Meyer, an American grocery

Parmigiano reggiano cheese in a modern

The food industry includes:

Universidad Autónoma De Chiriqui

According to topics Description of subtopics.

What did I learn?

Key Words (12)

Summary (12 lines)

Name:_____________________ School:_______________Level: ____________________

Comments on the Article.

What have we learned or practiced in the unit or lesson today?

What I liked best was: ________________________________________________

Language areas we have covered:

Topic 2. Food Processing

Wholesale and distribution

Food industry technologies

Media & Marketing

Labour and education

Research and development

Research in agricultural and food processing technologies happens in great part in

Prominent Food Companies

 Nestlé is the world's largest food and beverage company.

Universidad Autonoma De Chiriqui. Natural Science Faculty. School Of Biology. 30

# English Spanish Illustration Sentences

Universidad Autónoma De Chiriquí. English Department. Feedback On Learning

Comments on the Article.

What have we learned or practiced in the unit or lesson today?

What I liked best was: ________________________________________________

Language areas we have covered:

Topic 3. Food Preparation Equipment

Cutting, shaping & mixing equipment found in the professional kitchen.

Grater Coarse for cheese &

Rolling Pin for rolling out Pastry Cutter for shaping

Hand Whisk for whisking &

2. The Food Technology Web Site. Food Preparation Techniques

Each technique offers a distinctive way of presenting food.

Jardiniere Julienne Shred

Slice Mirepoix Paysanne

Macedoine Brunoise Chop

Universidad Autónoma De Chiriquí English Department. Technique:

1. What is the purpose of the author?

5. What is the weakest evidence of the author?

Universidad Autónoma De Chiriquí. English Department. Feedback On Learning

Comments on the Article.

What have we learned or practiced in the unit or lesson today?

What I liked best was: ________________________________________________

Language areas we have covered:

Topic 4. The Food Technology Web Site. Cookery Processes.

 Boiling  Steaming  Grilling

Examples of foods which you might choose to cook by boiling:

Farinaceous, e.g. pasta, noodles, Fish, e.g. cod,

Methods: Three methods of baking can be identified.

Disadvantages: 1. Requires regular attention. 2. Ovens are expensive to heat.

Name:_____________ School:_Level: ______________