GEOLOGY AND GENESIS OF THE BULYANHULU GOLD DEPOSIT,

SUKUMALAND GREENSTONE BELT, TANZANIA

C. M. Chamberlain

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of

London and for the Diploma of Imperial College of Science, Technology and
Medicine

2003

Department of Earth Science and Engineering

Royal School of Mines
Imperial College
Prince Consort Road
London SW7 2BP, U.K.

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ABSTRACT 0
Bulyanhulu is a large (12 Moz) gold deposit, situated in the prospective Lake Victoria
Goldfields of Tanzania, within the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt, an arcuate terrane of Archaean
age. It is noteworthy due to its large size, relatively high gold grades (10 g/t), and anomalous
copper content. The deposit is mainly hosted within a thin argillaceous unit between a mafic
volcanic footwall and a calc-alkaline rhyodacitic hangingwall, intruded by a number of sub-
volcanic quartz-feldspar porphyry bodies. A pyritic zone, situated at the base of the felsic
sequence, is interpreted as the distal expression of a syn-volcanic hydrothermal system.
Mineralization is structurally controlled in two main, steeply-dipping, reverse-oblique shear
systems, Reef 1 within the interflow sedimentary unit and Reef 2 within tholeiitic basalts. The
ore consists of dark grey quartz lenses that contain an early assemblage of pyrite with minor
chalcopyrite and microscopic gold, followed by a later stage of quartz and carbonate in brittle
cracks containing abundant chalcopyrite and coarse gold. These veins brecciate and
recrystallise an earlier white quartz that does not have associated sulphides. Fluid inclusion data
indicate that the pre-ore quartz formed from saline (12-48wt% NaClequiv.), CaCl2-bearing brines
that have δD (-79‰) and δ18O (+7.2‰) compositions suggestive of a magmatic origin. These
fluids are inferred to be porphyry-derived and produced a pre-concentration of copper(-gold)
reworked by the later system. Ore-stage fluids are carbonic, with homogenisation temperatures
of 300-450°C and elevated CH4 contents with evidence for phase separation. These are most
likely to be of metamorphic origin, released in the late stages of the Kahaman orogeny (2640-
2550 Ma). Sulphur isotope data on ore-stage sulphides (δ34S +2 to 7‰) suggest sulphur was
primarily remobilised and homogenized from the volcanogenic pyrite zone (δ34S +1 to 12‰).
Reef 1 is characterized by an extremely narrow alteration halo with most indicators (CaO,
Fe2O3, K2O, S, As and B) reaching background values within ~10 m. Basalts are characterised
by carbonatisation whereas rhyodacites are dominated by sericitisation, carbonatisation and
silicification. Extreme strain and fluid focusing within the argillite, coupled with phase
separation of relatively high temperature fluids are the key controls of the high gold grades and
the structural and fluid overprint of Cu(-Au) pre-concentrated in the porphyry system is
responsible for the elevated base metal content.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 0
Kahama Mining Corporation Limited (KMLC), initially under Sutton Resources and then Barrick
Gold Corporation, sponsored this research project. I am grateful for their commitment and support
over its duration, and, in doing so, allowing me to work on a spectacular deposit. I also
acknowledge the financial assistance received from the G. Vernon Hobson Fund (Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy) and the Hilary Bauerman Bequest (Imperial College), which enabled me to
attend a field conference in Western Australia.

During fieldwork in Tanzania I am grateful to Amos Kissae, Paul Masao, Esau Mwakitwange and
Abdallah Kiamba for the time they spent with me and introducing me to the geology at Bulyanhulu,
and others who made me feel so welcome, including Ted Mahoney. Over the duration of the project
I was fortunate to meet numerous KMCL and Barrick geologists, all of whom I would like to thank
for their interest and constructive discussions and with many of whom I shared excessive time at the
Safari Bar. Additionally, I am grateful to Jay Hodgson, Jack Hamilton, Marc Boisvert, Sylvain
Guerard and Etteinne de Plessis for their interest in the project. Asante sana!

As the project progressed, I have become indebted to several people who have contributed along the
way: Jack Nolan for advice on lithogeochemistry preparation and analysis; Martin Gill for XRD
analyses; and Lizzie Morris for sample preparation. Away from Imperial, I am grateful to John
Spratt at the Natural History Museum for advice on SEM probe analyses, Adrian Boyce and
technicians at SUERC for their help with stable isotope analyses, and to Sarah Gleeson for
convincing me that isotope analysis lines were not as daunting as they seemed!

Others, who have also helped me significantly, in a variety of different ways, are Harris Lucas, Andy
Cole, Louise Ander, Dustin Lister, Robin Armstrong and Mike Lee. Particular thanks to Barry
Coles for so much of his time during geochemical analyses, and for inspiring a healthy interest in
wine and a dubious interest in statistics. And not forgetting Grace: always around to keep the
“minerals” folks in check! Cheers to fellow post-grads, in particular Dee Commins, Charlie Ferrero,
Andrew Bowman, Tom Mason, Dave Dutton and Karla Kane for their support (and for flying flags
beyond the Irish orefield). Huge thanks go to John, Karen and Chrissie for their generous hospitality
whilst writing up.

Finally, and most importantly: many thanks to Mum and Dad, and to my supervisors, Jamie
Wilkinson and Richard Herrington, for their unwavering support, guidance and patience. I am
grateful to you all for your persistent optimism and encouragement.

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CONTENTS 0
ABSTRACT …...…………………………………….....…………………...……... 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …...…………………..……...…………………...……... 3

CONTENTS …...……………………………………….…………………...……... 4

INDEX OF FIGURES …...……………………………....…………………...……... 12

INDEX OF TABLES …...………………………………...…………………...……... 20

1 INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT RATIONALE …...……..…………………...……... 22

1.1 Introduction to Tanzania and Tanzanian gold mining …..………………...……… 22

1.1.1 Tanzania ……….………………………………………………….. 22
1.1.2 Gold mining in Tanzania …………………....……………………... 24
1.2 The Bulyanhulu gold mine ……..……………..………………...………………… 26
1.2.1 Location ……….….……………………………………………….. 26
1.2.2 Exploration and development history …..…...……………………... 27
1.2.3 Previous work ……..……………………………………………… 29
1.3 Gold deposits in Archaean terranes ……..………………………………………… 29
1.3.1 Granite-greenstone terranes ……….……………………………… 29
1.3.2 Gold-rich VMS deposits …………………………..………………. 32
Controversial examples in the Archaean …...……………. 32
1.3.3 Orogenic lode gold deposits ………………………………………. 33
Deposit classification ….……………………….…………. 33
Characteristics of orogenic lode gold deposits ……...……. 34
1.3.4 Granitoid-related gold deposits ….………………...……………… 35
Genetic models …...………………………….……………. 36
The role of granites …...…………………….……………. 36
1.3.5 Anomalous, base metal-rich gold orebodies …....………………… 37
1.4 Project rationale and objectives …….………………………………………..…… 38
1.4.1 Why Bulyanhulu? ……...……………………………..…………… 38
1.4.2 Project background …...……....……………………....……..….… 39
1.4.3 Principal objectives ……....…………………………..…………… 39
1.4.4 Approach and methodology …..……………………....……..….… 40
1.5 Layout of thesis ……...……...……………………………………………….…… 41

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2 REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND METALLOGENY …..…………...……... 42

2.1 Tectonic and stratigraphic framework of the Tanzania Craton …..…..…………… 42

2.1.1 Geological setting of the Tanzania Craton ………....…………….... 44
The Dodoman System ………….………………………... 44
The Nyanzian System …………….……………………... 46
The Kavirondian System …….………………………..… 46
2.1.2 Geochronology ……………….…………………….……………... 47
2.1.3 Summary ……………………….…………..……………………... 50
2.2 Geology of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt ……………………...……………... 51
2.2.1 Stratigraphic outline ……...…….…………………...……………... 54
Inner (Lower Nyanzian) belt …..….……………………... 54
Outer (Upper Nyanzian) belt …..….……………………... 54
Younger (Kavirondian) cover ….………………………... 55
Intrusive rocks ………….…………..…………………... 56
2.2.2 Structural outline ………………….………….…………………... 57
Documented chronology of structures ……...…………... 58
2.2.3 Synthesis of Sukumaland Greenstone Belt geology …….….……... 59
Geological evolution ……..…………………………..… 59
Chronological constraints and problems ….…………… 59
The importance of the Kavirondian ….…….……..……… 60
2.3 Gold mineralization in the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt ………..……………… 60
2.3.1 Regional distribution of gold mineralization ……………………… 60
2.3.2 Deposit characteristics ……………………………..……………... 61
Geita ………….……………………..…………………... 61
Jubilee Reef …………….………………………………... 63
Buck Reef …………….……………..…………………... 63
2.3.3 Synthesis of gold mineralization characteristics .….……………… 64
2.4 Summary ……..…………………………………..………….…………………... 65

3 GEOLOGY OF THE BULYANHULU AREA …...…….…..…………………...……... 66

3.1 Methodology ……………………...……..…….……………….…………………. 66

3.3.1 Analytical procedures .……………………..…………………..…... 67
3.2 Bulyanhulu Stratigraphy ………...……..…….……………….…………………... 67
3.3 Field relations, rock characteristics and mineralogy ….…..………..……..………. 69
3.3.1 Footwall Mafic Unit and R2 Mafic Unit .….…………………..…... 69
3.3.2 Diabase intrusions .….…...……………...….………………….…... 73
3.3.3 Kisii Shale …….……………….………...….………………….…... 73
3.3.4 Kakola Felsic Unit ...….....……..…………...….…………………... 75
3.3.5 The Pyrite Zone ….…...……..……………...….…………………... 76
3.3.6 Intrusive quartz-feldspar porphyries …...……………….…………. 78
3.3.7 Bugarama granitoid …………...………………………..…………. 79
3.3.8 Mafic dykes …….…………………..……...….…………………... 81
3.4 Lithogeochemistry …….………………………..…..……...….…………………... 82

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 3.4.1 Sampling and data integrity …………………...….………….……... 83
Element mobility …....…………………………...………. 83
3.4.2 Volcanic rocks ………………..……………...….………….……... 84
Classification of volcanic rocks …....…...………...………. 84
3.4.3 Intrusive rocks ………………..……………...….………….……... 87
Porphyries …....….…………………….………...………. 87
Mafic dykes …....………………………………...………. 87
3.5 Structure and deformation …..….…………………..……...….………………….. 87
3.6 Porphyry phenocryst textures as a clue to emplacement history .…………………. 88
3.6.1 Formation of embayments in quartz crystals .….……………..…... 88
3.6.2 Implications of the presence of quartz phenocrysts .………….…... 89
3.7 Evidence for depositional and tectonic setting ...…………………………………. 90
3.7.1 Environment of formation of volcanic rocks .….……………..…... 91
3.7.2 Implications of worm tube embayments at Bulyanhulu .……....…... 92
3.8 Summary of the Bulyanhulu area geology …….…...………………………..…….. 93

4 STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION AT BULYANHULU ………..…………………...……... 94

4.1 Rationale for a study of structures at Bulyanhulu ……...………………………… 94

4.2 Structural evolution of greenstone belts ……..…….......…………………………. 95
4.2.1 Regional-scale structural chronology …..…………….…..………... 95
4.2.2 Shear zones …………………………...…...……………..………... 97
4.2.3 Shear zone-hosted lode deposits …..….…...……………………….. 98
4.3 Structural framework of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt …….....………………. 99
4.3.1 Regional-scale structures ..…………………………………….…… 99
4.3.2 Conceptual structural evolution of the belt …...…….…...………... 103
4.4 Analysis of deposit-scale structures at Bulyanhulu …….....………………..……. 105
4.4.1 The Bulyanhulu Shear Zone and Reef 1 ..…………………….…… 105
4.4.2 Deformation recorded by host rocks …...…………….…..………... 106
4.4.3 Deformation recorded by quartz veins .…………………..………... 110
4.4.4 Deformation overprinted on main-stage veins ………………...….. 113
4.4.5 Kinematic evolution …..………………..………………………….. 115
4.4.6 Structural relationship of other veins ………………………….…... 116
4.4.7 The deformation and timing of porphyritic intrusions ……..……… 117
4.4.8 Post-mineralization deformation at Bulyanhulu ……..…………… 120
4.5 Summary of Bulyanhulu shear zone development and geometry ……..………….. 120

5 MINERALIZATION AT BULYANHULU ……..…………………….………...……... 122

5.1 Rationale ……...….…………………………………………………….……...…. 122

5.1.1 Methodology ….………..………...………………...……………... 123
5.2 Syn-depositional mineralization and chemistry ……...….….………….……...…. 123
5.2.1 Pyrite Zone ……………..………...………………...……………... 123
Pyrite 0 ………………..…………..…..…………………. 123

6
 Barite ………..………………………..…………………. 126
5.3 Description of orebodies …….....……………………………………………....…. 126
5.3.1 Reef 1 ore distribution ……..…...……………………….………... 127
5.4 Vein mineralogy …......……..…………………………………………………..… 132
5.4.1 Vein chronology and microtextures …...………..……...……..…… 132
Shear veins …………………………...…………………. 132
Orthogonal veins ………………………..………………. 134
Secondary veins ………………………..………………. 136
5.4.2 Gangue minerals associated with veins …...…...……...……..…… 137
5.5 Ore mineralogy …...…...………………………………………………………..… 137
5.5.1 Paragenesis …...………………………………...……...……..…… 137
5.5.2 Ore-related sulphides ….………...……………………...….……… 141
Pyrite I ……..…………..……………..…………………. 141
Pyrite II ………………...……………..………………… 142
Pyrrhotite ……………...……………..…………………. 143
Arsenopyrite …………………………..…………………. 147
Chalcopyrite I ………………………..…………………. 148
Chalcopyrite II ………………………..…………………. 148
Sphalerite ……………………………..………………… 148
Bismuth and bismuthotellurides …...…..………………… 148
Galena …………………………….…..………………… 148
Accessory sulphides ….………………..………………… 150
Supergene minerals …………….……..………………… 150
5.5.3 Gold ..….....………………………………..…………..…………… 150
5.5.4 Correlations of ore elements ….…………..…………..…………… 152
5.6 Sulphide geothermometry …...….….………………………...……….………..… 153
5.7 Summary of mineralization at Bulyanhulu ……..……….……………………….. 156

6 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AT BULYANHULU ……….…….………...……... 158

6.1 Rationale ……….….…………………………………………………….……...…. 158

6.1.1 General characteristics of lode gold deposits …......…………..…… 158
6.1.2 Rationale for an alteration study at Bulyanhulu …......………..…… 161
6.2 Alteration mineralogy ……………………………………...….….……………..… 163
6.2.1 Distinguishing alteration phases …….…...………..…………..…… 163
Spilitisation and regional metamorphism ..….………….. 163
Hydrothermal alteration ……….……..………………… 163
6.2.2 Basaltic volcanic rocks ….………………………..…………..…… 165
Distal alteration zone ………...…………………………. 166
Intermediate alteration zone ……...…..…………………. 167
Proximal alteration zone …………………...…………… 167
6.2.3 Rhyodacitic volcanic rocks ………………….……..…....….……… 171
Distal alteration zone ………...…………………………. 171
Proximal alteration zone …………………...…………… 172
6.2.4 Intrusive quartz-feldspar porphyries …………………...….……… 177

7
 Least altered porphyries ……...……...…………………. 177
Intensely altered porphyries …………...…...…………… 178
6.2.5 Interflow sediments ……...……………………………...………… 182
Least deformed interflow sediments ……...……..………. 182
Deformed interflow sediments …………...…...…….…… 183
6.2.6 Other main vein systems …......……………………………….…… 187
6.2.7 Timing of hydrothermal alteration …......…………………….…… 187
6.2.8 Summary characteristics of the alteration mineralogy …......……… 188
6.3 Alteration geochemistry …...….…………………..…………….………….…..… 188
6.3.1 Effect of alteration on major element geochemistry …..…..….…… 189
6.3.2 Mass transfer during alteration …..….….……………..…..…..…… 191
Cogenetic rock suites based on
immobile element recognition …………………....……. 191
Mobile element analysis ……...…………………………. 194
Mass balance calculations …….…………..……………. 204
6.3.3 Alteration profiles adjacent to ore zones …..……...………………. 206
6.3.4 Effect of alteration on lithophile element systematics …..…….…… 210
6.3.5 Summary of elemental changes during alteration ……...…………. 211
6.4 Statistical analysis of lithogeochemical data …...….……………………….…..… 213
6.4.1 Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient analysis ……..…..….…… 214
All Bulyanhulu rock units ……….….……………………. 214
Basaltic volcanic rocks …………...…..…………………. 215
Rhyodacitic volcanic rocks …….…………...…………… 216
Quartz-feldspar porphyries …….…………...…………… 216
6.4.2 Cluster analysis ………..……………………………....…..….…… 219
All Bulyanhulu rock units ……….….……………………. 219
Basaltic volcanic rocks …………...…..…………………. 220
Rhyodacitic volcanic rocks …….…………...…………… 223
Quartz-feldspar porphyries …….…………...…………… 224
6.4.3 Principal component analysis ……..……………………....….…… 225
All Bulyanhulu rock units ……….….……………………. 226
6.4.4 Summary of statistical analysis …...……………………....….…… 233
6.5 Summary of hydrothermal alteration at Bulyanhulu …...……………..………….. 234

7 COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MINERALIZING FLUIDS ….…... 236

7.1 Fluid inclusion study ……...……….……………………………………..….…… 236

Introduction and objectives ……….……………….…… 238
Sample selection and classification of inclusions ……… 243
7.1.1 Microthermometry study …………….……………….………….… 243
Methodology …………….……………….…………...… 243
Microthermometry results …………….……….……..…. 243
7.1.2 Interpretation of data …………….……………………………..… 247
Nature of fluids as determined 247
by the microthermometric study ……...……………...… 248

8
 Significance of saline fluids ……………………………. 248
Significance of carbonic fluids …………………………. 249
Significance of CH4-bearing fluid …………..…………… 249
Phase separation ……………….……..…………………. 249
Late fluids ……………………………………………….. 250
7.2 Stable isotope study …..…………………………………………...…….………… 250
Introduction and objectives ……..….………….…….…… 250
Analytical procedures …....……………………....………. 251
7.2.1 Oxygen isotope study …….……….……………….……………… 253
Published studies ...……………………………………… 254
Sample selection and objectives …..…………….…….… 256
Results ……….………….……………….…….………… 256
Discussion ……………….……………….……………… 261
7.2.2 Hydrogen isotope study ...…………….……………….…………… 261
Published studies ...…………………………….………… 261
Sample selection and objectives …..…………….…….… 262
Results …………….……………….…………..………… 262
Discussion ………….…………………………….……… 263
7.2.3 Carbon isotope study …………….……………….……..………… 263
Published studies ...……………………………………… 265
Sample selection and objectives …..………….….…….… 266
Results …………….……………….…………..………… 267
Discussion …………….……………….………………… 271
7.2.4 Sulphur isotope study …………….……………….……..………… 272
Published studies ...……………………………………… 273
Sample selection and objectives …..…………….…….… 273
Results …………….……………….……….…………… 273
Discussion …………….……………….………………… 282
7.3 Fluid-rock interaction and the development of alteration haloes …..………..…… 283
7.3.1 Isotopic modelling of the carbonate alteration halo ….....………… 284
7.3.2 Mass balance mixing modelling …...…………………...………… 285
Rationale ...…………….………………………………… 285
Methodology ...………..………………………………… 286
Mass balance mixing modelling results ...…….………… 287
Discussion of mixing profiles ...……………...…………… 290
7.3.3 Fluid-rock isotope exchange modelling …...……………………… 290
Rationale ...…………….………………………………… 290
Resolved formulae ….…………………………………… 291
Calculation assumptions ...……………………………… 291
Fluid-rock exchange input values ...…….…………..…… 292
Resolving the fluid-rock exchange results ...………..…… 292
Discussion of fluid-rock exchange curves ...………..…… 296
7.3.4 Implications for interpretation of fluid-rock interaction …..……… 297
7.4 Summary ……..……….……………….………………………………………… 298

9
8 DEVELOPING A DEPOSIT MODEL FOR BULYANHULU …..……...………...……... 300

8.1 Evolution of the Bulyanhulu stratigraphy, structures and mineralization ..………. 300
8.1.1 Accretion of the host terrane ……………...….……….…………… 300
Original framework …….…………………………..…… 300
Extrusive activity …...…………………………...…..…… 303
Intrusive activity …...…………………………...…..…… 305
Minimum accretion age constraints …...………...…..…… 306
8.1.2 The Kisii Shale Unit ……………………………………………….. 306
8.1.3 Early magmatic-hydrothermal activity …………………………….. 306
Porphyritic intrusions …….…………………….…..…… 306
Stage I quartz …………………………………...…..…… 307
Alteration associated with stage I veins ….….....…..…… 308
8.1.4 Initial deformation event …...……………………..……………….. 308
Shortening of the host terrane …….………………..…… 308
8.1.5 Second deformation event …...…………………………...……….. 308
Regional metamorphism ……………………….…..…… 309
Mainstage (D2) shearing …….……………………..…… 309
8.1.5 Mainstage vein emplacement and mineralization …....…………… 309
Mainstage shearing at Bulyanhulu …….……...………… 309
Timing and structural control of vein emplacement ….… 310
Ore mineralization associated with stage II veins ....…… 311
Stage II quartz: chemistry and significance ….……..…… 312
Alteration associated with stage II veins ……….…...…… 314
8.1.6 Overprinting structures and fluids ………………...……………… 315
Strike-slip deformation …….…………...…………..…… 315
Waning hydrothermal system ……………….…..…..…… 316
Development of the Kavirondian …….…….…..…..…… 316
Late intrusions ………………………..…….…..…..…… 316
8.2 Implications …………..…………………………………………..……………… 316
8.2.1 Bulyanhulu in context with other
deposits in the Tanzania Craton ...……………………..……. 316
8.2.2 What insights does Bulyanhulu provide
into Archaean gold mineralization? ……………………..……. 318
8.2.3 Implications of results for exploration strategies in
Nyanzian greenstone belts of the Tanzania Craton …..…………. 319

9 CONCLUSIONS …..…………………………………………….....………...……... 321

9.1 Conclusions ………………………………….....………..………..………………. 321

9.1.1 Geology of the host terrane ……………...….……….…………… 321
9.1.2 Structural control of Reef 1 ……………...….……….…………… 321
9.1.3 Mineralization …………………….……...….……….…………… 322
9.1.4 Alteration ………………………….……...….……….…………… 322

10
 9.1.4 Post-mineralization events at Bulyanhulu …………….…………… 323
9.2 Resolving the objectives ……………..……………………...……………………. 323
9.3 Suggestions for future research ……...……………………...……………………. 325

REFERENCES ……….……………………………………………………………………….. 326

APPENDICES ……….……………………………………………………………………….. 344

A Sample list ……….….………………….……………………………….……...…. 344

B Analytical methods ……….….………………………………………….……...…. 349
C Lithogeochemical data ……….………………………………………….……...…. 354
C.1 IC data, analysed during this study ….......……………..……..…… 354
C.2 KMCL/R data …......…………………………………….……..…… 359
D SEM and XRD data ……….….……………………………………….……...…. 369
D.1 SEM data …......……………………………………………....…… 369
D.2 XRD data …......……………………………………………....…… 376
E Statistical analysis - raw data …..….….………………………………….……...…. 385
E.1 Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient matrix plots …....….....…… 385
E.2 Principal component analysis raw data …......….……….……..…… 390
F Calibrated fluid inclusion data ……….………………………………….……...…. 391
G Stable isotope data ……….….…….…………………………………….……...…. 397
G.1 Oxygen …....…...……………………………………………....…… 397
G.2 Hydrogen …....……..………………………………………....…… 398
G.3 Carbon …....…..……………………………………………....…… 398
G.4 Sulphur …....…...……………………………………………....…… 399
H Whole rock carbonate content ….……………………………………….……...…. 401

11
INDEX OF FIGURES 0
Fig. 1.1 Map of Tanzania. The Sukuma tribal region and the location of the
Bulyanhulu gold mine are also illustrated. 23
Fig. 1.2 Location of key gold deposits and prospects in the Sukumaland Greenstone
Belt. 26
Fig. 1.3 Landscape near Bulyanhulu. 27
Fig. 1.4 Entrance to Bulyanhulu underground mine (during construction and early
mining stages, January 2000). 28
Fig. 1.5 Distribution of world-class (>100 t) Archaean gold deposits, with symbols
indicating the principal model of formation. 30
Fig. 1.6 Simplified geological map of the Abitibi subprovince showing the distribution
of the major faults and world-class (>100 t) Archaean gold deposits. 31
Fig. 1.7 Simplified geological map of the eastern Yilgarn Craton showing the
distribution of world-class (>100 t) and selected significant Archaean gold deposits. 31

Fig. 2.1 Geological map illustrating the location and geometry of the Tanzania and NE-
Zaire Cratons, and the Proterozoic mobile belts surrounding the former. The regional
setting of these cratonic regions within the Archaean framework of central and southern
Africa is shown in the insert map. 43
Fig. 2.2 Distribution of greenstone belts within the Tanzanian Craton of N and NW-
Tanzania, W-Kenya and SE-Uganda. 45
Fig. 2.3 Schematic diagram illustrating the key accretion, intrusive, metamorphic and
deformation events of Nyanzian greenstone belts in the Tanzania Craton. 51
Fig. 2.4 Geological map of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt, showing distribution of
granitoids and greenstone belt segments, structural trend lines in granitoids (from satellite
imagery interpretation) and principal tectonic elements within the greenstone belt. 53

Fig. 3.1 Geological map of the Bulyanhulu property, illustrating the principal
lithological units and mineralized structures. 68
Fig. 3.2 Simplified cross-section showing main units adjacent to the Reef 1 mineralized
structure. 69
Fig. 3.3 Pristine preserved pillow lavas from the Footwall Mafic Unit (4820-level). 70
Fig. 3.4 Vesicular pillow present in drill core, in the lava sequence (R2 Mafic Unit)
immediately south of Reef 2. 70
Fig. 3.5 Stratigraphic column of the Footwall Mafic lavas to the south of Reef 1. 71

12
Fig. 3.6 Hand specimen illustrating nature of diabase intrusions present at Bulyanhulu,
within the R2 Mafic Unit. 73
Fig. 3.7 Photograph of hand specimen of argillaceous sedimentary unit showing typical
mm- to cm-scale laminations. 74
Fig. 3.8 Photograph of drill core showing argillaceous sedimentary unit with laminae-
parallel pyrite bands and a pyritic concretion. 74
Fig. 3.9 Photograph of hand specimen of argillaceous sedimentary unit with pyritic
clasts showing growth bands in mud-rich unit. 74
Fig. 3.10 Examples of the Kakola Felsic Unit: a, ash facies; b, lapilli facies. 75
Fig. 3.11 Ripped-up sedimentary clast with pyritic layer hosted in Kakola Felsic Unit. 76
Fig. 3.12 Characteristic Pyrite Zone hand specimens within the Kakola Felsic Unit: a,
agglomerate facies; b, lapilli facies. 77
Fig. 3.13 Chert fragment located in Pyrite Zone. 77
Fig. 3.14 Example of quartz-feldspar porphyry intrusion, including quartz-feldspar and
quartz-rich porphyries. 79
Fig. 3.15 Worm-tube embayment structures in dipyramidal quartz phenocrysts hosted in
quartz-feldspar porphyries. 80
Fig. 3.16 Photograph of hand specimen of the Bugarama granitoid. 81
Fig. 3.17 Mafic dyke cross-cutting the Pyrite Zone and mineralized quartz veins. 82
Fig. 3.18 TiO2 vs Zr geochemical discrimination plot for least-altered representative
volcanic rocks present at Bulyanhulu. 85
Fig. 3.19 Total alkali vs silica geochemical classification plot for least-altered
representative volcanic rocks present at Bulyanhulu. 85
Fig. 3.20 AFM (Al2O3–[Total Fe+TiO2]–MgO) geochemical plot for least-altered
representative volcanic rocks present at Bulyanhulu. 86
Fig. 3.21 Phase diagram for the synthetic granodiorite composition R5 at 750ºC. 90

Fig. 4.1 TM Landsat image of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt. Tight, isoclinal re-
folding in BIF units can be clearly picked out, along with major structures and granitoid
intrusions. 101
Fig. 4.2 Three types of outcrop patterns (a, domal; b, bifurcating; and c, linear)
associated with greenstone terrains. 102
Fig. 4.3 DEM of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt, with higher-resolution in the
eastern sector. 102
Fig. 4.4 Typical underground exposure of Reef 1. 105
Fig. 4.5 Contoured poles to argillite laminae. 106
Fig. 4.6 Thickness variations of the Kisii Shale Unit. 108
Fig. 4.7 a, contoured linear fabric elements; b, contoured poles to penetrative foliation
in sediments; c, asymmetric, upright, tight to isoclinal folds with penetrative foliation. 109
Fig. 4.8 Reef 1 vein distribution along the 4723-level, Bulyanhulu. 111
Fig. 4.9 Reef 1 veining: a, single mineralized vein in the absence of sediments; b,
discontinuous, intensely deformed lenses of quartz in the presence of sediments. 112

13
Fig. 4.10 Contoured poles to black quartz veins. 112
Fig. 4.11 Boudinage of the Reef 1 quartz veins: a, in veins hosted by argillite; b, cm-
scale boudinage with re-distribution of sulphides into boudin necks. 114
Fig. 4.12 Contoured slickenfibre data from slip surfaces of high-angle quartz veins. 114
Fig. 4.13 Porphyry intrusions coincident with Reef 1: a, small porphyritic tongues
intruding along foliation planes in the Kisii Shales showing significant penetrative strain;
b, discrete mineralized veinlets hosted in a porphyry intrusion. 118
Fig. 4.14 Graphic log of KMC-180, 614.88 – 617.82 m (Box 184), illustrating quartz
vein development at the boundary between the Pyrite Zone and porphyry intrusion. 119

Fig. 5.1 Typical occurrence of pyrite 0: a, as variably deformed clasts within

argillaceous sediments; b, more rarely as clasts in silicified sediments and quartz; c, as
laminae parallel to bedding in sediments, where a diagenetic origin is inferred. 124
Fig. 5.2 Graphical representation of assay data from the Pyrite Zone. 125
Fig. 5.3 Pyrite 0: Reflected light image of pyrite 0. Locations of probe analyses are
shown (a); microprobe determination of elemental concentrations (b). 125
Fig. 5.4 Strontium-rich barite crystals associated with pyrite 0: a, reflected light image
showing preserved clast of pyrrhotite within pyrite 0; b, EDS image of same area. 126
Fig. 5.5 Gold grade x thickness of the Reef 1-localised argillaceous sedimentary unit. 129
Fig. 5.6 Reef 1 gold grade distribution. 130
Fig. 5.7 Gold distribution of Reef 1 hangingwall lense. 130
Fig. 5.8 Reef 1 copper grade distribution. 131
Fig. 5.9 Reef 1 silver grade distribution. 131
Fig. 5.10 (a) Typical Bulyanhulu quartz shear vein, hosting preserved, mottled white 133
coloured, quartz cores, shown enlarged in (b) and (c).
Fig. 5.11 Orthogonal veins in Reef 1. 135
Fig. 5.12 Orthogonal veins within quartz-feldspar porphyries. 135
Fig. 5.13 Two examples of Reef 2 mineralization. 135
Fig. 5.14 Barren quartz-carbonate secondary veinlets. 136
Fig. 5.15 Lapped core images illustrating the sulphide paragenesis: a, pyrite 0 and pyrite
I, with quartz vein hosting pyrite II and chalcopyrite; b, massive pyrite II and chalcopyrite
associated with orthogonal cracks; c, pyrite 0 and I, with orthogonal chalcopyrite; d,
pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite; e, pyrite 0, pyrrhotite and chaclopyrite. 138
Fig. 5.16 Reflected light images illustrating the sulphide ore paragenesis: a,
recrystallised pyrite 0 forming pyrite I, surrounded by chalcopyrite II; b, euhedral pyrite II
surrounded by chalcopyrite II; c, small grains of chalcopyrite I within pyrite II,
surrounded by later chalcopyrite II; d, isolated gold grain within pyrite II; e, shattered
pyrite II infilled with chalcopyrite II, itself hosting sphalerite; f, gold grain within
chalcopyrite II and sphalerite exsollution; g, gold and chalcopyrite II within crack of
pyrite II; h, visible gold grain associated with chalcopyrite II, and hosted in quartz. 139
Fig. 5.17 Summary vein, silicate and sulphide paragenesis for Bulyanhulu Reef 1. 140
Fig. 5.18 Re-crystallised masses of pyrite 0 forming pyrite I. 141

14
Fig. 5.19 Pyrite I: a, reflected light image of pyrite 0 and re-crystallised pyrite I; b,
microprobe data showing elemental concentrations across pyrite 0 and I. 142
Fig. 5.20 a, Sketch of area of WDS maps showing mineral phases identified by reflected
light microscopy, including a hydrothermal pyrite II crystal with a core of spongy pyrite
0, pyrrhotite, visible gold, and chalcopyrite II; b, WDS map showing copper distribution
confirming the presence of chalcopyrite. 144
Fig. 5.20 Continued: c, gold distribution; d, normalised gold distribution confirming the
occurrence of discrete gold grains within pyrite II; e, silver; and, f, selenium spatially
associated with gold. 145
Fig. 5.20 Continued: g, elevated arsenic is confined to a poorly defined core coincident
with the outer margin of Pyrite 0 where it is spatially associated with gold, and to well-
defined growth zones on the outer margin of pyrite II; h, cobalt confined to distinct rims
out the overgrowth of pyrite II, mirroring the arsenic-rich bands; i, nickel enriched at the
edge of the pyrite II overgrowth, and slightly enriched in the bismutho-telluride grain; and
j, bismuth restricted to bismutho-telluride grain attached to chalcopyrite II, and as µm-
scale grains enriched in isolated locations on the outer boundary of pyrite II, within
chalcopyrite and in association with the gold grain. 146
Fig. 5.21 High contrast backscattered SEM image of small arsenopyrite grain in
association with pyrite II in quartz type Ib (a); EMPA analyses listed in table (b). 147
Fig. 5.22 a, High contrast backscattered SEM image of bismuthotelluride grain within
chalcopyrite II; b, spectrum confirming nature of grain. 149
Fig. 5.23 Galena surrounding pyrite (a); galena post-dating pyrite II and chalcopyrite II
(b). 149
Fig. 5.24 High contrast backscattered SEM image of gold grain (a). Points on enlarged
image (b) relate to SEMP analyses, listed in associated table. 151
Fig. 5.25 Reflect light (a) and high contrast backscattered SEM image of gold grain (b)
hosted in quartz. 151
Fig. 5.26 Reflected light (a) and enlarged high contrast backscattered SEM (b) images
of a gold grain, along with chalcopyrite, located within a crack in pyrite II. 152
Fig. 5.27 Scatter plots showing Reef 1 (a), Reef 0 (b) and Reef 2 (c) assay data. 154
Fig. 5.28 The arsenopyrite geothermometer under conditions buffered by pyrite. 155

Fig. 6.1 a, 4820-level plan illustrating sample locations in 482267 crosscut for
alteration study of footwall basalts; b, Illustration of key KMCL boreholes used for
sampling of felsic, porphyry and argillaceous rock types. 162
Fig. 6.2 Hand specimen showing evidence of two stages of hydrothermal alteration in
rhyodacitic ash tuff. 164
Fig. 6.3 Hand specimen showing evidence of two stages of hydrothermal alteration in
basalt. 164
Fig. 6.4 Distinct alteration haloes surrounding high-angle quartz veins hosted within
basaltic lavas. 166
Fig. 6.5 Schematic diagram showing relative changes in the proportions of the mineral
assemblages in the basaltic host rocks through the alteration zones adjacent to Reef 1. 168
Fig. 6.6 Distal alteration zone of basalts. 169
Fig. 6.7 Proximal alteration of basalts. 170

15
Fig. 6.8 Hand specimen showing intense chloritisation associated with quartz-
chalcopyrite veining. 171
Fig. 6.9 Photomicrographs of least-altered rhyodacites. 173
Fig. 6.10 Photomicrographs of rhyodacites displaying intense alteration. 174
Fig. 6.11 Photograph of hand specimen showing alteration in rhyodacites (Reef 0 area)
associated with quartz veining. 175
Fig. 6.12 Photograph showing intense alteration of the rhyodacite-hosted Pyrite Zone
adjacent to Reef 1. 175
Fig. 6.13 Photomicrographs showing intense alteration of the rhyodacite-hosted lapilli
tuffs and Pyrite Zone adjacent to Reef 1. 176
Fig. 6.14 Schematic diagram showing relative changes in proportions of the mineral
assemblages in the rhyodacitic host rocks through the alteration zones adjacent to Reef 1. 177
Fig. 6.15 Photograph of a hand specimen of well-preserved quartz-feldspar porphyry,
lacking deformation and significant alteration. 178
Fig. 6.16 Photomicrographs showing typical mineralogy and texture of least-altered
quartz-feldspar porphyries. 179
Fig. 6.17 Photograph showing a hand specimen example of intensely sheared and altered
quartz-feldspar porphyry. 180
Fig. 6.18 Quartz-feldspar porphyries: a, relict porphyry tongue in shear zone; b, small,
sheared lens of intensely altered porphyry with preserved quartz eyes; c, mineralized
quartz vein with associated alteration halo cutting across porphyry. 180
Fig. 6.19 Photomicrographs of altered quartz-feldspar porphyries. 181
Fig. 6.20 Schematic diagram showing relative changes of mineral assemblages in least-
altered and intensely altered quartz-feldspar porphyries adjacent to and within Reef 1. 182
Fig. 6.21 Photomicrographs showing detail of least-deformed argillaceous sediments
that occur where the Reef 1 mineralized shear zone is focused. 184
Fig. 6.22 Photomicrographs showing detail of deformed argillaceous sediments. 185
Fig. 6.23 Photomicrographs showing detail of deformed argillaceous sediments with
pyrite 0. 186
Fig. 6.24 Bivariate plots to show selected major element variations (in wt.%) between
least altered and variably altered basalts across Reef 1. 190
Fig. 6.25 Immobile element plots for the three principal rock units at Bulyanhulu,
comparing Al2O3, TiO2, Zr and Y. 193
Fig. 6.26 Isocon diagrams showing elemental changes and mass transfer associated with
alteration of basalts at Reef 1: a, major oxides; b, trace elements. 196
Fig. 6.27 Isocon diagrams showing elemental changes and mass transfer associated with
alteration of rhyodacites at Reef 1: a, major oxides; b, trace elements. 197
Fig. 6.28 Isocon diagrams showing elemental changes and mass transfer associated with
alteration of quartz-feldspar porphyries at Reef 1: a, major oxides; b, trace elements. 199
Fig. 6.29 Isocon diagrams showing elemental changes and mass transfer associated with
alteration of argillaceous sediments at Reef 1: a, major oxides; b, trace elements. 200
Fig. 6.30 Isocon diagrams showing elemental changes and mass transfer associated with
alteration of basalts adjacent to Reef 2: a, major oxides; b, trace elements. 202

16
Fig. 6.31 Isocon diagrams showing elemental changes and mass transfer associated with
the barren Blue Reef, hosted within basalts: a, major oxides; b, trace elements. 203
Fig. 6.32 Relative mass-balance results for major elements for each lithology alteration
assemblage from Bulyanhulu Reef 1, and Reef 2 and Blue Reef (% gain or loss of oxide
component by weight). 205
Fig. 6.33 Major element traverse through basalts adjacent Reef 1. 207
Fig. 6.34 Trace element traverse through basalts adjacent Reef 1: a and b: selected
metals and sulphur; c and d: selected trace elements and barium. 208
Fig. 6.35 Summary of correlation coefficient matrix of selected element data
representing the three principal rock units of the Bulyanhulu stratigraphy. 215
Fig. 6.36 Summary of correlation coefficient matrix of oxides and selected trace
elements of least-altered and altered basaltic rocks at Bulyanhulu. 217
Fig. 6.37 Summary of correlation coefficient matrix of trace elements of least-altered
and altered basaltic rocks at Bulyanhulu. 217
Fig. 6.38 Summary of correlation coefficient matrix of oxides and selected trace
elements of least-altered and altered rhyodacitic rocks. 218
Fig. 6.39 Summary of correlation coefficient matrix of oxides and selected trace
elements of least-altered and altered quartz-feldspar porphyry rocks at Bulyanhulu. 218
Fig. 6.40 Dendrogram showing clustering of variables representing the three principal
rock units of the Bulyanhulu stratigraphy. 221
Fig. 6.41 Dendrogram showing clustering of variables representing all analyses
undertaken by KMCL at Bulyanhulu. 221
Fig. 6.42 Dendrogram showing clustering of variables representing all analyses
undertaken by KMCL at Bulyanhulu, less two extremely high gold samples. 221
Fig. 6.43 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of basaltic oxides, Au, Ag and Cu and
selected trace elements. 222
Fig. 6.44 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of basaltic oxides. 222
Fig. 6.45 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of trace elements from basaltic rocks. 222
Fig. 6.46 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of rhyodacite oxides, Au, Ag and Cu
and selected trace elements. 223
Fig. 6.47 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of oxides from rhyodacitic rocks. 223
Fig. 6.48 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of quartz-feldspar porphyry oxides,
Au, Ag and Cu and selected trace elements. 224
Fig. 6.49 Dendrogram illustrating cluster analysis of oxides from quartz-feldspar
porphyries. 224
Fig. 6.50 Graphical illustration of PCA eigenvalues on the complete Bulyanhulu datase. 227
Fig. 6.51 Bivariate plots illustrating relationships of PCs 1 to 4 against each other. 229
Fig. 6.52 Normal probability plots for PC scores 1 to 4. 231
Fig. 6.53 Bivariate plots of PC scores. 232

Fig. 7.1 Stage I fluid inclusions. 240

Fig. 7.2 Stage I two-phase inclusion hosted in a porphyry quartz eye. 240

17
Fig. 7.3 Stage IIb fluid inclusions. 242
Fig. 7.4 Typical appearance of aqueous Stage III inclusions. 242
Fig. 7.5 Histogram showing first melting temperatures from type Ia and Ib inclusions. 244
Fig. 7.6 Total homogenisation vs final ice melting scatter graph. 245
Fig. 7.7 Stage II clathrate melting temperatures vs total homogenisation temperatures. 247
Fig. 7.8 Typical δ18O data for Archaean gold deposits in the Yilgarn Craton and Abitibi
Province. 255
Fig. 7.9 Histogram showing δ18Oquartz values from Bulyanhulu, including Reef 1, Reef
2, barren veins and porphyry-hosted quartz veins. 258
Fig. 7.10 δ18Oquartz versus depth for vein quartz and porphyry-hosted quartz at Reef 1. 259
18
Fig. 7.11 Strike versus δ Oquartz for vein quartz and porphyry-hosted quartz at Reef 1. 259
Fig. 7.12 Quartz-calcite geothermometer for stage IIb quartz. 260
Fig. 7.13 δD-δ18O compositions of hydrothermal fluid stages I, IIa and IIb. 263
Fig. 7.14 Graph showing fractionation factors for carbon in the systems calcite-CO2,
dolomite-CO2, magnesite-CO2 versus temperature. 264
Fig. 7.15 Typical δ13Cmineral data for Achaean gold deposits in the Yilgarn Craton and
Abitibi Province. 266
Fig. 7.16 Comparison of the carbon isotope compositions of carbonaceous matter and
carbonates in the Kisii Shales, veins and wallrocks at Bulyanhulu. 268
Fig. 7.17 δ13Ccarbonate and δ18Ocarbonate values from whole rock samples along a wallrock
traverse, extending from 0.05 to 36 m into the Reef 1 footwall. 271
Fig. 7.18 Relationship of δ13Ccarbonate and δ18Ocarbonate values from whole rock samples
along a wallrock traverse. 271
Fig. 7.19 Histogram showing δ34S values from pyrite 0 hosted in felsic volcanic rocks
and argillaceous sediments and pyrite I. 275
Fig. 7.20 Pyrite 0 and pyrite I within argillaceous sediment. 275
Fig. 7.21 Histogram showing δ34S values from all ore stage sulphides at Bulyanhulu,
including pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and galena. 276
Fig. 7.22 Histogram showing δ34S compositions of ore-stage pyrite at Reef 1 and Reef 2. 277
Fig. 7.23 Histogram showing δ34S compositions of Reef 1 ore-stage pyrite hosted in
veins within argillaceous sediments and in or within veins adjacent to porphyries. 277
Fig. 7.24 Histogram of δ34S compositions of chalcopyrite from Reef 1 and Reef 2. 278
Fig. 7.25 Histogram showing δ34S compositions of Reef 1 chalcopyrite hosted in veins
within argillaceous sediments and those hosted in or within veins adjacent to porphyries. 278
Fig. 7.26 Histogram comparing δ34S compositions of pyrrhotite from Reef 1 and Reef 2. 279
Fig. 7.27 Histogram showing δ34S compositions of galena from Reef 1. 279
Fig. 7.28 δ34S versus depth (m) for the principal sulphides hosted in Reef 1, Bulyanhulu. 281
Fig. 7.29 Strike (m) versus δ34S for the principal sulphides in Reef 1, Bulyanhulu. 281
13
Fig. 7.30 Mixing model showing measured versus modelled δ C (carbonate) data, with
reference to CO2 content, and with distance from the Reef 1 shear zone. 288

18
Fig. 7.31 Mixing model showing measured versus modelled δ18O (carbonate) data, with
reference to CO2 content, and with distance from the Reef 1 shear zone. 289
Fig. 7.32 Fluid-rock exchange modelling curves for a range of water/rock and
carbon/oxygen ratios, for both closed and open system behaviour using the proximal
wallrock carbonate as an end-member. 294
Fig. 7.33 Fluid-rock exchange modelling curves for carbonate in quartz-feldspar
porphyries, and Reef 1 and Reef 2 vein carbonates. 295

Fig. 8.1 Bimodal extrusion of basaltic and rhyodacitic volcanic rocks. 301
Fig. 8.2 Deposition of Kisii Shales, exhalative pyrite and continued felsic accretion. 301
Fig. 8.3 Continued volcanism during extension and porphyry intrusions. 301
Fig. 8.4 D1, low angle thrusting causing structural repetition and localised isoclinal
folding regionally. 302
Fig. 8.5 D2, high angle thrusting transforming to high-angle reverse angle shear zones
that are favourably localised along rheological contacts. 302
Fig. 8.6 Schematic representation of D3, strike-slip deformation. 302
Fig. 8.7 Resulting configuration of the Bulyanhulu area. 303

19
INDEX OF TABLES 0
Table 1.1 Summary of gold reserves and resources at Bulyanhulu. 28

Table 2.1 Summary of stratigraphic, tectonic and metamorphic events. 48

Table 2.2 Comparison of Archaean lithostratigraphic subdivisions of the eastern area of
the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt. 56

Table 3.1 Summary of Bulyanhulu stratigraphy, with mine terminology and unit names
introduced in this study. 69
Table 3.2 Mean major and trace element compositions of least-altered rock types at
Bulyanhulu, incorporating KMCL data. 83

Table 4.1 Common deformation increments in Archaean greenstone belt gold districts
and related structures. 96

Table 6.1 Summary table of silicate, sulphide and oxide hydrothermal alteration
assemblages from proximal alteration zones from the four dominant host lithologies of
Archaean lode gold deposits in the Yilgarn Craton. 160
Table 6.2 Lithophile element ratios (averaged in parentheses) of samples from
Bulyanhulu, and a comparison with data from Geita (Borg, 1994). The data represent
element ratios from samples that have undergone various degrees of potassic
hydrothermal alteration by mineralizing fluids. 211
Table 6.3 Summary of whole rock and trace element mobility in proximal wallrock
hydrothermal alteration zones to the gold-bearing Reef 1 vein at Bulyanhulu, as defined
by the method of Grant (1986). 213
Table 6.4 Loadings for the first 9 principal components. 227

Table 7.1 Summary of microthermometric data from carbonic inclusions. 246

18 18
Table 7.2 Summary of measured δ Omineral and calculated δ Ofluid data of hydrothermal
minerals from the Bulyanhulu deposit. 257
Table 7.3 Comparison of oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of ore-forming
fluid in various Archaean lode gold deposits. 262
Table 7.4 δD results from fluid inclusion waters in the principal quartz stages associated
with mineralization in Reef 1 and 2. 262

20
Table 7.5 Summary data of δ13C values for Reef 1 and 2 vein, barren and mineralized
quartz-feldspar porphyries, and argillaceous sediments, and late carbonate veins. 267
Table 7.6 δ13Corg results from carbon in carbonaceous sediments from the Kisii Shale
unit, host to the Reef 1 mineralized structure, at Bulyanhulu. 269
Table 7.7 Summary of δ34S results for all paragenetic stages of sulphides. 274
Table 7.8 Carbonate isotope compositions and carbonate contents for altered basalts. 286
Table 7.9 Table summarising end-member carbonate compositions, wt. % in rock and
“input” hydrothermal carbonate values. 287
Table 7.10 Fluid–rock exchange modelling results for a range of water/rock and
carbon/oxygen ratios, for the wallrock carbonate traverse with various end members. 293

21