Cellular Reproduction

and Cell Respiration

Why organism need to grow, in place dead, cells and reproduce.

By:
Capellan, Melanie B
Tadlip Juvie M.
Martinez, Ellen Grace
Alforte, Llane Jr.
Catubig, Jonard
 Introduction

This guide is designed to provide you with an overview of the important processes involved in
the production of cells. Cellular reproduction is a process by which cells duplicate their contents
and then divided to yield two cells with similar, if not duplicate, contents . Understanding this process
is helpful in understanding the basis for human reproduction as well as the basis for the generation of
life in other classes of organism. Cell reproduction does not always result in new independent cells. It
is also essential to growth and development as well as in the day-to-day maintenance of any human
cells.
We will be discussing two different types of cell reproduction as mentioned earlier: Mitosis and
Meiosis. This processes are responsible for creating two different types of cells. Mitosis is a process
that creates a nearly exact copy of the original cell. Somatic cells, which include nearly all human cells,
are created by this process. Meiosis is a different form of reproduction that leads to the production of
germ cells, or sex cells.
All cells fall into one of these two categories , which we will discuss in depth of cell reproduction.
Some organisms, such as bacteria and single-celled organism use only mitosis for cell reproduction.
The difference between mitosis and meiosis can also be thought of as the difference between sexual
and asexual reproduction. Human obviously reproduce sexually, but this is not true for all organisms.
Many lower-order cells create entirely new organisms with each round of mitosis: asexual
reproduction. In humans and other organisms that reproduce sexually, meiosis is needed to take into
account the genetic contribution of the two parent organisms.
 Table of Contents

• Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
• Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
• Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
• Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
• Cellular Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
• Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
• Cell division is the basic itself . . . . . . . . . . . 7
• Why is Cell Division Important? . . . . . . . . . 8
• Overview of Cell division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
• DNA is package in Chromosome . . . . . . . . 11
• Homologous Chromosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
• The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
• M Phase: Mitosis and Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . .15
 Table of Contents

• The Stages of Mitosis in an Animal cell . . . 16

• Prophase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
• Prometaphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
• Metaphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
• Anaphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
• Telophase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
• Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
• Mitosis in Plant cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
• Overview Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
• Meiosis I: Separate of Homologous . . . . . . . . 25
• Meiosis II: Separate Sister chromatids . . . . . 26
• Why do Cells Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
• Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
 Table of Contents

• The process cellular respiration

in humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
• Cellular Respiration in Plants . . . . . . . . . . 33
• References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
• Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
• Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
• Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
• Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
• Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
 Cellular Reproduction is a process by which cells divide to form new cells. Each a
time cell divides, it makes a copy of all of its chromosomes, which are tightly coiled
stands of DNA, the genetic materials that holds the instruction for all life, and sends and
identical copy to the new cells that is create. Understanding this process is helpful
understanding the basis for the generation of life in other classes organism. This is new
cells originate only from other living things. The process by which this occurs is called
cell division.
Each dividing cell is called a mother cell, and its descendants are called daughter
cells. The mother cell cell transmits copies of its genetic information to its daughter cells,
which become the next cell generation. In turn, the daughter cells can become mother
cells to their own daughter cells, passing along same genes they inherited from their
mother to yet another cellular generation. Cell division is often referred to as cellular
reproduction.
• Cell Division a process in which cell divides into new daughter cells.

• The two new cells each exactly like the other are called Daughter cells.
• Cell division is the basic of life itself:

• It is how many animals grow and reproduce.

• When cells divide, two daughter cells are produce from one mother
cell.

• Each new cell has exactly the same genetic materials ( DNA ) as the cell
that produce it.

• Cell Division has Three main function:

1. The reproduction of entire unicellular organism

2. The growth and repair of tissue in multicellular animals

3. The formation of gametes egg and sperm sexual reproduction

in multicellular animals
 Why Is Cell division Important?

1. All Living Things are made of Cells.

2. The Cell is the basic unit of structure and Function in Living Things.

3. All Cells come from pre existing Cells.

Over View of Cell Division
DNA Is Packaged in Chromosomes

• DNA is Packaged in Units Called

Chromosomes
The DNA molecule is bound up with
proteins, with the resulting
combination known as chromatin.
This chromatin then make up
structures called chromosomes.

• DNA Replication at Two Levels

When DNA replicates, the result is two
copies of the original DNA molecule.
At the chromosomal level, the result
of this replication is a single
chromosome in duplicated state. The
chromosome is composed of two
sister chromatids – the two copies of
the original DNA molecule. An
unduplicated chromosomes
doesn't actually have the well-defined
shape of the chromosomes.
● In eukaryotes such as ourselves, in fact, chromosomes come in pairs that are
close, but not matches. The 46 chromosomes we have come to us 23
chromosomes from each parent. These are 23 matched pairs of chromosomes,
each chromosomes from the mother matching with one from the father.
 We have a chromosomes 1 that we inherit from our mother, and it contains a set of
genes very similar to those that lie on the chromosomes 1 we inherit from our
father. The same is true for the maternal and paternal copies for chromosomes 2,
chromosomes 3, and so on. Each of us, has 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.

Homologous Chromosomes

• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in shape and size.
• Homologous pairs (Tetrads) carry genes controlling the same inherited traits.
• Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on homologues.
• Human have 23 pairs of Homologous Chromosomes.
a. 22 pairs of autosomes
b. 01 pair of sex chromosomes
The Cell Cycle

• The cell cycle can be divided into two major phases:

A) Interphase – in which the cell simultaneously carries out it work grows, and- in
preparation for division duplicates its chromosomes.
B) Mitotic phase – in which the duplicated chromosomes separated into two nuclei,
and cytokinesis, during which the entire cell divides into two daughter cells.
 M PHASE: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis is a process of nuclear division in which replicated DNA molecules of each

chromosomes are faithfully partitioned into two nuclei. Mitosis is usually accompanied
by cytokinesis , a process by which the cell split in two, partitioning the cytoplasm into
two packages. The two daughter cells resulting from mitosis and cytokinesis posses a
genetic content identical to each other and to the mother cell from the which they arose.
Mitosis can take place in either haploid or diploid cells . Haploid mitotic cells are found in
plant gametophytes and a few animals . Mitosis is a stage of the cell cycle when the cell
devotes virtually all of its energy to a single activity—chromosomes segregation.
 Stages of Mitosis in an
Animal cell:
1. Prophase

2. Prometaphase

3. Metaphase

4. Anaphase

5. Telophase
PROPHASE

• During prophase, changes occur in both the

nucleus and the cytoplasm . In the nucleus, the
chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled,
condensing into discrete chromosomes
observable with a light microscope. The
nucleoli disappear. Each duplicated
chromosome appears as two identical sister
chromatids joined together. In the cytoplasm,
the mitotic spindle begins to form; it is made of
microtubules extending from the two
centrosomes. The centrosomes move away
from each other, apparently propelled along
the surface of the nucleus by the lengthening
bundles of microtubules.
 PROMETAPHASE

• Chromosomal microtubules attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.

• Chromosomes are moved to spindle is assembled.

METAPHASE

• The centrosomes are now opposite

poles of the cell. The chromosomes
convene on the metaphase plate, an
imaginary plane that is equidistant
between the spindle's two poles. The
centromeres of the chromosomes all
on the metaphase plate. For each
chromosomes , the kinetochores of
the sister chromatids are attached to
microtubules coming from opposite
poles of the cell. The entire apparatus
of microtubules is called the spindle
because its shape.
 ANAPHAS
E

• Centromeres split, and chromatids separate.

• Chromosomes move to opposite spindle poles.

• Spindle pole move farther apart.

 TELOPHAS
E

• Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles.

• Chromosomes become dispersed.

• Daughter cells formed by cytokinesis.

.
Cytokinesis

Mitosis accomplishes the segregation of

duplicated chromosomes into daughter nuclei,
but the cell is divided into daughter cells by a
separate process. The first hint of cytokinesis
in animal cells appears during late anaphase as
an indentation of the cell surface in a narrow
band around the cell.
 Mitosis in plant cell:
(a) Prophase – The chromatin is condensing. The nucleolus is still clearly present but will
soon begin to disappear. Although not yet visible in micrograph, the mitotic spindle is
starting to form.
(b) Prometaphase – Each consist of two identical sister chromatids attached all along their
lengths. Later, the nuclear envelope will fragment , and spindle microtubules will attach to
the kinetochores of the chromosome.
(c) Metaphase – The spindle is complete, and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at
their kinetochores, are all at the metaphase plate.
(d) Anaphase – The chromatids of each chromosones have separated, and the daughter
chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell as their kinetochore microtubules
shorten.
(e) Telophase – Daughter nuclei are forming.

Cytokinesis
Plant cells, which are enclosed by a relatively inextinsible cell wall, undergo cytokinesis by
different mechanism. Unliked animal cells, which are constricted by a furrow that advances
inward from the outer cell surface, plant cells begin cytokinesis in the center of a dividing
cell by building a cell membrane and cell wall that grows outward to the existing lateral
walls. The formation of a new cell wall begins with the construction of a simpler precursor,
which is called the cell plate.
Overview of Meiosis

Many of the steps of meiosis closely

resemble corresponding steps in mitosis.
Meiosis, like mitosis, is preceded by the
replication of chromosomes. However, this
single replication is followed by two
consecutive cell division, called meiosis I
and meiosis II. These division is result in
four daughter cells (rather than the two
daughter cells of mitosis), each with only
half as many chromosomes as the parent
cell.
 Meiosis I: Separate Homologous
chromosomes

PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I TELOPHASE I AND

CYTOKINESIS
a) Interphase – This process is similar to the chromosomes replication preceding mitosis.
For each chromosomes, the result is two genetically identical sister chromatids, which
remain attached at their centromeres.
b) Prophase I - The chromosomes begin to condense, and homologues, each consisting of
two sister chromatids, pair up. In this process called synapsis, a protein structure—the
synaptonemal complex—attaches the homologous chromosomes tightly together along
their lengths.

c) Metaphasse I– The chromosomes are now arranged on the metaphase plate, still in
homologous pairs. Kinetochore microtubules from one pole of the cell are attached to
one chromosomes of each pair, while microtubules from the opposite pole are attached
to the homologue.
d) Anaphase I - The spindle apparatus guides the movement of the chromosomes
towards the pole. However, sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres
and move a single unit toward the same pole. The homologous chromosomes moves
toward the opposite pole.
e) Telophase I and Cytokinesis – The members of each pair of homologous
chromosomes continue to move apart until they reach the poles of the cell. Usually
cytokinesis occurs simultaneously with telophase I, forming two daughter cells.

Meiosis II: Separates sister chromatids

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS

a) Prophase II- A spindle apparatus form, and the chromosomes progress toward the
metaphase II plate.
b) Metaphase II – The chromosomes are positioned on the metaphase plate in mitosis-like
fashion, with the kinetochores of sister chromatids of each chromosome pointing
toward opposite poles.
c) Anaphase II – The centromeres of sister chromatids finally separate, and the sister
chromatids of each pair, now individual chromosomes, move toward opposite poles of
the cells.
d) Telophase II and Cytokinesis – Nuclei form at opposite poles of the cell, and
cytokinesis, there are four daughter cells, each with the haploid number of unreplicated
chromosomes.

Mitosis and Meiosis are similar process in that they both result in the separation of
existing cells into new ones. Mitosis is responsible for reproducing somatic cells and
Meiosis is responsible for reproducing germ cells.
Why Do Cells Divide?

• The larger a cell becomes the

more demands that cells places
on its DNA.

• It also has more trouble moving

enough food and wastes across it
cell membrane.
 Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process of extracting energy in the form of ATP from the
glucose in the food you eat. How does cellular respiration happen inside of the cell?
Cellular respiration is a three step process.
• In the stage one; glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm of the cell in a process called
glycolysis.
• In the stage two; the pyruvate molecules are transported into the mitochondria
The mitochondria are the organelles known as the energy “powerhouse” of the cells.
In the mitochondria, the pyruvates, which have been converted into a 2- carbon molecule,
enter the krebs cycle. Notice that mitochondria have an inner membrane with many
folds, called Cristae. This cristae greatly increase the membrane surface area where
many of the cellular respiration.
• In the stage three; the energy in the energy carriers enters an electron transport chain.
During this step, this energy is used to produce ATP. Oxygen is needed to help the
process of turning glucose into ATP. The initial step releases just two molecule of ATP
for each glucose. The later steps release much more ATP.
• What goes into the cell? Oxygen and
glucose are both reactants of cellular
respiration. Oxygen enters the body
when an organism breaths. Glucose
enters the body when an organism eats.
The products of cellular respiration are
carbon dioxide and water. Carbon
dioxide is transported from your
mitochondria out of your cell, to your
red blood cells, and back to your lungs to
be exhaled. ATP is generated in the
process. When one molecule of glucose
is broken down, it can be converted to a
net total of 36 or 38 molecules of ATP.
This only occurs in the presence of
oxygen.
 The process of cellular respiration in humans

Our human body contains trillions of cells, which perform the various functions in our body,
like breathing. Cells need to work around the clock and they need to be replenished with energy
continuously; or else our body won't function . Imagine, if your dog did not have energy, then she
would not have been able to wag its tail or play “fetch the ball” with you. Cellular respiration is a
biological process where cells reload themselves with energy. Your body changes the into a special
kind of sugar (like the unique sugar coating on candies) called glucose.

Glucose is like the gas your father pumps into the car to keep through it running. The insulin
hormone transport this glucose to those hardworking cells. This glucose which contains six carbon
atoms is split in the cell Glycolysis. This process is anerobic as without the help of oxygen, 2
molecules called pyruvate and 2 energy molecules called ATP are formed. Think of inserting a
dollar bill into a vending machine to generate quarters to be used as your bus fare in your ride to
the zoo.

Cells also need the most important ingredient which is oxygen. We breathe in oxygen. The
more oxygen we breathe in, the more energy we produce. That is why when you are exercising,
your sports teacher always asks you to breathe more and more consciously. In the aerobic process,
the oxygen is used with this pyruvate (remember the molecules formed from the fuel like
component called glucose) to produce the energy molecules ATP.

The first part is called the krebs cycle, which is a succession of enzymatic reactions, where the
acetate, from the pyruvate, is oxidized and changed into energy molecules carbon dioxide and
water released.
 The Electron Transfer chain also is a series of chemical reactions , where electrons
are shuttled down, and energy from the oxygen atoms are converted into hydrogen
atoms, with produce ATP.
This energy is stored and used through molecules called adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
in a special compartment called the mitochondria. They are called the power boosters of
the cells, as they supply energy to the cell. They
look like sausages. They keep unwanted particles out of the cells. They also regulate the
water amounts in the cells and crumble proteins etc. When your mother tells you to eat
fish and drink lot of milk, she is doing this for your own good and not hers.
Your body needs proteins for again those laborious cells; which are producing energy to
keep you kicking the football to the goalpost every time.
The protein is further broken down into amino acids that are used in restocking the
cells and manufacturing new cells.

Cellular Respiration can be summarized as:

 Cellular Respiration in plants

Plants cellular respiration is slightly different. Here through a simple process called
photosynthesis, plant use sunlight to turn carbon dioxide and water into glucose. Also,
photosynthesis occurs only when there is sunlight. Plants first create a simple sugar
through photosynthesis. Individual cells then break down that sugar through cellular
respiration. The reason plants create glucose is that it is an excellent means of storing
the sun's energy for later use by the plant. Dissolved in water, glucose is easy for the
plant to move into all its components to roots, leaves, stems, fruit, or flowers. The plant
uses glucose as the energy source to carry on all its metabolic functions. It is at the
cellular level the everything changes.
Chemically, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are total opposites, even
though both must occur for plant survival. During photosynthesis, the plant builds
glucose from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide. The plant releases oxygen as a
by-product during photosynthesis. As cells tear apart glucose molecules and create. ATP,
they expel water and carbon dioxide as by-products of cellular respiration. The plant
recaptures some of the carbon dioxide and water expelled by the cells and recycles them
for glucose production.
Plant cells respire, just as animal cells do. If they stop respiring, they will die. Remember
that respiration is not the same ass breathing, so take care – plants do not breathe.
As we can see from the word equations respiration and photosynthesis are
opposites. Respiration uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxides. Photosynthesis
uses carbon dioxide and produces oxygen. This depends on whether it is in the dark
or the light, and how bright the light is. Plant respire all the time, whether it is dark
or light. They photosynthesis only when they are in the light. Photosynthesis
usually results in a net food gain (net glucose gain), once respiration has been
accounted for. This means that there is an increase in the biomass of the plant.
Plants that lose their leaves in winter store food produced during the summer by
photosynthesis. They store enough food to last them over winter, and to provide
energy reserves for new growth in the spring.
 REFERENCES

• Cell Division: Animal Science;

Encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/biology-and-genetic cell biology/cell division
• Biology: A Guide to the Natural World; Second Edition by David Krogh P.177-178
• Cell and Molecular Biology Concepts And Experiments: Second Edition by Gerald Karp;
P. 609 and P.618-628
• Biology: Sixth Edition by Neil A. Cambell & Jane B. Reece; P.223 and P.239-241
 GLOSARRY

Anaerobic – Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process

that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it.
Anaphase – The fourth subphase of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosomes
have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.
ATP(adenosine triphosphate) - This energy is stored and used through molecules.
Cell cycle – An ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in
the in the division of a parent cell until its own division.
Cell division – The reproduction of cells.
Cell plate – The formation of a new cell wall begins with the construction of a simpler
precursor.
Cellular reproduction – Is a process which cells divide to form new cells.
Cellular respiration- Is a process of extracting energy in the form of ATP from the glucose
in the food you eat.
 GLOSARRY

Centromere – The centralized region joining two sister chromatids.

Centrosome - Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cell, important during
cell division.
Chromatid - Paired, non-shaped members of mitotic chromosomes that together
represent the duplicated chromosome formed during replication in the previous
interphasse.
Chromatin – Fibers of DNA and associated protein that constitute chromosomes.
Chromosomes – Threadlike strands that are composed of the nuclear DNA of eukaryotic
cells and are the carries of genetic information.
Cytokinesis – The part of the cell cycle during which physical division of the cell into two
daughter cells occurs.
Gametophyte – The haploid stage of the life cycle of plants that begins with spores
generated during the sporophyte stage.
 GLOSARRY

Homologous chromosomes – Paired chromosomes of diploid cells, each carrying one of

the two copies of the genetic material carried by that chromosomes.

Interphase - The portion of the cell cycle between periods of cell division
.
Kinetochore – A plate like structure situated at the outer surface of the centromere to
which the microtubules of the spindle attach.

Krebs cycle – A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic
breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide.

M phase – The part of the cell cycle that includes the processes of mitosis, during which
into two nuclei , and cytokinesis, during which the entire cell is physically divided into
two daughter cells.

Meiosis – The process during which the chromosomes number is reduced so that cells are
formed the contain only one member of each pair of homologous chromosomes.

Meiosis I – The first division of a two stage process of cell division in sexually reproducing
organism that result in cells with half the chromosomes number of the original cell.
 GLOSARRY

Meiosis II – The second division of a two-stage process of cell division in sexually

reproducing organism that results in cells with half the chromosomes number of
original cell.

Metaphase - The stages of mitosis during which of all the chromosomes have become
alligned at the spindle equator, with one chromatid of each chromosomes connected to
one pole and its sister chromatid connected to the opposite pole.

Mitochondria – ATP in a special compartment.

Mitosis – Process of nuclear division in which duplicated chromosomes are faithfully

separated from one another, producing two nuclei, each with one a complete copy off all
chromosomes present in the original cell.

Mitotic phase – The phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.

Mitotic spindle – Microtubule containing “ machine” that functions in the organization and
sorting of duplicated chromosomes during mitotic cell division.

Mitosis – Process of nuclear division in which duplicated chromosomes are faithfully

separated from one another, producing two nuclei, each with one a complete copy off all
chromosomes present in the original cell.
 GLOSARRY

Mitotic spindle – Microtubule-containing “ machine” that functions in the organization and

sorting of duplicated chromosomes during mitotic cell division.
Nucleus – The organelle that contains eukaryotic cell's genetic material.
Photosynthesis – The pathway converting the energy of sunlight into chemical energy that
is usable by living organism.
Prometaphase – The phase of mitosis during which the definitive mitotic spindle is formed
and the chromosomes are moved into position at the center of the cell.
Prophase – The first stage of mitosis during which the duplicated chromosomes are
prepared for segregation and the mitotic machinery is assembled.
S phase – The phase of the cell cycle in which replication occurs.
Synapsis – The process by which homologues become joined to one another during meiosis.
Telophase – The fifth and final subphase of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming
and cytokinesis has typically began.