Phanerozoic - Gold - Metallogeny - Colombian - Andes - Tectono-Magmatic - Approach - Leal Mejía 2011 PDF

PHANEROZOIC GOLD
METALLOGENY IN THE
COLOMBIAN ANDES:
A TECTONO-MAGMATIC
APPROACH
HILDEBRANDO LEAL-MEJÍA
Departament de Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i

Dipòsits Minerals, Facultat de Geologia, Universitat
de Barcelona
Programa de Modelització de Processos Geològics

Bienni 2004-2006
Barcelona, 31 de maig de 2011
UNIVERSITA T DE BARCELONA
PHANEROZOIC GOLD
METALLOGENY IN THE
COLOMBIAN ANDES:
A TECTONO-MAGMATIC
APPROACH
Memoria de tesis doctoral presentada por
Hildebrando Leal-Mejía
para optar al título de doctor por la
Universitat de Barcelona
Tesis realizada en el Grupo Consolidado de Recursos Minerales del

Departament de Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i Dipòsits Minerals de la
Universitat de Barcelona
El doctorando: El director de tesis:
Firma: Hildebrando Leal-Mejía Firma: Joan Carles Melgarejo Draper

Departament de Cristal·lografia,
Mineralogia i Dipòsits Minerals
El codirector: Universitat de Barcelona
Firma: Umberto Cordani

Universidade de São Paulo
Barcelona, Mayo de 2011

To the people who care if I live or die...
INDEX
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 1
Resumen .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. OVERVIEW OF GOLD DEPOSITS VS. TIME IN COLOMBIA:

Au DISTRIBUTION VS. MAGMATISM ........................................................................ 31
1.1.1. Pre-hispanian gold-working cultures in Colombia .................................................... 33
1.1.2. Gold districts in Colombia ......................................................................................... 37
1.1.3. Gold occurrences distribution vs. magmatism in Colombia ...................................... 47
1.2. GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO COMPRESSIVE TECTONIC
MARGINS: A «STATE OF ART» OVERVIEW ....................................................................... 53
1.2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 55
1.2.2. Porphyry-Type Deposits........................................................................................... 59
1.2.3. Epithermal Deposits ................................................................................................. 69
1.2.4. Reduced Intrusion-Related Gold Systems ................................................................ 79
1.2.5. Orogenic Gold Systems ............................................................................................ 87
1.2.6. Gold-rich Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits ................................................... 95
1.3. THESIS OBJECTIVES AND PLANNING ...................................................................... 101
1.3.1. Thesis Objectives ................................................................................................... 103
1.3.2. Planning .................................................................................................................. 105
1.4. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 109
1.4.1. Sampling ................................................................................................................. 111
1.4.2. Methods for mineral characterization ..................................................................... 113
1.4.3. Whole-rock geochemistry analytical procedures ................................................... 115
1.4.4. Geochronology analytical procedures ..................................................................... 117
1.4.5. Isotope geochemistry analytical procedures ........................................................... 121
CHAPTER 2. GEOTECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF THE NORTHEN ANDES
2.1. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES ............................ 125

2.1.1. Geographical location and political divisions ........................................................... 127
2.1.2. Physiographic features ........................................................................................... 129
2.2. REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONO-MAGMATIC EVOLUTION
OF COLOMBIA .............................................................................................................. 131
2.2.1. Geological overview ............................................................................................... 133
2.2.2. Principal fault systems ............................................................................................ 141
2.2.3. Colombian tectono-magmatic evolution .................................................................. 145
CHAPTER 3. PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY
3.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 157

3.1.1. Geological background ........................................................................................... 159
3.1.2. Distribution of the magmatism................................................................................ 161
3.2. PETROLOGY .................................................................................................................... 163
3.2.1. Petrography of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks ................................................... 165
3.2.2. Whole-rock geochemistry of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks ............................. 183
3.2.3. Geochronology of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks .............................................. 191
3.2.4. Isotope geology ...................................................................................................... 199
3.3. GOLD DEPOSITS SPATIALLY RELATED TO PRE-JURASSIC INTRUSIVES ........ 203
3.3.1. Gold Deposits spatially related to the El Carmen Stock ......................................... 205
3.4. SYNTHESIS OF PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY ............... 213
3.4.1. Synthesis of pre-Jurassic magmatism vs. Au metallogeny ..................................... 215
CHAPTER 4. JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY
4.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 223

4.1.2. Distribution of Magmatism ..................................................................................... 227
4.2. THE NOROSÍ-SAN MARTÍN BATHOLITH AND ASSOCIATED
VOLCANIC ROCKS ...................................................................................................... 229
4.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 231
4.2.2. Regional Geology ................................................................................................... 233
4.2.3. Structural geology and tectonic evolution ............................................................... 235
4.2.4. Petrography of the Norosí-San Martín Batholith and associated volcanic rocks ... 237
4.2.5. Whole-Rock geochemistry of the Norosí-San Martín Batholith and associated
volcanic rocks ........................................................................................................ 259
4.2.6. Geochronology and Isotope Geochemistry ............................................................. 271
4.3. GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAN LUCAS AU PROVINCE ........... 279
4.3.1. Distribution of Gold Occurrences in the San Lucas Au Province .......................... 281
4.3.2. San Martin de Loba Gold Deposits ........................................................................ 283
4.3.4. La Cabaña Gold Deposit ........................................................................................ 301
4.3.5. Cerro San Carlos Gold Deposits ............................................................................ 313
4.4. OTHER INTRUSIVES OF JURASSIC AGE WITH SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED
GOLD OCCURRENCES............................................................................................... 329
4.4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 331
4.4.2. The Segovia Batholith ............................................................................................ 333
4.4.3. The Ibagué Batholith and the Saldaña Formation .................................................. 347
4.4.4. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Batholiths and associated volcanic rocks ...... 361
4.4.5. The Mocoa Batholith .............................................................................................. 363
4.4.6. Santander Jurassic Intrusives ................................................................................. 369
4.5. SYNTHESIS OF JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY ........................ 371
4.5.1. Synthesis of Jurassic magmatism vs. Au metallogeny ........................................... 373
CHAPTER 5. CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY
5.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 383

5.1.3. Structural features of the Antioquia and Sonsón batholiths .................................... 389
5.2. THE SONSON BATHOLITH ........................................................................................... 391
5.2.1. Introduction and regional setting of the Sonsón Batholith ...................................... 393
5.2.2. Petrography of the Sonsón Batholith ...................................................................... 395
5.2.3. Whole-rock geochemistry of the Sonsón Batholith ................................................ 403
5.2.4. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Sonsón Batholith ........................ 409
5.3. THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH ..................................................................................... 413
5.3.1. Introduction and geological setting ......................................................................... 415
5.3.2. Petrography of the Antioquia Batholith .................................................................. 419
5.3.3. Mineral chemistry of the Antioquia Batholith ......................................................... 461
5.3.4. Whole-Rock geochemistry of the Antioquia Batholith ........................................... 475
5.3.5. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Antioquia Batholith .................... 483
5.4. GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ANTIOQUIA-SONSON
Au PROVINCE ............................................................................................................... 495
5.4.1. Gold deposits associated with the Antioquia-Sonsón Au province ......................... 497
5.4.2. Cerro Gramalote..................................................................................................... 503
5.4.3. El Guayabito ........................................................................................................... 521
5.4.4. El Limón Cascade .................................................................................................. 529
5.4.5. Guadualejo .............................................................................................................. 541
5.4.6. Santo Domingo-San Roque .................................................................................... 547
5.4.7. La Floresta de Yalí.................................................................................................. 549
5.4.8. Santa Rosa de Osos ............................................................................................... 567
5.4.9. Segovia-Remedios .................................................................................................. 573
5.4.10. La Bramadora ...................................................................................................... 579
5.4.11. El Pino .................................................................................................................. 589
5.4.12. El Vapor ................................................................................................................ 601
5.5. OTHER INTRUSIVES OF CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE AGE
WITH SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED AU OCCURRENCES .......................................... 609
5.5.1. Introduction and geological setting ......................................................................... 611
5.5.2. Petrography of other intrusives of Cretaceous to Paleogene age .......................... 613
5.5.3. Whole-rock geochemistry of other intrusives of Cretaceous to Paleogene age .... 629
5.5.4. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of other intrusives of Cretaceous
to Paleogene age .................................................................................................... 641
5.5.5. Mineral Deposits spatially associated to other intrusives of Cretaceous to
Paleogene age ........................................................................................................ 649
5.6. SYNTHESIS OF CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE MAGMATISM VS.
AU METALLOGENY .................................................................................................... 651
5.6.1. Synthesis of Cretaceous to Paleogene magmatism vs. Au metallogeny ................ 653
CHAPTER 6. MIOCENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY
6.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 665

6.2 MIDDLE CAUCA REGION PORPHYRITIC ROCKS ................................................... 671
6.2.1. Petrography of the Middle Cauca region porphyritic rocks ................................... 673
6.2.2. Whole-rock geochemistry of the Middle Cauca region .......................................... 709
6.2.3. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Middle Cauca region
porphyritic rocks .................................................................................................... 719
6.3. PORPHYRY-ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSITS
IN THE MIDDLE CAUCA REGION ............................................................................ 727
6.3.1. The Titiribí Gold District ......................................................................................... 729
6.3.2. The Marmato Gold District .................................................................................... 753
6.3.3. Quinchía porphyry-type deposits and related breccias ........................................... 767
6.3.4. The Quebradona-La Aurora Gold Deposits ........................................................... 783
6.4. THE CAJAMARCA-SALENTO AREA PORPHYRITIC ROCKS ................................ 787
6.3.1. Petrography of the Cajamarca-Salento porphyritic rocks ...................................... 789
6.3.2. Whole-rock geochemistry of the Cajamarca-Salento porphyritic rocks ................. 801
6.3.3. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Cajamarca-Salento
IN THE CAJAMARCA-SALENTO AREA .................................................................. 815
6.5.1. La Colosa Gold Deposit ......................................................................................... 817
6.6. THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS .............................................. 833
6.6.1. Petrography of the Cauca Department porphyritic rocks ...................................... 835
6.6.2. Whole-rock geochemistry of the Cauca Department porphyritic rocks ................. 855
6.6.3. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Cauca Department
6.7. PORPHYRY-ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSITS IN
THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT ...................................................................................... 865
6.7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 867
6.7.2. The ‘La Vega Trend’ Gold Deposits ...................................................................... 869
6.8. THE SANTANDER MASSIF PORPHYRITIC ROCKS................................................. 871
6.8.1. Petrography of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks ......................................... 873
6.8.2. Whole-Rock geochemistry of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks .................. 877
6.8.3. Geochronology of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks and related
mineralization ......................................................................................................... 881
6.9. THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS .................................................. 885
6.9.1. Petrography of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks ......................................... 887
6.9.2. Whole-Rock geochemistry of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks .................. 895
6.9.3. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Nariño Department
intrusive rocks ........................................................................................................ 899
CHAPTER 7. PLIO-PLEISTOCENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY
7. 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 905

7.2. PLIO-PLEISTOCENE PORPHYRITIC ROCKS ............................................................ 911
7.2.1. Petrography of the Rio Dulce porphyritic rocks and other Plio-Pleistocene
rocks ...................................................................................................................... 913
7.2.2. Whole-Rock geochemistry of the Rio Dulce porphyritic rocks and other
Plio-Pleistocene rocks ............................................................................................ 921
7.2.3. Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Plio-Pleistocene porphyritic
rocks ...................................................................................................................... 927
IN THE RIO DULCE REGION ..................................................................................... 933
7.3.1. The Rio Dulce gold deposits ................................................................................... 935
7.4. SYNTHESIS OF THE NEOGENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY .............. 939
7.4.1. Synthesis of Neogene magmatism vs. Au metallogeny .......................................... 941
CHAPTER 8. REGIONAL SYNTHESIS OF GRANITOID MAGMATISM vs. Au

METALLOGENY
8.1. REGIONAL SYNTHESIS OF GRANITOID MAGMATISM vs. Au

METALLOGENY IN THE COLOMBIAN ANDES ..................................................... 953
8.1.1. Regional synthesis of granitoid magmatism vs. Au metallogeny in the
Colombian Andes ................................................................................................... 955
CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSIONS
9.1. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 963
9.1.1. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 965
REFERENCES.... .............................................................................................................................. 969

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis would have been not possible without the contribution of many people and institutions:
I owe my deepest gratitude to Dr. Joan Carles Melgarejo i Draper for his friendship, help,
support, and of course patience in many critical moments during the project. Thanks for being
‘El Caixa’.
I would like to thank Dr. Umberto Cordani for his support and invaluable contributions to this
research, and also for the hospitality during the research stages at the CPGeo of the University
of Sao Paulo (USP).
I am indebted with Robert P. Shaw for his guidance and constant support from the very begining
of the research project. His knowledge and experience in Colombian gold deposits and
metallogeny were an invaluable contribution to this study.
I am indebted with the Departament de Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i Dipòsits Minerals

de la Facultat de Geologia de la Universitat de Barcelona, specially with the colleagues
and friends of the MINRESOUR research group: Joaquin Proenza, Pura Alfonso, Salvador
Galí, Esperanza Tauler, Manel Labrador, Maite García, Salvador Martinez, Joaquin Nogues,
Sandra Robles, Antonio Olimpio Goncalves, Saleh Lehbib, Aurora Bambi, Montgarri Castillo,
Cristina Vilanova, Marc Campeny, Lisard Torro. Partial financial support for this research project
was provided by the 2009 SGR 444 project of the AGAUR (Generalitat de Catalunya) directed
by Dr. Joan Carles Melgarejo i Draper.
In a similar way I am greatful with the Serveis Cientifico-tecnics de la Universitat de Barcelona

for the help and support on analytical techniques and procedures carried out during this research,
specially with Adolf Samper, Vicenç Planella, Xavier Llobet, Eva Prats, Javier García Veigas,
Xavier Alcobe. In addition, support for EMP analyses carried out at the University of Oviedo
by Miguel Angel Fernandez is also appreciated, as are contributions from Dr. Carlos Villaseca
from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid for his contributions and support in geochemical
data management and interpretation.
I would like to thank ANGLOGOLD ASHANTI COLOMBIA Ltd. for the finnacial and
logistical support during the development of the thesis, specially during the activities carried
out in Colombia. In particular, I am greatfull to the entire Greenfields Group (2005-2010) for
their support and contribution to this research: Chris Lodder, Ruben Padilla, Terry Harbort,
Rafael Alfonso, Edwin Palacio, Timoleon Garzon, Oscar Ivan Sepulveda, Hector Vargas,
2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Roberto Vargas, Francisco Amezquita, Joaquin Buenaventura, Victor Carrillo, Miguel Angel
Rodríguez, Felipe Rodriguez, Carolina Acosta, Jose Andres Cepeda, Andres Rodríguez, Milton
Obando, Mauricio Valencia, Javier Gil, German Gonzalez, Martin Parra, Anwar Urquiza, Cesar
Garcia, Samir Salamanca, Adriana Delgado, Fabio Diaz, Mayeli Gomez, Paula Montoya,
Jennifer Betancourt, Francisco Cepeda, Leonardo Cajica, Margaret Pedraza, Andres Naranjo,
Luis Arteaga, William Pulido, Edgar Castiblanco, Carolina Perez, Andres Giraldo, Adriana
Lopez, Ana Maria Abad,Cecilia Lopez, Diego Sabogal, Felipe Botero, Guillermo Quintero,
Jaime Camacho, Rafael Garcia, Giovanni Peña, Sandra Sánchez, Guillermo Rodríguez, Luis
Acosta, Monica Uribe, Phill Allen, Rudolf Jahoda. In addition, help and support on logistics
and sample management is also thanked to Gustavo Peña and Cesar Sierra from AGAC.
Contribution for this research from other exploration companies is also acknowleged, including
B2Gold Corp., Antofagasta PLC, Mineros S.A., Greystar Resources Ltd. and Glencore
international.
It was a pleasure for me to have worked and shared fine moments and experiences with academic
and research staff at the CPGeo of the University of Sao Paulo: Dr. Colombo Celso Gatea
Tassinari, Marta Edith Velásquez, Alejandro Salazar, Arianna Salazar Velásquez, Vasco Loios,
Lucas Mesz, Andres Bustamante, Paula Sucerquia, Marcela Marulanda, Mathieu Mondou, and
many other friends.
I would like to thank the Grupo GEMMAde la Faultad de Minas de la Universidad Nacional de
Colombia Sede Medellin for its contributions and field support with some of the samples analyzed
in the Nechí, El Bagre and Segovia-Remedios mining districts. In particular, field activities,
geological mapping and sampling carried out by Dr. Oswaldo Ordoñez Carmona, Catalina
Londoño, Juan Camilo Montoya, Sebastian Echeverry, Alan Fernando Cardenas, were very
important in complementing the previous sampling from the aforementioned areas.
Additional academic support, comments and contributions by Dr. Fabio Cediel (Geotec), Dr.
Victor Valencia (Washington State University), Dr. Fernando Barra (Univeridad de Chile), Dr.
Agustin Cardona (Smithsonian Institute) and Mauricio Ibañez (University of Arizona) are also
appreciated.
I owe my deepest gratitude to my parents, Hildebrando and Maria Eugenia, and my sisters,
Leslie and Carolina for their constant love and support in many stages of my personal and
academic life, including this project.
I would like to thank all of my friends for their support and unconditional friendship. Sandra
Robles, Fernando Gomez, Daniel Bello, Vanessa Cortes, Yimmy Cortes, Lizette Leon, Ana
Lucia Zuluaga, Diana Paola Pineda, Diana Patricia Jiménez, Maria Lucia Tejada, Maria Clara
Zuluaga, Luisa Rodas, Laia Navarro, Natalia Estop, Marc Comas, Armand Hernandez, Patricia
Cabello, Nuria Lacuey, Petra Sedlmajerova, Mireya Zuñiga, Yenny Figueroa, Rafael del Rio,
Francisco Quintanar, Ana Lucia Hincapie, among many others.
Resumen 3
RESUMEN
INTRODUCCION
Históricamente, Colombia es reconocida como un país productor de oro por excelencia,

habiendo llegado a ser el principal productor de oro a nivel mundial durante el Siglo XIX,
previamente al descubrimiento de los grandes depósitos auríferos y las posteriores 'fiebres de
oro' de California, en el oeste de los Estados Unidos (1848-1855) y Witwatersrand en Sudáfrica
(1886).
La producción aurífera en Colombia ha sido continua desde épocas pre-Colombinas, con
periodos de mayor o menor producción asociados al comportamiento del precio de este metal.
Adicionalmente, el surgimiento y desarrollo de poblaciones enteras ha estado íntimamente
asociado al desarrollo minero en zonas como el Distrito Minero de Segovia-Remedios y el de
Marmato, entre otros.
A pesar de su gran importancia, los trabajos publicados en relación a los depósitos auríferos
colombianos son relativamente escasos. Sin embargo, una gran cantidad de información acerca
de dichos depósitos se encuentra consignada en informes inéditos del Instituto Colombiano de
Geología y Minería (INGEOMINAS) y el Ministerio de Minas y Energía, así como también en
diferentes reportes internos producidos por numerosas compañías mineras que han desarrollado
labores de exploración y explotación aurífera en el país.
Por otra parte, los estudios realizados hasta ahora en diferentes depósitos e indicios auríferos
del país se han enfocado hacia la investigación y determinación de problemas geológicos y
metalogénicos específicos de determinadas minas e indicios o, en el mejor de los casos, distritos
mineros.
Sólo en los últimos años se han publicado algunos trabajos enfocados en la metalogenia de
los depósitos auríferos en Colombia a escala regional (e.g. Shaw, 2000; Shaw 2003). En ellos
se establece una estrecha relación espacial entre rocas magmáticas de diferentes edades
formadas durante la compleja evolución geotectónica de la esquina noroccidental de Sudamérica
y los diferentes tipos y estilos de mineralización en los depósitos auríferos de los Andes
Colombianos.
4 Resumen
En este orden de ideas, la caracterización detallada de las rocas magmáticas hospedantes

y/o espacialmente relacionadas a las mineralizaciones auríferas constituye un elemento de gran
importancia en el estudio metalogenético de dichas mineralizaciones.
Por otra parte, son igualmente escasos los estudios regionales con relación al extenso
magmatismo que ha afectado los Andes Colombianos durante el Fanerozoico (e.g. Alvarez,
1983; Aspden et al., 1987).
Este déficit en la información metalogenética de Colombia precisaba ser compensado, y
más en la actual coyuntura. Efectivamente, por una parte el alto precio del oro y los demás
metales en los últimos años produjo a comienzos del siglo XXI un inusual interés en la búsqueda
de nuevos depósitos, posicionando a Colombia como uno de los principales países con alto
potencial para la búsqueda y exploración de nuevos depósitos en el continente sudamericano.
Pero, por otra parte, esta coyuntura favorable puso a la vez en evidencia los vacíos en cuanto
a información geológica básica que pudiera dar un apoyo eficaz a las labores de exploración en
el país.
Finalmente, en conjunción con estos factores, la llegada al país de numerosas compañías
mineras determinó el desarrollo de campañas de exploración exhaustivas, que accedieron a los
lugares más recónditos de la geografía colombiana. Así pues, se abrió la posibilidad de
desarrollar un proyecto de investigación de a la metalogenia del oro en los Andes Colombianos,
en tanto que este apogeo del desarrollo minero podía facilitar un muestreo bastante completo
y representativo de los indicios y depósitos auríferos en Colombia.
La presente investigación es el fruto del interés y el esfuerzo de diferentes compañías e
instituciones privadas y públicas por entender mejor la distribución espacial y temporal de los
depósitos auríferos en los Andes colombianos a una escala regional.
ANTECEDENTES
Como se mencionó anteriormente, varias culturas indigenas extraían y trabajaban el oro

de las montañas colombianas desde épocas pre-Colombinas. Esta minería prehispánica se
realizaba en casi todas las regiones del país, incluyendo el Altiplano Nariñense, la Costa Pacífica,
la región Calima, la región de Urabá y Chocó, el valle del Río Magdalena, el valle superior y
medio del Río Cauca, las llanuras del Caribe, la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, la Cordillera
Oriental, el valle superior del Río Magdalena (Tierradentro y San Agustín). Así pues, no es
extraño que la ubicación de estas regiones coincida a grandes rasgos con la localización de los
Resumen 5
principales distritos auríferos, tanto aluviales como vetiformes, actualmente reconocidos en el

país.
Se estima que un 70 u 80% del oro que se ha extraído históricamente de los Andes
Colombianos provenía de explotaciones aluviales, coluviales y residuales, mientras que apenas
un 10 a 20% ha sido extraído a partir de depósitos primarios (Utter 1984; Shaw, 2003).
Con relación a los depósitos aluviales, éstos se encuentran restringidos espacialmente a la
región occidental, en las cordilleras Central y Occidental del país. Los principales distritos de
oro aluvial del país incluyen la cuenca baja del Río Cauca, las cuencas de los ríos Atrato y San
Juan en el Departamento del Chocó, la cuenca del río Telembí, y las cuencas de los ríos Micay
y Telembí.
Por otra parte, los distritos auríferos primarios incluyen Vetas-California en el Macizo de
Santander; San Martín de Loba y San Lucas en la región de la Serranía de San Lucas; El
Bagre-Nechí, Segovia-Remedios, Berlín, La Bramadora, y la región del Rio Nus en la parte
norte de la Cordillera Central; Argelia-Sonsón, Río Dulce, Cajamarca-Salento, Santa Isabel e
Ibagué y San Luis en la parte central de la Cordillera Central; la región del valle medio del Río
Cauca; Berlín, Buriticá y el Páramo de Frontino en la parte norte de la Cordillera Occidental
Buenos Aires-Suárez y La Vega al sur de la Cordillera Central; y La Llanada-Sotomayor y
Piedrancha en el Departamento de Nariño.
Por su localizacion y ambiente geo-tectónico, la región Andina de Colombia constituye un
ambiente propicio para la formacion de diversos depósitos minerales auríferos asociadas a
márgenes compresivas y/o acrecionales. Dentro de estos depósitos se destacan:
1) los depósitos minerales de tipo pórfido,

2) depósitos epitermales de baja, intermedia y alta sulfuración,
3) depósitos de oro relacionados a intrusivos,
4) depósitos de oro orogénicos,
5) depósitos de sulfuros masivos volcanogénicos ricos en oro.
La relación espacial de los depósitos auríferos con rocas magmáticas de diferentes edades
es evidente en los Andes Colombianos, de tal suerte que la mayoría de mineralizaciones están
hospedadas dentro de granitoides o en las partes periféricas a éstos. Por esta razón, uno de los
interrogantes principales que se plantean en Colombia a nivel metalogenético es si, además de
esta relación espacial, existe alguna relación de tipo temporal y tal vez genética entre los procesos
magmáticos responsables de la intrusión de dichos cuerpos y los procesos mineralizantes.
6 Resumen
OBJETIVOS
En base a los anteriores antecedentes, la presente investigación tiene como objetivo

general el estudio de las mineralizaciones auríferas de los Andes Colombianos, enmarcándolas
en su contexto tectono-magmático, a la vez que determinar los diferentes eventos metalogénicos
responsables de su formación.
Como objetivos específicos del presente trabajo de investigación se plantearon los

siguientes:
1) Caracterizar las rocas magmáticas asociadas espacialmente con las

mineralizaciones auriferas por medio de la aplicación de distintas técnicas, tales como
petrografía en luz transmitida-reflejada, geoquímica mineral, geoquímica de roca total
(mayores y trazas) y geoquímica isotópica.
Para el cumplimiento de este objetivo, se realizó el análisis petrográfico de secciones

delgadas-pulidas representativas de diferentes intrusivos asociados con mineralizaciones de
oro en algunos distritos mineros representativos.
Una vez realizada la determinación de las principales características mineralógicas y
texturales de las rocas magmáticas, se seleccionaron en lo posible muestras que no mostraban
evidencias de alteración hidrotermal o mineralización significativa para análisis geoquímicos de
roca total por Fluorescencia de Rayos X o ICP-MS. Dichos análisis permitieron la clasificación
de la roca desde el punto de vista geoquímico con base en los contenidos de óxidos mayores,
así como la determinación de rasgos petrogenéticos a partir del comportamiento de los elementos
trazas.
Adicionalmente, teniendo en cuenta nuevamente las observaciones petrográficas, se
seleccionaron muestras representativas de intrusivos de diferentes arcos magmáticos para realizar
análisis isotópicos de Sr y Nd, con el fin de determinar la posible fuente o fuentes de los
magmas.
2) Determinar edades de cristalización magmática para asociaciones de rocas

magmáticas relacionadas espacialmente con las mineralizaciones auríferas, a fin de
establecer épocas magmáticas precisas que puedan estar relacionadas con eventos
metalogenéticos específicos.
Resumen 7
Pese a la existencia de una base de datos relativamente amplia con relación a las edades
de varios cuerpos intrusivos de los Andes Colombianos (Maya, 1992), dichas edades
corresponden en su mayoría a determinaciones antiguas, basadas casi siempre en la aplicación
de los métodos K-Ar y Rb-Sr en muestras de roca total o concentrados minerales de biotita y/
o hornblenda.
Así, la aplicación de técnicas de datación más modernas y precisas, como el método U-
Pb en cristales de circón, permite determinar edades de cristalización magmática más seguras
y precisas para intrusivos estrechamente asociados con la mineralización aurifera, y se constituye
en una herramienta fundamental en el establecimiento de la posible relación genética entre el
magmatismo y dicha mineralización.
Por lo anteriormente expuesto, una vez caracterizados los intrusivos desde el punto de
vista petrográfico y mineralógico, se seleccionaron muestras consideradas representativas de
los mismos para su datación por el método U-Pb en circón.
Las técnicas utilizadas para dichos análisis fueron: la microsonda iónica de alta sensibilidad
y alta resolución (Sensitive High Resolution Ion Micro-Probe - SHRIMP) y la espectroscopía
de masas con fuente de plasma por ablación laser con multi-colector (Laser Ablation - Multi-
Collector - Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry - LA-MC-ICP-MS).
En casos particulares, como el del Batolito Antioqueño, en el cual se observaron claras
evidencias de heterogeneidades en las distintas muestras analizadas al microscopio, la datación
de varias muestras junto con los datos de edades publicados recientemente por otros autores,
permitieron determinar su carácter compuesto y establecer los pulsos magmáticos responsables
de su configuración actual.
Adicionalmente, las muestras de rocas magmáticas pobres en circón, como diques de diabasa
asociados a vetas mineralizadas, fueron datadas por el método K-Ar.
3) Caracterizar algunos depósitos auriferos representativos relacionados

espacialmente con arcos magmáticos especificos con el fin de comparar y definir tipos
de depósitos que potencialmente puedan relacionarse con epocas magmáticas y/o eventos
metalogenéticos específicos.
Para el cumplimiento de este objetivo se seleccionaron depósitos de oro que fueran a la

vez importantes por sus recursos y representativos de distintos arcos magmáticos, incluyendo
el Jurásico, Cretácico y Mioceno tardío, con el fin de tener una buena distribución tanto espacial
como temporal de las mineralizaciones.
8 Resumen
Dentro de los depósitos minerales asociados al arco Jurásico, se tomaron como

representativos los de la parte norte de la Serranía de San Lucas, en las áreas de San Martín
de Loba-Juana Sánchez, la Mina La Cabaña y el Cerro San Carlos, cada uno de ellos con
estilos de mineralización claramente distintos.
Del mismo modo, asociado al arco Cretácico, se tomaron diferentes mineralizaciones
auríferas distribuidas dentro o en la periferia del Batolito Antioqueño, tales como Cerro
Gramalote, Guadualejo, Santa Rosa de Osos, La Floresta de Yalí, El Vapor, El Pino, entre
otros.
Con respecto al arco del Mioceno tardío, se seleccionaron como representativas
mineralizaciones de diferentes distritos mineros en la región del valle medio del Río Cauca,
incluyendo depósitos en las áreas de Quinchía, Marmato, Orofino, Titiribí, entre otros.
Adicionalmente, el muestro fue complementado con muestras procedentes de distintos
proyectos mineros en los cuales se habían desarrollado labores de perforación previas, teniendo
la oportunidad de acceder a muestras de mineralización poco afectadas por agentes meteóricos.
Aunque no hayan sido estudiados en detalle en la presente memoria, estas muestras han
permitido aportar algunos elementos que enriquecen la visión metalogenética general. Tal fue el
caso de El Carmen, La Mina, Mocoa o La Aurora.
El estudio de las mineralizaciones incluyó la caracterización petrográfica como base
fundamental, con el fin de determinar las asociaciones minerales tanto de la mineralización
como de la alteración hidrotermal asociada, y establecer así la secuencia paragenética.
Adicionalmente, se llevaron a cabo análisis mineralógicos detallados de especies minerales
difíciles de identificar al microscopio por medio de microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM-
BSE-EDS) y microsonda electrónica (EMP).
Finalmente, como complemento y apoyo a la interpretación metalogenética, se realizaron
análisis de isótopos radiogénicos de Pb y estables de S en sulfuros de los diferentes depósitos
para determinar la fuente probable de la mineralización y hacer comparaciones entre ellos y
sus rocas encajantes
4) Determinar edades de mineralización y/o alteración hidrotermal para diferentes

depósitos auríferos asociados con épocas magmáticas específicas con el fin de establecer
la relación temporal entre ellos a partir de su evidente relación espacial.
La determinación de la edad de la mineralización es un aspecto crítico en los estudios

metalogenéticos, y los estudios de este tipo realizados a nivel mundial son relativamente pocos
Resumen 9
en relación con los efectuados para resolver otros aspectos metalogenéticos. Esta datación de
los depósitos auríferos seleccionados se efectuó mediante la aplicación de análisis
geocronológicos por el método K-Ar en minerales de alteración hidrotermal asociados al
proceso mineralizante (principalmente sericita, biotita secundaria y alunita). Además, en algunos
depósitos con abundante presencia de molibdenita mediante la aplicación del método Re-Os.
La datación de otros sulfuros (principalmente, pirita) mediante este último método no produjo
resultados coherentes con el contexto geológico y metalogenético, siendo en consecuencia
desestimados.
En casos particulares, aunque no siempre, ha sido posible realizar la datación simultánea
tanto de la roca magmática hospedante como de la alteración hidrotermal y de la mineralización
metálica, permitiendo de este modo un buen control temporal para la formación del depósito
mineral.
RESULTADOS DESTACADOS
Durante el desarrollo de la investigación, se obtuvieron resultados no sólo sobre la

metalogenia de Colombia, sino otros que complementan datos regionales de la geología de
Colombia. Dada la relevancia de algunos de estos resultados, se mencionan brevemente a
continuación:
Naturaleza del magmatismo Fanerozoico
Los resultados obtenidos a partir de los análisis geoquímicos de roca total de cerca de
280 muestras de rocas magmáticas de diferentes edades y 107 dataciones por el método U-Pb
en circón, confirman claramente la afinidad predominantemente calco-alcalina de las diferentes
épocas magmáticas durante el Fanerozoico en los Andes Colombianos, así como también un
origen relacionado a la subducción de corteza oceánica bajo el borde noroccidental de
Sudamérica.
Una notable excepción en esta marcada tendencia la constituyen los intrusivos de edad
Permo-Triásica, que muestran una composición peralumínica moderada a fuerte, materializada
en la presencia de minerales accesorios ricos en aluminio, como granate almandíno o cordierita,
así como también por una firma isotópica que indica una fuente cortical para los magmas, con
poca o nula contribución de material derivado del manto. Estos resultados, además, son
10 Resumen
compatibles con las observaciones realizadas por otros autores (Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona
et al., 2010b) con relación a estos intrusivos Permo-Triásicos, quienes sugieren un origen
relacionado a una tectónica colisional a post-colisional durante la conformación y posterior
disrupción de Pangea.
El evento magmático del Carbonífero
Por otra parte, los resultados de las dataciones con U-Pb en circón de las leucotonalitas
biotíticas ricas en sodio del Stock de El Carmen, que constituyen la roca huésped de la
mineralización en el Distrito Minero de El Bagre, así como de la fase diorítica que la hospeda,
permitieron identificar un evento magmático no reconocido hasta la fecha en Colombia. De
este modo, se ha establecido que este episodio de plutonismo se produjo durante el Carbonífero
(ca. 333-310Ma). Así pues, este episodio magmático de ningún modo puede incluirse dentro
del mismo evento magmático que dio origen al Batolito de Segovia durante el Jurásico medio a
tardío (167-154Ma).
Los arcos magmáticos del Jurásico
Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo permiten definir la existencia de al menos tres
arcos magmáticos meta-alumínicos, calco-alcalinos y con contenidos de potasio medios a altos,
entre finales del Triásico y el Jurásico. Estos arcos magmáticos habrían migrado de oriente a
occidente.
El primer arco magmático (Triásico tardío a Jurásico temprano) ha quedado registrado en
los intrusivos Jurásicos del Macizo de Santander en el norte (Grupo Plutónico de Santander) y
en el Batolito de Mocoa en el sur, ambos con edades comprendidas entre 210 y 200Ma (según
datos compilados por Maya, 1992).
Un segundo arco magmático (Jurásico temprano) ha sido diferenciado en este trabajo, a
partir de dataciones con U-Pb en circón de los intrusivos Jurásicos de la Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta, la Serranía de San Lucas y el sur del Batolito de Ibagué, habiéndose establecido
edades entre 194 y 182Ma. Este arco magmático, en particular, se distingue de los demás por
presentar extensas secuencias volcanoclásticas contemporáneas bien preservadas, algo que no
sucede con los otros dos arcos magmáticos del Jurásico. Estos arcos comprenden rocas de
composición esencialmente granodiorítica; las rocas volcánicas pueden presentar composiciones
más ácidas.
Resumen 11
Finalmente, un tercer arco magmático (Jurásico medio a tardío) ha quedado registrado en

el Batolito de Segovia y la parte norte del batolito de Ibagué, con edades comprendidas entre
167 y 149Ma. Este plutonismo produjo en Segovia esencialmente cuerpos de granodioritas
con anfíbol y biotita como accesorios, eventualmente con clinopiroxeno y ortopiroxeno; en
Ibagué se reconocen facies cuarzomonzoníticas, asimismo con piroxenos como minerales
accesorios.
Diferencias en el magmatismo Cretácico a ambos lados del Sistema de Fallas de

Romeral
En relación al magmatismo Cretácico, los análisis geoquímicos indican una marcada

diferencia entre los que se localizan intruyendo basamento pre-Cretácico andino al oriente del
Sistema de Falla de Romeral y los que se encuentran intruyendo basamento de afinidad oceánica,
localizados al occidente del Sistema de Fallas de Romeral.
El primer grupo de plutones presentan una típica afinidad calco-alcalina, con contenidos
medios a altos en potasio (caso del Batolito Antioqueño, uno de los mayores de Colombia, o
del stock de Mariquita).
El segundo grupo presenta una característica afinidad calco-alcalina pero con contenidos
más bajos en potasio (batolitos de Sabanalarga y Buga; stock de Jejenes).
El magmatismo asociado al Batolito Antioqueño
Los resultados petrográficos, mineralógicos, geoquímicos y geocronológicos de diferentes

muestras del Batolito Antioqueño sugieren que este intrusivo se compone de, por lo menos,
cuatro pulsos magmáticos bien definidos en este trabajo, tres de ellos datados en el Cretácico
tardío (durante los periodos comprendidos entre 96-92Ma, 89-82Ma y 81-72Ma,
respectivamente), mientras que el cuarto queda fechado en el Paleoceno, durante el periodo
comprendido entre 60-58Ma.
Los primeros pulsos parecen ser de composición básica a intermedia, y corresponden a
cuerpos gabroicos que evolucionan hacia dioritas, en las que destaca la resencia de clino y
ortopiroxenos.
En un segundo estadio se emplazan tonalitas biotítico-hornbléndica y granodioritas biotítico-
hornbléndicas. En ambas litologías se registra la presencia de clinopiroxenos como minerales
accesorios.
12 Resumen
Durante el tercer estadio intruyen nuevamente tonalitas biotítico-hornbléndicas y

granodioritas biotítico-hornbléndicas. En estas rocas pueden aparecer localmente también
clinopiroxenos.
Durante el cuarto estadio se produce la intrusión de los cuerpos de tonalita biotítica de
Cerro Gramalote, acompañados por cuerpos de pegmatitas y aplitas de facies apicales de
plutón. Además, en este episodio se registra la intrusión de cuerpos de pórfidos granodioríticos
como el de El Rayo. Estos intrusivos siguen un trend aproximadamente E-W a lo largo del
curso del río Nus.
Todos estos episodios magmáticos van relacionados con mineralizaciones auríferas, si bien
los más importantes son el segundo y el cuarto.
Estos resultados, bien establecidos mediante datación con U-Pb en circón, claramente
contradicen las observaciones hechas previamente por algunos autores en el sentido de
considerarlo como un cuerpo intrusivo homogéneo generado a partir de un único pulso
magmático. Mas aún, dentro de estos cuatro pulsos magmáticos, el último (Paleoceno) presenta
notables diferencias con relación a los tres primeros (Cretácico tardío), presentando una
distribución espacial restringida a un corredor a lo largo del curso del Rio Nús.
Las muestras de los intrusivos Paleocenos del Batolito Antioqueño indican una firma
geoquímica característica con contenidos bajos en sodio y rasgos adakiticos particulares que
marcan la diferencia con pulso magmáticos previos del Cretácico tardío.
Carácter compuesto del 'Batolito de Sonsón'
Respecto al Batolito de Sonsón, los resultados de dataciones mediante U-Pb en circón

obtenidos en esta investigación indican que hacia la parte norte se confirma la edad Paleoceno
ya sugerida previamente por Ordóñez et al. (2001), mientras que las dataciones de muestras
de la parte sur efectuadas en este trabajo mediante el mismo método indican una edad
correspondiente al evento tectono-magmático Permo-Triásico. Así, estos resultados indican
que se trata de un intrusivo compuesto y que una actualizacion cartografica de este cuerpo
debe ser considerada en el futuro.
Potencial metalogenético del magmatismo pre-Jurásico
En relación a los depósitos auríferos, no existen evidencias de mineralización importante

asociada a las rocas magmáticas del Paleozoico temprano y el Permo-Triásico. En cambio, los
Resumen 13
intrusivos de edad Carbonífero del Stock del Carmen (datados en este estudio mediante U-Pb
en circón en ca. 333-310Ma) parecen guardar estrecha relación con la mineralización que
hospedan.
Potencial metalogenético del magmatismo Jurásico
El magmatismo Jurásico presenta asociadas algunas mineralizaciones de oro importantes,

como las de San Martín de Loba-Juana Sánchez. En este caso se ha establecido un vínculo
genético estrecho de la mineralización con las facies intrusivas, manifestada por la presencia de
alteraciones hidrotermales de alta temperatura, incluyendo alteración potásica con abundante
turmalinización asociada, a las que se sobreimpone una fuerte alteración sericítica pervasiva.
El oro se encuentra en vetas de cuarzo como oro nativo, en asociación con galena y otros
minerales de metales base, con notable presencia de sulfosales de plata, cobre y bismuto
(tetraedrita, gustavita, matildita, emplectita, polibasita, famatinita, ourayita, heyrovskita). Por
otra parte, se reconocen dos generaciones de oro, basadas en en criterios texturales y
composicionales.
Del mismo modo, la presencia de alteraciones potásicas de alta temperatura y una alteración
sericítica pervasiva a escala kilométrica, junto con la presencia de molibdenita, sugieren que la
zona mineralizada del prospecto del Cerro San Carlos (y quizá de Culoalzado) guarda relación
con un hipotético intrusivo de tipo porfídico no aflorante. Esta mineralización encaja en rocas
volcanoclásticas del Jurásico temprano y consta esencialmente de vetas de cuarzo con pirita,
con menores cantidades de sulfuros de metales base. La datación de la alteración sericítica de
esta mineralización, realizada mediante el método de K-Ar, ha sido establecida en 162±4 Ma.
Esta edad es posterior a la del batolito de Norosí-San Martín, pero puede corresponder con la
de un episodio intrusivo tardío.
Por otra parte, los filones de cuarzo aurífero de la mina de La Cabaña representan un
estilo de mineralización muy diferente. Se trata de filones bien definidos, de continuidad al
menos hectométrica, con alteración hidrotermal intensa del encajante (gneises del Meso-
Proterozoico), caracterizada por el desarrollo extensivo de adularia y sericita en las salbandas.
La mineralización presenta texturas de relleno de espacios abiertos, con típicas texturas en
peine, crecimentos bandeados, crustiformes e, incluso, desarrollo de calcedonia o brechas
hidrotermales. La mineralización es muy rica en pirita y sulfuros de metales base, especialmente
calcopirita, galena y esfalerita (ésta, en dos generaciones establecidas por su composición). El
oro se encuentra en forma libre. Este conjunto de características sugieren un mecanismo de
14 Resumen
formación de los depósitos del tipo de La Cabaña en un contexto epitermal, del tipo de baja a
intermedia sulfuración.
Edad de mineralización en el Distrito Minero de Segovia-Remedios
Otro aporte importante de este trabajo es la determinación de la edad de mineralización

en el Distrito Minero de Segovia-Remedios, anteriormente considerado como de edad Jurásica
por estar hospedado en las rocas del Jurásico medio a tardío del Batolito de Segovia.
Los resultados de este trabajo demuestran, a partir de la datación mediante K-Ar de la
alteración sericítica de la mineralización y de la datación mediante U-Pb de cuerpos porfiríticos
y diabásicos estrechamente vinculados a las estructuras mineralizadas, que la edad de la
mineralización y de estos intrusivos es del Cretácico tardío (ca. 89-85Ma), que es
contemporánea con el segundo pulso magmático del Batolito Antioqueño en el Cretácico tardío
(ca. 89-82Ma). Por consiguiente, puede establecerse un vínculo temporal de la mineralización
con este segundo pulso, y debería establecerse en el futuro si este vínculo es asimismo de tipo
genético. No obstante, a partir de estas dataciones se puede avanzar en la hipótesis de que
estos yacimientos son tipo «intrusion-related gold deposits».
El Distrito Minero de Segovia-Remedios es el más importante desde el punto de vista de
producción histórica de oro en Colombia. Además, existen otros numerosos e importantes
yacimientos de oro encajados en el propio Batolito Antioqueño o en sus zonas de contacto,
asimismo explotados en los dos últimos siglos. Por consiguiente, los intrusivos del Cretácico
Superior pueden ser considerados como un metalotecto importante, que han proporcionado
históricamente la mayor parte de la producción de oro en Colombia.
Potencial metalogenético del Batolito Antioqueño
Respecto a los depósitos hospedados dentro del Batolito Antioqueño o en su periferia

(Santa Rosa de Osos, Gómez Plata, La Floresta de Yalí, El Machete-Guadalupe, La Bramadora-
Amalfi-Anorí, El Vapor, El Pino), a pesar de no tener certeza de su edad de mineralización, la
marcada relación de estos con intrusivos asociados al tercer pulso magmático del batolito en el
Cretácico tardío (ca. 81-72Ma) permite inferir una edad máxima de mineralización igual a la
de los intrusivos hospedantes.
El pulso magmático del Paleoceno en el Batolito Antioqueño, con la información disponible
hasta el momento, se encuentra aparentemente restringido al 'corredor del Río Nús'. No obstante,
Resumen 15
este sector constituye el metalotecto más importante para la exploración de depósitos de oro
dentro del batolito, ya que los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo confirman de forma
contundente la estrecha relación que existe entre las rocas magmáticas asociadas a este pulso
en particular y la ocurrencia de depósitos de oro importantes, como por ejemplo Cerro
Gramalote. Tanto la fase intrusiva como los depósitos asociados presentan caracteristicas
geoquímicas que los diferencian de otras fases intrusivas y otros depositos dentro del batolito.
Así, la presencia de intrusivos de edad Paleocena, ricos en potasio y con firmas geoquímicas
'tipo adakitas' puede ser considerada indicativa de depósitos de oro con una firma geoquímica
de metales particular caracterizada por la asociación Au-Ag-Cu-Mo±(Bi-Te).
En el caso del depósito de Cerro Gramalote se han localizado alteraciones de alta
temperatura asociadas a una densa red de vetas subparalelas de cuarzo mineralizado. Estas
alteraciones son típicamente potásicas (con desarrollo de feldespato potásico de alta temperatura
reemplazando plagioclasa, restringido a las inmediaciones de las vetas de cuarzo), reemplazadas
por una alteración sericítica sobreimpuesta mucho más pervasiva. Las asociaciones minerales
comprenden molibdenita, escasos sulfuros de metales base y abundantes sulfuros y sulfosales
de bismuto (bismutinita, matildita, pavonita, mummeita y aikinita) y telururos (hessita, tetradimita),
acompañados por dos generaciones de oro, diferenciadas en base a su relación Au/(Au+Ag),
siendo la primera más rica en oro. La mineralización metálica y su alteración hidrotermal han
sido datadas, la primera con el método Re-Os en molibdenita, la segunda con el método K-Ar
en sericita de grano grueso, resultando tener ambas la misma edad que es la que se corresponde
con la edad del intrusivo encajante. Por consiguiente, esta investigación pone de manifiesto el
alto potencial del Batolito Antioqueño como ambiente propicio para la formación de depósitos
de oro relacionados a intrusivos (Intrusion-related Gold Deposits) asociados a cada uno de los
pulsos magmáticos que lo componen.
Otras mineralizaciones a lo largo del curso del río Nus presentan características similares.
Guadualejo es idéntica a Gramalote, presentando una densa red de vetas de cuarzo con los
mismos tipos de alteración y con el mismo tipo de encajante, como también una mineralogía
afin, asimismo rica en molibdenita y con altos contenidos de oro.
Otras mineralizaciones, en cambio, no encajan dentro de las facies tonalíticas adakíticas
del Paleoceno, si bien se encuentran en las inmediaciones de las mismas. Además, presentan
alteraciones hidrotermalesy asociaciones minerales similares a las anteriormente citadas en
Cerro Gramalote y Guadualejo. De este modo, la mineralización filoniana de El Limón encaja
en cuerpos granodioríticos precoces del Batolito Antioqueño, con alteración sericítica del
encajante. En este caso, la mineralización de oro se acompaña de abundante molibdenita,
16 Resumen
arsenopirita, pirita, calcopirita y minerales de bismuto y plata (matildita, tetradimita, cervelleíta,

cubanita, hessita). También se reconocen dos generaciones de oro, siendo nuevamente la primera
la más rica en oro. La presencia de molbdenita abundante posibilitó la datación de esta
mineralización mediante el método de Re-Os, resultando una edad de 60±0.3 Ma, que es
comparable a la edad del magmatismo adakítico del Paleoceno. Por consiguiente, estas
mineralizaciones pueden corresponder a manifestaciones distales respecto de estos intrusivos.
Una datación adicional en molibdenita por el método de Re-Os, realizada en el depósito de
Santo Domingo-San Roque, proporciona también una edad comparable con la anterior (59.1±0.3
Ma).
Por otra parte, la mineralización de El Guayabito, localizada en el Alto de Santiago dentro
del mismo trend del río Nus, presenta también una alteración sericítica intensa, si bien el encajante
es gabroico. La asociación mineral, además de pirita, comprende igualmente calcopirita y
minerales de bismuto que acompañan el oro, tales como bismutinita y schirmerita. Se reconocen
también dos generaciones de oro, de las cuales la primera presenta contenidos más bajos de
plata.
En la Floresta de Yalí se reconocen vetas auríferas encajadas en las facies granodioríticas
asociadas al tercer evento magmático del Cretácico tardío. Estas vetas tienen alteraciones de
feldespato potásico con sobreimposición de alteración sericítica. La mineralización es rica en
sulfuros, acompañados de cantidades menores de cuarzo. Predominan pirita y esfalerita (ésta,
especialmente rica en Cd, con contenidos superiores a 1% at.), con cantidades menores de
galena y soluciones sólidas de galena con Bi-Ag, con cubanita, bismuto y polibasita. El oro es
también nativo, y es muy rico en plata, con contenidos cercanos al 60% de este metal.
Las minas de Santa Rosa de Osos explotan vetas de cuarzo y pirita con cantidades menores
de esfalerita y galena. El oro es rico en plata, pero con contenidos variables.
La mina de La Bramadora comprende pirita, arsenopirita, esfalerita, galena y pirrotina,
con cantidades menores de calcopirita y sulfosales de plomo (esencialmente, boulangerita). El
oro es rico en plata.
La mineralización en El Pino se encuentra hospedada en rocas metamórficas de bajo grado
de los Grupos Cajamarca y Valdivia, y es periférica al batolito de Antioquia. Se trata de brechas
hidrotermales, con alteración sericíticas y una fuerte silicificación, con el desarrollo de texturas
coloformes y abundantes cavidades drusiformes. Los clastos de la brecha presentan
mineralización diseminada de sulfuros (esfalerita, pirita). En el cemento de la brecha hay cuarzo,
arsenopirita, pirita, esfalerita, calcopirita, galena y sulfosales de plata (pirargirita, freibergita,
pearceita, tennantita, argentotennantita y famatinita), así como acantita, mckinstryita, covellita
Resumen 17
y geffroyita. Estos depósitos pueden corresponder a depósitos distales en relacion con un

intrusivo, en el modelo de los «Intrusion-Related Gold Deposits», si bien esta relación debe ser
establecida con criterios más decisivos.
Finalmente, la mineralización aurífera de El Vapor, situada al oriente de la falla de Palestina,
es asimismo filoniana y está encajada en materiales metapelíticos en la periferia del Batolito
Antioqueño. Se ha localizado una escasa mineralización de sulfuros de metales base. No
obstante, esta mineralización está asociada a un dique de pórfio fuertemente sericitizado. La
datación de este dique alterado mediante el método de K-Ar proporciona una edad de 55.9±2
Ma. Por consiguiente, esta mineralización podría estar asociada con las facies más tardías del
trend del Rio Nus.
Relación genética de los depósitos auríferos a lo largo del corredor estructural de

la Falla Otú
Los distritos mineros de Nechí, El Bagre, y Segovia-Remedios, localizados a lo largo del

corredor estructural de la Falla Otú, han sido interpretados anteriormente como asociados a
un mismo evento metalogenético con un fuerte control estructural, y clasificados como depósitos
de oro de tipo orogénico (Londoño et al., 2009). El depósito de El Carmen en El Bagre, como
se comentó anteriormente, ha sido datado en este trabajo como pre-Jurásico. No obstante,
como se ha indicado anteriormente, las mineralizaciones de Segovia-Remedios han sido fechadas
en este trabajo en el Cretácico tardío. Por consiguiente, los resultados obtenidos en esta
investigación indican que la mineralización obedece a eventos temporal y posiblemente
genéticamente diferentes, y por tanto pierde validez la relación genética previamente sugerida
entre ellos.
Migración del magmatismo Neógeno en los Andes Colombianos
Por otra parte, el magmatismo calco-alcalino Neógeno se distribuye principalmente en el

sector occidental de los Andes Colombianos con algunas manifestaciones puntuales más al
oriente, en la Cordillera Central, el Macizo de Santander y el Macizo de Quetame. Este
magmatismo es el producto de la subducción directa en dirección NNE a ortogonal de la placa
de Nazca bajo en borde occidental de los actuales Andes del Norte desde comienzos del
Mioceno hasta la actualidad. Los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación sugieren que el
magmatismo Neógeno en Colombia se compone en realidad de una serie de 'segmentos de
18 Resumen
arco' de distribución areal más restringida y que migran espacialmente en ambos sentidos, sur-
norte y oeste-este.
Metalogénesis del magmatismo del Neógeno
El estilo de las mineralizaciones del Neógeno supone un nivel emplazamiento general más
alto que en el caso de los del Cretácico, con desarrollo abundante de mineralizaciones de tipo
pórfido o epitermales. Las más importantes son las de Titiribí, Quebradona, Marmato, Dos
Quebradas, Miraflores (en el cinturón del valle medio del río Cauca) y La Colosa (en el cinturón
de la región Cajamarca-Salento en la Cordillera Central).
El yacimiento de Titiribí se encuentra asociado al intrusivo porfídico de Cerro Vetas, datado
en este trabajo en 7.6±0.3 Ma. Se trata de filones epitermales de cuarzo, a menudo con texturas
drúsicas y relleno de espacios abiertos, con adularia, calcedonia y calcita hojosa tardía. La
mineralización es en parte cataclástica, por removilización tectónica. La secuencia comprende
cuarzo, dolomita o ankerita, arsenopirita, esfalerita, calcopirita, galena, oro nativo y sulfosales
(tetraedrita, ramdohrita, zoubekita, bournonita, boulangerita, jamesonita, miargirita y diaforita).
El oro muestra escasa variabilidad, siendo rico en plata. Este tipo de depósito se interpreta
como epitermal.
El yacimiento de Marmato es asimismo epitermal, y consiste en un sistema denso de vetas
subparalelas rellenando zonas de falla y diaclasas, encajados en rocas porfiríticas del Mioceno
tardío. La alteración hidrotermal es pervasiva, predominando propilitización, silicificación,
piritización, carbonatización y sericitiación. Es común el desarrollo de adularia en las salbandas.
Las texturas son también típicas de relleno de espacios abiertos (drusas, geodas, cockade,
etc), con bandeamiento simétrico. la mineralogía de las vetas es simple, con predominio de
ganga de cuarzo, calcita y siderita. Las menas son pirita, arsenopirita, esfalerita, galena,
calcopirita, marcasita y escasa pirrotina. El oro es abundante y es acompañado por minerales
de plata (acantita, polibasita y freibergita).
En Quebradona se ha reconocido un intrusivo porfídico mediante sondeos (pórfido de La
Aurora, datado en este trabajo en 8.0 +0.9/ -0.4 Ma.). En su parte superior, este intrusivo
genera una fuerte alteración hidrotermal del encajante, con una intensa silicificación y abundante
desarrollo de turmalina.
En el área de Quinchía se presentan diferentes estilos de mineralización, incluyendo
mineralización de tipo pórfido en Dos Quebradas, vetas epitermales en la quebrada de Mandeval
y brechas hidrotermales en Miraflores. En Dos Quebradas se reconoce una importante alteración
Resumen 19
potásica del encajante, con desarrollo de feldespato potásico y biotita secundaria muy
abundante. Son comunes vetillas de molibdenita, si bien predomina la pirita y la calcopirita. En
este trabajo se ha datado en Dos Quebradas la mineralización de tipo pórfido, a partir de U-
Pb en circón del intrusivo (8.0±0.5 Ma), K-Ar de biotita secundaria (8.2±0.7 Ma) y Re-Os en
molibdenita (7.7±0.2 Ma). Estas edades son afines y permiten establecer un evento
metalogenético asociado a la intrusión de estos pórfidos del Cauca.
El depósito de La Colosa es el más importante de los descubiertos en Colombia en los
últimos años. Se encuentra localizado en la Cordillera Central en el área de Cajamarca-Salento,
y comprende diferentes fases porfiríticas datadas en el presente trabajo entre 8.3 y 7.3 Ma
mediante U-Pb en circón. El conjunto de pórfidos de La Colosa intruyen rocas metamórficas
de bajo grado del grupo Cajamarca del Paleozoico Inferior.
El estilo de la mineralización de La Colosa es de tipo pórfido aurífero, reconociéndose
una alteración potásica intensa, manifestada por desarrollo de feldespato potásico secundario
a costa de plagioclasa y un importante crecimiento de biotita secundaria, ésta, a menudo a
costa de biotita primaria o anfíbol. Esta alteración se ve sobreimpresa por alteración sódico-
cálcica (cn desarrollo de albita y anfíbol fibroso de tipo tremolita-actinolita) y, finalmente, por
alteración sericítica.
La mineralización no es my compleja, comprendiendo vetas y vetillas de cuarzo con pirita y
arsenopirita, con cantidades menores de molibdenita, calcopirita, galena, esfalerita, oro nativo y
telururos (hessita y, posiblemente, calaverita, tetradimita y tsumoita); en el encajante hay un abundante
desarrollo de magnetita reemplazada por pirita, con cantidades menores de calcopirita y pirrotina.
Dos muestras de biotita de la alteración potásica han sido datadas en este trabajo mediante
K-Ar en 7.9±0.8 Ma y 8.0±0.8 Ma. Asimismo, la molibdenita de la mineralización ha sido
datada mediante el método de Re-Os en 8.4±0.1 Ma. Por consiguiente, puede establecerse un
claro vínculo temporal entre las mineralizaciones y el pórfido encajante.
Otros intrusivos porfiríticos cercanos a Colosa, como los de La Morena, Tierradentro,
Montecristo y Salento indican edades similares (entre 8.4 y 6.3 Ma), se encuentran también
mineralizados, lo que sugiere la existencia de un pulso magmático metalogenéticamente
importante en el área.
Hacia la parte sur, en el denominado trend de La Vega, se dataron en este trabajo intrusivos
porfiríticos tales como Dominical, Cerro Gordo y Betulia con el método de U-Pb en circón,
obteniéndose un rango de edades entre 9 y 18 Ma. Por consiguiente, este evento intrusivo es
algo más antiguo que el datado en la zona del valle del Cauca o en la zona de Cajamarca-
Salento.
20 Resumen
CONCLUSIONES
Como conclusión general del presente estudio, se determinaron al menos siete eventos
metalogénicos diferentes durante el Fanerozoico en los Andes Colombianos a escala regional.
Estos eventos se encuentran reflejados en el mapa metalogenético adjunto (fig. 1), en el que
asimismo se encuentra una síntesis de los principales depósitos de oro de Colombia en función
de su estilo de depósito, y en la figura 2, donde se sintetizan las edades obtenidas de
mineralizaciones y de sus rocas encajantes obtenidas en este trabajo.
Primer evento metalogénico
También denominado 'pre-Jurásico', incluye las escasas mineralizaciones auríferas asociadas

con los eventos magmáticos anteriores al Meso-Cenozoico. Los datos obtenidos en el presente
trabajo señalan a la mineralización aurífera asociada al Stock del Carmen (ca. 333-310Ma),
en el Distrito Minero del Bagre, como la única de edad claramente pre-Jurásica, e igualmente
descarta su relación temporal y posiblemente genética con la mineralizacion de otros distritos
mineros localizados a lo largo del corredor estructural de la Falla Otú.
Segundo evento metalogenético
Comprende mineralizaciones asociadas a la extensa actividad magmática desarrollada

durante el Jurásico en los Andes Colombianos. Dichas mineralizaciones parecen estar
restringidas en el tiempo al segundo arco magmático dentro de los tres que componen el
magmatismo Jurásico y se distribuyen espacialmente a lo largo de toda la región de la Serranía
de San Lucas y la parte sur del Batolito de Ibagué. Se destacan como principales tipos o
estilos de mineralización: depósitos de oro directamente relacionados al emplazamiento y
cristalización de los intrusivos Jurásicos (Intrusion-Related Gold Deposits), depósitos vetiformes
posiblemente asociados a cuerpos porfídicos o domos dacíticos Jurásicos y venas auríferas
con rasgos epitermales y brechas hospedadas indistintamente en diferentes litologías, pero
posiblemente asociadas al mismo evento Jurásico.
Figura 1 (página posterior). Mapa metalogenético simplificado de Colombia, indicando los

principales estilos de mineralización. Mapa tectónico base adaptado de Cediel et al. (2003).
Resumen 21
22
Figura 2. Síntesis de los eventos intrusivos y metalogenéticos auríferos del Fanerozoico de los Andes Colombianos.
Resumen
Resumen 23
Tercer evento metalogenético
Tiene su mejor expresión en las diferentes mineralizaciones auríferas relacionadas con los
pulsos magmáticos del Cretácico tardío, que componen el Batolito Antioqueño (Intrusion-
Related Gold Deposits). Los datos obtenidos en el desarrollo de esta investigación, demuestran
claramente que la mineralización del Distrito Minero de Segovia-Remedios, que históricamente
ha sido considerada de edad Jurásica por estar hospedada en el Batolito de Segovia de edad
Jurasico medio a tardío, es en realidad contemporánea con el segundo de los tres pulsos
magmáticos del Cretácico tardío que componen el Batolito Antioqueño, sugiriendo una posible
relación genética con éste.
Por otra parte, las edades obtenidas para los intrusivos que hospedan otras mineralizaciones
en el Batolito Antioqueño sugieren que éstas podrían estar asociadas temporal y genéticamente
con el tercer pulso magmático del Cretácico tardío, que contribuyó a la conformación del
batolito como se conoce actualmente.
Así, el Batolito Antioqueño constituye un intrusivo compuesto por diferentes pulsos
magmáticos con un ambiente propicio para la formación de distintos depósitos de oro
relacionados directamente al emplazamiento y cristalización de éstos (Intrusion-Related Gold
Deposits).
Otras mineralizaciones auríferas importantes que podrían incluirse en el tercer evento
magmático del Cretácico incluyen las relacionadas espacialmente al Batolito de Buga (92-
90Ma) y al Stock de Jejenes (ca. 85Ma), además de los depósitos vetiformes del distrito
minero de Berlín, hospedados en rocas metamórficas de bajo grado del Paleozoico inferior al
norte de la Cordillera Central, y diferentes depósitos de sulfuros masivos volcanogénicos ricos
en oro (El Roble, Anzá, El Dovio) hospedados en rocas meta-volcánicas y meta-sedimentarias
oceánicas de edad Cretácica del occidente colombiano.
Cuarto evento metalogenético
Comprende mineralizaciones auríferas espacialmente asociadas a los intrusivos Paleocenos

y Eocenos de la Cordillera Central. Dentro de éstas, las más importantes se encuentran
distribuidas dentro del 'corredor del Rio Nus' hacia la parte media-oriental del Batolito
Antioqueño. En dicho corredor, importantes depósitos de oro del tipo «Intrusion-Related Gold
Deposits» se encuentran asociados con rocas magmáticas Paleocenas ricas en sodio y con
rasgos geoquímicos 'adakíticos' caracteristicos.
24 Resumen
Otros distritos mineros menores, con mineralizaciones auríferas tentativamente incluidos

en este evento, son los de Argelia-Sonsón, Maltería y Líbano-Santa Isabel, que se encuentran
espacialmente relacionados, respectivamente, con el Batolito de Sonsón y los stocks de
Manizales y El Hatillo.
Quinto evento metalogenético
Está representado por las mineralizaciones de Cu(Au) tipo pórfido (Murindó, Pantanos-
Pegadorcito y Acandí) hospedadas en el arco magmático de Mandé-Acandí de edad Eoceno
medio. La edad de la mineralización determinada por Sillitoe et al (1982) es contemporánea
con las edades de cristalización de los intrusivos hipoabisales determinada durante esta
investigación, y sugiere que la formación de estos depósitos ocurrió en un ambiente intra-
oceánico previamente a la acreción del Arco del Chocó con el borde continental en el norte de
Colombia en el Mioceno.
Sexto evento metalogenético
Comprende las mineralizaciones vetiformes asociadas a los intrusivos del Mioceno temprano
del sur de la Cordillera Occidental (Batolito de Piedrancha, Stock del Vergel y Stock de Cuembí)
para las cuales se asume una edad similar a la de los intrusivos hospedantes (ca. 23-22Ma).
Séptimo evento metalogenético
Comprende mineralizaciones tipo pórfido y vetas epitermales espacial y temporalmente

asociadas a la intrusión de cuerpos hipoabisales del Mioceno tardío al Pleistoceno. Estos
depósitos están ampliamente distribuidos a lo largo de los Andes Colombianos. Dichos intrusivos
tienden a formar agrupaciones en áreas específicas, dentro de las cuales se destacan el corredor
de La Vega, el del valle medio del Río Cauca, la región de Cajamarca-Salento de Rio Dulce en
la Cordillera Central y el Distrito Minero de Vetas-California-Angostura en el Macizo de
Santander.
Este evento es considerado el más importante desde el punto de vista metalogenético por
su amplia distribución espacial y porque la mayoría de los recursos auríferos conocidos en la
actualidad están asociados al mismo, incluyendo los depósitos de Angostura, La Colosa,
Marmato y Buriticá.
Resumen 25
En resumen, los resultados obtenidos en la presente investigación indican que el gran

potencial aurífero de Colombia desde un punto de vista regional está principalmente asociado
con distintas épocas magmáticas que afectaron la región noroccidental de Sudamérica durante
el Fanerozoico, en especial durante el Mesozoico y el Cenozoico.
Así pues, tras una explotación histórica artesanal y de pequeña minería exhaustiva de los
depósitos superficiales de fácil acceso y extracción, el mayor potencial hacia el futuro se
encuentra relacionado con los depósitos de baja ley y gran tonelaje, especialmente con los
asociados al último evento magmático del Mioceno tardío-Pleistoceno.
ABSTRACT 27
ABSTRACT
The Colombian Andes are comprised of a complex association of autochothonous, para-

autochthonous and allochthonous components amalgamated along the northwestern margin of the
Guiana Shield since the Meso-Proterozoic. Major faults and reactivated suture systems provided
important controls on the emplacement of subduction-related calc-alkaline magmas throughout the
Phanerozoic.A close spatial-temporal relationship between gold occurrences, calc-alkaline magmatism
and Colombian tectonic evolution has been proposed in early regional metallogenic synthesis, but the
lack of precise age data for constraining magmatic crystallization, and interpreting hydrothermal
alteration and mineralization, rendered conclusions necessarily speculative.
In the present study, based upon historic data along with application of different analytical
techniques such as petrography, mineralogical analyses, whole-rock geochemistry, isotope
geochemistry and different geochronological methods, a regional synthesis of the Phanerozoic
gold metallogeny in the Colombian Andes is presented.
At least seven gold metallogenic events are identified in the Phanerozoic: 1) Pre-Jurassic,
2) Jurassic, 3) Cretaceous, 4) Paleocene – early Eocene 5) middle Eocene, 6) early Miocene,
and 7) late Miocene to Pleistocene.
The Pre-Jurassic metallogenic event comprises vein-type mineralization at El Carmen Stock
in the El Bagre Mining District as the only known gold occurrence.
The Jurassic metallogenic event includes different types and styles of gold mineralization at
the Serranía de San Lucas region and the southern Ibague Batholith. They are related to the
second of three east-to-west migrating magmatic arcs well-identified during Jurassic at ca.
210-200Ma, ca. 194-182Ma, and ca. 167-154Ma.
The Cretaceous metallogenic event comprises different intrusion related gold deposits
associated to late Cretaceous intrusives including the Antioquia Batholith, the Buga Batholith
and the Jejenes Stock.
The Paleocene - early Eocene metallogenic event includes the Paleocene adakite-like
magmatic pulse of the ‘Nur River Trend’ within the Antioquia Batholith magmatic suite and
associated gold deposits (e.g. Cerro Gramalote). Mineralization of the Sonsón-Argelia, Maltería
and Libano-Santa Isabel districts, spatially-related to the Sonsón Batholith, the Manizales Stock
and the El Hatillo Stock, respectively, are also include within this event
The middle Eocene metallogenic event comprises porphyry Cu(Au) mineralization
associated to the Mandé-Acandí arc formed in an intra-oceanic environment and accreted later
to the continent by the Miocene.
The early Miocene metallogenic event comprises vein-type mineralization spatially-related
to the Piedrancha Batholith and associated stocks in the Nariño Department.
Finally, the late Miocene to Pleistocene (Neogene) metallogenic event comprises porphyry-
type Au(Cu,Mo) and epithermal Au(Ag,As,Sb,Pb,Zn) occurrences associated to distinct arc
28 ABSTRACT
segments migrating in time and space shifting in both, a south-to-north and west-to-east directions.
In constitutes the most important metallogenic event as the majority of present-known gold
resources in Colombia are associated with porphyry-related deposits of late Miocene age,
including world-class deposits such as Angostura intermediate- to high-sulfidation epithermal
mineralization in the Santander Massif, La Colosa Au porphyry in the Central Cordillera, and
intermediate-sulfidation Zn-Pb-Ag-Au vein systems at Marmato in the Middle Cauca Trend,
and Buriticá in the Western Cordillera
New petrographic, mineralogical, geochemical and isotope data presented here, combined
with regional tectonic studies demonstrate a close temporal-spatial relationship between
Colombian gold metallogeny and the formation of subduction-related calc-alkaline arcs
throughout the Phanerozoic.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 1.1.
Overview of Gold Deposits vs. Time

in Colombia: Au Distribution vs.
Magmatism
1.1.1.- Pre-hispanian gold working cultures in Colombia 33
1.1.1. PRE-HISPANIAN GOLD WORKING CULTURES IN

COLOMBIA
Metallurgical practices in South America are 1.1.1.2. THE PACIFIC COAST REGION
believed to extend back some 35000 years,
originating in the altiplano region of Peru and Bolivia. The Pacific coast region comprises the
There practices were gradually assimilated by most flood plains and mangrove swamps of the
developed cultures of northern Peru and Ecuador, southern Pacific coast between Esmeraldas
spreading into the southern Pacific coast of Colombia (Ecuador) and Buenaventura, Colombia,
(Lleras, 2005). where the Tumaco-La Tolota cultures lived and
Over a period of 2,000 years, between extracted gold and platinum from extensive
the 5th century B.C. and the 15th century A.D., alluvial deposits.
metallurgical practices reach an advanced level
of development throughout Colombian
territory (Lleras, 2005). 1.1.1.3. THE CALIMA REGION
Pre-Columbian gold-working cultures in
the Colombian Andes include several The Calima region comprises the middle
indigenous cultures settled in specific regions, and upper Calima River and the flood plains
distinguished by their stylized art as reflected along the upper-middle Cauca River. The
in hand-made gold-pieces (Figure 1.1.1.1). history of the cultures settled in the Calima
In the following paragraphs, a brief region is subdivided into different periods
mention of the principal regions inhabited by including Pre-Ceramico (pre-1,500 B.C),
gold working cultures is presented. The Ilama (between 1,500 and 100 B.C.), Yotoco-
principle source on information includes Malagana (between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D.)
historic compilations as presented by the Gold and Sonso (between 650 and 1,700 A.D.).
Museum in Bogota, Colombia (Museo del The most important period for gold
Oro, 2010). metallurgy was the Yotoco-Malagana period,
where numerous objects and ornaments were
elaborated.
1.1.1.1. THE NARIÑO HIGH PLAIN
REGION
1.1.1.4. THE URABA-CHOCO REGION
In the Nariño high plain region, there were
different cultures including the Quillacingas The Urabá-Chocó region was the entrance
(settled in the central and northern plains) and and departure point of different cultures to
the Pastos (settled in the southern plains and South America, and the remains of goldworking
hill tops). These cultures used gold pieces as by various cultures are found therein. A clear
small ornaments and buried their dead with relationship with Mesoamerican gold working
pieces of gold as a tribute to their deities. cultures has been demonstrated.
34 SECTION 1.1.- OVERVIEW OF GOLD DEPOSITS VS. TIME IN COLOMBIA
Similar gold ornamental objects found in It is believed that Mesoamerican cultures

Panama and Costa Rica reveal trade learned metallurgy and gold working
relationships between the Uraba- Chocó techniques from the neighboring cultures in
cultures and Mesoamerica. northwestern Colombia.
Figure 1.1.1.1. Pre-hispanian gold-working cultures in colombia. Source: Museo del Oro
(2010).
1.1.1.- Pre-hispanian gold working cultures in Colombia 35
Gold objects made by the Urabá culture The production of copper objects was a
are similar to those elaborated by the early common activity, including the elaboration of
Quimbaya period cultures of the middle Cauca ornamental breastplates, bracelets, necklaces
River region to the south, demonstrating the and rattles.
south to north migration of metallurgical
techniques.
In the Chocó Pacific coastal region, gold 1.1.1.7. THE UPPER CAUCA REGION
extracted from alluvial deposits served as
source material for the elaboration of The upper Cauca region comprises the
ornamental objects and fish hooks. By 800 upper Cauca River basin along the western
A.D., gold used by peoples of the Panama bay flank of the Colombian massif. From 900 A.D.
area was provided by the Chocó culture. onwards, gold works, including ornamental
breastplates, pendants and objects utilizing
recurrent bird-like forms and representations,
1.1.1.5. THE MAGDALENA VALLEY appeared in this region.
REGION
The Magdalena River valley region is 1.1.1.8. THE CARIBBEAN PLAINS

located between Colombia’s Central and REGION
Eastern cordilleras.
Gold objects representing insects and The Caribbean plains region comprises the
small animals are common, as well as gold cups extensive plains of the Carribean coast of Colombia,
and bowls designed to serve as funeral where the Zenú (Sinú) culture was established.
ornamental objects. Gold ornaments in this region were
Human forms are also characteristic of the characterized by the use of different gold-rich
ornamental objects elaborated the cultures of Cu and Ag alloys. The use of filigree is a
the Magdalena Valley region. remarkable feature in the Zenú gold work.
1.1.1.6. THE MIDDLE CAUCA REGION 1 . 1 . 1 . 9 . T H E S I E R R A N E VA D A D E

SANTA MARTA REGION
The Middle Cauca region includes the
middle Cauca River valley, inhabited by the The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region
Quimbaya culture for about 2,000 years prior is located on the northern Caribbean coast, and
to the Spanish conquest. includes the entire Sierra Nevada de Santa
The history of this culture is divided into Marta and bordering lowlands.
two main periods: early Quimbaya and late The work developed by this culture
Quimbaya. involved the use of shells, metals and semi-
During the early Quimbaya period precious stones.
(between 500 B.C. and 600 A.D.), people A remarkable feature of the Nahuange
extracted gold from alluvial deposits. period of this region (from the 200 A.D.
From the 800 A.D. on, during the late onwards) involves the use of a gold-copper
Quimbaya period, the growth of the population alloy known as ‘tumbaga’, from which
led to an increase in many activities including hammered objects were made.
agriculture, textile production, and the The Tairona period (900-1600 A.D.) was
fabrication of gold ornaments and clay pottery. characterized by luxury ornamental objects and
Other cultural advances involved techniques for jewelry made of gold and precious stones,
the extraction of gold and salt, and the working which were worn by chiefs wielding both
of clay and metals, which were locally traded political and religious power, as well as by
with neighboring cultures. common people.
1.1.1.10. THE EASTERN 1.1.1.11. THE UPPER MAGDALENA

CORDILLERA REGION REGION (TIERRADENTRO)
The Muisca culture of Colombia’s Eastern In the Tierradentro Region of the upper
Cordillera made a wide variety of ornaments Magdalena River valley, different communities
and offering objects, fabricated from gold or have carved statues of volcanic rock and worked
copper, including gold-copper alloys. gold since 1000 B.C. onwards In this region,
On the basis of a wide variety of objects, different types of high-quality gold and pottery
three metallurgical styles have been identified, objects have been found. The delicate elaboration
used by different people and related to specific reveals the existence of social, political and
geographical areas within the Eastern religious leaders who acquired luxury ornaments
Cordillera. to highlight their social status.
Ordinary people wore small, simple
ornaments, whereas political and religious 1.1.1.12. THE UPPER MAGDALENA
leaders wore larger, more elaborate pieces. REGION (SAN AGUSTIN)
The Muisca culture developed a technique
to cast identical gold and copper objects The San Agustin region is comprised of the
through the use of matrices. mountains around San Agustin and the La Plata
Besides gold work, salt and emerald valley, at the headwaters of the Magdalena River.
mining and the production of coca leaves and Certain gold objects and designs were
pottery, played an important role in the common in the tombs of political and religious
economy of the Eastern Cordillera cultures. leader ‘s of the region.
1.1.2.- Gold Districts in Colombia 37
1.1.2. GOLD DISTRICTS IN COLOMBIA
Colombia is well-recognized as an historic to the Central and Western Cordilleras and the
gold-producing country, with gold production Pacific coastal plains (Figure 1.1.2.1).
dating from the pre-Columbian period through Alluvial gold districts in Colombia are
to present times. Based upon the revision of related to important fluvial drainages including
numerous references including Banco de la the Cauca and Magdalena River basins in
Republica (1994), Restrepo (1883), Emmons central Colombia and the San Juan-Atrato
(1937), Instituto de Estudios Colombianos basin and Micay-Timbiquí and Telembí
(1987) and INGEOMINAS, UPME and drainages of the Colombian Pacific margin.
MINERCOL (2000), total gold production in Within the extensive Cauca basin, the
Colombia can be estimated at ca. 86M ounces. Medellín-Porce and Nechi River systems,
This estimate considers pre- Columbian Supia - Rio Sucio drainage and the middle
gold production of ca. 500.000Oz.; Spanish Cauca River itself (Cartago - Cali area) have
colonial-period gold production of some recorded important production. In the
48’976.465 ounces and post-colonial period Magdalena Basin, the Nus River, the Ibagué
gold production of ca. 36’154.606 ounces. area, the Saldana River are recorded
Some 70 to 80% of the historic producers. The entire Pacific seaboard of
Colombian gold production has come from Colombia records significant gold (and
residual, colluvial or alluvial exploitation, platinum) production, including along the
whereas about 20 to 30% has been exploited Atrato and San Juan Rivers draining the Chocó
from ‘hard-rock’ or ‘primary’ gold sources region, and the San Juan de Micay and
(Utter, 1984; Shaw, 2003). Telembi-Barbacoas river systems draining the
In the following sections a summary of the Western Cordillera. The Guachicono-Patía
principle alluvial and primary source gold- Rivers, draining the western Colombian massif and
producing districts and regions in Colombia, eastern flanks of the Western Cordillera have
as illustrated by Shaw (2003) and Lopéz been historically worked for placer gold deposits.
(2009), is presented.
The lower Cauca river basin

1.1.2.1. ALLUVIAL GOLD DISTRICTS
By far, the most important alluvial
Alluvial gold deposits have produced province in Colombia includes the lower Cauca
about 70-80% of the total gold production in and Nechi River basins, the draining the
Colombia. northeastern segment of the Central Cordillera.
The distribution of the most important This region has provided about 35% of the
alluvial gold districts is more or less restricted total historic gold production of the country.
This region includes the lower Cauca and metamorphic rocks and late Paleozoic to
Nechí rivers basins which drain several Paleocene intrusives in the northern Central
districts of vein- type gold mineralization hosted Cordillera and the western flank of the Serranía
in the Proterozoic to early Paleozoic de San Lucas (e.g. the Carboniferous
Figure 1.1.2.1. Alluvial gold districts in Colombia. Modified after Shaw (2003 ).
leucogranites of the El Carmen Stock, the thriving artisanal production. Minor amounts
Permo-Triassic Nechi gneisses, the late of platinum accompany the gold.
Jurassic Segovia Batholith and the late Primary sources for the alluvial gold
Cretaceous to Paleocene Antioquia Batholith). deposits of this region are believed to be the
Gold exploitation in this region was product of erosion of various styles of
developed in pre-Columbian times and been mineralization located in the Western
continues today the most productive gold Cordillera the east, hosted in the early- to mid-
province in the country. Cretaceous, oceanic-affinity Dagua-Diabasico
assemblage, which is cut by intrusive rocks of
the early Miocene Piedrancha Batholith and
The Atrato and San Juan river basins related plutons.
The Atrato and San Juan river basins,

separating the Chocó segment of the Western The Micay and Timbiquí rivers basins
Cordillera and the Serranía de Baudó, drain
oceanic-affinity sedimentary and volcanic The Micay and Timbiquí rivers basins
rocks of the Cañas Gordas group along with discharge along the Pacific coastal plains to
Eocene calc-alkaline intrusive rocks of the about 150km to the northeast of Barbacoas
Mandé Batholith and its associated volcanic and the Telembí river drainage.
sequence, the La Equis-Santa Cecilia groups. In this area, gold mineralization can be
Gold exploitation in the Atrato and San sourced to the primary deposits hosted in the
Juan rivers basins dates from pre-Columbian Dagua-Diabasico assemblage to the east.
times. Production increased greatly however, This area is less important than the
during the Spanish colonial and post-colonial Telembí area in terms of historic gold
period and continues into the present. production, but increasing interest in recent
In this region, the notable occurrence of decades has traced the deposits into the stream
native platinum-palladium alloys with the course of several rivers including the San Juan
alluvial gold occurrences, has long been de Micay, Timbiquí, Pique, Napí and Guapi.
recorded in the mining history. In fact, at times There is no record of platinum production
gold has been considered a by-product to from this region.
platinum production.
In fact, Platinum was first recorded in this
region by the colonial period Spanish, and 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . P R I M A RY S O U R C E G O L D
during the middle XIX century, the Chocó DISTRICTS
region was the world’s only known source of
native platinum. Despite their lesser importance in terms
of historic Colombian gold production, primary
source gold occurrences are far more
The Telembí river basin numerous than alluvial ones (INGEOMINAS,
1999; Salinas et al., 1999; Shaw, 2003).
The Telembí river basin discharges into Most important primary source gold
Colombia’s southernmost Pacific coastal plain, occurrences in Colombia are widely distributed
a region in which the where Tumaco culture over the physiographic Central and Western
developed its gold working tradition during pre- cordilleras, being particularly well exposed
Columbian times. along slopes bordering the Cauca river (Figure
Throughout the colonial period and into 1.1.2.2).
the present gold exploitation remains active. The only known gold district of modern-
Historically intense work by foreign companies day importance located within the eastern
along the Telembí river and its tributaries at Colombian Andes (including the Garzon
Barbacoas has given way to the presently massif, the Eastern Cordilleran and the
Santander massif), is the Vetas-California (- From a production standpoint, the most

Angostura), hosted within the Santander massif important primary source gold districts in
(Figure 1.1.2.2). To the north, poorly Colombia are of a mixed genetic origin, Within
documented gold manifestations are known historic records they are generally referred to
within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. as ‘vein-type’ or ‘disseminated’ deposits
Figure 1.1.2.2. Primary source (‘vein-type’, ‘disseminated’) gold districts in Colombia.

Modified after Shaw (2003 ).
depending upon the nature of the gold Restrepo (1883). Although no formal record
occurrence. of post-colonial production is available,
In the following paragraphs a brief artisanal mining continues today.
mention of the most important historic gold In more recent times, artisanal mining activity
districts is presented based information has spread throughout the Serrania de San Lucas,
presented by Restrepo (1883) and that as highlighted by an important increase in
compiled by Shaw (2003). The districts area recorded artisanal production. For example,
presented geographically, from NE to SW. between 1987 and 1994 the region recorded ca.
1.3 million ounces of gold production, and has
been recording ca. 200,000 ounces per year of
The Vetas-California Mining District production since the early 1990’s (Shaw, 2003).
Gold (silver) mineralization occurs as
The Vetas-California (-Angostura) district is structurally-controlled veins, breccias and
the only gold producing area of importance located disseminations, hosted in the early to middle
within the eastern Colombia Andes (Figure Jurassic Norosí-San Martin Batholith and
1.1.2.2). The principle mines of the district are penecontemporaneous volcano-sedimentary
located around the Vetas and California townsites, rocks of the Norean Formation, as well as in
following a NE trend to the La Alta area near to Proterozoic metamorphic basement, out
Angostura. cropping sporatically throughout and along the
Vetas-Califonia is an important gold district, margins of the Serrania de San Lucas.
with a rich pre-Columbian to present mining In modern times, numerous additional gold
history. Gold production exceeding one million occurrences have been discovered by artisanal
ounces can be inferred. Based upon modern-day miners throughout the Serrania. Roughly from
exploration, district endowment exceeds 12 north to south, the most important clusters of
million ounces (Felder et al., 2005; Shaw, pers. occurrences include; Santa Cruz, Nigua-
comm.) Pueblito Mejia, Cerro San Carlos-Culo Alzao,
Gold mineralization is hosted within the Mina Brisa - El Oso – Tiquisio, Toribio, San
Santander Massif, a geologically complex region Pedro Frio, Santa Rosa del Sur and Cerro
with a tectono-magmatic history closely related Pelado. The Guamoco district is hosted within
to the prolonged evolution of the Bucaramanga- Proterozoic basement along the western margin
Santa Marta-Suaza Fault and Suture System. of the Serrania de San Lucas (see Section 4.3).
Gold in the district, including the recent
discovery of porphyry-associted Au-Cu-Mo
mineralization is intimately associated with Late The El Bagre-Nechí Mining District
Miocene hypabyssal porphyry (Mantilla et al.,
2009; this work). The El Bagre-Nechí Mining District
The late Miocene age for the mineralization comprises gold mineralizations around the El
in the district, precludes previously published Bagre, Zaragoza and Nechí townsites (Figure
Jurassic through Paleocene ages (e.g. Sillitoe et 1.1.2.2). The great majority of historic production
al., 1982; Mathur et al., 2003). from this district was derived from alluvial
deposits.
Regardless, numerous occurrences of
The San Martin de Loba - Northern San vein-type gold mineralization are also
Lucas region recognized (Londoño et al., 2009).
To the north around Nechí, mineralized
The San Martin de Loba – Juana Sanchez NNE-striking veins hosted in metamorphosed
area is located in the northern-most Serrania Permo-Triassic intrusive rocks and the
de San Lucas (Figure 1.1.2.2). northern-most exposures of the Segovia
Pre-Columbian through Colonial gold Batholith can be followed for more than 3km
production in this region is described by along strike.
To the south at El Bagre - Zaragoza, Important underground development in the

various structurally-controlled vein systems are district during the late 1920’s through early
recognized, including La Ye - El Carmen, 1940’s recorded gold production of ca.
hosted in late Paleozoic (Carboniferous) 350,000 ounces. Localized artisanal
intrusive rocks of the El Carmen Stock, and exploitation in the district continues up to
El Limon, which cuts early Paleozoic present times.
metamorphic basement. The principle system measures up to 25
metres wide, comprising several ‘ore shoots’
along a north-south trend. The mineralized
The Segovia-Remedios Mining District structure dips 50° to 80° to the east.
Mineralization is hosted within low-grade
The historic Segovia-Remedios Mining early Paleozoic metamorphic rocks of the
District is the most important ‘vein-type’ Valdivia group. The Berlin district intruded by
district in Colombia (Figure 1.1.2.2). It is diorite plugs, and felsic and mafic dikes which
situated within the upper catchment of the cut the mineralized vein system (Shaw, 2003).
Nechi River and likely also contributed to the Historic gold production grades averaged 18
source of the extensive placer deposits of the grams per tonne. Gold is found mostly as free
Nechi basin. The primary source deposits of particles in quartz.
the district have produced in excess of 8 million The age of the mineralization in the Berlin
ounces of gold (Shaw, 2003; Echeverry et al., district is not well constrained.
2009), and various millons of ounces of
resources can be inferred within the numerous
unexploited veins. The La Bramadora – Anori - Amalfi
Gold mineralization is hosted mostly in the District
late Jurassic Segovia Batholith, with the El
Silencio-Providencia-Sandra K vein system La Bramadora – Anori - Amalfi district is
being the historically most productive. located in the northern Central Cordillera
Regardless, similar mineralization is observed (Figure 1.1.2.2), and includes important
in discrete veins extending from Machuca in historic gold mineralization hosted in low-grade
the north to Santa Isabel in the south, cutting early Paleozoic metamorphic rocks of the
the Segovia batholith, and Proterozoic and Valdivia group anlong the northern-most margin
early Paleozoic metamorphic basement rocks. of the composite Antioquia Batholith.
Remarkable along-strike and down-dip The most important cluster of occurrences
continuity characterize gold mineralization in the is known and La Bramadora, where, according
Segovia-Remedios district. A clear structural to Shaw (2003), over 1 million ounces of gold
control to mineralization has been established from discrete quartz-sulfide veins has been
(Echeverri, 2006; Alvarez et al., 2007; produced.
Echeverry et al., 2009). The La Bramadora deposits consist of at
least 12 NE striking subvertical auriferous veins
containing quartz, base metal sulphides and
The Berlin Mining District sulphosalts.
The Berlin Mining District is located along

the northwestern-most margin of the Central The Buritica-Frontino Mining District
Cordillera (Figure 1.1.2.2).
The district is developed along an The Buritica-Frontino Mining District is
auriferous vein system can be followed for ca. located in the Chocó segment of the Western
13km along strike direction. It has been mined Cordillera (Figure 1.1.2.2).
over a vertical extension of ca. 800m (Shaw, Gold production from Buritica dates from
2003). pre-Columbian times, when it constituted the
principle gold source for the Sinú culture in the The most important primary source gold
Caribbean coast. During the colonial period mineralization along the Nus River is Cerro
however gold production was minimal. The Gramalote near the town of Providencia, where
post-colonial period provides the most structurally controlled Au-Ag-Mo-Bi-Te
important gold exploitation from both the mineralization is hosted within the Antioquia
Buritica and Frontino areas (Shaw, 2003). At Batholith.
present exploitation and exploration are
ongoing.
The Buritica - Frontino districts are hosted The Sonson-Argelia Mining District
within the allochthonous oceanic-affinity
sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Cañas The Sonsón-Argelia Mining District is
Gordas Group. located in the mid-Central Cordillera in (Figure
In both areas mineralization is intimately 1.1.2.2). Minor gold production was derived
associated with Late Miocene stocks. Veining from the post colonial period through to the
generally strikes east-west, cutting both the early-mid twentieth century.
intrusive and proximal volcano-sedimentary Mineralization is hosted within
sequence. granodiorite and tonalite of the northern
portion of the Sonsón Batholith.
Several vein-type occurrences have been
The Paramo de Frontino Mining Area reported in the district but little recent
exploitation has been developed upon them.
The Paramo de Frontino area is located
to the south of Buritica - Frontino (Figure
1.1.2.2). The Rio Dulce Mining District
Historic exploitations focused on the
Lunareja structure, an east – west striking 3- The Rio Dulce Mining District is located in
4Km long structure averaging over 20 metres the axial region of the Central Cordillera, azone
wide. The structure contains hydrothermal hosting the northern extension of the active
quartz and patchy base metals. Based upon northern Andean volcanic arc (Figure 1.1.2.2).
historic reports, silver tends to dominate over A c c o r d i n g t o Va rg a s ( 2 0 1 0 ) , g o l d
gold. mineralization in the area is associated
From a geological viewpoint, the Paramo Pleistocene hypabyssal intrusives and diatreme
de Frontino region comprises middle to late breccias hosted in the low-grade early
Miocene calc-alkaline volcanic-plutonic Paleozoic metamorphic basement of the the
complex with evidences for various Cajamarca and Valdivia Groups.
hydrothermal mineralization-styles (Shaw, Most interesting mineralization in the
2003). district includes the Rio Dulce-Arboledas,
Espiritu Santo and Santa Rita areas.
The Nus River Mining District

The Middle Cauca region
The Nus River mining district includes
numerous gold occurrences distributed along According to Shaw (2003), the Middle
the W-to-E draining Nus River, in the northen Cauca Mining District comprises different
Central Cordillera (Figure 1.1.2.2). individual mining districts located along a N-S
The discovery of gold and alluvial mining axis extending for ca. 95 km along the middle
in the region was initiated in late Spanish Cauca River basin.
colonial times, and to date the various deposits Based on the present knowledge, the
have produced an estimated 1 million ounces Middle Cauca region contains important gold
of gold (Shaw, 2003). districts including Titiribí - La Mina (Venecia),
L a Q u e b r a d o n a ( J e r i c ó ) , Va l p a r a i s o - The Cajamarca-Salento Mining District

Caramanta, Marmato, Supía – Rio Sucio,
Quinchía and Marsella. The Cajamarca-Salento district is located in
Gold production along the belt dates from the axial region of the Central Cordillera, to the south
pre-Columbian times, but was industrialized of Rio Dulce (Figure 1.1.2.2). Gold production from
mostly during the early post-colonial period. this region has been obtained mostly from limited
At present the belt is the focus of extensive alluvial deposits and widespread small-scale primary
modern exploration activity and hosts source deposits. Overall however, production is
significant qualified gold, silver (copper-lead- considered to be minor.
zinz) resources. Historically, the most productive vein-type
Marmato and Titiribí are the most gold mineralization includes La Morena – La
important hard rock districts in the Middle Cubana located near Salento townsite, and the
Cauca region, with a recorded combined gold San Antonio breccias located to the northwest of
production exceeding 3 million ounces of gold Cajamarca.
in addition to multi-million ounce silver credits. From a geological viewpoint, the Cajamarca-
In particular, Titiribí became the most Salento district is underlain by low-grade
prolific gold-producer in Colombia between metamorphic rocks of the early Paleozoic
ca. 1870 to 1930 (Shaw, 2003). Cajamarca and Valdivia Groups. A cluster of
Historic gold production in the Supía area hypabyssal porphyritic socks and dykes invades
came from the exploitation of alluvial gold the district and is interpreted as the driving force
deposits proximal to a porphyry-hosted vein- behind various types of observed vein-type and
type mineralization (Shaw, 2003). disseminated mineralization.
The deposits are mostly hosted within The 2007 discovery of the late Miocene La
tectonized oceanic rocks of the Romeral Colosa gold porphyry deposit, with more than
terrane, Oligo-Miocene clastic sedimentary 12 million ounces of gold resources located near
rocks of the Amaga Formation and volcanic Cajamarca townsite (Lodder et al., 2010), has
rocks of the Combia Formation. These units greatly increased modern exploration interest in
have been intruded by a belt of late Miocene this and other areas of the Colombian Andes.
hypabyssal diorite and granodiorite porphyry
stocks and dykes which control the
manifestation of mineralization. The Ibague-Santa Isabel-Libano Mining District
The Ibague - Santa Isabel - Libano mining

The Puerto de Oro Mining District district is comprised of a series of isolated vein
sets located within the Magdalena drainage basin,
The Puerto de Oro Mining District is on the eastern side of the Central Cordillera,
located within the Western Cordillera, along extending from north of the city if Ibague, through
the Garrapatas fault and suture zone which Santa Isabel, to the north of the town of Libano
delimits the southern margin of the Chocó Arc (Figure 1.1.2.2). The deposits have been worked
(Figure 1.1.2.2). intermittently since colonial times. Recent gold
This district has provided modest gold production has been restricted to certain areas
production, mainly dating from the early such as Las Animas near Santa Isabel and El Cairo
1900’s, when a high-grade vein swarms hosted to the north near the town of Libano.
in highly altered volcanic rocks were exploited
(Shaw, 2003).
Gold mineralization consists of sheeted The San Luis Mining District
quartz-carbonate vein swarms cutting
tectonized volcano-sedimentary rocks of the The San Luis Mining District is located in
Canas Gordas Group. The most important mine the southern Central Cordillera to the west of
in the area is known as Las Camelias. the city of Neiva (Figure 1.1.2.2). Most of the
gold production was extracted during post- Gold mineralization shares a similar setting
colonial times, particularly during the early XX with the Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires-
century. Recent exploitation in the area is Suarez district, being related porphyry stocks
limited to small scale and artisanal mining intruded into Romeral basement schists and
works (Shaw, 2003). overlying Oligocene sedimentary sequences
Gold mineralization is hosted within the (Shaw, 2003).
southeastern flank of the Ibagué Batholith, as
well as within the contemporaneous volcanic
rocks of the Saldana Formation. The La Llanada-Sotomayor Mining
District
The Santander de Quilichao-Buenos The La Llanada-Sotomayor Mining Districtis

Aires-Suarez Mining District located in the southern Western Cordillera, in
the Nariño Department (Figure 1.1.2.2).
The Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires- Constant artisanal and small-scale mechanized
Suarez district is located within the upper Cauca production initiating in colonial times has
River drainage, along the eastern margin of the probably produced more than 1MOz of gold.
Western Cordillera (Figure 1.1.2.2). Important historic to recent mines in the region
Gold exploitation in the area dates from include those observed at El Diamante,
pre-Columbian times, when extensive alluvial Samaniego, La Concordia, La Llanada,
gold deposits provided gold for the Calima Sotomayor and Cumbitara, among others
culture gold ornaments. (Shaw, 2003).
During the colonial times, important gold Gold mineralization is comprised of veins,
exploitation came from alluvial deposits, vein-swarms and stockworks spatially
whereas post-colonial to present times gold associated with early Miocene diorite to
exploitation comprises numerous small-scale in tonalite plutons (e.g. the La Llanada - El Vergel
situ hard rock mining works (Shaw, 2003). and Cumbitara stocks).
From a geological viewpoint, the region is In addition, vein-type mineralization is
underlain by Romeral and/or Dagua terrane hosted within Cretaceous oceanic rocks of the
basement, uncomformably overlain by Eo- Dagua-Diabasico assemblage (Shaw, 2003).
Oligocene sedimentary sequences. Miocene and
Plio-Pleistocene hypabyssal porphyry stocks cut
the area. Gold mineralization is related to the The Piedrancha Mining District
emplacement of the porphyritic rocks.
The Piedrancha Mining District is located
in the southern-most Western Cordillera to the
The La Vega-La Sierra Mining District south of the La Llanada-Sotomayor Mining
District (Section 1.1.2.1; Figure 1.1.2.2).
The La Vega-La Sierra district is located in Historically, gold production in the area has
the upper Patía River drainage of the Colombian been modest and is mostly abandoned at the
Massif. Gold extraction around the Altamira, present time. The El Porvenir Mine is the most
Almaguer and La Vega townsites dates from pre- important historic mining area, dating from ca.
Columbian times (Shaw, 2003) (Figure 1.1.2.2). 1910. At El Porvenir, veins located in the contact
The most important historic mine in the region is between the Piedrancha Batholith and middle
the La Concepcion Mine to the north of the Cretaceous rocks of the Dagua-Diabasico
Almaguer townsite. assemblage are observed (Shaw, 2003).
1.1.3.- Gold Ocurrences Distribution Vs. Magmatism in colombia 47
1.1.3. GOLD OCCURRENCES DISTRIBUTION VS.

MAGMATISM IN COLOMBIA
A spatial relationship between primary (in In the following sections, a brief summary
situ) gold deposits and magmatic (intrusive and and synthesis of gold deposits vs. magmatic
volcanic) rocks in the Colombian Andes has rocks in the Colombian Andes is presented.
long been recognized (Radelli, 1962; Sillitoe The summary and synthesis are considered in
et al., 1982; Utter, 1984; Shaw, 2000; Shaw, terms of five time periods, including; the 1) pre-
2003; Sillitoe, 2008b). Jurassic, 2) Jurassic, 3) Cretaceous to early
Early radiometric age determinations upon Eocene, 4) middle Eocene-Oligocene and 5)
intrusive rocks included mostly the K-Ar and Miocene to Plio- Pleistocene (Figure 1.1.3.1).
Rb-Sr techniques from the 1960’s – 1980’s. In general, pre-Jurassic, Jurassic and the
These data permitted the definition of magmatic majority of Cretaceous to early Eocene
epochs affecting the Colombian Andes magmatism was emplaced within a continental
extending from the early Paleozoic to present (margin) arc-type setting, whilst post-Eocene
times (Aspden et al., 1987; Maya, 1992). magmatism was emplaced into an accretionary
P r e c i s e A r- A r a n d U - P b ( z i r c o n ) margin modified by numerous Cretaceous
magmatic crystallization age determinations of through Miocene tectonic events involving the
intrusive rocks in the Colombian Andes are emplacement of allochthonous terranes of
scarce, being limited to post-1995 publications oceanic provenance. In this context some of
(e.g. Dorr et al., 1995, Ordoñez and Pimentel, the Cretaceous and later plutonic components
2001a; Ordoñez et al., 2001, along the accretionary margin could be
2007a,b; Vinasco, 2004; Correa et al., allochthonous (e.g. Cediel et al, 2003).
2006; Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibañez-Mejía,
2007,
2008; Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2007; 1.1.3.1. GOLD DEPOSITS VS. PRE-
Mejía et al., 2008; Villagomez et al., 2008; JURASSIC MAGMATISM
Cardona et al., 2010b, 2011; Montes et al.,
2010; Horton et al., 2010; Weber, 2010). Pre-Jurassic magmatism in the Colombian
According to Shaw (2000), based Andes is relatively restricted, being observed
primarily upon the pre-1995 radiometric age in small plutons of early Paleozoic (Cambrian-
determinations database (i.e. Maya, 1992), the Ordovician) age, located in the Santander,
Jurassic, early to late Cretaceous, Paleogene Floresta and Quetame massifs (Goldsmith,
and Neogene constitute the ages of greatest 1971; Boinet et al., 1985; Ordoñez-Carmona
importance with respect to gold metallogeny et al., 2006; Horton et al, 2010). In the Permo-
in the Colombian Andes. Triassic, elongate syn-kinematic granitoids
Figure 1.1.3.1. Gold occurrences distribution vs. magmatism in Colombia.

were emplaced along the eastern and western Extensive penecontemporaneous Jurassic
flanks of the Central Cordillera, in the lower volcano-sedimentary sequences out crop along
Magdalena Basin and in the Sierra Nevada de the eastern flank of the plutonic trend in the
Santa Marta (Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibañez- upper and middle Magdalena river basin
Mejía, 2008; Villagomez et al., 2008; Montes (Saldana Formation), in the Serrania de San
et al., 2010; Cardona et al., 2010; Weber et Lucas (Norean Formation), the Sierra Nevada
al., 2010). de Santa Marta (Giron Group) and also in the
Gold mineralization spatially associated Santander Massif (Giron Group).
with pre-Jurassic intrusives is limited. It Regarding gold mineralization spatially
includes Au-Ag mineralization of Angostura, in associated with Jurassic magmatism, numerous
the Vetas-California District, in the Santander gold occurrences are hosted within the Jurassic
Massif, which is partially hosted within early batholiths and peripheral volcano-sedimentary
Paleozoic gneissic granitoids (this work). sequences. Especially noteworthy is
Mineralization at Angostura however, is mineralization within the surrounding the
considered to be Miocene in age (this work). Ibague, Norosi – San Martin de Loba,
In addition, vein-type mineralization is hosted Santander Massif and Segovia batholiths. The
within Permo-Triassic orthogneiss and age of mineralization can be constrained to the
granitoid in the Nechi area north of El Bagre, Jurassic in many cases; in others the
and in similar aged rocks to the south of mineralization is demonstrably younger.
Guamoco. In either case, the age of
mineralization has not been established but is
considered to be post-Triassic. 1.1.3.3. GOLD DEPOSITS VS.
CRETACEOUS TO ERALY EOCENE
MAGMATISM
1.1.3.2. GOLD DEPOSITS VS. JURASSIC
MAGMATISM The most important expression of arec-
related Cretaceous to earliest Eocene
Jurassic magmatism in the Colombian magmatism in the Colombian Andes is the ca.
Andes is widespread, exposed along a near 8000 square kilometre Antioquia Batholith,
continuous NE-trending belt extending from which forms the core of the entire northern
the Ecuador border through the Garzon Massif sector of Colombia’s Central Cordillera.
and eastern flank of Central Cordillera, in the Within the Central Cordillera, other Paleocene-
Santander Massif and Serrania de San Lucas, early Eocene intrusives in the extending to the
and over large areas within the Sierra Nevada south of the Antioquia Batholith include the
de Santa (Aspden et al., 1987; Figure Sonsón and El Bosque batholiths and the El
1.1.3.1). Hatillo and Manizales stocks
The Jurassic volcano-plutonic suites are (Aspden et al., 1987; Maya, 1992).
characterized by large, composite, generally Additional Cretaceous magmatism is
elongate batholithic plutons, including, from observed in various small batholiths and stocks
south to north, the Mocoa Batholith, the Ibagué located within and to the west of the Romeral
Batholith, the Segovia Batholith, the Norosí- Fault System, including the Sabanalarga,
San Martin Batholith, the batholiths and stocks Mistrato and Buga batholiths and the Jejenes,
of the Santander Massif (Paramo Rico, Santa Zabaletas, Irra, El 18 and El Palmar stocks;
Barbara, Mogotes, Rio Negro) and the Aspden and McCourt, 1986; Villagomez et al.,
batholiths of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta 2008).
(Aracataca, Central, Pueblo Bello, and Gold deposits and occurrences spatially
Patillal). In some cases the composite batholiths associated with Cretaceous to early Eocene
are dismembered by post-Jurassic tectonism magmatism in the Colombian Andes are
and faulting (e.g. Mocoa, northern Ibague, widespread, and include important historic to
Segovia). recent districts within and peripheral to the
Antioquia, Sonsón, and Buga batholiths and porphyry stocks and dikes become
the Manizales, El Hatillo, Irra and Jejenes increasingly more numerous, such that by the
stocks. The age of mineralzation hosted within late Miocene various districts dominated by
the Buga Batholith, and Jejenes Stock has not hypabyssal porphyritic rocks are recorded.
been fully constrained. With respect to holocrystalline plutons,
calc-alkaline intrusive rocks of the Piedrancha
Batholith and associated stocks (e.g. El Vergel,
1.1.3.4. GOLD DEPOSITS VS. EOCENE La Llanada, Sotomayor and Cumbitara; ca.
MAGMATISM 23-21Ma) are observed in the southern-most
Western Cordillera, where the intrude oceanic-
Eocene magmatism in the Colombian affinity sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the
Andes is mostly localized along the western Dagua-Diabasico Groups. Numerous Au-rich,
flank of the northern (Chocó Arc) segment of structurally controlled quartz-sulphide veins
the Western Cordillera, where the inter-oceanic are hosted within both intrusive and volcano-
calc-alkaline Mandé and Acandí batholiths sedimentary rocks. To the north, in the Andes,
intrude early Cretaceous basement comprised Paramo de Frontino and (Old) Frontino –
of the oceanic volcanic and sedimentary rocks Morrogacho areas, auriferous veins are hosted
of the Canas Gordas Group. The La Equis and within and the Farallones Batholith, the Paramo
Santa Cecilia Formations form the de Frontino and El Cerro-Morrogacho stocks
penecontemporaneous volcanic expression of and surrounding Canas Gordas Group country
the Mandé - Acandí magmatic arc. rocks.
Gold mineralization and occurrences With respect to the porphyry centres, in
associated with this Eocene magmatic arc southern Colombia, within the Colombian
include porphyry-related Cu (+/- Mo, Au massif and along the upper Cauca – Parita
deposits, localized along the western margin drainages, ca. 17-9Ma hypabyssal porphyry
of the Mandé Batholith, including Murindó, intrusives in the Berruecos-Arboleda, Cerro
Pantanos, Pegadorcito, Rio Comita Acandí and Bolivar, La Vega-Dominical-La Sierra and
Río Pito (Sillitoe et al., 1982). Auriferous veins Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires- Suarez
containing base metal sulphides cut the La areas intrude mixed Romeral terrane and
Equis Formation at the La Equis mine on the Dagua- Diabasico assemblage basement, and
eastern margin of the Mandé Batholith. Eo-Oligocene sedimentary sequences including
the Mosquera and Esmita Formations.
Porphyry-style Au-Cu and related epithermal
1.1.3.5. GOLD DEPOSITS VS. MIOCENE Au mineralization is related to these porphyry
MAGMATISM centres.
To the north, along the eastern and western
Wi t h i n t h e C o l o m b i a n A n d e s , margins of the middle Cauca river basin,
manifestations of early to late Miocene various late Miocene (ca. 9-6Ma) hypabyssal
magmatism are widespread, being particularly porphyry intrusives define a ca. 95km long N-
abundant within the Central and Western S trend extending from near the town of
Cordilleras, both to the east and west of the Marsella in the south, through the towns of
Cauca and Patia River systems. A notable Quinchia, Marmato, Jerico and Venecia-
“outlier” magmatic centre of late Miocene age Fredonia to Titiribi in the north. Numerous
is observed in the Vetas-California area of the porphyritic stocks and dykes intrude the
Santander massif. In many instances, Miocene tectonized Romeral basement assemblage. The
intrusive rocks include holocrystalline Combia Formation volcanic sequence is
batholiths and stocks elongated along the penecontemporaneous with the porphyritic
general NNE trend of the northern Andes. stocks. Porphyry-style Au (Cu) and epithermal
However, beginning in the middle Miocene, Au mineralization is related to the porphyry
clusters of intermediate to felsic hypabyssal centres.
Farther to the north and west, in the Choco 1.1.3.6. GOLD DEPOSITS VS.
Arc segment of the Western Cordillera, late PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE
Miocene (ca. 12Ma) holocrystalline stocks aat MAGMATISM
El Cerro and Morrocacho host vein-style Au
mineralization, as does a hypabyssal porphyry In Colombia, Pliocene to Pleistocene
centre at Buritica. Mineralization in all of these magmatism, including the modern-day volcanic
intrusives extends into the host early Cretaceous activity within the Northern Volcanic Zone as
Canas Gordas Group basement rocks. referred to by Stern (2004), is distributed
In the Central Cordillera, important late mostly within the Western and Central
Miocene porphyritic magmatism is clustered Cordilleras. Isolated, outlying magmatic
within a 100 square kilometre area extending centres of alkaline affinity are observed within
around the towns of Cajamarca, Salento and Colombia’s Eastern Cordillera at Paipa-Iza
Toche. Porphyry-style and epithermal Au (Ag) and Quetame.
mineralization cutting the Cajamarca Group Gold occurrences associated to the
metamorphic basement is directly related to the Pliocene-Pleistocene magmatism are scarce.
porphyry stocks. Two areas however are notworthy.
Within the cordilleran system of Eastern In the Rio Dulce area, Pliocene-
Colombia the only significant manifestation of late Pleistocene hypabyssal porphyry stocks and
Miocene magmatism is located at Vetas-California. related diatreme and hydrothermal breccias
Here a cluster or hypabyssal porphyries intrude contain Au-Ag mineralization. These stocks are
metamorphic basement and Jurassic plutonic rocks. emplaced into low-grade metamorphic
Porphyry-style Au-Mo (Cu) and epithermal Au-Ag basement of the the Cajamarca - Valdivia
mineralization is observed. Group.
From a metallogenetic viewpoint, The youngest dated Au mineralization in
Miocene porphyritic magmatism is of great Colombia is observed on the west flank of the
interest given that all of the Miocene porphyry Galeras volcano, north of the city of Pasto, in
clusters have spatially associated mineralization the southern Western Cordillera. Auriferous
and occurrences, including porphyry-type Au epithermal veins cutting Pliestocene volcanic
(Ag, Cu) systems and associated epithermal rocks were dated at ca. 520,000 +/- 110,000
mineralization. years by Goff et al. (1994).
SECTION 1.2.
Gold Deposits Related to

Compressive Tectonic Margins:
A «State of Art» Overview
1.2.1. - Introduction 55
1.2.1. INTRODUCTION
1.2.1.1. MINERAL DEPOSITS Vs. Mineral deposits related to divergent

TECTONIC SETTINGS margins include sediment-hosted syn- to epi-
genetic deposits in passive continental margins
Good compilations and synthetic reviews (e.g. beach sand deposits, Banded Iron
on the relationship between tectonic settings Formation (BIF), manganese deposits) and
and mineral deposits are made by Sawkins deposits directly associated to oceanic
(1990), Groves et al. (2005), Kerrich et al. spreading ridges (e.g. mafic type of
(2005) and Groves and Bierlein (2007). Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide (VMS),
According to the tectonic settings in which structurally modified magmatic podiform
they form, mineral deposits can be classified chromite) (Figure 1.2.1.1).
in those related to intracratonic extension, Not surprisingly, the greatest variety of
those related to intracontinental rifting or mineral deposits is associated with convergent
continental break-up, those related to margin settings or accretionary orogens, where
divergent margin tectonics and those related a complex assemblage of tectonic
to convergent margin tectonics (Groves and environments and multiple geologic processes
Bierlein, 2007).
Mineral deposits related to intracratonic
extension environments include the deposits
related to mantle basic magmatism (i.e.
Platinum Group Elements (PGE) deposits in
layered intrusions), deposits related to deep
alkaline magmatism (i.e. diamond deposits in
alkaline pipes), and deposits related to melting
of metasomatized Subcontinental Lithospheric
Mantle (SCLM) (i.e. Iron-Oxide Copper Gold
(IOCG) and other deposits associated A-type
granite intrusions) (Figure 1.2.1.1).
Mineral deposits related to intracontinental Figure 1.2.1.1. Schematic diagram showing
rifting or continental break-up comprise deposits major mineral deposit types formed in
on rifted cratonic margins (i.e. magmatic Ni- continental crust above the Sub-Continental
Cu±PGE sulfide deposits in mafic-ultramafic Lithospheric Mantle (SCLM) and those
intrusions and Fe-Ti oxide deposits related to formed in passive continental margins and
anorthositic magmas) and deposits in intracratonic oceanic spreading ridges in divergent
rift settings (i.e. sediment-hosted mineral margin tectonic settings. Source: Groves
deposits?) (Figure 1.2.1.1). and Bierlein (2007).
56 SECTION 1.2.- GOLD DEPOSITS RELATED TO COMPRESSIVE TECTONIC MARGINS - OVERVIEW
occur, involving different magma types, metal sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits are
sources regions, hydrothermal fluid formed at shallower crustal levels and lower
compositions and P-T conditions, parameters temperatures are also included within the arc-
which control mineral deposits formation related mineral deposits (Groves and Bierlein,
(Groves and Bierlein, 2007; Bierlein et al., 2007; Bierlein et al., 2009) (Figure 1.2.1.2a).
2009). Mineral deposits associated to arc-
According to these authors, convergent flanking environments comprise mostly Cu-Zn-
margin settings include mineral deposits that Pb (±Au-Ag-Ba) VMS developed on or just
can be divided based on their spatial and below the seafloor during arc-related rifting
temporal distribution within the evolution of the associated with slab roll-back during
margin which comprise a constructional stage, subduction of oceanic crust (Groves and
an orogenic stage and a late-orogenic to post Bierlein, 2007; Bierlein et al., 2009) (Figure
orogenic stage (Figure 1.2.1.2). 1.2.1.2a).
Within the mineral deposits directly related Orogenic gold deposits for late in the
to the magmatic arc, the most representative evolution of convergent margins, associated to
are the porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposits and major tectono-thermal events (Groves et al.,
associated high- to intermediate- sulfidation 1998; Goldfarb et al., 2001; 2005). They form
epithermal Cu-Au-Ag deposits. Low- in a wide variety of crustal depths (up to 15-
Figure 1.2.1.2. Schematic diagram showing the range of deposit types formed in different
stages at accretionary margin settings. Source: Bierlein et al. (2009) modified from Groves
and Bierlein, 2007).
1.2.1. - Introduction 57
20km), and have an exceptional preservation greenstone, BIF or clastic sedimentary rock
record (Figure 1.2.1.2b). sequences (Figure 1.2.1.3).
Far back-arc settings or deformed Reduced Intrusion-Related clan shares a
accretionary margins include Sn-W deposits A u - B i - Te - A s m e t a l s i g n a t u r e a n d a n
associated with fractionated S-type or ilmenite association with moderately reduced
series granites, Reduced Intrusion-related equigranular post-orogenic granitic intrusions
Gold Systems (RIRGS), sediment-hosted (Figure 1.2.1.3).
Carlin-type gold deposits (Figure 1.2.1.2c). Oxidized Intrusion-Related clan includes
Mineral deposits formed in distal foreland deposits associated with high-level oxidized
basins comprise placer and paleo-placer gold porphyry stocks in magmatic arcs (e.g.
deposits and sediment-hosted hydrothermal porphyry, skarn and high- and intermediate-
deposits (e.g. Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) sulfidation and alkaline epithermal deposits)
Pb-Zn-Ba deposits and unconformity-related (Figure 1,2,1,3).
U deposits) (Figure 1.2.1.2c). Recently, Sillitoe (2008) in his review of the
major gold deposits and belts of the western
American Cordillera, define five broad
1.2.1.2. GOLD DEPOSITS MODELS cathegories for gold deposits including: 1)
epithermal deposits in shallow magmatic
Gold occurs in a wide range of deposit environments, 2) porphyry copper-gold or gold-
types and settings, which Robert et al. (2007) only deposits in the subvolcanic environment, 3)
grouped in three main ‘clans’ each including sediment-hosted (i.e. Carlin-type) deposits in non
specific deposit types with common features metamorphosed carbonate rich sedimentary
and tectonic settings (Figure 1.2.1.3). sequences, 4) pluton-related deposits in deeper
Orogenic clan includes vein-type deposits but still epizonal intrusive environments, and 5)
formed during crustal shortening of their host Orogenic deposits in metamorphic (i.e.
Figure 1.2.1.2. Schematic diagram showing the range of deposit types formed in different
stages at accretionary margin settings. Source: Bierlein et al. (2009) modified from Groves
and Bierlein, 2007).
Table 1.2.1.1. Key features of main gold deposit types in the american Cordillera.
Source: Sillitoe (2008).
greenschist facies) rocks (Figure 1.2.1.3 and 1.2.1.2) and the related epithermal deposits
Table 1.2.1.1). (Section 1.2.1.3), the Intrusion-Related Gold
In the present chapter, an overview of the Systems (IRGS; Section 1.2.1.4), the
main gold deposit types as related to Orogenic Gold Systems (Section 1.2.1.5) and
compressive and accretionary margins is made, the gold-rich volcanogenic massive sulfide
including the porphyry-type deposits (Section deposits (Au-rich VMS; Section 1.2.1.6).
1.2.2. - Porphyry-Type Deposits 59
1.2.2. PORPHYRY-TYPE DEPOSITS
Porphyry deposits are magmatic- is presented based upon compilations

hydrothermal deposits in which sulfide and presented by Seedorf et al. (2005) and other
oxide minerals have precipitated from aqueous selected references (e.g. Sillitoe, 2000, 2010).
solution at elevated temperatures. They
constitute a classic and important deposit type
associated to convergent margins or 1.2.2.1. GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
accretionary terranes (Groves and Bierlein, AND CONTEXT
2007; Bierlein et al., 2009).
A recent compilation and review of the Porphyry deposits are mostly associated
‘state of art’ of porphyry deposits is presented with subduction-related magmatism at
by Seedorf et al. (2005). Reviews of specific consuming plate margins (e.g. subduction and
porphyry deposit types including Au-rich accretionary margins). The spatial distribution
Porphyry Systems and Porphyry Copper of porphyry deposits with respect to
Systems are available in separate publications Phanerozoic orogenic belts is outlined in Figure
such as Sillitoe (2000) and Sillitoe (2010). 1.2.2.1.
In this section, a brief summary of the With respect to the American cordilleran
principal characteristics of porphyry deposits system, porphyry deposits are widely
Figure 1.2.2.1. Global distribution of porphyry deposits. Source: Sinclair (2007).

distributed from Alaska to Patagonia. The deposits Porphyry deposits are predominantly of
include world-class historic deposits such as Mesozoic-Cenozoic age, but Paleozoic (e.g.
Butte (Montana, USA), Bingham Canyon (Utah, Altaid Belt and Tasman Belt in Eurasia and
USA), Yerington (Nevada, USA), Resolution Australia respectively) and even Archean and
(Arizona, USA), and the Cu porphyry-type Proterozoic (e.g. Fennoscandia and Canada)
deposits of Chile (e.g. Chuquicamata, Escondida, examples are well- recognized (Seedorf et al.,
El Salvador, El Teniente, Los Sulfatos). 2005).
Figure 1.2.2.2. Anatomy of a telescoped porphyry Cu system showing spatial

interrrelationships of a centrally located porphyry Cu ±Au ±Mo deposit in a multiphase
porphyry stock and its intermediate host rock. Source: Sillitoe (2010).
1.2.2.2. HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION single mineral assemblages or assemblages
AND MINERALIZATION which are zoned and overprinted (Seedorf et
al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2010; Figure 1.2.2.3).
A remarkable feature in porphyry deposits Principal variables in hydrothermal
is the extensive associated host-rock alteration/mineralization processes in porphyry
hydrothermal alteration and sulfide and oxide deposits include: temperature (commonly
mineralization, which provides important spanning the range between 600°C and
information on the ore-forming processes and 200°C), pressure, and the chemical
the physic and chemical conditions prevailing composition, which depends on the magmatic
during deposit formation (Figures 1.2.2.2 and fluid composition, the wall-rock composition
1.2.2.3). and the degree of interaction between them
Mineralization in porphyry deposits is (i.e. the fluid-to-rock ratio).
distributed in disseminations and inveins and Additional variables include the
veinlets measuring from a few millimeters to a composition of external fluids (e.g. saline
few centimeters in width. The veinlets develop formation waters, dilute meteoric waters,
symmetric wall-rock hydrothermal alteration seawater) and the predominant local and
envelopes (i.e. selvages or haloes) containing regional structural controls.
Figure 1.2.2.3. Generalized alteration-mineralization zoning pattern for telescoped

porphyry Cu deposits, based on the geologic and deposit-type template of Figure 1.2.2.1.
Source: Sillitoe (2010).
Groups of mineral assemblages that

formed in similar geochemical - hydrothermal
environments are known as ‘alteration types’,
which broadly can be divided into those hosted
by aluminosilicate rocks and those formed in
carbonate and ultramafic rocks (Seedorf et al.,
2005).
Processes responsible for the principal
alteration types include: volatile addition (e.g.
propylitic alteration), hydrolysis (e.g. sericitic
and advanced- and intermediate-argillic
alteration), alkali exchange (e.g. potassic and
sodic-calcic alteration) and addition of silica
(e.g. silicic alteration) (Seedorf et al., 2005).
The principal alteration types include potassic
(k-silicate), sericitic (phyllic; quartz- sericite-
pyrite), advanced argillic (high-, moderate- and
low-T), intermediate argillic, propylitic, silicic,
sodic-calcic, sodic, calcic- potassic and sodic- Figure 1.2.2.4. Schema of typical dense
ferric (Seedorf, 2005; Figure 1.2.2.3). veinlet sotckwork in Au-rich porphyry
deposit showing sequential formation of
different vein-types. Source: Sillitoe (2000).
1.2.2.3. VEINS AND BRECCIAS
Different generations of veins and breccias These vein-types are outlined in the
form during the evolution of the porphyry following paragraphs (Figure 1.2.2.4):
magmatic-hydrothermal systems.
They are an important feature as they High temperature vein-types associated
contain a large proportion of the deposited ore with potassic alteration include:
minerals and represent the locus of greatest 1) quartz + fluorite + molybdenite ± K-
fluid flux. feldspar ± biotite veins with silicic and
Hence, detailed description of veins and potassic envelopes
breccias provide valuable information 2) magnetite-rich veinlets
regarding time-space evolution of fluid 3) biotitic veinlets
composition and flow (Seedorf et al., 2005). 4) ‘EB (early biotite) type’ green mica
veinlets (i.e. green biotite, K-feldspar,
andalusite, muscovite, cordierite and
Veins corundum; approximately 600°C)
5) quartz-bearing veinlets with biotite
The link between magmatic and and sericite
hydrothermal environments are the ‘vein dikes’ 6) sugary quartz irregular or sinuous
which are composed of euhedral crystals of veinlets.
quartz±biotite±molybdenite growing from the
vein walls (open-space filling) with later aplitic Moderate temperature veins associated
porphyry±molybdenite infilling in the centre with sodic and calcic alteration assemblages
(Seedorf et al., 2005). include the following:
Distinctive vein-types are associated with 1) ‘M-type’ magnetite-amphibole-
different alteration types following a decreasing plagioclase veins
temperature trend within the porphyry system 2) actinolite ± plagioclase ± quartz ±
evolution. tourmaline veins (aprox. 450-400°C)
3) epidote ± (quartz-pyrite) veinlets Finally, late low temperature (distal) veins
associated with sodic ± calcic comprise
alteration. 1) epidote+pyrite+quartz+chlorite+
calcite veins associated with propylitic
In addition, the following have veinlet alteration
types which lack wall-rock alteration have 2) moderate- to low-temperature veins,
been described: lodes and replacements of base and
1) ‘B-type’ straight, coarse-grained precious metals associated with
banded quartz veins with center lines propylitic and argillic alteration types
and 3) sulfide-poor veins lacking alteration
2) gray, banded quartz veinlets common envelopes associated with the final
in porphyry Au deposits. stages of porphyry systems.
Veins sharing features from A and B types

are known as ‘AB-family’ or ‘AB’ veins. Breccias
Veins associated with strong hydrolytic
alteration include the next types: In some porphyry-type deposits, breccias
1) coarse-grained white mica-bearing are of equal importance to veins and veinlets.
greisen veins In describing and classifying breccias it is
2) moderate temperature ‘D-type’ important to observe the composition of the
pyrite ± quartz veins with sericite ± matrix, the characteristics of the cement, the
sulfide envelopes nature of the fragments, and the geometry and
dimensions of the breccia bodies (Sillitoe,
1985; Seedorf et al., 2005; fig. 1.2.2.5).
Typical breccias types include:
1) igneous-cemented breccias
2) open-space filling, hydrothermally
cemented breccias
3) poorly cemented breccias in rock
flour matrix
4) heterolithic, matrix supported
breccias with a subordinate juvenile
igneous component
5) clast-dominated breccias with
predominantly juvenile fragments
6) tabular breccia bodies with angular
wall-rock fragments in a crushed rock
matrix (Seedorf et al., 1995).
Within these breccias types, open-space
filling, hydrothermally cemented breccias are
widely distributed in porphyry systems.
They are commonly spatially associated
with high ore grades, with ore mineralization
forming part of the cement.
The three breccias types containing
juvenile material reflect progressive interaction
Figure 1.2.2.5. Schema of a large magmatic- between a magmatic phase and external
hydrothermal breccia linked to the apex of sources of water.
an intermineral porphyry intrusion. Source: Poorly cemented breccias in rock-flour
Sillitoe (2010). matrix are interpreted as indirect products of
the interaction between magma and meteoric

water, causing explosion and fragmentation of
the surrounding country rocks.
Heterolithic matrix-supported breccias
with subordinate juvenile components
(diatreme breccias) are interpreted as
theproduct of direct interaction between the
magma and external water sources (e.g.
aquifers), generating multiple explosions and
brecciation of the country rock, including the
fragmentation and incorporation of magma.
Clast-dominated breccias with
predominantly juvenile fragments have a matrix
composed of tuffaceous rock-flour.
They include juvenile clasts and have a
close spatial and temporal relationship with ore
deposition.
Figure 1.2.2.6. Schematic representation of

1.2.2.4. R E L AT I V E AGES OF a typical, dense veinlet stockwork in a Au-
HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AND rich porphyry deposit showing the sequential
MINERALIZATION formation of vein-types. Source: Sillitoe
(2010).
Relative temporal relationships of different
phases of hydrothermal alteration and
mineralization in porphyry systems are
established by describing the spatial cut by other ones), and post-mineral (e.g.
distribution and crosscutting relationships intrusive phases that cut all of the mineralized
between the veinlet types and alteration veins) (Seedorf et al., 2005).
phases.
Crosscutting relationships can be
established between different vein types and 1.2.2.5. IGNEOUS ROCKS AND
also between veins and multiple phases of MAGMATIC SYSTEMS
intrusive (porphyries).
The crosscutting relationship between Igneous rocks associated with
veinlet types establishes the relative age/ porphyrysystems include volcanic, hypabyssal
sequence of the mineralizing events at a single and plutonic rocks (Seedorf et al., 2005).
point in space, as observed in the offset of an Vo l c a n i c r o c k s c a n b e o l d e r,
early vein truncated or by a later one. penecontemporaneous, or late- to post-mineral
Establish the temporal relationships with respect to the to the mineralized porphyry
between vein types and well-dated porphyry system.
phases is useful in constraining the absolute age Hypabyssal porphyritic intrusives are
of mineralization(s), relative to the age of usually exposed in most porphyry deposits.
emplacement of a well-dated intrusive phase They are characterized by a fine-grained
(fig. 1.2.2.6). sugary (i.e. aplitic) groundmass with more or
It also permits classifying multiple less abundant phenocrysts. Below the level of
intrusives as pre-mineral (e.g. intrusive phases the ore mineralization, grain size tends to
cut by all of the generations of veins), increase with depth, and distinct porphyry
intramineral or intermineral (e.g. intrusive phases can merge into the same underlying
phases that cut some mineralized veins and are magmatic chamber.
Plutonic rocks hosting porphyry-type depth, where the magma chamber from which
deposits can be older and non-related to the porphyry intrusives and related fluids ascend
mineralized system. Alternatively, they can be is located. Lateral extensions reach several
closely associated in time to the porphyritic kilometres from the porphyry intrusive suite.
phases of the system and form the host to the Porphyry systems are usually composed
porphyry deposits. of clusters of hypabyssal stocks and plugs,
Petrochemical compositions for igneous thus, the geometry and characteristics of the
rocks related to mineralized porphyry systems system are governed by the relative spatial
span the complete range of modern volcanic distribution of different successive intrusive
rocks, from between ca. 40-80 wt% SiO , but phases.
2
hypabyssal intrusives closely related to the
porphyry mineralization have more restricted
SiO contents (55-78wt%). Hydrothermal alteration distribution
2
Most of porphyries show metaluminous to and zoning
weakly peraluminous character, but more
alkaline types (e.g. syenitic porphyries) often In porphyry systems, a characteristic
exhibit strongly peraluminous geochemical feature is the zoning of the hydrothermal
character. alteration.
From a mineralogical point of view, In general terms, potassic alteration
hypabyssal intrusives associated with porphyry dominates the deep and proximal part of the
systems contain plagioclase phenocrysts. mineralized system; sericitic and advanced
Hornblende is common in intermediate intrusives, argillic alteration types dominate the upper
whereas quartz and K-feldspar phenocrysts are parts of the system whilst the deep flanks, distal
mostly related to acidic intrusives. sides and peripheral areas are characterized
More mafic intrusives associated with by propylitic and local sodic-calcic alteration.
porphyry Cu-(Au-Mo) and porphyry Au
deposits may have clinopyroxene or less
commonly, orthopyroxene phenocrysts Geometry of orebodies
(Seedorf et al., 2005).Accessory minerals
include magnetite, ilmenite, titanite, apatite and The geometry of mineralized porphyry
zircon. orebodies is highly variable, and depends upon
Mineralogical features including the common features such as the number and relative
occurrence of magnetite and titanite, the local position of the various mineralizing intrusions,
occurrence of anhydrite, and the composition of the temporal and spatial distribution of
igneous minerals such as biotite and apatite mineralizing vs. barren intrusions, the dominant
indicate the relatively oxidized character of structural style and the types, style and
magmas associated with porphyry systems. orientation(s) of the principle mineralized
Magma chambers associated with structures (Seedorf et al., 2005).
porphyry systems are interpreted as open
systems in which phenomena including periodic
replenishment, magma interaction with country Metal zoning
rocks, and the discharge of magmas and volatiles
in the upper parts of the system take place. Metal zoning in porphyry systems
generally varies according to porphyry class
(Au vs. Cu. vs. Mo etc.).
1.2.2.6. SPATIAL CONFIGURATION In general, proximal portions of the
OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS porphyry system are enriched in the dominant
metal of the class, and the zonation patterns
Porphyry systems develop from the extend upward and outward to areas enriched
paleosurface down to more than ten kilometres in base metals Ag and/or Au.
1.2.2.7. C L A S S I F I C AT I O N OF 2) Porphyry copper deposits

PORPHYRY DEPOSITS - tonalitic-granodioritic porphyry Cu-
(Au-Mo) (subalkaline)
Historically, porphyry deposits have been - quartz monzonitic-granitic porphyry
classified on the basis of criteria including Cu-(Mo) (subalkaline)
principal metal (Cu, Mo, Au etc.), depth of - monzonitic porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au)
emplacement, composition of igneous rocks, (alkaline)
and petrologic and tectonic characteristics. - silica undersaturated syenitic
A recent approachs to porphyry-type porphyry Cu-(Au) (alkaline)
deposit classification by Seedorf et al. (2005), 3) Porphyry molybdenum deposits
employs a combination of characteristics - alkalic monzonitic porphyry
including the predominant metal, igneous Mo-(Au)
petrochemistry, and the general metal - quartz monzonitic-granite
associations and structural styles. porphyry Mo-Cu
These autors recognize five principal - granitic porphyry Mo
classes of porphyry deposits, which are - trondhjemitic porphyry Mo
subdivided into various subclasses: - rhyolitic porphyry Mo
1) Porphyry gold deposits 4) Porphyry tungsten deposits
- dioitic porphyry Au - rhyolitic porphyry W-Mo
Figure 1.2.2.7. Schematic time slices through porphyry Cu system showing evolution of
the main magmatic fluid and alteration-mineralization types. Source: Sillitoe (2010).
deposits may represent the more distal
expression of porphyry-related epithermal and
sub-epithermal mineralization (Seedorf et al.,
2005; Robert et al., 2007; Sillitoe, 2008).
Distal disseminated Au-Ag deposits
(including ‘Carlin-type’ systems) are observed
within some porphyry Cu (Mo, Au) districts,
and are believed to be part of regional rather
than intrusion-centered hydrothermal systems.
1.2.2.8. GENETIC MODEL
Studies regarding hydrothermal alteration

in porphyry-type deposits reveal a relationship
with the magmatic source components of the
porphyry systems and alteration mineralogy. A
variable contribution of external non-magmatic fluid
sources is also apparent (fig.1.2.2.7-1.2.2.8).
Potassic alteration is produced by
hydrothermal fluids with a magmatic-
dominated source, whereas sericitic, argillic
and and local advanced argillic alteration types
require a magmatic source for fluids but may
involve external non-magmatic sources
(Seedorf et al., 2005).
On the other hand, propylitic and sodic-
calcic alteration are considered to be the
product of non-magmatic brines.
Different sources areas can potentially
contribute to the magmas involved in a
porphyry system, including the upper mantle,
Figure 1.2.2.8. Schematic cross section of subducting slab, lower to middle crust, and the
a porphyry deposit. Timing of intrusions upper crust.
w a l l - ro c k alteration zones, and Cu, Au and PGE’s are considered to
hydrothermal sources and flow paths are reflect a predominantly mantle contribution,
shown. Source: Seedorf (2010). whereas Mo and Pb may be sourced to the
subducting slab or continental crust.
Conversely, other components like sulphur
may be contributed by various mantle and/or
5) Porphyry tin deposits crustal sources depending upon the deposit
- rhyodacitic porphyry Sn (e.g. mafic magma (mantle) sources or crustal
sedimentary sources).
Porphyry-type deposits have an intimate Regarding the genesis and evolution of
relationship with high-sulfidation deposits of porphyry systems, the process begins with the
the epithermal type. These deposits form the development of an intermediate silicic
upper expression of deeper porphyry systems. magmatic chamber of variable composition, as
Low-sulfidation epithermal deposits seem a product of mantle-sourced mafic magmas
unrelated to porphyry systems, whereas the generated by the influx of subduction-derived
more controversial intermediate sulphidation fluids or asthenospheric rise.
The mafic magmas rise into the crust, a relatively short time period (<300.000 years;
where they eevlove, fractionate, mix and Seedorf et al., 2005). The relative position of
hybridize with partial melts of crustal origin. early mineralized intrusives with respect to
The magma chamber is considered to intermineral or postmineral intrusives defines
evolve as an open system during a part of the the geometry of the portentially resulting
life of the magmatic center. Processes include orebody, including and the distribution of
degassing, erupting, recharging, crystallizing, contained ore minerals.
assimilating and commingling of magmas of Magmatic-hydrothermal fluids are
different compositions (Seedorf et al., 2005). dominant during magma emplacement, when
The formation of large porphyry deposits fluid overpressuring and hydraulic fracturing
requires different processes to occur within an can produce hydrostatic conditions for the
u p p e r c r u s t a l m a g m a c h a m b e r. T h e s e entrance of external fluids, such as cooled early
processes include the separation of an aqueous magmatic hydrothermal fluids, formation waters
phase capable of carring and/or scavenging of variable salinity, meteoric water, seawater,
metals. The fluid is thought to accumulate in a or mixtures of these different fluid types.
magmatic cupola prior to its ascent to the site New batches of magma, whether or not
of ore deposition (Seedorf et al., 2005). accompanied by release of magmatic-
Multiple porphyry stocks are generally hydrothermal fluids, can result in formation of
observed to be emplaced into the ore zone over breccias and hydraulic fracture systems.
1.2.3. - Epithermal Deposits 69
1.2.3. EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS
Epithermal deposits form in the shallow Several recent studies applying fluid
parts of high temperature hydrothermal systems inclusion techniques extended the temperature
that commonly develop in volcanic arcs range up to ca. 300°C, and stable isotope
(Simmons et al., 2005; Figure 1.2.3.1). studies highlight the important contribution of
About 6% of all gold and about 16% of meteoric waters in the formation of gangue
all silver historically mined in the world have minerals in some epithermal deposits, but the
come from epithermal deposits (Singer, 1995 modern use of the term ‘epithermal’ retains
in Simmons et al., 2005). much of the initial ideas proposed by Lindgren
The term ‘epithermal’ was initially (1933).
proposed by Lindgren (1933) within his genetic Recent detailed reviews on epithermal
classification for hydrothermal ore deposits, to deposits are presented by White and
include those hydrothermal deposits formed at Hedenquist (1990, 1995), Sillitoe (1993),
relatively low temperatures (<200°C) and low Cooke and Simmons (2000), Hedenquist et al.
pressures (<100 atm). (2000), Camprubi et al. (2003), Simmons et
al. (2005), Camprubi and Albinson (2006), and
Taylor (2007).
In the following paragraphs a brief
summary of principal characteristics of
epithermal deposits is presented following the
reviews mentioned above.
1.2.3.1. DEFINITION AND

CLASSIFICATION
In the most simple definition, epithermal

Au(±Ag) deposits comprise vein-type and
disseminated mineralizations close to the
Earth’s surface (<1.5km in depth), hosted in
Figure 1.2.3.1. Simplified conceptual models of different lithologies which are frequently
high-temperature hydrothermal systems, showing associated with hotsprings and occur at centers
the relationship between epithermal of young (i.e. Tertiary or younger) volcanism.
environments, magmatic intrusions, fluid Ores are dominated by precious metals
circulation paths, and volcanic and basement (e.g. Au, Ag) but base metals (e.g. Cu, Pb and
host rocks. Source: Simmons et al. (2005). Zn) may also be present (Taylor, 2007).
In epithermal deposits, ore mineral called “intermediate sulfidation” class

precipitate at temperatures between ca. (Hedenquist et al., 2000; Einaudi et al., 2003
150°C-300°C and depths between 50 and and Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Figure
1500m below the water table due to chemical 1.2.3.2).
changes caused by sharp pressure and This sulfidation-state terminology broadly
temperature gradients (Simmons et al., 2005). reflects the evolution of the hydrothermal fluids
Different classification schemes has been as they ascend and contributes to understand
proposed during the last 35 years for the genesis of epithermal deposits (Einaudi et
epithermal deposits, based on ore or gangue al., 2003).
mineralogical aspects, and reflecting fluid Simmons et al. (2005), consider that
chemistry features (e.g. pH and oxidation or those classification schemes based on
sulfidation state) (see review in Simmons et al., hydrothermal alteration and gangue minerals
2005). associated to Au(±Ag) mineralization are highly
Classification of epithermal deposits valuable in mineral exploration as their
based on ore or gangue mineralogy as a result characteristic textures and hydrothermal
of specific fluid chemistry recognizes two end- alteration spatial distribution (i.e. zonation) can
member classes of epithermal deposits: low- be easily distinguished in the field or with basic
and high- sulfidation, with an third member petrography studies.
Figure 1.2.3.2. Comparative scheme of different features involved in the formation of akaline
epithermal deposits (i.e. low- and intermediate-sulfidation) and acid epithermal deposits (i.e. high-
sulfidation). Source: Camprubi and Albinson (2006), modified from Sillitoe et al. (1995).
On the other hand, sulfide minerals in these There are also Ag-Pb-Zn deposits (with
shallow environments are easily subject to Cu, As and Sb) Au-poor (Ag/Au>400)
oxidation and transformation in supergene restricted to some belts of mineralization
minerals, making difficult the precise (Simmons et al., 2005).
determination of the sulfidation state in the field Principle parameters affecting the
during early stages of exploration. production inepithermal deposits are:
Following this concept, these authors mineralization style, grade distribution, and
propose a classification scheme based on supergene oxidation.
hypogene gangue mineral assemblages with two Open-pit methods are preferred for large
end member types: 1) the quartz±calcite tonnage low-grade ores (1-2 g Au/t; 90 g Ag/
±adularia±illite and 2) the quartz+alunite t) and underground methods for small to
±pyrophyllite±dickite±kaolinite, which form modest tonnage but high-grade ores (10->100
from near-neutral and acid pH, respectively, g Au/t; >500 g Ag/t). In epithermal deposits,
and broadly correspond to the low- and high the grade control is critical for successful
sulfidation types. mining.
Relationship to igneous rocks

1.2.3.2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
There is a wide range of tectonic settings
Epithermal deposits are epigenetic ores where epithermal deposits can be formed.
hosted in coeval or older volcanic rocks and/ Most epithermal deposits are associated to
or underlying basement rocks, and rarely by coeval volcanic rocks and their relatively
subvolcanic intrusions in variable areas. oxidized calc-alkaline subvolcanic intrusives
Mineralization occurs in zones of paleo- equivalents formed in magmatic arcs as a result
permeability within shallow parts of hydrothermal of convergent plate motion in subduction zones
systems, as extensional steep-dip veins associated by partial melting of the mantle wedge above
to major or minor faults with small (<10m) subducting oceanic lithosphere.
displacements (Simmons et al., 2005). Important exceptions include Au-Ag±Te
Besides the clear structural control in ore deposits related to alkaline volcanic rocks
mineralization of epithermal deposits, derived from oxidized hydrous magmas in
lithological controls also play an important role zones of deeply penetrating tensional structures
in the localization of the mineralization. associated with rifting environments (e.g.
Favorable lithologies for the wide Cripple Creek, USA) or postsubduction
spectrum of epithermal mineralization styles tectonism (e.g. Porguera, Papua New Guinea),
(i.e. vein-type to disseminated) include faulted Ag-Sn ores hosted in reduced ilmenite-bearing
rocks, fracture networks, breccias, coarse volcanic rocks (e.g. Cerro Rico de Potosi,
clastic rocks and intense leached rocks Bolivia), epithermal deposits formed in
(Simmons et al., 2005). volcanic fields erupted in response to upwelling
Dominant gangue and ore minerals are of mantle through a slab window in a
quartz and pyrite, respectively, with variable transpresional environment (e.g. McLaughlin
sulfide contents (<1 to >20% vol percent). deposit, USA) (see review in Simmons et al.,
2005).
Metal endowment
Preservation in geologic record
Most ores have been mined for gold and
silver, with a broad spectrum of gold-rich (Ag/ As epithermal deposits form at relatively
Au<10) to silver-rich (Ag/Au=20-200) deposits. shallow depth, they have a poor preservation
Some deposits are Cu-bearing with high- potential and can be subjected to rapid uplift
to intermediate-sulfidation state assemblages and erosion, especially in subduction related
with As and Sb. high-relief volcanic arcs.
Majority of preserved deposits are of Hydrolysis reactions with igneous country

young age (Tertiary or younger). Older rock neutralizes acidity while forming
Mesozoic (e.g. Cerro Vanguardia, Argentina) hydrothermal minerals such as alunite,
and Paleozoic (e.g. Tasman fold belt, Australia) pyrophyllite, dickite, quartz, anhydrite,
deposits have been preserved where the hosting diaspore, and topaz, as well as kaolinite and
volcanic belt is also preserved. Scarce illite, characteristic of fluid-dominated
Precambrian deposits have been reported in alteration conditions (Simmons et al., 2005).
Canada, Scandinavia and Australia. Surficial steam-heated acid-sulfate waters
are formed as well, but silica sinters are absent.
Two styles of advanced argillic alteration
1.2.3.3. ACTIVE EPITHERMAL containing alunite and kaolinite develop in this
DEPOSITS setting: magmatic hydrothermal and steam-
heated.
Examination of active epithermal
environments in both, geothermal (convective
circulation of meteoric waters driven by Advanced argillic alteration
shallow intrusion of magma at >4 km depth)
and magmatic-hydrothermal (overlying shallow Based on the morphology, mineralogy and
intrusions, fluids are rich in magmatic zonation it is possible identify the origin of
components such as HCl, SO2 and HF) systems advanced argillic alteration (magmatic
located in geological settings analogous to hydrothermal - hypogene, steam heated or
epithermal deposits allowed to understand how supergene), and deduce the level of exposure
epithermal deposits are formed by comparison and proximity to potential epithermal
with coexisting fluids at known conditions mineralization (Hedenquist et al., 2000).
(temperatures, pressures, flow conditions and Advanced argillic alteration of magmatic
chemical compositions) (Figure 1.2.3.1). hydrothermal origin (epigenetic) includes
minerals formed over 200°C (e.g. pyrophyllite,
Geothermal systems dickite, diaspore, zunyite and topaz,
accompanied by tabular coarse-grained
According to Simmons et al. (2005), alunite).
geothermal systems involve deep convective Steam-heated advanced argillic alteration
circulation of meteoric waters driven by forms above the water table at about 100°C,
shallow intrusion of magmas. forming an alteration blanket of about 10 or
The distribution of three different water 20 m in thickness.
types including chloride, CO 2-rich steam- Tabular massive bodies of massive opal
heated and acid-sulfate steam-heated waters mark the water table, underlain by a zone with
is responsible for different hydrothermal wall- fine-grained alunite, kaolinite, opal and with
rock alteration types: propylitic, argillic and pyrite and marcasite, and a deeper kaolinite
advanced argillic respectively. This is zone (with kaolinite+opal).
controlled by hydraulic gradients, which in turn Supergene advanced argillic alteration,
is controlled by topography. post-dates hydrothermal activity and is
produced by weathering and oxidation of
Magmatic-hydrothermal systems sulfide-rich rocks. It is formed under 40°C
within the vadose zone. The typical mineral
In magmatic hydrothermal systems, when associations produced in this stage may consist
magmatic gases condensate into the of alunite, kaolinite, halloysite and jarosite,
hydrothermal system, SO2 content extremely accompanied with iron oxides and hydroxides.
increase forming H 2S and H 2SO 4 and a very These mineral deposits develop a blanket-like
acidic (pH close to 1) solution with HCl and geometry which resembles the topographic
H 2SO 4 contents of about 1 wt percent each. profile.
1.2.3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF 8) Diagnostic ore textures include bodies
EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS of vuggy and/or massive quartz, and, in some
deposits, vein and breccias host high grade
Mineralization associated with ores.
quartz±alunite±pyrophyllite±dickite±kaolinite
assemblages (Epithermal high-sulfidation 9) Supergene alteration is important in
Cu-Au-Ag deposits – related to porphyries) liberating gold from refractory sulfides.
Principle characteristics of mineralization 10) Hydrothermal alteration comprise

associated with quartz±alunite±pyrophyllite± concentric patterns enveloping the zone of
dickite±kaolinite assemblages or high- massive and vuggy quartz that hosts ore.
sulfidation epithermal deposits as reviewed by Outward zones of quartz and alunite,
Simmons et al. (2005) include: dickite+kaolinite or pyrophyllite, and illite or
smectite alteration, surrounded by regional
1) Formation from hypogene acidic fluids propylitic alteration (Figure 1.2.3.3).
in extinct magmatic hydrothermal systems.
11) Fluid inclusions show salinities <5 to
2) Ores hosted in this type of 10 wt percent of NaCl equiv, reaching
hydrothermal alteration assemblages include s o m e t i m e s > 3 0 w t p e r c e n t e q u i v, a t
Au-Ag±Cu, and Au-Cu mineralization. Ag- temperatures between 180° and 320°C. Ores
Au-Zn mineralization is rare (e.g. La Coipa, formed between 100 and 1000 m below the
Chile). paleo-water table. Coexisting liquid- and
vapor-rich fluid inclusions indicate boiling
3) Gold- and silver-bearing minerals conditions.
include native gold and minor electrum
associated with Cu-As and Cu-Sb minerals, 12) Stable isotopes indicate that D and
accompanied by variable amounts of pyrite,  O cluster tightly near the composition of
18
Cu-bearing sulfides and sulfosalts (e.g. magmatic vapor showing mixing trends with
enargite, luzonite, covellite, tetrahedrite and meteoric water. 34S measurements in sulfate-
tennantite), sphaletire and telluride minerals. sulfide pairs indicate equilibration temperatures
of 200° to >350°C and a magmatic source for
4) Sulfidation states between high and sulfur.
intermediate, but gold deposition (not electrum)
is associated with intermediate sulfidation state Mineralization associated with the
developed after most enargite has been quartz±calcite±adularia±illite assemblages
deposited. (low- and intermediate-sulfidation
epithermal Au-Ag deposits)
5) Gangue mineral assemblage comprise
mostly quartz (massive and vuggy), Principle characteristics of mineralization
accompanied by alunite, pyrophyllite, dickite associated with quartz±calcite±adularia±illite
and kaolinite. assemblages or low to intermediate-sulfidation
epithermal deposits, as reviewed by Simmons
6) Principle mineralization styles include et al. (2005) include:
open-space fillings and replacement of
preexisting minerals. 1) Formation from near-neutral pH
chloride waters in extinct geothermal systems.
7) Orebodies tend to be irregular in shape
and strongly influenced by zones of high 2) Ores hosted in this type of hydrothermal
permeability controlled by structure and/or alteration assemblages include a wide spectrum
lithology. Ore also occurs in zones of brecciation. for Au-rich to Ag-rich mineralization.
Figure 1.2.3.3. Sketch diagrams showing the mineralogical zonation around epithermal orebodies
associated with quartz±calcite±adularia±illite (i.e. low- and intermediate-sulfidation) and
quartz+alunite±pyrophyllite±dickite±kaolinite (i.e. high-sulfidation) gangue mineral assemblages.
Source: Simmons et al. (2005).
In addition, Au-Ag±Te mineralization can 4) Gold-bearing minerals include electrum

be associated to alkaline intrusive rocks (e.g. and rare tellurides. Ag-bearing minerals
cripple creek) and Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization is comprise electrum, acanthite, sulfosalts and/
recognized in northern Mexico. or silver sellenide minerals.
3) Gangue mineral assemblage is 5) Base metal sulfides (e.g. sphalerite,

d o m i n a t e d b y q u a r t z o f c h a l c e d o n y, galena and chalcopyrite), pyrite, marcasite and/
accompanied by variable amounts of adularia, or pyrrhotite can be present in variable
calcite, pyrite, illite, chlorite and rhodochrosite. amounts.
6) Sulfide contents are variable, from <1 of formation at about 50 to 1100 m below the
to >10 vol percent. water table.
7) Mineralization styles associated to this 13) Stable isotope studies show that 18O
type of epithermal deposits include veins and and D results plot between the meteoric water
stockworks, and disseminated mineralization line and composition associated with magmatic
in pore-space breccias and permeable water, suggesting mixing of waters from both
lithologies. sources, with predominance of deeply
circulated meteoric water with nil or small
8) Diagnostic textures in epithermal variable component of magmatic water.
deposits of this type include banded crustiform-
collofrom quartz and lattice (platy calcite and Mineralization associated with alkaline
its quartz pseudomorphs) textures. rocks
9) Some features such as breccias in veins Some deposits (e.g. Cripple Creek,
and vertical pipes indicate multiples episodes Landolam, Emperor and Porguera) are
of formation. associated with alkaline igneous rocks and
have a common occurrence of telluride
10) In epithermal deposits of this type, minerals in their ores (Simmons et al., 2005).
hydrothermal alteration zoning, reflects the They have significant gold contents and
level of exposure (Figure 1.2.3.3): at deep grades and differ from other epithermal
levels (>400 m below water table) dominant deposits formed from near neutral pH solutions:
alteration is propylitic; at intermediate levels
(400-150 m below water table) clay and 1) Gold occurs in native form, in electrum,
carbonates increase at the expense of in tellurides, and in refractory pyrite, the latter
aluminosilicates, and quartz, adularia, illite and of which can be a significant component of
pyrite form proximal alteration zones evolving ores.
mineralized bodies; at shallow levels (<150 m
below water table) blankets of argillic 2) Adularia is the dominant gangue mineral
alteration are observed, with development of with subordinated quartz. Occurrence of
illite and other clays. At the shallowest depths, magnetite±hematite, Fe-rich sphalerite, and
steam-heated advanced argillic alteration tetrahedrite-tennantite indicate low- to
occurs with or without silica sinters near the moderate-sulfidation states.
paleo-water table and the paleo-surface.
3) Large vertical extension of ores
11) the mineralization terminates upward, associated with telescoping of epithermal and
and, when there has been minimal or no porphyry environments.
erosion, extensive blankets of clay-carbonate-
pyrite or kaolinite-alunite-opal±pyrite 4) Hydrothermal alteration is restricted to
alteration are well-developed covering the areas immediately adjacent to ore, with
deposits. extensive development of propylitic and argillic
assemblages.
12) Fluid inclusion data reveal salinities
under 5 wt percent of NaCl equiv (Au-Ag 5) Lack of zoning among temperature-
deposits) and <10 to >20 wt percent of NaCl sensitive alteration minerals, such as clays.
equiv (Ag-Pb-Zn deposits). Coexisting liquid-
and vapor-rich inclusions indicate boiling 6) Fluid inclusions indicate salinities of <5
conditions at the time of trapping. to 10 wt percent NaCl equiv. Stable isotope
Calculated temperatures of boiling allow data suggest that mineralizing fluids contain a
calculation of pressure and estimated depths substantial portion of magmatic water.
1.2.3.5. A S S O C I AT I O N WITH (Einaudi et al., 2003).

INTRUSION CENTERED DEPOSITS Stable isotope data indicate that acid
solutions that form the
Epithermal deposits are the shallow, distal quartz+alunite±pyrophyllite±dickite±kaolinite
part of a continuum of ore-forming epithermal gangue assemblage (i.e. high-
environments that form in high-temperature sulfidation epithermal deposits) are composed
hydrothermal systems, with intrusion-centered mostly of magmatic fluids with minor to
ore mineralization (e.g. porphyry Cu (Au-Mo); moderate component of meteoric water,
Seedorf et al., 2005). whereas hydrothermal solutions responsible
High- to intermediate-sulfidation deposits for the development of the
typically show the strongest links to these quartz±calcite±adularia±illite assemblage (i.e.
deeper deposits and styles of mineralization low- to intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
(Simmons et al., 2005). deposits are composed mostly of deeply
circulated meteoric waters, with nil to small
variable component of magmatic water
1.2.3.6. GENETIC CONSIDERATIONS (Simmons et al., 2005).
The clear differences between acidic
Formation of epithermal deposits is dependent magmatic hydrothermal solutions and near-
of a complex interaction between physical and neutral pH chloride waters are related to:
chemical factors (Simmons et al., 2005).
Physical factors (e.g. size and depth 1) the nature and depth of underlying
emplacement of the intrusion, permeability; intrusion
water table location), control heat flow, fluid
influx, pressure-temperature gradients flow 2) the length of the fluid-flow path which
directions and the sites where metals are separates the epithermal environment from the
deposited. deeper parts of the system
On the other hand, chemical factors (e.g.
magma composition, crystallization processes, 3) the degree to which fluids are able to
host rock composition, influx of external ascend freely via open vertical conduits, and
waters) affect fluid composition, ligand the extent of water/rock interactions as fluids
availability, metal inventory and transport. ascent to the surface.
These physical and chemical factors
evidence how different elements such as Metal transport and deposition
tectonics, magmatism, host rocks and
hydrology interact during the formation and In epithermal deposits, gold and silver
evolution of the hydrothermal system, and are transport is caused mainly by bisulfide
responsible for the principal characteristics of complexes, whereas the base metals and part
the deposit (e.g. mineralogy, mineral zoning, of the silver are transported by chloride
grade, tonnage, shape and size, etc.). complexes (Simmons et al., 2005).
Metal precipitation is governed by focused
Chemistry of ore-forming solutions fluid flow along with an efficient metal deposition
mechanism (i.e. boiling and/or mixing).
Chemistry of ore-forming solutions Boiling cause phase separation, leading to
changes from deeper to shallower levels a s h a r p l o s s o f H 2, H 2S a n d C O 2 a n d
depending on the proportions of different decreasing the precious and base metal
components of fluids (e.g. magmatic vs. solubility in the hydrothermal solution,
meteoric waters) and the water/rock accompanied by increasing of the pH and
interaction ratios, which, in turn, control critical oxidation state. It is an efficient mechanism for
factors such as the pH, and the oxidation and ore deposition which removes most gold and
sulfidation state of hydrothermal solutions silver from the solution, and also causes
precipitation of specific mineral species such mineral zonation of the system (Simmons et al.,
as adularia, platy calcite and colloform-banded 2005).
amorphous silica, which are commonly found
in many epithermal deposits (Simmons et al., Geologic techniques
2005).
On the other hand, mixing between fluids Geological techniques comprise
of different composition may cause dilution, identification of favorable geological
cooling and changes in pH and oxidation states characteristics (e.g. occurrence of know
of the hydrothermal solutions, which may also deposits or prospects in the area or in
lead to metal precipitation. geologically similar areas, appropriate
Favorable hydrological setting is critical hydrothermal alteration styles and dimensions
in ore deposition associated to boiling and/or and interesting geochemical signatures) in
mixing processes. Boiling requires sharp order to select prospective areas for more
temperature-pressure gradients and a free-fluid detailed exploration (Simmons et al., 2005).
flow path, whereas mixing requires sustained In addition, detailed interpretation of remote
interaction between fluids of different sensing images of and spectral data in well-
compositions and/or temperatures in a exposed poorly vegetated areas may be a good
turbulent environment. tool in recognizing hydrothermal alteration.
Detailed mapping of structures may be a key guide
The role of the water table to ore mineralization (Simmons et al., 2005).
Mapping of geological units, structures,
Regional water table controls the vein textures and alteration mineralogy are very
hydrostatic pressure gradient in subaerial important and must be applied to all scales of
hydrothermal systems, and its position with exploration (Simmons et al., 2005).
relation to the land surface, influenced by
topography and climate, controls the vertical Geochemical techniques
position of the epithermal environment.
Large shifts in the water table can occur In epithermal deposits pathfinder elements
relatively rapid (hours or months) with respect commonly associated with gold include Ag, Cu,
to the formation of epithermal deposits Zn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, Tl, Mo, W, Sn and
(thousand years or more). Thus, a rapid fall in Hg (Simmons et al., 2005).
the water table position is accompanied by a Stream-sediment geochemistry, pan-
pressure drop which may cause hydrothermal concentrate geochemical surveys and soil
eruption, brecciation and precious metal surveys are commonly applied at different
deposition. On the other hand, progressive scales of exploration. Trenching and rock-chip
erosion processes produce a fall in the water geochemical sampling are also useful in
table that may cause telescoping of alteration determining the source of the anomaly (see
styles and orebodies (Simmons et al., 2005). review by Simmons et al., 2005).
Geophysical techniques
1.2.3.7. E X P L O R AT I O N OF
EPITHERMAL GOLD DEPOSITS Geophysical methods most frequently
employed in regional-scale exploration for
Exploration for epithermal deposits epithermal deposits include resistivity,
requires the integration of geological, gravimetric and magnetic surveys, whereas
geochemical and geophysical data, along with more detailed scale exploration involve more
a good understanding of the characteristics and specific methods such as Induced Polarization
ore forming processes; on the other hand, (IP) and Controlled-Source Audio-frequency
several characteristic features must be used in Magneto-Telluric (CSAMT) (see review by
order to establish the erosion level and the Simmons et al., 2005).
1.2.4. - Reduced Intrusion-Related Gold Systems 79
1.2.4. REDUCED INTRUSION-RELATED GOLD

SYSTEMS
1.2.4.1 INTRODUCTION from other deposit types (e.g. Orogenic Gold

Deposits).
Reduced Intrusion-Related Gold Systems Recently, the prefix “reduced” has been
(RIRGS) constitute a recently defined group added (Hart, 2007) in order to highlight the
of low-grade, large-tonnage gold deposits moderate low primary oxidation states
hosted within or in the immediate wall rocks (reduced/ilmenite-series; Ishihara, 1981) that
to intrusions which geological, geochemical and characterize host or associated intrusions and
economic features which a clearly different from differentiate them from oxidized intrusion-
traditional more oxidized porphyry-type related gold deposits (e.g. porphyry-type gold
deposits (Thompson et al., 1999; Lang and deposits) within the broad intrusion-related
Baker, 2001; Hart, 2005 and 2007; Robert et deposits clan (Thompson and Newberry, 2000;
al., 2007). Robert et al., 2007).
Following early use of the term “plutonic-
related gold deposits” by Newberry (1988),
several names have been used to refer to this 1.2.4.2. S PA C E AND TIME
deposit type, including: “plutonic-related gold DISTRIBUTION
deposits” (McCoy et al., 1997), “intrusion-
related stockwork- disseminated gold Some representative examples of these
deposits” (Sillitoe, 1991), “porphyry gold systems are the Phanerozoic Fort Knox Au
deposits” (Hollister, 1992; Bakke, 1995) and deposit (Alaska, USA; Bakke, 1995) and
“intrusion-related gold deposits” (Thompson et Dublin Gulch Au deposit (Yukon, Canada;
al., 1999). Maloof et al., 2001), both located within the
Lang et al. (2000) introduced the term the Tintina Gold Province (TGP) in the northern
“intrusion-related gold systems” in order to North American Cordillera (Figure 1.2.4.1).
group different mineralization styles, metal In addition, well-recognized Phanerozoic
assemblages and spatial associations relative examples include the deposits associated with
to a causative intrusion. the Cretaceous Bayonne Batholith suite in SE
Lang and Baker (2001) compile the “state British Columbia (Canada), deposits a at
of art” of characteristics of the Intrusion- Penedona and Jales (Portugal), Salave and
Related Gold Systems and support the deposit Solomon (Spain), Mokrsko Petrackovahora
classification comparing them with other types (Czech Republic), and Timbarra and Kidston
of magmatic-hydrothermal systems. (Eastern Australia). Ambiguous examples that
Hart (2005) and Hart and Goldfarb have been ascribed to RIRGS include Archean
(2005) describe the principle features of examples at Canadian Malartic (Quebec,
Intrusion-Related Gold Systems and discusses Canada) and Boddington (Western Australia),
some of the problems in distinguishing them Proterozoic examples at Telfer and Tennant
Figure 1.2.4.1. Global distribution of Au deposits suggested to be RIRGS. Source: Hart (2007).
C r e e k ( We s t e r n A u s t r a l i a ) , a n d t h e veins reach up to 50 g/t Au. Tonnages in this

Phanerozoic Donlin Creek (TGP; Alaska, deposit style range from 10 to 300 Mt.
USA), Clarence Stream and Lake George
(Canada), Petza River and Miller Mountain
(USA), Sn-rich Kori Kollo (Bolivia), 1.2.4.4. T E C TO N O - M A G M AT I C
Vasilkovskoe (Kazakstan) and Niuxinshan SETTING
(China) deposits (Hart, 2007; Figure 1.2.4.1).
Despite the controversy in classification Tectonic setting for RIRGS is poorly
of some deposits as RIRGS, Phanerozoic constrained, and several settings have been proposed
examples predominate over the more (e.g. back-arc, foreland fold belts, collisional, post-
controversial Proterozoic and Archean ones. collisional, and magmatic arc settings; Thompson et
In particular, the best documented examples al., 1999; Goldfarb et al., 2000).
of Reduced Intrusion-Related Gold Systems The well-studied Cretaceous examples in
are of mid to late Cretaceous age (Hart, 2007; the Tintina Gold Province indicate RIRGS
Figure 1.2.4.1). formation is related to specific plutonic suites
emplaced during a plutonic episode that spans
15 to 20 million years during/following
1.2.4.3. GRADE AND TONNAGE subduction, collision and obduction of
outboard terranes, and the thickening of the
Grades and tonnages of Reduced ancient continental margin.
Intrusion-Related Gold Systems are highly The Tintina Province RIRGS preferentially
variable. For the intrusion-hosted sheeted vein formed in association with the youngest,
deposit type, gold grades are mainly controlled furthest inboard, moderately reduced (ilmenite-
by vein density (3 to 5 veins per meter). series) plutonic suite that developed during
Mineralization is restricted to the veins with weak post-collisional extension ca. 93Ma,
little or no dissemination into intrusive host. inboard of the thickened continental margin,
Minable reserve grades of approximately 0.9 during the last magmatic response to mid-
g/t Au and cutoffs of 0.4 to 0.5 g/t are Cretaceous cordilleran orogeny (Hart, 2007).
indicated, depending upon the prevailing Plutons associated with RIRGS are not
economic conditions. Grades for individual strictly reduced continental arc I-type nor
the formation of multi-directional
interconnected vein stockworks typical of
porphyry-type deposits. This is due to the high
(lithostatic) confining pressure which does not
allow rapid fluid exsolution and explosive
pressure release (e.g. development of
breccias). It also precludes the influx of large
amounts of meteoric water and the formation
of broad alteration haloes (Lang and Baker,
2001).
Mineralization in RIRGS is mostly
structurally controlled, commonly associated
Figure 1.2.4.2. Grade and tonnages of with weak extensional (transtensional) zones
different deposit styles considered to be forming arrays of parallel fractures filled with
R I R G S . C o n t ro v e r s i a l d e p o s i t s a re thin (0.1-5 centimetre), low sulfide auriferous
re p re s e n t e d b y o p e n s y m b o l s . B C C = quartz veins, which, in turn, can form extensive
Brewery Creek Classic zone, CC = Clear intrusion-hosted sheeted arrays.
Creek. Source: Hart (2007). Peripheral to the source pluton,
mineralization is often observed as quartz veins
hosted in brittle hornfels close to the pluton
typical crustal melt-derived S-type granitoids, contact. Isolated mineralized veins occur within
but locally show characteristics of both. the pluton, in proximal hornfels, an up to several
Composition varies from granite to monzonite kilometres distant, filling structural corridors
to granodiorite. According to Hart (2007), a active during the pluton emplacement.
recognizable feature of these plutons may be Disseminated mineralization can be formed in
their paradoxical metaluminous and/or alkalic epizonal settings where the formation of brittle
character, despite demonstrating a highly fractures diffuses fluid flow (Hart, 2007).
radiogenic isotopic ancestry that suggests an Chemical reactivity of the country rock
ancient crustal derivation ( 86 Sr/87 Sr (i)>0.71; can also play an important role in ore
e Nd = -7 to -15). deposition. Calcareous units within the thermal
aureole of the pluton are potential sites for
skarn formation. On the other hand, hornfelsed
1.2.4.5. GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND (meta-) sedimentary host rocks commonly host
ORE CONTROLS auriferous arsenopyrite-rich mineralization
peripheral to plutons (Hart, 2007).
RIRGS are best developed within the
2
cupula of small (<2km ) cylindrical-shaped
plutons. Such stocks commonly intrude 1.2.4.6. DEPOSIT SIZE, MORPHOLOGY
sedimentary or meta-sedimentary country AND ARCHITECTURE
rocks, where intrusion-hosted mineralization is
located in tensional (transtensional) zones in Fluid interaction areas around the
the brittle carapace near the country rock causative pluton are restricted to the limits of
contact. Hart (2007) highlights the fact that the hornfelsed zones (up to 3km from the
batholiths are unlikely to develop into fertile pluton’s margins).
mineral systems and larger plutons (2-10 Sheeted vein arrays can be tens of meters
square kilometres) may have satellite wide and hundreds of meters long, usually
apophyses or late mineralized phases. (Hart et restricted to the intrusion, but may be also
al., 2007). appear in well developed zones above the
The moderate level of emplacement (5- pluton. Intrusion-hosted ore zones may follow
9km) of the plutons related to RIRGS prevent the direction of extensional or transtensional
fractures associated with the pluton

emplacement. They are usually parallel to the
elongate direction of the pluton. Dikes,
including pegmatite, aplite and lamprophyre,
are common within the mineralized corridors
(Hart, 2005; 2007).
1.2.4.7. ORE PA R A G E N E S I S ,
MINERALOGY AND ZONATION
Figure 1.2.4.3. Schematic paragenesis of
Ore paragenesis, mineralogy and zonation evolving types and metal associations in
are controlled by the temperature of fluids typical cooling RIRGS. Time axis may also
during mineral deposition and by fluid/wallrock represent distance from the causative
interactions, resulting in well-defined metal pluton. Source: Hart (2007).
assemblages which are variable in space and
time, according to their distance from the
causative pluton. Such parametres can change
according to the nature of the country rocks. late in the paragenetic, associated with Te, Pb,
Ore stages are summarized by Hart (2007) Sb or Au (e.g. Tellurobismutite, maldonite,
(Figure 1.2.4.3). tetradymite, native Bi, boulangerite and Bi-Pb
The earliest ore stages are associated with sulfosalts.
skarn development in the pluton’s margins: Peripheral to the intrusion, sulfide-rich
High-temperature (650°C) anhydrous aspy- and Sb-bearing veins ore commonly
diopsidic pyroxene-plagioclase skarns observed. Country rock-hosted mineralization
(po>>cpy) followed (and sometimes is characterized by arsenopyrite (up to 10
overprinted) by low-temperature (420°C) vol%) with pyrrhotite. Late stages of the
hydrous biotite-, zoisite- or actinolite-dominant hydrothermal evolution can be represented by
skarn assemblages (aspy±Bi-Te-Sb-Pb-Au Ag-Pb-Zn-bearing quartz veins occurring in
minerals and alloys). The lack of garnet is a more distal locations, usually outside of the
common feature in reduced skarns. hornfels aureole.
Early intrusion-hosted veins include K- Epizonal deposits (e.g. Brewery Creek,
feldspar-, mica-, and scheelite-bearing quartz Yukon, Canada) show ore mineralogy
veins with minor amounts of sulfides. Such characterized by pyrite, arsenian pyrite and
veins generally lack gold. Slightly lower- arsenopyrite.
temperature sheeted vein arrays are similar to
early veins but contain enhanced sulfide (up to
few percent py and aspy). Blebs of Au-Bi-Te 1.2.4.8. GEOCHEMICAL FEATURES
alloys, are the principal host of gold
mineralization. Chemical signature for RIRGS is
Intrusion-hosted sheeted veins are characterized by predominance of Au, usually
characterized by low-sulfide contents on the associated with W, but often lacking Cu
order of 0.1-2%, with py>po>aspy. Accessory anomalies. Bismuth and Te are commonly
scheelite and bismuthinite are observed in some anomalous elements in RIRGS, but they are
instances. Molibdenite occurs locally as an also a characteristic of other deposit types.
accessory mineral in some quartz veins. RIRGS exhibit positive chemical
Chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena have been correlations between Au, Bi and Te. Other
documented in a few cases. Native Bi and Bi- important elements such as Sb or As may or
bearing sulfosalts are common in various styles may not be associated. High W contents
of RIRGS mineralization. These minerals are (>300ppm) are common in some Au-rich zones.
Epizonal deposits (e.g. Brewery Creek, (380-300°C), CO -rich (5-14%), low-salinity
2
Donlin Creek, Kori Kollo) lacks the typical Au (2-6 wt% NaCl equiv.) aqueous carbonic fluids
association with W, Bi and Te. Instead, As in with CH and N . These fluids cooled and
4 2
the form of arsenopyrite is dominant, with later locally unmixed to yield low- temperature
stibnite-rich veins and high mercury contents (280-250°C, sometimes as low as 160°C),
(As-Sb-Hg association) (Hart, 2007; Robert immiscible, low salinity (0.2 wt%NaCl equiv.)
et al., 2007). and high-salinity (6-15 wt%NaCl equiv.)
Pluton-scale vertical/lateral geochemical aqueous fluids lacking CO fluids, with locally
2
zoning in the RIRGS reflects cooling the trend high salinities. Fluid inclusion data indicate
of hydrothermal fluids: intrusion-hosted ores gold deposition at depths ranging from 3 to 9
have a Au-W-Bi-Te signature. A similar kilometres. Mostly deposits fall in the 5-7
signature is observed in high-temperature kilometre range (Hart, 2007).
skarns developed close to the pluton contact, Light stable isotope data (Marsh et al.,
18
however at times, As and W enrichment is 2003; Mair et al., 2006), show ä O values
more important than Bi and Te. ranging from 14 to 16 per mil for Au-W-Bi-Te
Hornfels-hosted ores are veins. These values are slightly heavier than
characterized by high As, which correlates well values of the host granitic rock (11 to 13 per
with Au. Distal mineralization formed beyond mil) and similar to those of host sedimentary
18
the limits of the thermal aureole (hornfels) is rocks (13 to 16 per mil). Values of ä O for
dominated by Pb-Ag-Zn or Sb- rich metal Sb- and Ag-Pb-Zn veins hosted by
signatures (Hart, 2007). sedimentary country rocks are 17 to 20 per
mil reflecting more extensive wall rock
interaction. Sulfur isotope data display values
34
1.2.4.9. HYDROTHERMAL of ä S = 0 to -3 per mil (intrusion-hosted
A LT E R AT I O N AND FLUID quartz Au-W- Bi-Te veins), 2 to -7 per mil
GEOCHEMISTRY (skarn mineralization) and -7 to -10 per mil
(country rock-hosted arsenopyrite veins) and
Hydrothermal alteration in intrusion- -9 to -11 per mil (Ag-Pb-Zn veins).
hosted ores is spatially restricted and only Stable isotope data reflects progressive
locally intense. It is limited to a few interaction with sedimentary country rocks as
centimeters-wide vein selvages. the hydrothermal system evolves and cools, so
At the vein-scale, proximal alteration is progressive cooling and reduction of the fluid,
characterized by K-feldspar replacement of in addition to phase separation, are believed
plagioclase or carbonate replacement of mafic to be the most likely mechanisms for gold
minerals such as hornblende (Maloof et al., deposition (Mair et al., 2006).
2001). A more extensive, pervasive
sericite±pyrite±carbonate alteration
assemblage overprints proximal potassic/ 1.2.4.10. EMPIRICAL EXPLORATION
carbonate alteration and, in some cases (e.g. MODEL
Fort Knox; Hart, 2007) is used as a criteria
for Au-rich vein identification. Hydrothermal An empirical exploration model for
chlorite is more distal but not pervasive. Intrusion-Related gold systems was compiled
Hydrothermal alteration in hornfels-hosted and presented by Hart (2007) (Figure 1.2.2.4).
ores is more intensive and extensive, This empirical model is summarized as
dominated by prograde biotite- follows:
quartz±pyrrhotite hornfels. Retrograde
alteration (e.g. sericite after biotite) may be - The size of the mineral system is
present. governed by the extension of the thermal
Intrusion-hosted sheeted Au-W- Bi-Te aureole, commonly several km across, and is
veins, are characterized by high- temperature also dependent upon the depth of erosion.
Figure 1.2.4.4. General planview model for RIRGS in the Tintina Gold Province, showing
mineralization styles and geochemical zoning around the causative pluton. Source: Hart (2007).
- The presence of various enriched in intrusion-hosted mineralization and

mineralization styles is a reflection of the scale show good correlation with Au. Hornfels-
of the mineral system. The nature and hosted mineralizations are characterized by
involvement of country rock plays an important arsenic enrichment which can form regional-
role in the formation of numerous styles. scale anomalies.
Mineralization within the causative pluton is - Causative plutons are commolly
dominated by sheeted vein sets. small and isolated, and are the source of
- Metals are deposited in different hydrothermal fluids. These intrusions exhibit
deposit styles outward from the central evidence of high volatile contents, fractionation
mineralizing pluton. These styles include and fluid exsolution (e.g. presence of
intrusion-hosted, contact zone, pluton proximal hornblende in biotite granitoids, textural and
and pluton distal settings. Skarn and grain size variations, aplite and pegmatite dikes,
replacement mineralization are pluton tourmaline veins, miarolitic cavities and vugs,
proximal, Structural controls increase in more greisen-style alteration, unidirectional
distal mineralization. solidification textures and cupola-hosted
- Metal zoning is concentric to the mineralization).
mineralizing intrusion, and is associated with - RIRGS are associated with felsic,
steep thermal gradients on fluid chemistry. It ilmenite-series plutons that lack magnetite with
is “analogous” to zoning identified in porphyry- low ferric/ferrous (<0.3). Associated
type systems. mineralization is particularly reduced, with
- Both gold and tungsten may form pyrrothite commonly the dominant sulfide
ores in RIRGS, but there is not necessarily a mineral and fluids that may locally contain
direct correlation between them. Bi and Te are methane.
1.2.4.11. GENETIC MODEL The physical and chemical characteristics
of fluids in RIRGS (i.e. CO 2 -rich low saline
From a genetic point of view, RIRGS fluids) are reduced and contrast with highly
formation requires the causative pluton to saline aqueous fluids which transport metals
reach volatile saturation, such that fluids under oxidized magmatic conditions such as
exsolve from the melt. Pressure in terms of those responsible for the formation of porphyry
depth of pluton emplacement seemd to be a Cu deposits.
critical control on ore deposition, and provides Within intrusion-related magmatic –
an explanation for mineralization being restricted hydrothermal systems systems, rapid cooling has
to (a) specific suite(s) of pluton(s), distributed been suggested, such that magmatic and
over a broad area, possibly emplaced at the same hydrothermal processes are considered coeval
crustal level (Hart, 2007). within a 2 to 3 million year window (Hart, 2007).
At the pluton-scale, mineralization is
limited to regions above and outward from the
site of volatile saturation. As volatile-saturated 1.2.4.12. EXPLORATION CRITERIA
fluids are less dense than melt, they migrate to
the uppermost (less viscous) part of the magma
chamber, forming a volatile-rich cupola beneath At a regional scale, foreland parts of
the early formed carapace. Fluids invade orogenic belts where acid magmatism has
fractures in the carapace and then leak into and affected ancient continental margins, inland of
react with adjacent country rocks. accreted terranes or collision zones, are
As causative plutons are usually small, and suggested to be the preferred tectono-
therefore would not be able to provide large magmatic setting for RIRGS exploration (Hart,
amounts of metals and volatiles contained in 2007). In these areas, plutons belonging to
RIRGS, participation of larger volumes of specific magmatic suites or age intervals are
primary magmatic fluids and metals is potential targets for RIRGS exploration. Low
suspected (i.e. deeper unexposed batholiths or primary magmatic oxidation states (ilmenite-
mafic lamprophyric melts). series) would be a key feature to differentiate
Metallogeny of ore deposits associated to plutons with RIRGS associated from
intrusive rocks is controlled by the associated magnetite-series plutons with associated Cu-
magma’s primary oxidation state (Ishihara, Mo porphyry mineralization.
1981) and the degree of magma fractionation. At the deposit scale, partially- or
Highly oxidized magmas in arc environments scarcely-unroofed plutons are considered the
(e.g. porphyry-type deposits) are relatively best location for RIRGS. Cupola zones above
unfractionated with metal content dominated plutons, within the thermal aureole are of great
by Cu and in some cases Au. Conversely, in interest in exploration targeting. Structural
reduced magmatic systems Cu is removed by controls on pluton emplacement should be
early precipitation of sulfide melt blebs or by established in order to determine preferred
the crystallization of mafic phases such as deposit orientations within the magmatic
hornblende. Conversely, W is incompatible, hydrothermal system (Hart, 2007).
being enriched in the melt and residual fluid during Regional geochemical surveys allow the
fractionation. Gold may be associated with or identification of broad As haloes around
enriched in both, highly-oxidized (e.g. porphyry- mineralizing plutons.Bi, Te or W geochemistry
type deposits) and moderately-reduced systems anomalies are also good guides for identifying
(e.g. RIRGS) (Hart, 2007). intrusion- hosted mineralization (Hart, 2007).
1.2.5. - Orogenic Gold Systems 87
1.2.5. OROGENIC GOLD SYSTEMS
Orogenic gold deposits (also known as review on this type of deposits is presented
lode or reef type deposits), defined as by Dubé and Gosselin (2007), which use the
structurally hosted lode gold systems in term ‘Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate
metamorphic terranes, are a distinctive class vein deposits’ to refer to them.
of epigenetic precious metal (Au-Ag) deposit In the following paragraphs, a brief
associated with accretionary tectonics formed summary of principle characteristics of
over a wide range of crustal depths (>25km Orogenic Gold Deposits is presented after
to the near surface environment) with a large compilations by these authors.
range of P-T conditions (“crustal continuum
model” – Groves, 1993; Groves et al., 1998).
Literature published on Orogenic Gold 1.2.5.1. C L A S S I F I C AT I O N ,
Deposits is extensive, and most important DISTRIBUTION AND SIZE OF THE
contributions in the development of this deposit DEPOSITS
type model include those presented by Kerrich
and Wyman (1990), Barley and Groves Orogenic gold deposits are formed into a
(1992), Groves (1993), Kerrich (1993), wide range of depth (2-20kms) and
Groves et al. (1998), Goldfarb et al. (2001), temperature (200-700°C) and can be
Groves et al. (2003), Goldfarb et al. (2005), subdivided according to depth (pressure) and
Bierlein et al. (2006) and Dubé and Gosselin temperature into epizonal (<6 km, 150°–
(2007). 300°C), mesozonal (6–12 km, 300°–475°C)
Orogenic gold deposits (Groves et al., and hypozonal (>12 km, >475°C) (Gebre-
1998), along with the reduced intrusion- Mariam et al., 1995; Groves et al., 1998)
related gold deposits (Thompson et al., 1999; (Figure 1.2.5.1).
Lang and Baker, 2001; Hart, 2005 and 2007; The majority of the orogenic gold deposits
Robert et al., 2007), are the two epigenetic are closely associated with Precambrian shields
gold deposit types that can be found in areas around the world (Figure 1.2.5.2).
metamorphic terranes (Goldfarb et al., 2005). Particularly, greenschist facies zones of
Most of these gold deposits in late Archean greenstone belts (e.g. the Yilgran
metamorphic terranes are located adjacent to Craton in the Australia Platform and the
major first-order, deep-crustal fault zones with southern Superior Province of the Canadian
complexes histories and have a remarkable Shield in the North American Platform; Figure
extension along the strike and wideness. 1.2.5.2) host most of the past production and
Detailed review and compilation in defined resources (ca. 23000 to 25000t Au)
orogenic gold deposits is presented by for epigenetic gold deposits in metamorphic
Goldfarb et al. (2005). Another significant terranes.
Figure 1.2.5.1. Epigenetic gold deposit types in metamorphic terranes. Source: Goldfarb
et al. (2005) after Groves et al. (2003).
Figure 1.2.5.2. World distribution of greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

with more than 30 tonnes of Au. Source: Dubé and Gosselin (2007).
Greenstones and sequences of quartzite, in wide), parallel to subparallel to accreted
carbonate, banded iron formation (BIF) and terrane margins in Phanerozoic settings, which
pelite (Platform to slope rise facies) of mark the collisional suture zones.
Paleoproterozoic fold belts surrounding These major faults and shear zones serve
Archean cratonic nuclei in African and North as conduits for gold-bearing fluid circulation
American platforms also host significant gold but do not host ores.
deposits. Conversely, lower order faults (i.e.
Moreover, greenschist facies terranes in second- and third-order) associated to the
Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic orogens also major faults constitute the sites for ore
contain major epigenetic lode gold deposits deposition.
(e.g. central Asia, eastern Australia, interior Areas of jogs, changes in strike or
Alaska and eastern China; Figure 1.2.5.2). bifurcations along the major faults traces are
Time distribution of orogenic gold deposits considered to be important in governing ore
is considered to be time-restricted and deposition in the lower order structures, as well
episodic, with pre-Neoproterozoic events as areas of low or minimum stress, like fault
occurring in two periods: 2800 to 2550Ma and intersections, anticline structures or zones of
2100 to 1800Ma. After 1800Ma, there was a lithological contrasts such as intrusive margins
gap of ca. 1200 M.y. (between 1800 and (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
600Ma) with no significant epigenetic gold Ore body geometries in orogenic gold
mineralizations known, and then an important deposits are highly variable, and most gold-
period between 600 and 50Ma, where bearing veins occur as fault-fill shears or
significant economically important gold fractures, showing banded or laminated
deposits formed continuously. Gaps in time structures with local breccia fragments or large
reflect both processes of preservation and blocks of wall-rock.
crustal growth (Goldfarb et al., 2005). These veins exhibit high-grade elongated
Grade and tonnage of orogenic gold ore shoots, and fill moderate- to steep-dipping
deposits are highly variable (grade: 1-50g/t; faults (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
tonnage: 10-1000Mt), and there seem to be Secondary mineralized structures include
no significant association of the size of the gently dipping extensional veins and vein arrays
deposits with the age or the geographic area with parallel planar walls and open-space filling
where they are located. textures (sometimes with en echelon arrays),
and sheeted veins, stockworks, and breccias
in more competent rock types.
1.2.5.2. REGIONAL CONTROLS ON
LOCALIZATION OF GOLD DEPOSITS Chemical controls
Important regional controls on the Besides the major structural control in ore
localization of orogenic gold deposits include deposition mentioned above, certain lithologies
structural controls, chemical controls, the with specific chemical features are considered
relative timing of the hydrothermal events in to be critical for gold concentration in some
the system, the relationship to the host-rock provinces.
metamorphic grade, and the relationship to the In particular, Iron- or Carbon-rich rocks
magmatism. along the fluid flow paths are important sinks
for the release of gold from hydrothermal
Structural controls solutions (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
Carbonaceous pelitic sequences in
Most important gold provinces in Phanerozoic sedimentary rock-dominant
metamorphic belts are closely associated to terranes act as important reductants of fluids
major crustal-scale structures (several hundred and serve as sites for high-grade epigenetic
kilometers in length by a few hundred meters ores deposition.
Precambrian Banded Iron Formations Relationship to magmatism

(BIF) are important host-rocks for orogenic
gold deposits, and based on its dominant It is widely recognized a spatial and
disseminated mineralization style they are usually temporal association between intrusions
claimed to be syngenetic by some authors. of variable composition and orogenic gold
However, Goldfarb et al. (2005) suggest that deposits in metamorphic belts, with scarce
such a disseminated- to massive sulfide-styles deposits hosted by or adjacent to granitoids.
stratabound ores are the product of epigenetic The genetic relationship between the
replacements in oxide-, sulfide-, or carbonate- intrusives and the ore deposits in orogenic gold
facies BIF. systems is highly debatable. One possibility is
Moreover, rocks with high Fe/(Fe+Mg) that the intrusives could be the source for ore
ratios (e.g. iron formations, iron-rich tholeiites, mineralizing hydrothermal fluids and metals,
ferruginous shales, and some felsic igneous and the other one is that both, melts and
rocks) are considered to be good traps for hydrothermal fluids could be the product of the
epigenetic gold deposits (Bohlke, 1988 in same deep-crustal or even mantle source
Goldfarb et al., 2005). (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
Crosscutting relationships between dikes
Relative timing of hydrothermal events and mineralization evidence how magmatism is
probably continuous from pre- to post-ore
Orogenic gold deposits usually form late times, and regional deformation seem to be
in the orogenic processes associated to last also an ongoing process during the magmatism
increments of crustal shortening, but post-date and hydrothermal activity (Goldfarb et al.,
regional metamorphism of the host rocks. 2005).
Magmatism can pre-date, be synchronous with Pre-ore intrusions close to major
or post-date gold mineralizing events, and structures provide critical competency contrast
when it is synchronous, there are strong in metamorphic belts favoring gold deposition.
arguments to classify ores as intrusion-related Where large igneous bodies (i.e.
gold deposits, where melts and fluids could be elongated batholiths) define a continuous
derived form the same source (Goldfarb et al., magmatic arc, the outer (seaward) margins of
2005). the batholiths are favorable for vein formation
(Goldfarb et al., 2005).
Relationship to metamorphic grade Some deposits where gold veins occur in
the roof of a coeval pluton are classified as
As mentioned above, there is a clear still intrusion-related gold deposits on the basis of
not fully explained spatial association of gold this spatial relationship, whereas deposits with
deposits with greenschist belts, indicating mid- no apparent relationship to intrusives are very
crustal pressure-temperature conditions. Some scarce (e.g. the Otago region; Goldfarb et al.,
orogenic gold deposits occur in higher or lower 2005).
grade metamorphic rocks.
The “crustal continuum model” presented
by Groves (1993) summarizes changes in 1.2.5.3. DEPOSIT GEOLOGY
alteration, ore mineralogy and structural style
with the metamorphic zone variations (Figure Mineralization styles and orebody
1.2.5.1). Gold deposits in greenschist rocks dimensions
are mesozonal, in higher grade rocks are
hypozonal and in lower grade (sub-greenschist Mineralization styles vary according to
or very low grade) to unmetamorphosed rocks brittle (e.g. stockworks and breccias;
are epizonal. occasionally sheeted veins in igneous rocks
Ore formation postdates metamorphism of and hornfels), brittle-ductile (e.g. discordant/
immediate host rocks. concordant laminated crack-seal quartz
carbonate veins or sigmoidal vein arrays) and Additional anomalous elements include W,
ductile (e.g. bedding-parallel deformed veins, Bi and Te, which are even more enriched in
replacement textures and disseminated lodes; intrusion-related gold deposits (Thompson et
highly recrystallized quartz) conditions within al., 1999; Hart, 2007).
de “crustal continuum model” (Groves, 1993). Au/Ag ratios vary from 5/1 to 10/1. These
In lowest metamorphic grades, brittle ratios are consistent and do not change
styles and vein textures resemble those significantly with depth, thus, there is not metal
characteristic of epithermal precious metal zoning with depth (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
veins in unmetamorphosed rocks (i.e. open Au fineness average 920 to 940. These
space filling – comb, cockade, crustiform and values are higher, more consistent in a narrower
colliform textures with precursor chalcedony) range than VMS, porphyry and epithermal gold
(Goldfarb et al., 2005). deposits (Morrison et al., 1991).
Geometric and kinematic high-grade gold- Gangue phases in most epigenetic gold
rich ore shoots associated to shears, bedding deposits in metamorphic rocks are identical to
and lithologic contacts. the more proximal alteration phases in the host
Gold orebodies are relatively extensive rocks with quartz, albite, white mica/fuchsite/
along strike (up to 2 to 5 km) and downdip roscoelite, chlorite, tourmaline, biotite and
(up to 1 to 3 km). carbonate minerals as the principle mineral
Regularly spaced orebodies (focus of species.
crustal-fluids into structurally favorable zones)
define belts many hundreds of kilometers long Hydrothermal alteration
and several tens of kilometers wide delineating
regional fault systems (Goldfarb et al., 2005). Hydrothermal alteration assemblages in
wall-rocks hosting both orogenic gold deposits
Ore mineralogy and paragenesis and intrusion-related gold deposits reflect the
interaction of an H2O-CO2-H2S (±CH4 and N2)
Ore mineralogy usually is consistent and fluid with different rock types at various
predictable, with minor variations reflecting temperatures, and as hydrothermal fluids are in
complex mineralogy of intrusion- or hornfels- relative equilibrium with wall-rocks with dominant
hosted ores or temperature and depth of ore host-rocks, there is no well development of
formation (Groves, 1993). alteration haloes in vein selvages. Alteration
Abundance of sulfide minerals is variable minerals overprint metamorphic mineral phases
in quartz-carbonate veins or altered wall-rock, (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
ranging from trace amount to 3 to 5 %vol.
Massive sulfide clots can be present.
Arsenopyrite is the dominant sulfide 1.2.5.4. GEOCHEMICAL
mineral in deposits hosted by metasedimentary CHARACTERISTICS
rocks, and pyrite is the most common sulfide
phase in deposits hosted by mafic rocks and Stable Isotopes
granitoids.
Above 400°C, löllingite and pyrrhotite The uniformity on measured oxygen isotopic
dominates above arsenopyrite and pyrite, composition is well-recognized, with 18O values
particularly in the most reduced hydrothermal of 6 – 11 per mil for Precambrian rocks and 7 –
systems. Stibnite is a typical late mineral in the 13 per mil for Phanerozoic rocks. These values
paragenetic sequence in deposits hosted by are interpreted as suggesting that isotopically
metasedimentary rocks. heavy fluids were originated within the middle to
Base metals are not uncommon, but they deeper crustal levels, and then were channeled
are present only in trace amounts, and Platinum upward (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
Group Elements (PGE) are usually anomalous Wi t h r e s p e c t t o h y d r o g e n i s o t o p e
in many deposits. analysis, calculation of D using hydrothermal
micas (between -80 and -20 per mil), differ aqueous-carbonic fluid in gold-bearing quartz,
from measurements on fluid inclusions waters, generally of low salinity, wich is suggested as
and are considered to best estimate ore fluid the most probable ore-forming fluid.
composition, ruling out contribution of meteoric CO 2-rich nature of many fluid inclusions
waters to the hydrothermal fluids in these in auriferous quartz and proximal occurrence
systems (Goldfarb et al., 2005). of ankerite and Ferroan dolomite is
Sulfur isotopes in orogenic gold deposits are characteristic of orogenic gold deposits
extremely variable (-20 to +25 per mil), and Sulfur (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
source reservoirs for many deposits is the ore- Concentrations of H 2O and CO 2 in ore
hosting allochthonous block itself (Goldfarb et al., fluids are variable among gold provinces and
1997 in Goldfarb et al., 2005). gold districts, but majority of gold deposits
According to Goldfarb et al. (2005), Carbon show mixed parent fluids with CO2
(13C) isotopes in orogenic gold deposits have concentrations between 4 and 30 mol %.
provided highly variably values and do not provide Gold deposits with lower contents (4 to
definitive or conclusive results. 15 mol % gas) are commonly associated with
Nitrogen ( 15N) isotopes in orogenic gold Phanerozoic gold systems formed at lower
deposits have returned values spanning the 10 temperatures (250°C-350°C) than more gas-
to 24 per mil range for late Archean gold rich Precambrian deposits (325°C-400°C).
deposits and 0.5 to 5.5 per mil for younger Besides, more CO2-rich fluids are reported in
gold deposits, suggesting a nitrogen derivation higher metamorphic grade rocks.
from devolatilization of metamorphic rocks Pure carbonic fluids are reported from
processes (Goldfarb et al., 2005). some Paleoproterozoic deposits, reflecting a
crustal fluid formed at high temperature.
Radiogenic isotopes and noble gases Within a gold province, Au-bearing from
Au-barren quartz veins can be distinguished by
Isotope studies focused in tracing the the presence or absence, respectively, of CH4
source of gold and other metals are common and N 2.
but show equivocal results. Most common Salinity of aqueous-carbonic fluids in
systems include lead and strontium isotopes. orogenic gold deposits ranges between 3 and
According to Goldfarb et al. (2005) lead 12 wt% NaCl equiv, so daughter minerals are
isotope studies in sulfide samples from rare.
Phanerozoic rocks yield ratios similar to that
of the host rocks, whereas Precambrian gold Chemical constraints on ore-forming
deposits show less host-rock control of lead fluids
isotope values.
On the other hand, Sr ratios do not preserve Orogenic gold deposits in metamorphic
source character, and initial Sr ratios for ore fluids rocks precipitate from low salinity, H2O-CO2-
do not preserve the initial Sr ratios . H2S±CH 4±N 2 fluids over a broad range of
Other tracers applied to orogenic gold temperatures (200-500°C) and pressures (1-
deposits studies include Os and Nd isotopes, 4kbars) (Groves, 1993; Goldfarb et al., 2005).
halogens (e.g. Cl, Br, I), and noble gas isotopes Mineral assemblages and fluid inclusion
(e.g. Ar and He). These systems are poorly data reveal a relatively reduced fluid, although
understood to date and have not contributed some deposits with abundant magnetite or
substantially to understanding of evolution of hematite may be more oxidized (Goldfarb et
orogenic gold systems in metamorphic rocks. al., 2005).
In orogenic deposits, gold is thought to
Ore fluid volatile species be transported in the near-neutral pH to
relatively reduced fluid as a bi-sulfide complex
Application of fluid inclusions studies to (Seward, 1973 and 1989 in Goldfarb et al.,
orogenic gold deposits have revealed mixed 2005).
regarding genetic models for orogenic gold
deposits.
Several authors relate the genesis of
orogenic gold deposits to processes of crustal
devolatilization, but precise mechanisms for
production and focus of metalliferous fluids are
still not fully understood (Goldfarb et al.,
2005).
For orogenic gold deposits, fluids are
thought to be produced from prograde
metamorphic events, but subducted material
remains as a possible source.
This model involves fluids produced at
metamorphic facies boundaries released during
relative increases in pore pressure, channelized
into major structures and move upward in the
crust, particularly during seismic events
(Sibson et al., 1988 in Goldfarb et al., 2005)
(Figure 1.2.5.3).
1.2.5.6. GEOLOGICAL, GEOCHEMICAL

AND GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
Figure 1.2.5.3. Inferred tectonic setting for SIGNATURES
orogenic gold deposits in relation to continen-
tal seismogenic regime. Source: Goldfarb et As mentioned above, and given the strong
al. (2005) after Sibson et al. (1988). structural control observed in orogenic gold
deposits, understanding of regional and local
structural geology is critical when searching for
orogenic gold deposits in a given region. In this
Controls on metal precipitation context, complex geometries associated to
major fault or shear zones are considered to
Among the different processes that may be more interesting in regional exploration
be responsible for gold precipitation in programs (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
orogenic gold deposits, the fluid/wall-tock In addition, specific competent rock types
interaction is considered to drive precipitation in complex stratigraphic sequences are
for disseminated and replacement considered to be more favorable traps for deep
mineralization styles (Goldfarb et al., 2005). crustal fluids.Intersections between different
Conversely, pressure fluctuation control fault generations are also interesting places for
gold deposition in quartz-vein hosted ores, and gold deposition.
fluid unmixing is considered to be an important The clear association of orogenic gold
process in localizing high-grade oreshoots with deposits with specific metamorphic facies (i.e.
abundant coarse-grained gold (Groves and greenschist facies), made metamorphic facies
Foster, 1991 in Goldfarb et al., 2005). mapping an important activity to be developed
in order to help and orientate exploration
programs in metamorphic belts.
1.2.5.5. GENETIC MODEL Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
applied to exploration surveys involving spatial
Despite the several model proposed in the analysis of specific features such as distance
last 30 years, there is still no consensus to near fault zones and/or unconformities,
anticlines, rheological contrasts between deposits in metamorphic terranes include Ag,

contacts are also valuable in exploration As, Au, B, Bi, Hg, Sb, Te and W, but these
programs (Goldfarb et al., 2005). geochemical signatures may vary depending on
Geochemical and mineralogical signatures the nature of the host rocks. Major element
such as potassic alteration, silicification, anomalies (e.g. K enrichment and Na
sulfidation, and carbonation in selected depletion) may indicate proximity to ore
favorable areas are remarkable signatures for (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
lode gold explorations in metamorphic belts. Regarding geophysical methods, regional
Bleaching of sedimentary and mafic rocks surveys focused in identifying specific
is associated with proximity to ore zones. favorable structures or rock types are critical
Geochemical enrichments in certain in poorly exposed areas (Goldfarb et al.,
elements (i.e. pathfinders) associated to gold 2005).
1.2.6. - Gold-rich Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits 95
1.2.6. GOLD-RICH VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE

SULFIDE DEPOSITS
Gold-rich Volcanigenic Massive Sulfide metamorphosed submarine volcanic settings,

deposits (Au-rich VMS) may be considered such as within greenstone belts of different
atypical deposits which do not pertain to any of ages. They occur in a variety of submarine
the gold deposit clans defined by Robert (2007). volcanic settings ranging from mafic bimodal
However, many VMS systems are observed to and felsic bimodal to bimodal siliciclastic
be Au-rich. A complete synthesis on Volcanogenic domains.
Massive Sulfide deposits (VMS) is presented by They are commonly underlain by coeval
Franklin et al. (2005). A detailed review of the subvolcanic intrusions and sill and dike
Au-rich VMS is presented by Hannington et al. complexes, which in the ancient examples are
(1999), Huston, (2000) and Dubé et al. (2007). typically metamorphosed to greenschist to
Sillitoe et al. (1996) consider some of the Au- lower amphibolite facies.
rich VMS deposits to be submarine equivalents Advanced argillic and massive siliciclastic
of terrestrial porphyry-related high-sulfidation hydrothermal alteration observed in some Au-
epithermal deposits. rich VMS deposits are considered indicative
In the following sections, a brief summary of oxidized low-pH hydrothermal fluids which
of the principal characteristics of the Au-rich clearly differ from typical reduced near neutral
VMS deposits is presented. to weakly acidic fluids (i.e. low-sulfidation
conditions) associated with most VMS
deposits. These assemblages are considered
1.2.6.1. INTRODUCTION to indicate high-sulfidation conditions, and
thus, these deposits are considered to be
Based upon the simplest definition, Au-rich submarine equivalents to subaerial epithermal
VMS deposits are lenses of Fe-, Cu-, Zn- and deposits.
Pb-sulfides, containing significant amounts of The three types of Au-rich VMS currently
Au and Ag, which form on or below the recognized include:
seafloor, from fluids circulating within and around 1) Au-Zn-Pb-Ag associations in which
submarine volcanic vents (Dubé et al., 2007). gold is concentrated to the top and the
The Au-rich VMS are distinguished from margins of massive sulfide lenses;
other VMS deposits on the basis of the average 2) Au-Cu association where Au is
Au content (in g/t), which, in an economic concentrated at the base of the massive
context, may exceed in value, the associated sulfide lenses or within the underlying
combined Cu+Pb+Zn grades (in wt%). Thus, stringer zone, and;
gold provides the main economic commodity 3) the pyritic Au group where gold is
(Dubé et al., 2007). concentrated within massive pyrite
Au-rich VMS deposits occur in both zones containing low base metal
recent seafloor settings and in deformed and contents.
Figure 1.2.6.1. Location of the main Au-rich VMS deposits in the world. Modified from
Dubé et al. (2007).
1.2.6.2. ECONOMIC 1.2.6.3. GEOLOGICAL SETTING

CHARACTERISTICS
Au-rich VMS deposits occur in a variety
Au-rich VMS range in size from small of submarine volcanic domains, from mafic
isolated sulfide lenses (<3mt Au) to much bigger bimodal through felsic bimodal to bimodal
lenses or zones of stacked lenses with siliciclastic sequences. Ancient examples within
associated stockwork-stringer (feeder) zones greenstone belts of varying ages are intruded
(>50M metric tonnes (mt) of ore containing by subvolcanic intrusions and dike-sill
over 300 mt of Au). Gold grades can be locally complexes and metamorphosed to greenschist
high (>4g/t, reaching up to 38g/t). or lower amphibolite facies.
The most important Au-rich VMS deposits Tectonic setting is diverse and includes
in the world include the Paleoproterozoic island ars, rifted arc, back- arc basins, and
Boliden deposit (Sweden, 125mt Au back-arc rift locations (Hannington et al.,
production) and Mount Morgan (Australia, 1999; Huston, 2000).
321mt Au production + reserves and On a district-scale, Au-rich VMS deposits
resources). Many Au-rich VMS deposits are coexist with Au-poor VMS, and their host
located in the Canadian Shield of eastern strata are coeval with subvolcanic intrusions
Canada, including Horne (Noranda District, and dikes or sills. Large volumes of effusive
Cu-Au, 331mt Au production), LaRonde rhyolite and associated felsic pyroclastic rocks
Penna (Au-Zn-Ag-Cu) and Bousquet 2- are common in the surrounding areas.
D u m a g a m i ( A u - A g - C u - Z n , 11 2 m t A u Post-volcanic deformation/metamorphism
production, in the Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde may cause gold remobilization into faults, fractures
district). Eskay Creek (Au-Ag-Cu-Zn-As-Sb- and shears close to the original sulfide lenses.
Hg, 81mt Au production + 37mt Au in reserves On a deposit scale, association of the Au-
and resources) provides an example from the rich VMS deposits with felsic volcanic rocks
Canadian cordillera of British Columbia. and porphyritic tonalitic to granitic subvolcanic
(Figure 1.2.6.1). intrusions is characteristic.
Figure 1.2.6.2. Schematic illustration of geological setting and hydrothermal alteration

associated with Au-rich VMS hydrothermal systems. Source: Dubé et al. (2007).
Structural features such as joints, faults, In Au-rich VMS deposits, vertical

shears and veins close to the massive sulfide extension is usually greater than lateral
lenses are important as conduits where extension (up to >2 kilometres vs. hundreds
remobilized gold is deposited during later of meters).
deformation and/or metamorphism. Thickness of the massive sulfide lenses is
Deposits of the Au-Cu association exhibit variable, especially in deposits strongly
significant proximal Na and K depletion, and affected by deformation and shortening.
Au, As, Mo, Bi and Te enrichment. Zic, Ca, Commonly a few metres to tens of meters of
Mn and C are enriched distally. sulphides are observed.
Deposits of the Au-Zn-Pb-Ag association Mineralization is hosted in felsic volcanic
are characterized by As, Sb and particularly flows and volcanoclastic rocks or their
Hg enrichment (Huston, 2000). metamorphosed equivalents, near or at the
contact with basaltic andesite or clastic
sedimentary strata.
1.2.6.4. P R I N C I PA L Au-rich VMS deposits are characterized
CHARACTERISTICS by banded stratiform massive sulfide lenses
underlaid by stockwork feeders (fig. 1.2.6.2).
Au-rich VMS deposits are characterized by In deformed deposits syntectonic sulfide veins
a typical morphology consisting of a lenticular are developed and well-preserved primary
massive sulfide body(s) with associated underlying sulfide layers are disrupted.
discordant stockwork-stringer feeders and In metamorphosed examples,
replacement zones. Orebodies tend to be tabular hydrothermal alteration includes advanced
and stratabound to discordant. argillic (aluminous) alteration assemblages
converted to an association of quartz- sericite-

andalusite and/or kyanite-pyrophyllite and
local Zn-rich staurolite.
In addition, strong or massive silica
alteration with near or complete leaching of
Na 2 O, CaO, MgO and K 2 O, and residual
enrichment of SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 and TiO 2 , is
observed. The addition of abundant SiO2 is
characteristic in these zones (Dubé et al., 2007).
The sulfide mineralogy of Au-rich VMS is
dominated by pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
pyrrhotite and galena. Minor mineral species
include bornite, tennantite, sulfosalts, Figure 1.2.6.3. Schematic section showing
arsenopyrite, mawsonite and tellurides. The the position of high- and low-sulfidation
association of telluride with Au is interpreted VMS environments in relationship to the
as indicating a magmatic-sourced component submarine volcanic setting. Source: Dubé et
in the hydrothermal fluid of the system. al. (2007).
In Cu-Au VMS deposits, Au occurs as
native metal and as Au-bearing tellurides,
whereas auriferous polymetallic (Au-Zn-Pb-
Ag) VMS typically contains Ag- or Hg-rich
electrum (Hannington et al., 1999). However,
The clear relationship between large Au-
in some deposits, gold occurs hosted in
rich VMS deposits and major fault zones
refractory As-rich pyrite or arsenopyrite, which
suggets that such deposits may be transitional
is present as submicroscopic inclusions in other
to syn-deformation Au deposits including
sulphide phases.
quartz-carbonate vein systems hosted within
In chemically and mineralogically zoned
greenstone domains.
deposits, gradual chemical evolution of the ore
fluid can cause the gold remobilization from the
base and center of the massive sulfide lens(es)
1.2.6.6 GENETIC MODEL
into the top of the sulphide pile.
The geochemical signature of ore in Au-
The genesis of the Au-rich VMS deposits
rich VMS deposits is characterized by Au-Ag-
is controversial, in particular with respect to
Cu-Zn with locally high concentrations of As,
the timing of gold deposition relative to the
Sb, Bi, Pb, Se, Te and Hg.
formation of the massive sulfide orebody(ies).
In general, two contrasting origins are
proposed: synvolcanic (i.e. syngenetic) vs.
1 . 2 . 6 . 5 . A S S O C I AT E D MINERAL
syntectonic (i.e. syndeformational).
DEPOSIT TYPES
The syntectonic model involves a
conventional syngenetic Au-poor volcanic-
As mentioned above, Au-rich VMS
hosted base metal deposit which becomes
deposits are thought to represent the shallow
overprinted during regional-scale deformation
water equivalents of subaerial epithermal Au
and metamorphism by “orogenic” Au
deposits (Figure 1.2.6.3).
mineralization.
These deposits may coexist with Au-poor
The synvolcanic model suggests VMS
VMS deposits, and could also coexist with
deposits formed in varying tectonic settings may
other deposits of the epithermal clan (including
have differing fluid chemistries. For example,
deposits of the high-sulfidation type) and
fluid chemistry and/or mineral deposition within
intrusion-related Au deposits in the lower
a shallow-water to subaerial volcanic setting,
stratigraphic portion of the volcanic pile.
where boiling is believed to have a major impact
upon fluid chemistry, may lead to Au enrichment in VMS deposits have been
enrichment relative to base metals, and its proposed:
precipitation associated with decreasing
temperatures and changing pH conditions. 1) Au is present in hydrothermal fluids
In this context, some Au-rich VMS dominated by evolved seawater. Localized
deposits are thought to represent a transition boiling leads to the deposition of significant Au,
between abyssal base metal-rich sulfide or;
deposits and subaerial high sulfidation 2) enrichment is derived through the
epithermal Au deposits. Au-rich VMS would corrosive leaching of Au in the volcanic pile,
be the submarine equivalent to subaerial high- by acidic relatively oxidized and sometimes S-
sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g. Sillitoe et al., rich fluids that may be of magmatic origin. Fluid
1996; Hannington et al., 1999; Huston, 2000). mixing with seawater, leads to Au precipitation
According to Dube et al. (2007), two and the relative enrichment of Au relative to
end-member explanations for primary Au base metals.
SECTION 1.3.
Thesis objectives
and planning
1.3.1. - Thesis Objectives 103
1.3.1. THESIS OBJECTIVES
Colombia is well-recognized as one of the In detail, the specific objectives of this

most important gold producer countries research include:
worldwide. However, regional metallogenetic
studies are available to this date are scarce and 1) To characterize the magmatic rocks
the lack of precise data on both magmatism spatially associated with gold mineralization in
and mineralization make their preliminary the Colombian Andes, by application of
conclusions highly speculative. d i ff e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s ( p e t r o g r a p h y,
However, as indicated above, a close mineralogical analyses, and whole-rock and
spatial relationship between primary (in situ) isotope geochemistry), in order to understand
gold deposits and magmatic (intrusive and their origin and their role in the gold
volcanic) rocks in the Colombian Andes has metallogeny.
long been recognized.
Based on available K-Ar and Rb-Sr 2) To establish precise magmatic
radiometric age determinations for intrusive crystallization ages for specific magmatic suites
rocks conducted in the 1960's - 1980's, spatially associated with gold mineralization in
distinct magmatic epochs affecting the the Colombian Andes, in order to constrain
Colombian Andes have been defined from early magmatic periods related to specific
Paleozoic to present times, and most of this metallogenic events.
magmatic activity is clearly concentrated in the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic. 3) To characterize selected
Precise U-Pb ages for magmatic rocks representative gold deposits and occurrences
and/or hydrothermal alteration/mineralization spatially associated with specific magmatic arcs
ages for gold deposits in the Colombian Andes in the Colombian Andes in order to compare
are also scarce and limited. Thus, a good and define potential types of gold deposits
definition of magmatic crystallization ages for associated to magmatic epochs and
spatially-related magmatic rocks and their metallogenic events.
relationship with gold mineralization is not
possible. 4) To establish the ages of the ore
Therefore, the general objective of this mineralizations of the different gold deposits
research is to study Phanerozoic gold and occurrences, as well as the age of the
metallogenesis in the Colombian Andes within corresponding hydrothermal alterations, within
a regional tectono-magmatic context and to each magmatic epoch. The aim is to determine
establish gold metallogenic events responsible the temporal relationship, after the clear spatial
for the formation of gold deposits in the relationship, between the gold mineralizations
Colombian Andes. and their hosting magmatic rocks.
1.3.2. - Planning 105
1.3.2. PLANNING
In order to accomplish the proposed Selected hard-rock samples from specific

objectives, distinct office, field (sampling) and areas were supplied by the AngloGold Ashanti
laboratory activities were developed: Colombia (AGAC) Greenfields geology staff,
geologist from junior mining companies and
Colombian academic research groups.
1 . 3 . 2 . 1 . P R E L I M I N A RY OFFICE Finally, senior geologist with several years
ACTIVITIES of experience in gold exploration in Colombia
supplied selected well-located representative
During the preliminary office activities, a samples of their own private collections from
bibliographic compilation involving available specific mining works in order to complement
published information on Colombian geology the regional sampling as much as possible.
and tectonic evolution of northwestern South
America was made in order to set and establish
the geotectonic background for the 1.3.2.3. LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
metallogenic analysis. In addition, available
published information in Colombian gold Given the amount of samples analyzed as
deposits were also compiled, and well as the distinct analytical techniques
complemented by internal reports supplied by employed, laboratory activities were carried
AngloGold Ashanti Colombia and other mining out in different laboratories from different
companies operating in Colombia. universities and/or research centers:
Petrographic analyses were carried out
in the optical microscopy laboratories of the
1.3.2.2. SAMPLING ACTIVITIES 'Departament de Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia
i Dipòsits Minerals de la Facultat de Geologia
Sampling activities were carried out in de la Universitat de Barcelona'.
Colombia visiting different gold districts mostly Thin sections, polished-thin sections and
in the Serranía de San Lucas region, the polished slabs were prepared in the
Antioquia Batholith in the Antioquia Petrographic Techniques Laboratories of the
Department and the Middle Cauca river valley University of Barcelona; they were used to
regions. determine the mineral composition and textures
Additional sampling was conducted by of the selected samples, either of the ore
selection of representative samples from deposits itself or the magmatic host rocks, by
diamond-drill cores of different mining projects using transmitted/reflected optical microscopy.
(e.g. Gramalote, Colosa, Cerro San Carlos, In many cases, these studies were
El Carmen, Angostura, Dos Quebradas and complemented with a detailed study with
Miraflores in Quinchía, Mocoa). SEM-BSE-EDS.
SECTION 1.3.- THESIS OBJECTIVES AND PLANNING
106
An accurate petrographic study is the Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and ICP-MS.
basis of any research in geology (Melgarejo Facilities from Activation Laboratories
and Martin, 2011), and petrography of thin- (ActLabs) at Ancaster, Canada, were used
polished section, coupled with SEM-EDS- during this step of the research. These data
BSE analysis, is the basis for selecting helped to classify and reveal petrogenetic
representative points for an accurate mineral aspects of magmatic rocks spatially-related to
characterization with Electron Micro-Probe gold mineralization.
(Melgarejo et al., 2010). Dating ore deposits is one of the most
In particular, petrography analysis in this important aspects in metallogeny. In particular,
research allowed discriminating fresh from it is critical when trying to establish the possible
hydrothermally altered rocks associated to ore links between igneous processes and ore
deposits, helping in selecting the most suitable deposition. Thus, accurate age determination
unaltered rocks for geochemical whole-rock using radiogenic isotopes for igneous host
analysis, radiogenic isotope analyses and rocks and related mineralization is necessary.
dating. Several geological studies in Colombia
Using the images obtained with provided K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages for different
transmitted/reflected optical microscopy or intrusives, in some cases of batholitic
SEM-BSE-EDS as a reference, detailed proportions. However, in the last years the U-
analyses of the chemical composition of the Pb methods have been revealed as more
mineral species were obtained with Electron suitable for dating, because other
Micro-Probe (EMP) at the Scientific- geochronometers are likely resetted by later
Techniques Survey of the University of thermal events. Therefore, zircon U-Pb
Barcelona, and complemented with EMP analyses by Sensitive High-Resolution Ion
analyses at the University of Oviedo. These Micro-Probe (SHRIMP II) were conducted at
analyses are necessary in order to calculate the the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences
structural formula of the minerals and, (Beijing, China) through the use of the Remote-
therefore, in order to determine their identity. Operated SHRIMP System (ROSS) which
However, they are also critical to extract allows remote operation, monitoring and
petrogenetic information, because the chemical analyses from the Geochronological Research
composition of minerals may depend of the Center (CPGeo) of the University of São
conditions of formation. Hence, these analysis Paulo at São Paulo, Brazil.
are the basis for establishing geothermometers In addition, zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-
and geobarometers. MS analyses were performed at the
When necessary, X-ray diffraction was LaserChron Center of the University of Arizona
used to complement the mineral identification, and at the Washington State University.
and to determine, when possible, semi- Moreover, some geochronological K-Ar
quantitative proportions among different analyses of some fine-grained rocks and
minerals. This methodology has been revealed magmatic biotite and hornblende mineral
as a potentially powerful tool in mineral separates were conducted at the CPGeo of the
exploration, in particular, for hydrothermally University of São Paulo and at the
altered fine-grained rocks (Melgarejo et al., Geochronology Laboratory of the Chilean
2010). Geology and Mining National Service
This group of analytical techniques allowed (SERNAGEOMIN).
to characterize the mineral sequences in the Dating a mineral deposit itself is
gold deposits and their spatially-related complicated and it is not always possible. In
magmatic rocks, and to establish evolution some cases it is possible to date the
trends in the mineral chemistry. hydrothermal alteration by applying K-Ar
Once determined the most suitable rocks techniques to date adularia, potassic alteration
for chemical analysis, whole rock analysis of minerals (e.g. secondary biotite or k-feldspar)
major and trace elements were made using X- or phyllic alteration minerals (e.g. sericite).
1.3.2. - Planning 107
Geochronological K-Ar analyses of this type of the University of Arizona. Additional isotope
were conducted at the CPGeo of the analyses were carried out at ActLabs.
University of São Paulo and at the
Geochronology Laboratory of the Chilean
Geology and Mining National Service 1.3.2.4. PROCESSING OF THE RESULTS
(SERNAGEOMIN).
Direct age dating of mineralization is only The analysis of results was conducted at
possible by dating ore minerals with Re-Os the AngloGold Ashanti Colombia offices at
techniques. In this study, the Re-Os method Bogotá (Colombia) and at the Departament de
applied to dating molybdenite mineral Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i Dipòsits
separates returned successful results. Minerals de la Facultat de Geologia de la
Conversely, no reliable results were obtained Universitat de Barcelona.
when trying to use the Re-Os method applied GIS support and software licenses were
to obtain isochrone ages from pyrite mineral provided by AngloGold Ashanti Colombia and
separates. Re-Os age determinations in the University of Barcelona.
molybdenite and pyrite samples were
conducted at the Re-Os laboratory of the
University of Arizona. 1.3.2.5. PhD THESIS WRITING AND
Other petrogenetic data, regarding the source EDITION
of magmas and ore lead component in sulfides
can be obtained by using radiogenic isotopes. PhD thesis writing and edition was entirely
Isotope geochemistry analyses (e.g. Rb-Sr; Sm- carried out at the Departament de
Nd; and Pb-Pb) in rock samples and sulfides Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i Dipòsits
were carried out at the CPGeo laboratories of Minerals de la Facultat de Geologia de la
the University of São Paulo and the laboratories Universitat de Barcelona.
SECTION 1.4.
Methodology
1.4.1. Sampling 111
1.4.1. SAMPLING
1.4.1.1. OUTCROP SAMPLING Sampling for each mineralization was

oriented to the next objectives:
Sampling of the regional host rocks of the a) acquisition of possible minerals for
most important mineralizations was taken out, dating the deposit (i.e., molybdenite, sericite,
in order to characterize these rocks and to biotite, etc.)
proceed to dating them when possible and b) acquisition of enough material to have
necessary. representative material of the ores and gangue
Samples were taken, in most of the cases, minerals, in all of the existing units of the
in remote regions, in periods of low personal deposit.
safety and in areas devoid of detailed The sampling of the ore deposits is
geological mapping. Therefore, and because detailed and can be used in the future for more
of the regional scope of the project, this detailed studies on the particular deposits of
sampling is orientative and cannot be the area.
considered as representative enough for all the
lithologies of the region. Despite these
restrictions, sampling is considered to be 1.4.1.2. CORE SAMPLING
representative enough of the main litotypes
directly associated with the main gold When drilling was accessible, detailed
mineralizations in Colombia. sampling was carried out in order to get an idea
On the other hand, in the mineralized of the distributions of ores and alteraations in
areas, a more detailed sampling was done, in the deposit. In some cases, the sampling may
order to characterize the deposit itself, the cover a tridimensional network of the deposit,
alteration areas, the fresh host rocks, and the and can be also used for more detailed studies
igneous rocks of the area. In addition, when in the future.
possible, regional host rocks were also In total, more than 600 samples were
obtained. taken for a first approach.
1.4.2. Methods for mineral characterization 113
1.4.2. METHODS FOR MINERAL

CHARACTERIZATION
1.4.2.1. OPTICAL MICROSCOPY IN using an internal calibration. By using a simple

REFLECTED AND TRANSMITTED calculation program, it is possible to determine
LIGHT an approximated structural formula of the
mineral.
Samples were systematically sawn in An equipment ESEM Quanta 200FEI,
several sections, in order to choose for each XTE325/D08395 was used for these analyses.
sample the zones to study . These zones were Althought the equipment can work without
selected on the basis of the representativity of vacuum, high vacuum conditions were selected
the existing mineral associations. Polished thin to ensure a precision of less than 0,5 microns
sections were prepared from this selection of in the spot. This equipment has a LINK EDS,
about 200 samples. In addition, about 75 which is made up by a Si(Li) crystal, with a
polished blocks were prepared from massive Be window. This configuration allows
ores. determination of all the elements from Be to
All of these samples were used for the U.
textural and mineralogical study using These analyses allowed the determination
transmitted light microscopy for the transparent of the elements present in each mineral, and
minerals in thin sections, and reflected light these data were used later in the calibration of
microscopy, mainly for the opaque minerals. thee electron microprobe.
All these analyseswere made using the These analyses were obtained in the
facilities of the Departament de Cristal·lografia, facilities for electron microscopy at the Serveis
Mineralogia i Dipòsits Minerals de la CientíficoTècnics de la Universitat de
Universitat de Barcelona. Barcelona.
The backscattered electron images (BSE)
were very valuable, because they constitute an
1.4.2.2. SCANNING ELECTRON important guide to locate the analytical points
MICROSCOPY (SEM) WITH ENERGY during the quantitative analysis by electron
DISPERSIVE SPECTROMETRY (EDS) microprobe.
The work rutinary conditions were 15 keV;
Many minerals resulted to be very in case of elements with a heavy atomic
finegrained and far from the typical rock- or number, as Pb, REE, Bi, Au or similars, higher
ore-forming species. The back-scattered voltages were used in order to excite all the
electron imaginery is very useful in helping to lines of these elements, in particular, the L or
find these minerals, in particular when they are K lines.
made up by heavy elements as Au, As, Pb, Bi
or Sb. A speed scan in the screen is critical to
ensure the best conditions for the observation 1.4.2.3. X-RAY DIFFRACTION
and quick find of the heavy minerals.
Semiquantitative punctual analysis were X-ray powder diffracion is one of the most
obtained in a first step by using EDS, in order powerful tools for rutinary mineral
to characterize these minerals. An approach to identification, and the possibilities of the
the structural formulas can be produced by currently expanding to the quantification, in
114 SECTION 1.4. METHODOLOGY
particular, for precise determination of the assisted by Mr. Miguel Ángel Fernández
proportions of the different minerals in a González.
mixture. These determinations can be made by For each element, the calibrations were
using rutinary semiquantitative tools, with made up with minerals and oxydes as
programs as CSPACE, or using quantitative standards. The correction of the matrix effect
precise programs, as TOPAZ. In our case we was done using the PAP method, wih the
used normally the first facility; however, the program XMAS of the SAM(x) firm (France).
possibiilities to use the advanced programs for Conditions of analysis for the ore minerals
determination of the proportions of mixtured were: 15 keV (silicates), 25 kV (sulphides),
alteration minerals in a mineral deposit have 20 nA (except in hydrated silicates), beam
also been explored. diameter of 1 μm, and a counting time of 10 s.
The equipment used was a PANalytical Standars used were: orthoclase (Si K,
X’Pert PRO MPD (DY 3197 model). In cases Al K, K Ká), rutile (Ti, K), chromium
of low amount of sample available, use of an oxide (Cr, K), V metal (V, K), scandium
INEL CPS-120 equipment with Debye- metal (Sc, K), hematite (Fe, K), rhodonite
Scherrer geometry was necessary. (Mn, Ká), wollastonite (Ca, K), albite (Na,
K), nickel oxide (Ni, K), barite (Ba, L),
silver chloride (Cl K), corundum (Al, K),
1.4.2.4. ELECTRON MICROPROBE galena (Pb, L), LaB 6 (La, L), CeO 2 (Ce,
L), YAG (Y, L), ThO 2 (Th, M), ZnS (Zn,
Analysis of silicates, oxides and many S, K), ZrO2 (Zr, L), Ag2Te (Te, L), silver
sulfides were made at the Serveis Científico- metal (Ag, L), gold metal (Au, L),
Tècnics de la Universitat de Barcelona by using guanajuatite (Se, L), cobalt metal (Co, K),
an electron microprobe CAMECA SX50, gallium arsenide (As, L), bismuth metal (Bi,
with four wavelenght dispersive spectrometers L), indium antimonide (Sb, L). Operating
(WDS), with the assistence of the analyst Dr. conditions were selected in order to minimize
Xavier Llovet. devolatilization to analyze F and Na: an
Some microprobe analyses were made up accelerating voltage of 15-20 kV was combined
at the Servicio de Microsonda Electrónica dela with a beam current of 5 to 20 nA and a 10-15
Universidad de Oviedo, with an equipment ìm spot beam diameter. Standard and line used
CAMECA SX-100 with 4 spectrometers and for the analyses was fluorite (F, K).
1.4.3.- Whole-rock geochemistry analytical procedures 115
1.4.3. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY ANALYTICAL

PROCEDURES
Whole-Rock geochemistry for major and ACTLABS website (http://www.actlabs.com).

trace elements analysis were conducted at Preparation procedure included: crushing to
Activation Laboratories Ltd. (ACTLABS; minus 10 mesh (1.7 mm), mechanical splitting
http://www.actlabs.com) through 4Lithores – (riffling) and pulverization to at least 95% minus
Lithium Metaborate/Tetraborate Fusion – ICP 150 mesh (106 microns). Cleaner sand is used
and ICP-MS lithogeochemical method, the between each sample in order to avoid
most complete whole-rock analysis, providing contamination. RX2 pulverization procedure
the highest quality data for research purposes. provided lowest contamination (only up to 2%
This method allow to determine all major Fe).
elements oxides (SiO 2, Al 2O 3, Fe 2O 3, MnO, Digestion process was Lithium
MgO, CaO, Na 2O, K 2O, TiO 2, P 2O 5), loss on Metaborate/Tetraborate Fusion, ensuring com-
ignition (LOI) including both, structural water in plete dissolution of the sample. REE and other
hydrous minerals (H 2O +) and adsorbed or high field strength elements are put into
trapped water along grain boundaries, and 45 tra- solution. This process uses lithium metaborate
ce elements including Rare Earth Elements (REE) and lithium tetraborate mixed with the sample
(Sc, Be, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Rb, in graphite crucibles and fused in induction
Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ag, In, Sn, Sb, Cs, Ba, La, furnaces at 1150 °C. The fused crucible is
Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, dropped into a mixture of 5% nitric acid. The
Yb, Lu, Hf, Ta, W, Tl, Pb, Bi, Th, U). Additional resultant molten mixture is dissolved and
determination of FeO was made by Titration. will result in total metals.
Whole-rock geochemistry sampling Fused sample was diluted and analyzed
included collection of representative igneous by Perkin Elmer Sciex ELAN 6000 6100 or
and metamorphic rock samples (surface and 9000 ICP/MS. For most of major elements
drill cores) in the field from the studied regions (SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 MgO CaO Na 2 O K 2 O
over Western Colombia. Surface samples with P2O5) and Loss on Ignition (LOI) the detection
thin oxidized/weathered crust were “cleaned” limit is 0.01% (ICP). For other oxides (MnO
by hammer-breaking and selection of fresher and TiO2) the detection limit is 0.001% (ICP).
fragments. In addition, hydrothermally altered/ Only Ba, Sr and V are reported by ICP, other
mineralized samples with quartz veining and/ trace elements are reported by ICP/MS. FeO
or sulfide mineralization were also “cleaned” is determined through titration and detection
in order to avoid over-estimations in SiO2 and limit is 0.01%.
Fe contents. Rock chips were properly The whole-rock geochemical data were
identified and packed in separated heavy duty processed and plotted using the Geochemical
polyethylene bags and sent to laboratory. Data Toolkit (GCDkit) software for windows
Sample preparation and digestion developed by the University of Glasgow
procedures are described in detail on (Janousek et al., 2006).
1.4.4.- Geochronology analytical procedures 117
1.4.4. GEOCHRONOLOGY ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Geochronological techniques applied in General features of U-Pb dating of zircon

this study include U-Pb analysis in single zircon by LA-ICP-MS geochronology are described
crystals by Laser Ablation - Multi-Collector - in detail in by Machado and Simonetti (2001).
Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Recent developments have improved the
Spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS) and technique, and have made possible to obtain
Sensitive High-Resolution Ion Micro-Probe more precise, accurate, efficient and spatially
(SHRIMP); K-Ar analyses in whole-rock and better resolved ages (Gehrels et al., 2008;
mineral separate samples; and Re-Os analyses Johnston et al., 2009). Those developments
in Molybdenite samples. include: accurate correction for common Pb
In the following paragraphs a brief by measured 204 Pb, rapid acquisition (30-40
description of the geochronological analytical unknowns/h), generation of U-Pb ages with
procedures applied in this study is presented. accuracy better than 2-3 % for most zircon,
and analyses of much smaller volumes of
material.
1.4.4.1. U-Pb AGE DATING Analytical procedures and mineral
separation implemented in the Arizona
U-Pb age dating in Zircon was made by LaserChron Center are described in detail in
two different methods: Laser Ablation – the ALC website (http://sites.google.com/a/
Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass laserchron.org/laserchron/home). Sampling for
Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and Sensitive U-Pb in zircon by LA-MC-ICP-MS was made
High-Resolution Ion Micro-Probe (SHRIMP). by collecting about 5 to 10 Kg of rock/drill
core fragments, avoiding veins, soils and other
Laser Ablation – Multi-Collector – materials. Despite zircons are not disturbed by
Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass weathering, fresh fragments were preferred,
Spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS) and quartz and biotite were used as indicators
to roughly estimation of zircon abundance in
Laser Ablation –Inductively Coupled Plasma the rock. Rock chips were packed into well-
– Mass Spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS) U-Pb identified sample bags and sent to the
analyses in Zircon were carried out at the Arizona laboratory.
LaserChron Center (ALC) of the University of Zircon separation was performed
Arizona and the Isotopic Radiogenic Lab at following traditional methods that include: Jaw
Washington State University (WSU). Crusher-Roller Mill-Wilfley Table-Heavy
118 SECTION 1.4. - METHODOLOGY
Liquids(MI)-FRANTZ magnetic separator- Sensitive High-Resolution Ion Micro-

Hand Picking under microscope. Probe (SHRIMP)
Separated single zircon crystals were
mounted in epoxy (~50 zircon crystals/sample Zircon U-Pb analyses by Sensitive High-
can be mounted in every mount), accompanied Resolution Ion Micro-Probe (SHRIMP II)
by standards (e.g. SL2 and R33). Mount were conducted at the Chinese Academy of
surface is grinded and polished in order to Geological Sciences (Beijing, China) through
expose zircon crystals about 1/3. the use of the Remote-Operated SHRIMP
Cathodoluminiscence (CL) images were made System (ROSS) which allows remote
in order to map details in zircon crystals operation, monitoring and analyses from the
structures such as inherited cores and/or Geochronological Research Center (CPGeo)
igneous or metamorphic growth rims, so of the University of Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo,
analysis can be focused in specific zones of Brazil) (Sato et al., 2009).
each zircon crystal. General analytical procedures on the
Material is ablated from the sample surface SHRIMP technique are presented by Williams
using a DUV193 Excimer laser system (1998) and Stern (1998), and detailed
operating at a wavelength of 193 nm, with analytical procedures specific for the Remote-
typical 35 -25 micron spot size. Laser was Operated SHRIMP System (ROSS) at the
operated at output energy (~40 mJ) with a CPGeo of the University of Sao Paulo are
repetition rate of 8 pulses per second. Pit presented by Sato et al. (2009).
created by the laser is ~15 microns in depth At the CPGeo of the University of Sao
for a typical 20 second analysis. Paulo in Brazil, hard rock samples were
The ablated material is carried in helium crushed, milled and sieved to a grain size under
gas into the plasma source of an ISOPROBE 300m, and then the milled material was
multi-collector inductively coupled plasma separated by density through the use of a
mass spectrometer, allowing simultaneous Wilfley shaking table.Finally, careful selection
analysis of U, Th, and Pb isotopes. of inclusion-free zircon crystals was made by
U-Pb data obtained at the Arizona handpicking .
LaserChron Center were reduced using Selected zircon crystals for analyses were
Isoplot v. 3.00 (Ludwig, 2003), and plot in sent to the Chinese Academy of Geological
conventional concordia plots (Wheterill, Sciences at Beijing, where they were mounted in
1956). epoxy resin, and grounded down to half the
Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS conducted at crystals volume in order to expose internal zircon
the Washington State University used a New structures.
Wave Nd: YAG UV 213-nm laser coupled to The Remoted-Operated SHRIMP System is
a ThermoFinnigan Element 2 single collector, operated from the Geochronology Research
double-focusing, magnetic sector ICP-MS. Center (CPGeo) of the University of Sao Paulo
Laser spot size was 30 m and the repetition in Brazil, with two computers connected to the
rate was 10Hz. The sample aerosol was computer-controlled operating system of the
delivered to the plasma by He and Ar carrier SHRIMP II equipment at the Chinese Academy
gases. of Geological Sciences at Beijing, China. One of
Each analysis comprises a 25 seconds the computers at the CPGeo obtains real-time
blank analysis followed by 300 sweeps through images during the analysis and the other one
masses 204, 206, 207, 208, 232, 235, and acquires data and communicates results in real-
238. The procedure takes about 35 seconds. time.
U-Pb data obtained at the Washington During the analytical session, internet
State University were reduced using Isoplot v. communication through webcams and
3.00 (Ludwig, 2003), and plot in Tera- microphones are used for direct interaction
Wasserburg concordia plots (Tera and between both teams at Beijing and Sao Paulo in
Wasserburg, 1972). order to solve problems related with the analyses.
1.4.4.- Geochronology analytical procedures 119
Normalization standards for the U-Pb mineralization as it dates ore minerals directly,
analyses were Temora (TEM) and Sri Lanka whereas other methods such as K-Ar and/or
(SL-13). 40
Ar- 39 Ar date silicates associated to the
Once the sample is located within the ion mineralization (e.g. hydrothermal alteration
source chamber of the SHRIMP II in Beijing, minerals). In particular molybdenite Re-Os
the Remote-Operated SHRIMP System analysis can yield high-precision ages as this
controls all of the parameters for the analyses mineral can contain large amounts of Re and
from Brazil, allowing choosing and locating no initial Os (McCandles and Ruiz, 1991; Stein
points for analysis through the displacement of et al, 1998; Ruiz and Mathur, 1999).
the sample in the X, Y and Z directions. Re-Os analyses in selected molybdenite
Analytical conditions include spot size of samples from gold-bearing ore mineralizations
30m, 5 scans, dead time of 25 s, and auto were conducted at the Re-Os laboratory of the
center ON. Time required for each analyses is University of Arizona, following the analytical
about 12 minutes. procedures presented by Valencia et al.
U-Pb data obtained at the CPGeo of the (2006).
University of Arizona were reduced using Rock samples hosting the molybdenite
Isoplot v. 3.00 (Ludwig, 2003), and plot in mineralization were crushed and sieved.
conventional concordia plots (Wheterill, Molybdenite separation and purification was
1956). conducted through careful handpicking under
binocular stereo microscope.
Approximately 0.05g of the hand-picked
1.4.4.2. K-Ar AGE DATING molybdenite sample was loaded along with
‘spikes’ in the Carius tube with 8 mL frozen
K-Ar analysis of whole-rock samples and reverse aqua regia.
mineral separates samples were conducted at the With the reagents, sample and spikes
Geochronological Research Center (CPGeo) of the frozen, the Carius tube was sealed and left to
University of Sao Paulo, and the Geochronology thaw at room temperature, following the
Laboratory of the Chilean Geology and Mining procedure described by Shirley and Walker
National Service (SERNAGEOMIN; http://www. (1995).
sernageomin. cl/). The sealed tube was oven-heated to 240
For mineral separates samples, the ºC for 12 hours. Osmium separation from the
material of the selected rock to be analyzed solution was made through a two-stage
was crushed and sieved to separate distillation process as described by Nagler and
appropriate grain sizes (500 to 125 μm). Frei (1997). Further Osmium purification was
Mineral separation includes gravity separation conducted by using the micro-distillation
using heavy liquids (i.e. bromoform and di- technique described by Birck et al. (1997), and
iodine-methane), magnetic separation in a loaded on platinum filaments with Ba(OH)2 for
Frantz magnetic-separator and handpicking. thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS).
K-Ar analyses at the CPGeo were The remaining acid solution was dried and
performed following the analytical procedures re-dissolved in 0.1 HNO 3 . Rhenium was
described by Amaral et al. (1966), whereas at extracted and purified through a two-stage
the SERNAGEOMIN they were performed separation column using AG1-X8 (100–200
following the analytical procedures described mesh) resin and loaded on nickel filaments with
by Arancibia et al. (2006). Ba(NO 3) 2 for TIMS measurements.
The analysis of the samples was carried
out by Negative Thermal Ion Mass
1.4.4.3. Re-Os AGE DATING Spectrometry (NTIMS), by using the routine
described by Creaser et al. (1991). The
The Re-Os system is considered to be an equipment used was a VG 54 mass
important tool determining the time for ore spectrometer.
1.4.5. - Isotope geochemistry analytical procedures 121
1.4.5. ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY ANALYTICAL

PROCEDURES
Sr-Nd-Pb isotope geochemistry analyses hydrothermal alteration. The samples were

for whole-rock samples of magmatic rocks of washed in deionized water and then leached
the western Colombian Andes were conducted for 25-30 minutes in warm 1N distilled HCl
in the Geochronological Research Center during ultrasonic bath. Then the samples were
(CPGeo) of the University of Sao Paulo at Sao ground to fine powder using a WC shatter box
Paulo (Brazil) and the University of Arizona. prior to dissolution.
In addition, Sr-Nd analyses for five samples The samples were spiked with 87Rb, 84Sr,
of the Colosa Project hypabyssal intrusives and mixed 147 Sm- 150 Nd tracers, and then
were analyzed at Activation Laboratories Ltd. dissolved for isotopic analyses in Savillex using
Lead isotopes analyses in sulfide samples HF-HNO 3.
from selected gold-bearing ore mineralizations The separation of the Rb, Sr, and the Rare
in the western Colombian Andes were Earth Elements (REE) was made by HCl
conducted at the Geochronological Research elution in cation columns, and then the
Center (CPGeo) of the University of Sao separation of Sm and Nd was carried out using
Paulo. a LNSpec resin.
Isotopic ratios were determined by using
a VG 54 Thermal Ionization Mass
1.4.5.1. S r- N d I S O TO P E Spectrometer (TIMS).
G E O C H E M I S T RY A N A LY T I C A L Both, initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios and eNd
PROCEDURES values for a given time (t) were calculated using
the magmatic crystallization age obtained by
At the Geochronological Research Center zircon U-Pb analyses when available or
(CPGeo) of the University of Sao Paulo, estimated from published U-Pb, K-Ar or Rb-
whole-rock Sr and Nd isotope compositions Sr ages in the geological literature.
of magmatic rocks were determined according Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios were calculated by
to the analytical procedures described by replacing the present-day 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio
Cordani et al. (1985) and Sato et al. (1995), measured by mass spectrometry and the atomic
87
using a VG-354 Micromass mass Sr/86Sr ratio calculated from the weight ratio
spectrometer. of Rb/Sr, along with the age (t) of the rock in
Additional whole-rock Sr-Nd isotope the radioactive decay equation for the Rb-Sr
geochemistry analyses were conducted at the system (Dickin, 2005).
University of Arizona laboratories following  Nd values for a given time (t) were
analytical procedures described in detail by calculated by using the equation proposed by
Ducea and Saleeby (1998). DePaolo and Wasserburg (1976).
The samples were broken with hammer Sr and Nd isotope data were plotted a
and crushed in a jaw crusher discarding rock diagram of initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio vs.  Nd
chips with visible features of weathering/ (Rollinson, 1993).
122 SECTION 1.4. - METHODOLOGY
1.4.5.2. LEAD ISOTOPE electromagnetic separation and the purified by

G E O C H E M I S T RY A N A LY T I C A L handpicking under binocular
PROCEDURES stereomicroscope. Purified sulfide samples
were washed in distilled water and cleaned in
Whole-rock lead isotope geochemistry ultrasonic bath in order to remove any fine
analysis of rock samples were also conducted impurity adhered to the sulfide. Then, samples
at the Geochronological Research Center were powdered and dissolved in distilled 10N
(CPGeo) of the University of Sao Paulo and HCl, and the The lead isotope analyses were
at Valencia Geoservices in Tucson (Arizona, carried out using the single filament silica-gel
USA). method in a VG 354 Micromass mass
At the CPGeo, whole-rock samples were spectrometer.
broken and crushed to small rock chips, then Lead isotope data were plotted in
washed in ultrasonic bath and powdered in thorogenic ( 208Pb/ 204Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb) and
carbide balls mill. uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb)
The whole rock powders were dissolved graphics (Tosdal et al., 1999), and the lead
with HF, HNO 3 and HCl. Pb was purified evolution curves of the Plumbotectonics Model
using ion exchange technique and loaded on by Zartman and Doe (1981) were used for
Re filaments as described by Babinski et al. comparison purposes.
(1999). Isotopic ratios were obtained on a
Finnigan MAT 262 mass spectrometer.
At the University of Arizona, the samples 1.4.5.3. SULFUR ISOTOPE
were reduced to powder following similar G E O C H E M I S T RY A N A LY T I C A L
procedures as in the CPGeo. Then, samples PROCEDURES
were totally dissolved in a mixture (2:1) of
HF+HNO 3 using Parr-type bombs, and Pb Sulfur isotope geochemistry analyses in
was separated using HBr+HCl chemistry on sulfide samples from gold deposits and
Dowex 1X8 AG ion exchange resin. Lead was occurrences of the western Colombian Andes
charged on Rhenium ribbon using silica gel plus were conducted at the Scientific-Techniques
H3PO 4 and analyzed on a VG 354 Micromass Survey of the Universitat de Barcelona (SCT-
multicollecter Thermal Ionization Mass UB).
Spectrometer (TIMS). The sulfide samples were analyzed by
On the other hand, lead isotope analyses mass spectrometry using a Delta C Finnigan
in sulfide samples were also conducted at the MAT continuous flow isotope-ratio mass
Geochronological Research Center (CPGeo) spectrometer with an elemental analyzer, a
of the University of Sao Paulo following the TC-EA according to the method proposed by
procedure described by Misi et al. (1999). Giesemann et al. (1974).
Mineralized vein material from gold The results are given as  34S ‰ values
deposits and occurrences were carefully relative to the CDT standard. The analytical
broken with agate mortar and sieved to precision is within 0.1 ‰ at 1 ó. The isotopic
appropriate size (60 to 100 mesh). Sulfide ratios were calculated using NBS-127,
species were separated by FRANTZ YCEM, IAEA-S1 and IAEA-S3 standards.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 2
GEOTECTONIC
FRAMEWORK OF
THE NORTHERN
ANDES
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 2.1.
Geographic Location and

Physiographic Features
2.1.1 - Geographical location and political divisions 127
2.1.1. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND POLITICAL

DIVISIONS
Colombia is located on the northwestern and Malpelo) and the Caribbean sea (San
corner of the South American continent. It is Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina).
the only country in South America with Political division of the continental area
extensive coastal regions on both the include 32 departments (Figure 2.1.1.2):
Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean (Figure Amazonas (1), Antioquia (2), Arauca (3), Atlantico
2.1.1.1). (4), Bolivar (5), Boyacá (6), Caldas (7), Caquetá
It is bordered to the east by Venezuela and (8), Casanare (9), Cauca (10), Cesar (11), Chocó
Brazil, to the south by Ecuador and Peru, to (12), Cordoba (13), Cundinamarca (14), Guainía
the northwest by Panama. It shares maritime (15), Guaviare (16), Guajira (17), Huila (18),
borders with Venezuela, Jamaica, Haiti, the Magdalena (19), Meta (20), Nariño (21), Norte
Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and de Santander (22), Putumayo (23), Quindío (24),
Costa Rica. Risaralda (25), San Andrés (26), Santander (27),
In addition, Colombian territory includes Sucre (28), Tolima (29), Valle del Cauca (30),
small islands in both the Pacific ocean (Gorgona Vaupés (31) and Vichada (32) .
Figure 2.1.1.1. Geographic location of F i g u re 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . P o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s o f

Colombia in South America. Colombia.
2.1.2 - Physiographic features 129
2.1.2. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES
Physiographically, the northern Andes

border northwestern South America, extending
from north of the Huancabamba deflection
(Winter et al. 2002) in northern Peru and
including the cordilleran regions of Ecuador,
Colombia and Venezuela (Figure 2.1.2.1).
The Colombian Andes form the geographic
centre of the northern Andean region. They are
comprised of a topographically complex array of
mountain ranges (cordilleras, sierras and
serranias) and tectonic valleys, which are a direct
reflection of the underlying geology and prolonged
tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the region.
Figure 2.1.2.2 show the main
physiographic features in the Colombian
Andes: Three principal, broadly NNW-
oriented cordilleras dominate Colombian
Figure 2.1.2.1. The Northern Andean Block
physiography. These include (1) the Eastern
in northwestern South America.
Cordillera, with topographic relief up to up to
4,600 m.a.s.l. The physiographic Eastern
Cordillera includes the Santander, Floresta,
Quetame and Garzon massifs, (2) the Central
Cordillera, with relief up to 5,800 m.a.s.l.
dominated by stratovolcanic cones , and (3) the
Western Cordillera, with relief up to 4,200 m.a.s.l.
These features are separated by two major
inter-Andean valleys: the Cauca-Patía
depression (4) and the Magdalena basin (5).
Various additional lesser ranges (sierras
and serranias), albeit with significant
topographic relief, include the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta (6), the Serrania de Perija (7),
and the Serrania de San Lucas (8), in the
northern portion of the cordilleran system. The
Serrania de Baudo and Serrania del Darien are
located in the in the northwest (9).
Extensive coastal plains are developed
along Colombia’s Caribbean (10) and Pacific
(11) margins.
In the Caribbean coast, the northerneastern-
most area with notable physiographic feature the Figure 2.1.2.2. Main physiographic features
Peninsula de la Guajira (12). of Colombia.
SECTION 2.2.
Regional Geology and Tectono-

Magmatic Evolution of Colombia
2.2.1 - Geological overview 133
2.2.1. GEOLOGICAL OVERVIEW
As with Colombian physiography, the Feininger et al. (1972), Hall et al. (1972) and
geology of the Colombian Andes is highly González (2001) for the Antioquia, Caldas and
complex. It is important to observe however, surrounding regions; Núñez (2001) for the
that a direct correlation between the Tolima Department; Velandia et al. (2001) for
physiographical nomenclature for the Colombia the Department of Huila, París and Marín
Andes (Eastern Cordillera, Central Cordillera, (1979) and Arango and Ponce (1982) for the
Santander Massif etc.) and underlying bedrock Departments of Cauca and Nariño,
geology cannot be drawn. In fact, most respectively. A recent regional overview of the
physiographic features are characterized by the geology of the western Choco Arc is provided
tectono-stratigraphic juxtaposition of a variety by Cediel et al. (2009). An important series of
of metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary Colombian paleogeographic time-slice
rocks of varying ages and representing reconstructions spanning the Precambrian to
numerous geological events, spanning the the Recent were published by Cáceres et al.
Precambrian up to the present. (2003).
With respect to presently available Figure 2.2.1.1 summarizes the geology of
geological mapping, the full definition of surface the Colombian Andes, highlighting the
geology at the 1:1,000.000 scale in many distribution of the principal occurrences of
regions of the Colombia Andes remains Precambrian, early Paleozoic and Mesozoic
incomplete and in some areas controversial. metamorphic rocks, Meso-Cenozoic igneous
Regardless, from a regional perspective and sedimentary rocks, and mixed volcano-
(greater than 1:400.000 scale) various historic sedimentary sequences of predominantly
to recent overviews of Colombian geology oceanic affinity which dominate the geology of
provide sufficient litho-stratigraphic and the western portion of the Colombian
structural detail to support the formulation of cordilleran system. The principal structural
integrated tectonic evolutionary models and features and lineaments are also shown. Figure
time-space reconstructions within which 2.2.1.2 is a generalized cross-section through
Colombian gold metallogeny can be integrated. the northern portion of the Colombian Andes,
In this context, country-scale overviews of extending from the Guiana Shield in the east,
Colombian geology can be found in syntheses through the Eastern, Central and Western
by Campbell (1974), Shagam (1975), Etayo cordilleras, to the Pacific margin in the west.
et al. (1983), Cediel and Cáceres (2000) and The Colombian Andes are developed along
Gómez et al. (2007). the northwestern-most margin of the
In addition, important field-based regional autochthonous early Proterozoic Guiana Shield
works and department-scale geological (Priem et al., 1982). The northwestern-most
compilations are available, many of which margin of the Guiana Shield (or conversely, the
provide background with respect to the eastern margin of the Colombian Andes), is
location and understanding of Colombian gold demarcated by the presence of a discontinuous
districts. Such works include: Ward et al. belt of upper amphibolite to granulite grade
(1973) and Royero and Clavijo (2001) for the metamorphic rocks of late middle Proterozoic
Santander massif; Tschanz et al. (1974) for the age (1.3 to 0.9 Ga; Kroonenberg, 1982;
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; Clavijo et al. Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Cordani et al.,
(2008) for the Serranía de San Lucas, 2005; Cardona et al, 2010; Ramos, 2010),
134 SECTION 2.2 - REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONO-MAGMATIC EVOLUTION
exposed in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta age are located to the west of the granulite belt
and Santander and Garzón massifs (Figure and are exposed as far west as the eastern
2.2.1.3). Additiona1ly, fragmented inliers of flanks of the Central cordillera and along the
crystalline basement rocks, also of Proterozoic Serranía de San Lucas (Figure 2.2.1.3).
Figure 2.2.1.1. Simplified geological map of Colombia after Cediel and Cáceres (2000)
and Gómez et al. (2007). Principal lineaments and fault systems are shown in red. Section
line of the generalized cross-section presented in the Figure 2.2.1.2 is also shown.
Figure 2.2.1.2. Simplified regional W-E cross-section along the Colombian Northern Andes
after Cediel et al. (2003). Cross-section trace and legend as presented in figure 2.2.1.1.
However, these inliers are considered by some of the western allochthonous Proterozoic
authors to be allochthonous with respect to the block(s) with the Guiana Shield.
Guiana Shield (e.g. Cediel et al., 2003). The The Precambrian metamorphic rocks
contact between the western allochthonous (Guiana Shield + western allochthonous
crystalline basement rocks and the Guiana block(s) + granulite belt) which form the
Shield is placed along the Santa Marta – basement underlying the eastern portion of the
Bucaramanga – Suaza fault system (Figure Colombian Andes, are unconformably overlain
2.2.1.3). The 1.3 to 0.9 Ga granulite belt is by a mixed series of latest Proterozoic to early
considered to have formed as a metamorphic Paleozoic meta-sedimentary and meta-volcanic
welt penecontemporaneous with formation of supracrustal with lesser plutonic rocks of lower
this fault system, during collision and suturing greenschist to lower amphibolite grade. Within
Figure 2.2.1.3. Simplified Proterozoic facies Figure 2.2.1.4. Simplified early Paleozoic
distribution and tectonic environment in facies distribution and tectonic
Colombia, modified from Cáceres et al. environment in Colombia, modified from
(2003). Cáceres et al. (2003).
the cordilleran domain (Figure 2.2.1.4), these

rocks are exposed in the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta and Santander, Floresta and
Quetame massifs. Subsurface equivalents to
out crop are known at depth in the Llanos basin
to the east and in the Magdalena basin to the
west (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000). The western
limit of the early Paleozoic supracrustal
sequences (i.e. the western limit of the
Paleozoic continental margin) broadly
coincides with the trace of the paleo-Palestina
fault system (Cáceres et al., 2003) (Figure
2.2.1.4), roughly demarcating the eastern flank
of Colombia‘s Central cordillera.
Additional early Paleozoic meta-
sedimentary and meta-volcanic rocks are
observed along and to the west of the Palestina
fault, including the Cajamarca, Valdivia and
Ayura-Montbello Groups. These rocks, which
form the basement to much of Colombia’s
Central cordillera, are of oceanic affinity and
were deposited on oceanic basement. They are
Figure 2.2.1.5. Simplified Triassic-Jurassic facies
considered to be parautochthonous with
distribution and tectonic environment in Colom-
respect to the Paleozoic strata to the east of
bia, modified from Cáceres et al. (2003).
the Palestina fault, forming the remnants of an
accretionary collage obducted along the
paleocontinental margin in the early-middle
Paleozoic. The latest Paleozoic – earliest Formation along the southeastern slopes of the
Mesozoic is marked by the emplacement of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. All of these
peraluminous granitoids and granitic gneiss, units are of early to middle Jurassic age.
well represented in the northern part of the The emplacement of major granitoid
Central cordillera and Sierra Nevada de Santa batholiths of Jurassic age and calc-alkaline
Marta (Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona et al., affinity was broadly contemporaneous with the
2010b) (Figure 2.2.1.5). development of the above described volcano-
The early to mid Mesozoic is marked by sedimentary sequences. Such major batholiths
the deposition of thick sequences of continental include the Aracataca, Central, Pueblo Bello
sedimentary and arc-related volcano- and Patillal batholiths exposed in the Sierra
sedimentary rocks in grabens and back arc Nevada de Santa Marta (Tschanz et al.,1974),
basins, and by the emplacement of major the Santa Barbara and Paramo Rico batholiths
granitoid batholiths (Figure 2.2.1.5). Principal of the Santander Massif (Dorr et al., (1995),
rift-related deposits of a fluvio-lacustrine the Mocoa batholith exposed in the Garzon
nature are observed in the late Jurassic Giron massif, the Norosi batholith exposed in the
and La Quinta Formations in the Serrania de Serrania de San Lucas, and the Ibague and
Perija and Santander massif. The principle Segovia batholiths exposed along the length of
deposits of mixed continental sediments and the Central cordillera (Aspden et al., 1987).
arc-related volcanics are observed in the The preexistence of the previously described
Saldaña Formation, best exposed along the Santa Marta-Bucaramanga-Suaza and
u p p e r M a g d a l e n a v a l l e y, t h e N o r e a n Palestina fault and suture systems played an
Formation, dominating the eastern flank of the important role in batholith localization (Figure
Serrania de San Lucas and the Guatapurí 2.2.1.5).
The geological evolution of the Colombian 2) parautochthonous to
Andes during the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic allochthonous components added
is intimately linked to the onset of the Northern (accreted, obducted) along the late-post
Andean Orogeny, beginning in the early Jurassic northern Andean margin during the
Cretaceous. The Northern Andean Orogeny NorthernAndean Orogeny, beginning in the
will be discussed in detail in section 2.2.3.3, early Cretaceous (Aptian).
below, as this series of events is of critical
importance in the understanding of Colombian With respect to the 1) autochthonous
g o l d m e t a l l o g e n y. F r o m a g e o l o g i c a l assemblages, these are dominated by thick
standpoint, the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic sequences (1,000’s of metres) of Cretaceous
litho-stratigraphic components of the marine and transitional marine strata dating
Colombian Andes may be considered in two from the Berriasian through Maastrichtian, and
generalized assemblages (Figure 2.2.1.6): Cenozoic marine transitional and continental
deposits, well recorded in out crop and
1) autochthonous assemblages subsurface in the physiographic Eastern
deposited upon or intruded into the Cordillera, Serranía de Perija and adjacent
preexisting (post-Jurassic areas, including in the upper, middle and lower
autochthonous), composite Proterozoic Magdalena basins, the Eastern Cordillera
– Paleozoic basement, as a direct result basin, the Santander massif, Cesar – Rancheria
of processes (subduction, accretion, basin and Llanos foreland basin (Figure
uplift, erosion) linked to the tectonic 2.2.1.7). The regional stratigraphic
assembly of the northern Andes during nomenclature and paleographic distribution of
this period, and these sequences is presented by Cediel and
Figure 2.2.1.6. Tectonic realms and western Figure 2.2.1.7. Simplified late Cretaceous
parautochthonous to allochthonous facies distribution and tectonic environment
lithotectonic and morphostructural units of in Colombia, modified from Cáceres et al.
Colombia after Cediel et al. (2003). (2003).
Figure 2.2.1.8. Simplified Paleocene-Eocene Figure 2.2.1.9. Simplified Miocene facies

facies distribution and tectonic environment distribution and tectonic environment in Colom-
in Colombia, modified from Cáceres et al. bia, modified from Cáceres et al. (2003). Recent
(2003). plutonism and vulcanism is also shown.
Caceres (2000) and Caceres et al. (2003). In Eocene Sonsón and El Bosque batholiths and
the northern Central cordillera, erosional El Hatillo, Manizales and El Hatillo and Santa
relicts of autochthonous basinal facies Isabel stocks, among others (Figure 2.2.1.8).
volcano-sedimentary strata of early With respect to the 2) parautochthonous
Cretaceous age are observed in the San Pablo, to allochthonous litho-tectonic components, all
San Luis, Abejorral and Segovia Formations. consist of oceanic volcano-sedimentary
Significant granitoid magmatism, recorded assemblages deposited upon latest Jurassic -
in the late Mesozoic – Cenozoic, is observed Cretaceous oceanic basement, and all were
to affect the autochthonous sedimentary accreted to the northern Andean margin during
assemblages, especially in the northern portion the Northern Andean Orogeny, beginning in the
of the Central cordillera. Major batholiths and Aptian-Albian (Cediel et al., 2003; see section
stocks intrude the Cajamarca and Valdivia 2.2.3.3). In this context, it is apt to outline the
groups metamorphic basement, and contact geology of these components on a litho-
metamorphic aureoles extend into the volcanotectonic unit basis, in the approximate
sedimentary sequences of early Cretaceous chronological order of accretion. The Romeral
age (including the San Pablo, San Luis and assemblage (Figure 2.2.1.6; Cediel and
Segovia Formations). The largest pluton is the Caceres, 2000), including the Quebradagrande
composite, calc-alkaline Antioquia Batholith of Formation and Arquia assemblage (Maya and
post-Albian through Paleocene age (Figures Va s q u e z , 2 0 0 1 ) , c o n s i s t s o f s t r o n g l y
2.2.1.7 and 2.2.1.8). Smaller batholiths and tectonized, low grade meta-tholeiitic basalt and
stocks include the early to late Cretaceous gabbro (disrupted ophiolite) and siliciclastic
Mariquita batholith and the Paleocene – sequences of pericratonic affinity accreted
along the continental margin in the Aptian. The the north, the Dagua-Diabasico assemblage
tectonic limit between the Romeral assemblage and Cauca fault are truncated by the
and the autochthonous basement and Garrapatas fault and structures associated with
supercrustal assemblages to the east is placed the obduction of the Choco Arc in the late
along the Romeral fault and suture zone (Figure Miocene. The Dagua-Diabasico Groups are
2.2.1.1). Romeral basement rocks are well intruded by a NNE-trending series of calc-
exposed along the western-most margin of the alkaline quartz diorite stocks and small
Central cordillera and along the basins of the batholiths which extend from Piedrancha in the
Cauca and Patia Rivers. They host tectonic south, through La Llanada, to at least the
floats of inferred Precambrian, early Paleozoic Micay River in the north. This arc was
and Permo-Triassic age, and form the developed along the Colombian margin in the
basement for shallow marine and transitional early Miocene, following accretion of the
siliciclastic rocks including the Oligocene Dagua – Diabasico assemblage (Figure
Mosquera, and Miocene Esmita and Amaga 2.2.1.9).
Formations, deposited unconformably in pull- To the north of the Dagua - Diabasico suite,
apart basins between the emerging Central the San Jacinto assemblage (Figure2.2.1.6) was
and- Western cordilleras. The Romeral accreted along the northwestern-most Colombian
basement and Cenozoic siliciclastic paleo-margin during the Paleocene – early of
sedimentary cover were subsequently intruded Eocene. The San Jacinto basement is comprised
by clusters of late Miocene to Pliocene calc- primarily of tholeiitic basalt and with lesser
alkaline felsic porphyry stocks as observed, associated sedimentary rocks of late Cretaceous
from south to north, in the Patia and upper age, and is covered by thick sequences of Eocene
Cauca River basins, at Buenos Aires - Suarez, through Pliocene carbonates and clastic
and along the middle basin extending from sedimentary rocks. Obduction took place along
Santa Rosa de Cabal - Manizales north through the Romeral North fault system (Figure
Anserma- Quinchía, Supía-Marmato- 2.2.1.8).
Caramanta, Tamesis-Jericó, Venecia-Fredonia To the immediate west of the Dagua-
and Titiribi. Important deposits of associated Diabasico suite, mostly located offshore and
volcanic rocks are observed in the Combia best exposed on Gorgona Island, the Gorgona
Formation (late Miocene) and Galeón assemblage (Figure 2.2.1.6) was accreted
Formation (Pliocene, see Figure 2.2.1.9). along the Buenaventura fault. Gorgona is of
Aptian – Albian emplacement of the clearly oceanic origin, containing massive
Romeral assemblage was followed by late basaltic flows, pillow lavas, komatiitic lava
Cretaceous through early Eocene arrival and flows, and a peridotite-gabbro complex. It
accretion of the litho-stratigraphic suite which appears to represent an accreted oceanic
comprises the main mass of Colombia’s plateau of late Cretaceous age.
geological Western cordillera. In Colombia, this Closely following the accretion of the
lithotecton extends along the southwestern Gorgona suite, assembly of the composite
Pacific margin, from the Ecuador border in the Chocó Arc was initiated. The Chocó Arc
south to the Garrapatas fault in the north dominates the geology of the entire northern
(Figures 2.2.1.1 and 2.2.1.6). The Western sector of Colombia‘s physiographic Western
cordillera is underlain primarily by an early cordillera (Figure 2.2.1.8). Although
Cretaceous litho-stratigraphic suite which physiographically contiguous with the southern
includes the Dagua Group, comprised of sector (i.e. the Dagua – Diabasico assemblage)
turbiditic greywacke, siltstone-mudstone and stratigraphic continuity between the north and
basinal chert, and the Diabasico Group, south cannot be established (Cediel et al.,
comprised of E- and N-MORB and diabase. 2003; Cediel et al., 2009). Three litho-tectonic
These units are in structural contact with the assemblages form the basement of the
Romeral assemblage immediately to the east composite Chocó Arc, including Cañas
along the Cauca fault and suture system. To Gordas, El Paso and Baudó (Figure 2.2.1.6).
The Cañas Gordas Group is comprised of plateau provenance is clearly demonstrated for
oceanic volcano-sedimentary strata of mid to the Baudó volcanic rocks. It is unclear if the
late Cretaceous age, the basaltic to andesitic- Baudo segment forms a separate terrane
dominated portion of which exhibits calc- assemblage, or if it forms part of the El Paso
alkaline arc affinity. Cañas Gordas was assemblage as recorded to the east of the
emplaced over the tectonized Romeral margin Atrato Basin. Assembly of the Chocó Arc
along the Garrapatas – Dabeiba fault system, initiated in the Maastrichtian, with appearance
and forms the basement for late Miocene calc- (accretion? uplift?) of the Baudó segment in
alkaline magmatism recorded in the Farallones the late Miocene.
batholith and Páramo de Frontino (Figure The last major components to be added
2.2.1.9). Accretion of the El Paso terrane to the northwestern and northern Colombian
followed Cañas Gordas. Although not well margin include the Sinu and Guajira (-Falcon)
exposed, these oceanic volcanic rocks form assemblages (Figure 2.2.1.6). Sinu broadly
the basement to Cenozoic clastic sedimentary parallels San Jacinto in the northwest. Like San
sequences of the Atrato basin. The contact Jacinto, Sinu basement is comprised primarily
between Cañas Gordas and El Paso (i.e. the of tholeiitic basalt of late Cretaceous age and
San Juan - Sebastián fault and suture, Figure is covered by Cenozoic siliciclastic
2.2.1.1) was intruded by the early to mid sedimentary rocks. Guajira-Falcon is a
Eocene, calc-alkaline, Mandé batholith, with composite assemblage of allochthonous
the associated La Equis - Santa Cecilia fragments of Proterozoic and Paleozoic
volcanic complexes (Figure 2.2.1.8). The continental crust, Jurassic sedimentary
Baudó segment of the Chocó Arc is dominated sequences and Cretaceous oceanic crust
by upper Cretaceous to Paleogene tholeiitic accumulated during emplacement of the
basalt with minor interbedded pyroclastic and Caribbean plate and juxtaposed along the
siliciclastic strata including turbidites and northern Colombian margin along the Oca –
cherts. E-MORB affinity, suggesting oceanic Pilar fault system (Figure 2.2.1.1).
2.2.2 - Principal Fault Systems 141
2.2.2. PRINCIPAL FAULT SYSTEMS
The complex physiography and geology of

the Colombian Andes has been developed
through the interaction of crustal-scale blocks
of various origins, along a complex series of
crustal-scale fault and suture systems.
Most of the principle faults initiated as
sutures joining the crustal blocks, and most of
the faults have been reactivated numerous
times throughout their history. As such, an
integral understanding of the nature of the fault
systems can only be derived through the
reconstruction of geotectonic events on a
regional scale (section 2.2.3).
With respect to regional gold metallogeny
in Colombia, the nature and origin of regional-
scale faulting is important, as faults and sutures
form the conduits which permit the
emplacement of fertile magmas and the
circulation of deep-seated hydrothermal fluids.
Subordinate faults and fractures
associated with the major structures and/or
their reactivation form sites for the
Figure 2.2.2.1. Principal fault and suture
emplacement and cooling of dykes and
systems of the Colombian northern Andes
hydrothermal fluids and the precipitation of
(Cediel et al., 2003).
ore-forming minerals.
In this context, regional-scale strike-slip
faulting in particular, has been recognized as
an important element in development of the whilst the paleo-development of fault and
tectonic architecture of the Colombian Andes suture systems is outlined in Section 2.2.3,
(Cediel et al., 2003; Kennan and Pindell, Figures 2.2.3.3 to 2.2.3.9.
2009).
A summary of the history and development
of the most important fault systems of the 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . B U C A R A M A N G A - S A N TA
Colombian Andes, as they pertain to the above MARTA - SUAZA FAULT SYSTEM
geological summary (Section 2.2.1) and to the
tectono-magmatic and gold metallogenetic This is a composite fault system whose
aspects of the region, is presented below. origin coincides with the approximately 1.3 –
Fault - suture systems are presented in 0.9 Ga suture of an allochthonous continental
terms of their relative age of inception, from block in the west with the main mass of the
approximate oldest to youngest. The modern- Guiana Shield in the east (Cediel and Caceres,
day fault traces are all shown in Figure 2.2.2.1 2000; Cediel et al., 2003) (Figure 2.2.1.3).
Since formation, various segments of the It reappears in the Sierra Nevada de

fault have been reactivated in different manners Santa Marta where is recorded as the Sevilla
at different times (e.g. Campbell, 1968; Rivera, Fault, separating the early Paleozoic Sevilla
1989; Toro, 1990). The fault served as a Group from Jurassic batholiths to the
crustal-scale conduit in a broadly extensional southeast. The main trace of the fault through
regime, facilitating the emplacement of major central Colombia is thought to have controlled
early Jurassic calc-alkaline batholiths in the early-middle Jurassic calc-alkaline magmatism
Santander massif, at Paramo Rico and Santa along the Central cordillera and San Lucas
Barbara and along the Suaza segment in the range, including the Ibague and Norosi
south at Mocoa. Further extension facilitated batholiths, respectively. Based upon work by
the development of the Eastern Cordillera basin Feininger (1970), dextral reactivation of the
throughout the early Cretaceous. Regional fault can be inferred in the in the Aptian-Albian
transpression beginning in the mid-late and is well recorded in the latest Cretaceous
Cretaceous imparted a broad sinistral – Paleocene. Cediel et al. (2003) suggest the
component to the fault. The northern buried trace of the fault has facilitated modern-
Bucaramanga – Santa Marta segment was day volcanism in the Central cordillera (e.g.
converted into a major side-wall ramp related Ruiz, Santa Isabel, Machin volcanos),
to exhumation of the Santander massif and beginning in the late Miocene (Figure 2.2.1.9).
thrust-related stacking in the Merida and Perija
Ranges and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
Related NE-striking transtensional faulting 2.2.2.3. OCA - EL PILAR FAULT SYSTEM
facilitated the emplacement of porphyritic
magmas in the late Miocene at Vetas-California The Oca - El Pilar Fault System has been
in the Santander massif, and to the south along active since the Late Triassic, constituting a
the buried trace of the fault system, at Paipa – plate boundary. Since the middle Cretaceous
Isa and Quetame in the Pliocene - Pleistocene. it exhibits right lateral movement. It presently
The southern Suaza segment of the fault was represents the boundary fault separating the
reactivated during uplift of the Garzon massif Northern Andean Block and the Caribbean
in the Miocene. plate in northeastern Colombia.
2.2.2.2. PALESTINA FAULT SYSTEM 2.2.2.4. ROMERAL FAULT SYSTEM
This fault originated as an early – middle This fault system originates in

Paleozoic suture between the para- southwestern Ecuador, extending northwards
autochthonous Cajamarca, Valdivia and into central Colombia. It marks the suture
Montebello Groups and the early Paleozoic trace of accreted Cretaceous litho-tectonic
continental margin of northwestern South assemblages with the northern Andean cratonic
America (Figure 2.2.1.4). Numerous margin (Figure 2.2.1.7). The Romeral fault and
reactivations since formation make the original suture system is marked by a tectonic melange,
trace of the Palestina system difficult to define. containing intensely deformed and fragmented
The structure includes the Palestina Fault as blocks of latest Jurassic – early Cretaceous
defined by Feininger (1970), and a set of high-pressure metamorphic rocks (eclogite,
subordinate structures mapped to the south blueschist), layered mafic - ultramafic and
(e.g. Chapeton-Pericos, Ibague and Cucuana ophiolite complexes, and marine sedimentary
faults) and west (e.g. El Bagre, Nus and Otu volcanic rocks, in addition to tectonic floats
faults), all of which appear to be related to of Precambrian(?) and Paleozoic(?)
reactivation of the main fault trace. In northern- metamorphic rocks.
most Colombia, the fault can be interpreted in Nivia et al. (1996) grouped lithologic
the subsurface of the lower Magdalena basin. assemblages along the belt into the Arquía and
2.2.2 - Principal Fault Systems 143
Quebradagrande complexes, however the areas modifys and reactivates faults of the
geologic limits between these two complexes Romeral system.
were not clearly defined. Chicangana (2005) The age of the Cauca system is broadly
suggests the assemblage forms a subduction Paleocene however this system too has been
complex along the early Cretaceous continental reactivated. The latest reactivation is mid to
margin. Localized occurrences of early late Miocene or later as evidenced by the
Cretaceous subduction-related calc-alkaline west-vergent thrust truncation of Miocene-
grantoids hosted within Romeral basement, aged porphyry bodies along the Cauca-Patia
such as observed at Buga, Irra and depression (Cediel et al., 2003).
Sabanalarga, support this conclusion.
The Romeral fault/melange is poorly
exposed in southern-most Colombia, being 2.2.2.6. MACAY AND BUENAVENTURA
blanketed by Miocene and Pliocene through FAULT SYSTEMS
recent volcanic cover along the Inter-Andean
depression (Figure 2.2.1.9). Right-lateral The Macay system is developed primarily
strike-slip has been recorded along the in the Dagua – Diabasico suite (Figure
Romeral fault system (Ego and Sébrier, 1995). 2.2.1.6). It consists of west-verging
Early Cretaceous movements are strongly transpressive thrusts which correlate with
transpressional, marked by intense shearing, lateral displacements along the Cauca system.
anastomosing subvertical foliations and The system may have played a role in the
localized blueschist development (Cediel et al., emplacement of the Piedrancha – La Llanada
2003). trend of plutons during the early Miocene.
Reactivations in the late Cretaceous and To the west, the Buenaventura Fault is
Cenozoic include rotations recording both inferred by geophysics as a rectilinear
right- and left-lateral components, suggesting northeast-trending lineament with movement
broadly orthogonal compression. High-angle interpreted as right-lateral (Cediel et al.,
reverse movements are locally recorded in the 2003). It coincides with the suture trace
Miocene. between the Gorgona and Dagua – Diabasico
To the north, the Romeral system changes terrane assemblages (Figure 2.2.1.6).
in strike and character and is termed the
Romeral North or San Jacinto fault system
(Cediel et al, 2003). No evidence of a tectonic 2.2.2.7. GARAPATAS DABEIBA, SAN
melange and no magmatism are observed along J U A N S E B A S T I A N A N D AT R ATO
this segment of the fault. The structure, which FAULT SYSTEMS
terminates against the Oca – El Pilar system,
records the accretion of the San Jacinto and This series of fault systems coincide with
later Sinu terranes along the NW Colombian the suture traces of the various components of
margin (Figure 2.2.1.6). the Chocó Arc as described above (Section
2.2.1; Figure 2.2.1.6).
The Garrapatas fault represents a major
2.2.2.5. CAUCA FAULT SYSTEM transform break in the oceanic crust and forms
the principle boundary fault between the
This structure constitutes a suture between Dagua-Diabasico and Gorgona assemblages to
two oceanic litho-tectonic assemblages of the the south and the Chocó Arc assemblage to
Colombian Pacific margin: Romeral and the north (Figure 2.2.1.6).
Dagua-Diabasico (Figure 2.2.1.6), as To the west the fault joins with the
described above (Section 2.2.1). modern-day Ecuador-Colombia trench along
The Cauca fault system has a general right- which the Nazca plate is subducting.
lateral strike-slip character (Ego and Sébrier, Along strike to the east, the Garrapatas
1995) which varies along strike and in some fault serves as the southern lateral ramp which,
in combination with the Dabeiba fault to the The Atrato fault system is developed within
north, has facilitated obduction of the Cañas the Baudó assemblage. This fault system is
Gordas terrane along a series of east- vergent composed of a series of east-verging en
thrusts. To the west the San Juan Sebastian echelon rotated thrust faults related to Mio-
fault forms the suture trace between the El Paso Pliocene northeasterly to easterly convergence
and Canas Gordas assemblages (Figure and rotation of the Chocó Arc. On the other
2.2.1.6). It was active during the Eocene and hand, the Atrato fault system facilitated the
may have played a role in the localization of uplift of the Baudó assamblage over the
the Mande batholith and associated porphyry western margin of the El Paso assemblage (see
stocks (Cediel et al., 2009). figure 2.2.1.6).
2.2.3 - Colombian Tectono-Magmatic Evolution 145
2.2.3. COLOMBIAN TECTONO-MAGMATIC

EVOLUTION
The relationships between global

tectonics, magmatism and metallogenesis in
general have become increasingly well
established in the last 20 years (e.g. Sawkins,
1990; Kerrich et al., 2005; Groves and
Bierlein, 2007; Bierlein et al., 2009). In this
context an integral understanding of Colombian
tectonic development is essential in the
discussion of magmatic events and gold
metallogenesis for the region.
As introduced above, from a geotectonic
standpoint the Colombian Andes are contained
within a region including the entire northwestern
corner of South America, which is generally Figure 2.2.3.1. Northwestern corner of South-
referred to the Northern Andean Block (Cediel America plate tectonics collage, relative
et al., 2003) or North Andes (Bird, 2003). movement vectors and velocities in mm/a after
The evolution of the region and its modern Bird (2003). Panama (PM) and North Andes
day geologic, tectonic and physiographic (ND) «microplates» are also shown. Northern
expression is the result of the complex Andean Block as defined by Cediel et al. (2003)
interaction between numerous large tectonic is shown un blue for comparison.
plates, beginning in the Proterozoic. Since the
Meso-Cenozoic, no less than four plates, Venezuela and eastern Panama. The eastern
including the Farallon (now extinct), Nazca, limit of the block is interpreted to coincide with
South American and Caribbean have been a topographic lineament extending from just
involved (Figure 2.2.3.1). south of Chiclayo on the Peruvian coast,
The Northern Andean Block is considered northeast along the eastern foothills of the
by Bird (2003) as a microplate comprised of Ecuadorian and Colombian Andes, continuing
numerous parautochthonous and allochthonous along the southeastern margin of the Sierra de
plate fragments and tectonic slivers of Merida and encompassing the Caribbean
continental, peri-cratonic and oceanic affinity, Mountains along Venezuela’s northern coast.
which have been accumulated tectonically Cediel et al. (2003) refer to this limit as the
along the northwest margin of South America, “stress field break zone”, and note that it does
broadly bound by the Guiana Shield (South not coincide with any specific fault or singular
American Plate) to the east, the Pacific (Nazca) geological feature.
plate to the west and the Caribbean plate to It is noteworthy that the above definition
the north. does not coincide with the definition of the
From a geographic standpoint, the “North Andes” as proposed by Kellogg et al.
Northern Andean Block includes the northern (1985) and Bird (2003), who delimit the block
Peruvian Andes, to the north of the using lineaments which cross Ecuador ’s
Huancabamba Deflection (Winter et al., 2002; Cordillera Real and pass southwestwards into
Figure 2.2.3.1) and continues through the the Pacific through the Gulf of Guayaquil. This
cordilleran regions of Ecuador, Colombia, definition is considered problematic from a
geological standpoint however, in that it - The work describes events relating to

truncates geological units, including both regional tectonic evolution beginning in the
Paleozoic basement and Meso-Cenozoic Proterozoic through to recent times, whereas
supracrustal stratigraphy, which are mapped of Kennan and Pindell (2009) initiate their
either side of the lineament and extend into the analysis beginning in the Jurassic. The pre-
Huancabamba region of northern Peru. Mesozoic tectonic architecture of the northern
From an historical viewpoint, various Andes is important in understanding Meso-
tectonic models for the development of the Cenozoic structural evolution for the region.
Colombian Andes and adjacent Caribbean
region have been proposed (e.g. Burke et al., - Cediel et al. (2003) provide descriptions
1984; Kellogg et al., 1985; Restrepo and of all of the on-shore litho- tectonic and
Toussaint, 1988; Pindell et al., 1988; Taboada morpho-structural components of the
et al., 2000). Colombian Andes, and describe their tectonic
In the geotectonic context, it was assembly and evolution through time, beginning
recognized that the present northern Andean in the Proterozic. This framework facilitates the
configuration is the result of a complex history integration of magmatic and metallogenetic
including collision and accretion of events into a detailed geological and tectonic
allochthonous terranes and the development of framework.
subduction-related arcs along the northwestern
South American mar gin (Restrepo and - Kennan and Pindell (2009) use a
Toussaint, 1988). Although emphasizing locally physiographic framework (e.g. Eastern,
important features regarding Colombian Central, Western Cordilleras, etc.) when
tectonic development however, previous works referring litho-tectonic units. This framework
suffered from a variety of spatial (geo-political) tends to mask or merge the details of tectonic
and/or temporal limitations, and in some cases processes in the region.
the conclusions are now known to be invalid.
More recent models have compensated for - The scale of the Cediel et al. (2003)
previous limitations. Firstly, they recognize the compilation and analysis provides sufficient
fact that an accurate account of Colombian geological detail and resolution to permit the
tectonic evolution cannot be obtained through integration of magmatism and gold deposits into
the imposition of geo-political limits upon the Colombian framework, the Kennan and
model construction. An understanding of Pindell (2009) analysis includes the area of the
Colombian tectonics involves an understanding entire northern Andes and Caribbean basin,
of the integrated evolution of the entire restricting markedly the geological detail in the
northern Andean region, from northern Peru Colombian portion of the region).
through Venezuela, and, in Meso-Cenozoic
time, it’s relationship with the evolution and Notwithstanding, the Kennan and Pindell
emplacement of the Caribbean Plate. In this (2009) analysis contains recent information and
context, two recent publications address these updated concepts regarding large-scale
important issues, including Cediel et al. (2003) aspects of Colombian tectonic evolution, and
and Kennan and Pindell (2009). Of these northern Andean-Caribbean Plate interaction,
works, Cediel et al. (2003) is most suitable and the work has been integrated into the
for metallogenetic applications for the following tectonic framework reviewed below, especially
reasons: where these concepts can be applied to the
metallogenetic framework described in
- The work is primarily focused upon Chapter 1.
the onshore geology of Colombia and the Cediel et al. (2003) describe more than
northern Andes, whereas Kennan and Pindell 30 litho-tectonic and morpho-structural
(2009) are more focused upon the evolution units (terranes, terrane assemblages,
and migration of the Caribbean Plate. physiographic and morpho-structural domains
etc.), assembled along and delimited by
important regional-scale sutures and fault
systems, as described above (Section 2.2.2;
Figure 2.2.2.1).
The terrane assemblages and morpho-
structural units are contained within four major
tectonic realms: the Guiana Shield Realm, the
Maracaibo Sub-plate Realm, the Central
Continental Sub-plate Realm and the Western
Tectonic Realm (Figure 2.2.3.2). Each realm
records distinct and in some cases unique
internal deformation styles as a response to
progressive westward accretionary continental
growth along the Guiana Shield margin.
With respect to tectonic development,
Cediel et al. (2003) describe Colombian
tectonic configurations and orogenic events
during the mid-late Proterozoic, the early-
middle Paleozoic, the late Paleozoic-Mesozoic
and during the Meso-Cenozoic to recent
(coincident with the Northern Andean
Orogeny; Bürgl, 1967; Campbell, 1974;
Figure 2.2.3.2. Major Tectonic Realms defined
Irving, 1975; Cediel et al., 2003).
by Cediel et al. (2003).
In this context, the geotectonic evolution
of the region can be separated in pre-Northern
Andean Orogeny events (that is, events prior Alvarez (1983), did not include important
to approximately the Aptian) and Northern plutons in the eastern portion of the Cordillera
Andean (syn-Aptian and onwards) orogenic such as in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
events. the Santander massif and Mocoa, or in the
As will be shown in Chapters 3 and 4, Serrania de San Lucas or Segovia.
with respect to Colombian gold metallogeny, Additionally, most of the trace elements,
the pre-Northern Andean Orogeny events are including the rare earth elements, were not
important regarding to the development of analysed, and the results were not placed into
crustal-scale fault systems and litho-tectonic a tectonic framework.
architecture, which form the basement into Aspden et al. (1987) presented a well
which many of the important Colombian gold conceived synthesis of subduction-related
deposits were emplaced during the Northern Meso-Cenozoic magmatism in Colombia using
Andean Orogeny. available radiometric age data compiled from
numerous sources. They did not present any
new data however, and, notably, the database
2.2.3.1 MAGMATISM Vs. TECTONICS consisted almost exclusively of K-Ar ages,
which in Colombia have been proven in many
There are no integrated (petrochemical, cases to be imprecise, erratic and of poor
geochronological, structural - tectonic) studies repeatability. Regardless, Aspden et al. (1987)
of magmatism at the scale of the Colombian identified five magmatic “episodes” (Triassic,
Andes. Historic works (e.g. Radelli, 1962; Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and
Perez, 1967) are dated, and based upon field Neogene), and conceived a tectonic framework
observations, with little combined for the evolution of subduction-related
petrochemical or geochronological control. The magmatism, in which they identified some of
most complete petrochemical study to date by the key factors affecting arc development in
the northern Andes, including oblique plate (2006) for the Altavista and San Diego Stocks
convergence and subduction, low angle (satellites to the Antioquia Batholith), and
subduction and changes in the angle of the Villagomez et al. (2008) for the Ibague,
subducted plate, and the role of aseismic Antioquia and Buga Batholiths.
features in the development of, and hiatuses With some exceptions (e.g. Mejía et al.
in, the subduction process. (2008) and Cardona et al. (2011)), most of
Cediel and Caceres (2000) and Cediel et these works have only been presented in
al. (2003) concur with the conclusions of limited conference-related abstracts. They
Aspden et al. (1987), and integrate the represent incomplete or in-process studies,
complex, regional and punctuated nature of based upon a limited number of samples per
Meso-Cenozoic magmatism in Colombia into intrusive body. The limited background
their tectonic models for northern Andean information presented in the abstracts does not
block development. permit the full geological evaluation of the
Other important works regarding published numerical data or the derived
magmatism in Colombia are more focused upon conclusions.
specific plutons or regions, and, again, generally One important exception to the above is
do not combine integrated petrographic, the work of Vinasco (2004) who provides a
petrochemical and geological studies. Some complete analysis of the age and petrogenesis
are dated with respect to modern analytical of Permo-Triassic granitoids throughout the
techniques, with only the more recent works northern Andes.
(post ca. 1995) presenting limited high quality This thesis presents new radiometric age,
U-Pb (zircon) studies which permit an accurate Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic, and major, minor and
assessment of the crystallization age and trace element petrochemical data for many of
inheritance of the intrusive rocks. the important Meso-Cenozoic plutonic
From an historical standpoint important batholiths and stocks of the Colombian Andes
works include those presented by Tschanz et including: the Norosi – San Martin de Loba,
al. (1974) for the Sierra Nevada de Santa El Carmen, Segovia, Ibague (north and south),
Marta, Feininger and Botero (1982) for the Mariquita, Antioquia, Irra, Buga, Jejenes,
Antioquia Batholith, and Sillitoe et al. (1982) Sonson, Mande and Piedrancha – La Llanada.
for various Meso-Cenozoic hypabyssal Additionally, similar information is
porphyritic bodies. presented for numerous Neogene hypabyssal
A compilation of historic radiometric age porphyry stocks observed along the margins
dating in Colombia from all sources was of the Central and Western Cordilleras and in
presented by Maya (1992). More recent the Santander massif.
studies which contain precise U-Pb zircon The new data will be presented, discussed
crystallization and Ar-Ar ages, some combined and integrated with that of past studies in
with Sr, Nd and Pb isotopic data and Chapters 3, 4, 5,6 and 7.
petrochemical analyses, include: Dörr et al.
(1995) for the Jurassic batholiths of the
Santander massif; Ordoñez et al. (2001) for 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . P R E - N O RT H E R N A N D E A N
the Sonson Batholith; Altenberger and Concha TECTONIC DEVELOPMENT
(2005) for the northern Ibague Batholith;
Ibañez-Mejía et al. (2007) and Restrepo- Pre-Northern Andean events and tectonic
Moreno et al. (2007) for the Antioquia configurations include three main collisional
Batholith; Ordoñez-Carmona et al. (2007) for orogenies and a period of regional
the Antioquia, Segovia and Sabanalarga taphrogenesis affecting northwesten South
batholiths; Mejía et al. (2008) and Cardona et America, prior to the initiation of the Northern
al. (2011) for the late Cretaceous – Paleocene Andean Orogeny. The three collisional
intrusives of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta orogenies include; 1) the mid-Proterozoic
(i.e. Santa Marta Batholith); Correa et al. Orinoco Orogeny (Cediel and Caceres, 2000;
Cediel et al., 2003), 2) the mid-Ordovician- the Santander massif and the Sierra Nevada
Silurian Quetame Orogeny (Cediel and de Santa Marta. Granulite belt lithologies are
Caceres, 2000; Cediel et al., 2003), and 3) a dominated by felsic, meta-pelitic and meta-
Permo-Triassic Orogeny (Vinasco, 2004; arenaceous gneisses and migmatites, for which
Vinasco et al., 2006). combined K-Ar and Rb-Sr metamorphic age
The period of regional pre-Andean dates range from 1200 to 800 Ma (Tschanz et
taphrogenesis, extending from the late Triassic al., 1974; Kroonenberg, 1982; Restrepo-
to early Cretaceous is referred as the “Bolivar Pace, 1997; Cordani et al., 2005; Cardona et
Aulacogen” by Cediel and Caceres (2000) and al., 2010a).
Cediel et al. (2003). The embedded allochthonous fragment,
sutured to the South American plate along the
Santa Marta-Bucaramanga-Suaza faults
The Orinoco Orogeny system during this collision, was designated the
Chicamocha terrane by Cediel et al. (2003).
This orogeny was originally described by This paleo-allochthonous wedge underlies the
Cediel and Cáceres (2000), as the result of eastern half of the Central Continental Sub-
the collision of the North American continental Plate Realm (Figure 2.2.3.2).
block with the Guiana Shield region of Recent studies by Cordani et al. (2005)
continental South America, broadly during the and Cardona et al. (2010a) on several
‘Grenvillian’ (ca. 1300 to 800 Ma) (Figure Precambrian (Grenvillian) inliers exposed in the
2.2.3.3). Eastern and Central Colombian Cordilleras,
This collision is recorded in the exhumed suggest that such remnants were emplaced
portions of the granulite-grade metamorphic along the northwestern border of the
belt presently exposed in the Garzón massif, Amazonian Craton during the meso-
Proterozoic (1.25 to 1.08 Ga), through direct
interaction with Baltica, as the supercontinent
Rodinia was being assembled. Rondonia was
disrupted during the Phanerozoic.
The Quetame Orogeny
During the latest Proterozoic and early

Paleozoic the Grenvillian basement
(Chicamocha terrane) and the western margin
of the Amazon Craton (Guiana Shield)
comprised the subsiding basement to thick
deposits of marine and epicontinental
sediments of Ordovician and Silurian age. In
Colombia, these autochthonous supracrustal
sequences underwent Cordilleran-type
deformation and regional sub-greenschist to
amphibolite facies metamorphism, and were
intruded by subduction related granitoids
(Restrepo-Pace, 1995) during the Quetame
Orogeny, reconstructed by Cediel and
Caceres, 2000; Cediel et al., 2003 (Figure
2.2.3.4). In Eastern Colombia, this orogeny is
Figure 2.2.3.3. Meso- to Neo-Proterozoic
recorded in the Quetame Group (Eastern
Orinoco Orogeny after Cediel and Caceres
Cordillera), the Silgará Group (Santander-
(2000).
The Permo-Triassic (ca. 280-230 Ma)

Orogeny
This refers to collisional orogenesis and

the emplacement of peraluminous granitoid and
granitoid gneiss associated with the ca. 280
Ma amalgamation of Pangea as described by
Vinasco (2004) and Vinasco et al. (2006).
Based upon detailed U-Pb and Ar-Ar dating
and petrochemical analyses for Permo-Triassic
gneissic granitoids from numerous locations in
Colombia‘s Central Cordillera (Rio Verde,
Samana, Naranjales, Manizales, Abejorral,
Palmitas and Horizontes, La Honda, El Buey
and Amagá), Vinasco et al. (2006) concluded
that, as a suite, these rocks document collision-
related metamorphism (at ca. 280 Ma),
followed by crustal thickening and the
emplacement of (foliated) peraluminous syn-
kinematic granitoids (at ca. 250 Ma) and
orogenic collapse accompanied by late
tectonic, unfoliated granitoid intrusions (at ca.
Figure 2.2.3.4. Early Paleozoic Quetame
230 Ma). Controversy surrounding this event
Orogeny simplified and modified from Cediel
includes the general lack of a metamorphic or
and Cáceres (2000).
deformational record in autochthonous
sedimentary strata of late Paleozoic and
Triassic age in the region, which should in
concept be affected but such a regional event.
Perijá belt) and in rocks exposed in the Sierra

Nevada de Santa Marta. The Bolivar Aulacogen
These units are correlated with
penecontemporaneous strata of low This name, proposed by Cediel and
metamorphic grade which form the basal Caceres (2000), refers to a long period of
portion of the Paleozoic supracrustal continental taphrogenesis surrounding
sequences of the Maracaibo, Llanos, Barinas- northwestern South America from the late
Apure and Putumayo-Napo basins. Paleozoic to the middle Cretaceous (Figure
To the west, the Cajamarca and Valdivia 2.2.3.5).
Groups form a peri-cratonic assemblage of The extensional regime initiated with the
marine affinity (the Cajamarca- Valdivia development intercontinental rift and deposition
terrane) which was sutured to the Grenvillian of marine strata in the Pennsylvanian-Permian
(Chicamocha) paleo-margin of South America, (Sierra de Mérida, Venezuela and Eastern
along the approximate trace of the paleo- Cordillera, Colombia; Caceres et al., 2003). Rift-
Palestina fault system (Figure 2.2.3.4). related deposits are also interpreted for the
The molasse generated during the Triassic (Payandé Formation), Lower Jurassic
Quetame Orogeny manifests in eastern (Morrocoyal) and Middle Jurassic (Siquisique).
Colombia as the Tibet Formation (continental In the Upper Jurassic extensive rifting is
facies) and the Floresta Formation (marine marked by deposition of the continental and
facies), and demonstrates uplift which volcano-clastic deposits of the Girón, La
extended into the middle Devonian. Quinta and Guatapurí formations. The Noreán
to have played an important role in the
localization of magmatic arcs and associated
tectonic basins.
The Bolívar Aulacogen culminated in the
early Cretaceous with the opening of the Valle
Alto rift, which facilitated the invasion of the
Cretaceous seaway and the deposition of
marine and epicontinental sequences of
variable thicknesses over extensive areas
northwestern Colombia.
Regional extension terminated in the early
to mid-Cretaceous with the shift of tectonic
regime to compressional, marking the onset of
the Northern Andean Orogeny.
2 . 2 . 3 . 3 . T H E N O RT H E R N A N D E A N
OROGENY
In an historical context, in Colombia, the

Northern Andean Orogeny has been referred
to by various authors (Bürgl, 1967; Campbell,
Figure 2.2.3.5. Late Paleozoic to Early Aptian
1974; Irving, 1975), however general
Bolivar Aulacogen simplified and modified
disagreement is observed in the literautre with
from Cediel and Cáceres (2000).
respect to the timing and spatial distribution
of events, especially deformation and
magmatism.
Based upon integrated time and space
and Saldaña volcanics were likely deposits in analysis and considering the nature of the pre-
an extensional back arc setting. Important Andean tectonic framework, Cediel et al.
metaluminous (I-type), subduction-related (2003) redefined the Northern Andean
calc-alkaline magmatism of Jurassic age was Orogeny to include the orogenic events
also emplaced within the taphrogenic context occurring since the transition from the generally
of the Bolivar Aulacogen, as recorded in the extensional regime of the late Triassic through
batholiths of the Sierra Nevada de Santa earliest Cretaceous (Bolívar Aulacogen) to the
Marta, Santander massif, Mocoa region, and compressive and transpressive (accretionary)
the physiographic Central Cordillera (e.g. regimes beginning in the Aptian-Albian and
Norosí, Ibagué, Segovia batholiths). continuing up to the present.
A complex distribution of rifts and fore arc The Northern Andean Orogeny is highly
and back arc basins, with subduction-related influenced by the interaction between
continental margin magmatic arcs, coexisting allochthonous litho-tectonic components of
within a broadly regionally extensional Pacific provenance and the South American
(taphrogenic) environment is visualized in continental autochthon, which at the time
Figure 2.2.3.5. included the Guiana Shield and paleo-
The basement complex for this tectonic allochthonous rocks of mid-Proterozoic and
activity included the Guiana Shield in the east, early Paleozoic age.
and the Chicamocha and Cajamara-Valdivia Recent works demonstrate the integral
terranes in the west. relationship between the evolution, migration
The Santa Marta-Bucaramanga-Suaza and and emplacement of the Caribbean Plate and
Palestina fault-suture systems are considered the tectonic development of the Northern
Andean Block (e.g. Cediel et al., 2003;

Kennan and Pindell, 2009). A model
demonstrating the successive sequential
tectonic assembly of the Northern Andean
Block, leading to it’s modern-day morpho-
structural expression, was proposed by Cediel
et al., 2003. This model was presented in four
time-space reconstructions. The principle
phases of the model include a series of
accretionary events with subduction related
magmatism. These include the Romeral, Dagua,
Gorgona and Choco Arc events.
The Romeral Event
The Romeral Event (Figure 2.2.3.6) is

marked by the formation of high-pressure
metamorphic rocks contained within the eastern
Romeral fault and mélange.
K-Ar analyses of glaucophane schists at
Jambolo return ages 132-125Ma (McCourt and
Figure 2.2.3.6. Early Cretaceous Romeral
Feininger, 1984).
Event modified from Cediel and Cáceres
Recent research by Bustamante (2008)
(2000).
recorded a minimum Ar-Ar age for exhumation
of ca. 120Ma, with a possible metamorphic age
of between 150 and 125Ma. Contacts appear intrusive and thus
Dextral movements recorded on the Romeral emplacement is considered to post-date the
fault suggest highly oblique compression main deformation associated with the Romeral
(transpression). event.
As noted by Cediel et al. (2003), the
allochthonous vs. in situ nature of the Romeral
mélange/terrane remains unclear, but current The Dagua Event
information suggests the presence of pericratonic
components formed in a continental margin basin This event (Figure 2.2.3.7) coincides with
(Nivia et al., 2006; Kennan and Pindell, 2009), the accretion of the Dagua-Diabásico
including tectonic floats of older continentally- assemblage (DaguaTerrane) in the late
derived materials (of Proterozoic and Paleozoic Cretaceous - Paleocene.
age; Arquía complex?), and oceanic components The dextral transpressive nature of the
of an undefined allochthonous nature. Cauca fault and suture suggests northwest-
Configuration of the Romeral mélange and directed oblique terrane approach and
intrusion of the early magmatic facies of the accretion.
composite Mariquita Stock in Paleozoic Final accretion is marked by a well defined
Cajamarca Group basement to the east at ca. regional unconformity in the Paleocene-Eocene
145-135Ma (Agustín Cardona, personal (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000).
communication), is coincident with the Romeral Reactivation of the Palestina and Romeral
event. and associated faults stsyems is recorded at
The Buga Batholith (92-90Ma; Villagómez this time.
et al., 2008), which intrudes the Romeral terrane, The Antioquia batholith was emplaced in
is considered to be autochthonous. various phases between ca. 95 and 60 Ma,
Figure 2.2.3.7. Late Cretaceous to Paleocene Figure 2.2.3.8. Eocene to Oligocene Gorgona
Dagua Event modified after Cediel and Event modified after Cediel and Cáceres
Cáceres (2000). (2000).
apparently associated with the oblique recorded by the Mosquera and Esmita
subduction of the Farallon plate prior to Dagua Formations.
accretion (Cediel et al., 2003).
Pre- to syn-collision arc migration is
observed along a broadly SSW-directed trend The Assembly and Accretion of the Chocó Arc
during this time period, from the Antioquia
batholith in the north (late Cretaceous – Closely following the accretion of the
Paleocene), through the Sonsón batholiths Gorgona suite, assembly and accretion of the
(Paleocene) to the Manizales, El Bosque, El composite Chocó Arc was initiated (Figure
Hatillo and Santa Isabel stocks (Paleocene- 2.3.3.8).
Eocene). As outlined above the Chocó Arc is
comprised of three distinct litho-tectonic units:
the Cañas Gordas volcano-sedimentary
The Gorgona Event terrane, the El Paso mafic oceanic terrane, and
the Baudó assemblage, also of mafic oceanic
The Gorgona event (Figure 2.2.3.8) affinity (Cediel et al., 2009).
includes the approach and accretion of the All of these assemblages are of early to
Gorgona Terrane oceanic plateau in the Eocene late Cretaceous - Paleocene age.
and Oligocene. According to Cediel et al. (2003), the
As with the Dagua terrane, oblique right- Cañas Gordas terrane evolved offshore in an
lateral approach and accretion have been intra-oceanic environment. Cediel et al. (2009)
suggested by reactivation structures in the indicate east-directed subduction of oceanic
Cauca fault system, and by the nature of pull- crust (El Paso Terrane?) beneath Canas
apart basin development and sedimentation Gordas led to the formation of the Mande-
the Atrató and San Juan Basins indicate that

interaction with the continental block may have
initiated as early as the late Cretaceous.
Regardless, with respect to relative timing,
accretion-related faults on the leading edge of
the Chocó Arc truncate and deform earlier
formed structures including those associated
with both the Romeral and Cauca fault and
suture systems.
During the mid-late Miocene, the Baudó
Range was uplifted along the western margin
of the Chocó Arc as a result of east-directed
compression and positive warping of the
underlying oceanic basement (Cediel et al.,
2009).
The preceding tectonic events were
formulative in the tectonic evolution and
morpho-structural configuration of the
autochthonous sectors of the Colombian
Andes, in which deformation and uplift is
recorded contemporaneous with the
accretionary tectonics along the Pacific margin.
Figure 2.2.3.9. Miocene accretion of the Chocó The morphological evolution (uplift and
Arc. Modified after Cediel and Cáceres (2000). tilting) of the northern Central Cordillera has
been studied detail using fission track dating,
Ar-Ar analyses and U-Th/He
Acandi batholiths and development of the San thermochronology (Sáenz, 2003; Echeverry et
Juan Sebastian fault and suture system (Figure al., 2008; Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009;
2.2.3.8). Villagómez, 2010).
The composite assemblage was accreted Much of the modern-day morphological
to the Northern Andean margin (i.e. tectonized expression of the eastern Colombian Andes
Romeral), along the Garrapatas – Dabeiba was generated during the Miocene, including
fault system, beginning in the early Miocene uplift of the Garzón massif, Eastern Cordillera,
(Figure 2.2.3.9). Santander massif, Mérida and Perija ranges
Kennan and Pindell (2009) concur with and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Cediel
this conclusion. They interpret the Chocó Arc et al., 2003).
as one the trailing-edge assemblages along the The most important Neogene feature of
southwestern margin of the Caribbean plate, the Colombian Andes is the active northern
and indicate that accretion of the “Dabeiba” Andean volcanic arc, which dates from the
Arc (i.e. the Mande-Acandi batholiths of the Mio-Pliocene. Cediel et al. (2003) suggest that
Chocó-Panama Arc), is post-Eocene. paleo-structures such as the Palestina, Romeral
Cediel et al. (2009) however, based upon and Cauca sutures play an important role in
analysis of sedimentation and deformation in the distribution of Mio-Pliocene volcanism.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 3
PRE-JURASSIC
MAGMATISM VS. Au
METALLOGENY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 3.1.
Introduction
3.1.1.- General Background 159
3.1.1. GENERAL BACKGROUND
Precisely dated and constrained pre- Marta and the La Guajira peninsula (Vinasco
Jurassic magmatic occurrences in the et al., 2006; Ibañez-Mejía et al., 2008;
Colombian Andes are scarce and restricted Villagómez et al., 2008; Cardona et al., 2010b;
(Maya, 1992; Ordoñez-Carmona et al., 2006; Montes et al., 2010; Weber et al., 2010).
Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibañez-Mejía et al., These rocks are associated with a collisional
2008; Villagómez et al., 2008; Cardona et al., tectono-magmatic event of Permo-Triassic age
2010b; Horton et al., 2010; Montes et al., (ca. 280-230Ma) related to the assembly of
2010; Weber et al., 2010). the Pangea super-continent (see Permo-
Early Paleozoic magmatic rocks (ca. 490- Triassic Orogeny; Section 2.2.3.2).
460Ma) associated to the Quetame Orogeny From a metallogenic point of view, gold
during Ordovician-Silurian times (Section mineralization in the Colombian Andes
2.2.3.2), have been recognized in the Eastern observed to be spatially and/or temporally
Cordillera of Colombia (Goldsmith, 1971; associated with pre- Jurassic magmatism is
Boinet et al., 1985; Ordoñez-Carmona et al., scarce, especially when compared with that
2006, Horton et al., 2010). They intrude the related to younger magmatic events.
pre-existing high- and low-grade metamorphic One of the few places where gold
basement of the massifs originated in the mineralization is spatially associated with pre-
Mesoproterozoic to early Paleozoic. Jurassic intrusive is near El Bagre where the
Upper Paleozoic (Carboniferous) El Carmen – La Ye vein system is hosted within
magmatic rocks have not been reported in the the Carboniferous El Carmen Stock.
geological literature of Colombia. The Historically, this stock was not well dated and
geochronological and whole-rock geochemical has been included within the late Jurassic
results presented in this work establish the Segovia Batholith suite. Consequently the El
existence of Carboniferous (ca.330-310Ma) Carmen-La Ye mineralization was included
plutons (e.g. El Carmen Stock) which host with gold occurrences associated with the
vein-type gold mineralization (El Carmen La Ye Segovia magmatic belt.
vein system) at the southern sector of the Bagre- In this chapter, petrography, whole-rock
Nechí Mining District (Londoño et al., 2009). geochemistry, geochronology and isotope
Permo-Triassic magmatic rock (granitoids, geochemistry data are presented in order to
orthogneiss) occur within discontinuous belts characterize selected pre-Jurassic magmatic
in the Central Cordillera, the lower occurrences on a broad scale within the
Magdalena basin, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Colombian Andes.
3.1.2.- Distribution of Magmatism 161
3.1.2. DISTRIBUTION OF MAGMATISM
Pre-Jurassic magmatism in Colombia is

distributed over Santander, Floresta and
Quetame Massifs, along the margins of the
Central cordillera, in the lower Magdalena
basin, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and
the the Guajira peninsula (Figure 3.1.2.1).
Intrusives associated with the early
Paleozoic Quetame Orogeny ( ca . 490-
460Ma) have been well-recognized over the
in the Santander Massif (Goldsmith, 1971;
Boinet et al., 1985; Ordoñez-Carmona et al.,
2006). Recent magmatic crystallization zircon
U-Pb LA-MC- ICP-MS ages published by
Horton et al. (2010) reveal the presence of
Cambrian- Ordovician intrusives in other
localities including the Quetame and Floresta
massifs (Figure 3.1.2.1).
In addition, zircon concentrates from a
saprolitized granodiorite (Sample Z-2)
collected in the western border of the Segovia
Batholith returned an Ordovician U-Pb
magmatic crystallization age (this work; section
3.2.3).
A Carboniferous magmatic event (ca.330-
310Ma; this work) is recognized at El Bagre,
where leucotonalite granitic rocks (i.e. El
Carmen Stock; Section 3.2.1.2) hosts the gold
mineralization at El Carmen sector (Figure Figure 3.1.2.1. Distribution of pre-Jurassic
3.1.2.1). magmatism along the Colombian Andes. Major
Permo-Triassic magmatic rocks (ca. 280- pre-existing structures of Bucaramanga-Santa
230Ma) have been widely recognized in a Marta-Suaza and Palestina fault and suture
discontinuous belt over the Central Cordillera systems are also shown.
162 SECTION 3.1.- PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - INTRODUCTION
(Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibañez-Mejía, 2008; Central Cordillera, for granitic rocks
Villagomez et al., 2008), the lower Magadalena distributed along to the Palestina Fault System
valley (Montes et al., 2010), the Sierra close to the Puerto Nare and Remedios
Nevada de Santa Marta (Cardona et al., townsites, and for granitic gneiss samples close
2010), and the Peninsula de la Guajira (Weber to the Nechí townsite in the northern Bagre-
et al., 2010). Nechí Mining District. Based upon the
In the context of the present work, new available geologic mapping, any of these units
Permo-Triassic zircon U-Pb magmatic were sampled with the understanding that they
crystallization ages were produced for represented Precambrian basement or
numerous graintoid and gneissic granitoid Jurassic-aged intrusive. The net effect of this
bodies along the Central Cordillera, including work has been to expand the number of
for the southern sector of the Sonsón Batholith documented occurrences of Permian-Triassic
(herein referred to as the ‘Nariño Batholith’), granitoid and gneissic granitoid in the
the La Plata orthogneiss, in the southern Colombian Andes (Figure 3.1.2.1).
SECTION 3.2.
Petrology
3.2.1. Petrography of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks 165
3.2.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE PRE-JURASSIC

MAGMATIC ROCKS
3.2.1.1. METATONALITE GNEISS OF THE Essential minerals are quartz, plagioclase

NECHI FACIES and minor K-feldspar, with accessory biotite
ad amphibole. The relative amount of these
This facies was defined in out crops in the minerals influences foliation development, with
Nechi area (samples RP-1, RP-3). It consists mafic minerals concentrated in selected bands,
of a phaneritic, holocrystalline intrusive rock, producing changes in the foliated aspect of the
affected by a penetrative foliation. This rock (figs. 3.2.1.1-3.2.1.4). In addition,
metamorphic foliation produces an ocelar titanite, apatite and zircon occur in lesser
texture, with micas contouring plagioclase eyes. amounts.
pl
pl
bt>
pl
Figure 3.2.1.1.General overvie of the sample RP- Figure 3.2.1.2. The above image, in crossed polars.
1. Foliation is defined by biotite alignment (bt). Note the zoning and polysynthetic twinning in the
Note the ocelar texture of the feldspars, plagioclase crystals.
surrounded by biotite. PPL.
qtz amp amp

qtz
bt amp bt
amp
<ep <ep
pl
Figure 3.2.1.3. General overvie of the sample RP- Figure 3.2.1.4. The above image, in crossed
3, from a band enriched in mafic minerals, in polars. Note a porfiroclastic texture in the
particular, amphibole (amp), biotite (bt) and epidote sample, defined by alignemt of amphiboles and
(ep). Note the foliation of mafic minerals. PPL. felsic minerals.
166 SECTION 3.2. PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - PETROLOGY
pl
pl
pl qtz
Figure 3.2.1.5. Combinations of pericline, Figure 3.2.1.6. Detail of the concentric zoning
Karslsbad and albite laws in plagioclase. in a plagioclase crysta, in crossed polars. Sample
Crossed polars, sample RP-1. RP-1.
pl
or
pl
qtz
Figure 3.2.1.7. General view of a fine- Figure 3.2.1.8. Plagioclase crystals partly
grained cataclastic of the RP-3 sample, with replaced by myrmekitic intergrowths of quart and
plagioclase displaying pericline+albite microcline. Note amphibole-biotite bands.
twinning. Crossed polars. Crossed polars. Sample RP-3.
mic bt
mic amf
mic
Figure 3.2.1.9. Microcline porphyroclsts, Figure 3.2.1.10. Amphibole porfiroclast

some of them showing the tartan twin and partly replaced along the borders by late
other the perthitic exsolutions. Crossed fine-grained biotite (bt). PPL. Sample RP-
polars, sample RP-3. 3.
Quartz
Quartz is anhedral and fine-grained,

suggesting cataclastic processes. Grain size
bt>
ranges 200 microns-1 mm. The modal content
is close to 25%. bt>
<bt
Plagioclase amp
Plagioclase tends to develop prismatic

subhedral crystals, averaging 6 mm in length, qtz
and its modal content may achieve up to 65%.
The crystals tend to be rounded and arranged
following the foliation. All the crystals are Figure 3.2.1.11. The above image in crossed
twinned following complex pericline plus albite polars. Note that biotite (bt) is randomly
laws (fig. 3.2.1.5), and the crystals show arranged. Sample RP-1.
undulatory zoning .(fig. 3.2.1.6). In many
cases, plagioclase crystals have been bent, and
in other cases, it is possible to identify in them
a cataclastic texture (fig. 3.2.1.7). It is found amp
pl
in high modal proportions, over 35%. No sericite
alterations were observed on this sample.
Microcline amp
Only a few grains of anhedral microcline,

less than 5 mm in diameter, are observed under
the microscope. Their modal content is less
than 5 %. Myrmekitic intergrowts with quartz
can be observed when K-feldspar is in contact Figure 3.2.1.12. Amphibole crystals defining a
with plagioclase (fig. 3.2.1.8). They have cataclastic texture in an amphibole-rich band in
scarce patchy microperthites and it is not gneiss. PPL. Sample RP-3.
zoned; tartan twin is well identified (fig.
3.2.1.9).
Biotite
Platelets of biotite, ranging 100 microns amp

to 1 mm in length, define the foliation of the
rock, in many cases surrounding the feldspar
and amphibole crystals. Chlorite alteration may amp
occur along grain borders and cleavages.
Biotite may be present on the order of 15%.
Amphibole
Subhedral to anhedral crystals of Figure 3.2.1.13.The above image in crosses

amphibole, stout prismatic in habit, are polars. Note equal interference color in the
arranged with the c-axes parallel to the foliation amphibole subgrains, indicating that they
(figs.3.2.1.12-3.2.1.13). Crystals are colored may be produced by cataclastic processes.
pl
pl
pl qtz
Figure 3.2.1.14. Epidote crystals associated Figure 3.2.1.15. The above image, in crossed
with biotite and amphibole. PPL, sample polars.
RP-3.
pl
or
pl
qtz
Figure 3.2.1.16. Alanite euhedral crystal (al) Figure 3.2.1.17. The above image in crossed
surrounded by epidote rims (ep) producing polars, note the zoning inallanit and the
metamictic aureolas in biotite (bt). PPL, higher interference colors of the epidote
sample RP-1. rim..
indark emerald to olive green hues, and are post-kynematic poikiloblasts. They are not
not zoned or twinned. Crystal size ranges 2-6 zoned, and are almost colorless. Their crystal
mm. Hornblende is found in a high proportion size is close to 250 microns.
in some samples, on the order of 20%.
Allanite
Epidote
Allanite has been found in the sample RP-
Euhedral to subhedral epidote crystals 1. It is not rare, although it is only a trace
occur in association with amphibole and biotite. mineral. It occurs as euhedral short prismatic
These crystals are short prismatic in habit and crystals, less than 1 mm in length. Color is
almost colorless, are arranged randomly pale brown and crystals are zoned. In many
oriented and unaffected by the foliation cases, allanite exhibits epidote rims (fig.
(fig.3.2.1.14-3.2.1.15), and contain inclusions 3.2.1.16-3.2.1.17). Allanite produces
of biotite. Hence, they can be considered as metamictic aureoles when included in biotite.
pl
pl
pl qtz
Figure 3.2.1.18. Euhedral titanite crystals Figure 3.2.1.19. The above image in crossed
( t t n ) s c a t t e re d i n t h e c a t a c l a s t i c polars. Titanite has high intereference colors.
matrix..PPL, sample RP-3. Note perthites in microcline.
pl
or
pl
qtz
Figure 3.2.1.20. Zircon (zrn) included in Figure 3.2.1.21. Zircon crystal of short prismatic
biotite (bt) produciing metamictic aureolas. habit, including an early genertion of inherited
Some titanite (ttn)is also present. PPL, zircon of long prismatic habit. Crossed polars.
sample RP-1. Sample RP-3.
Titanite Zircon
Ti t a n i t e i s a b u n d a n t , p r i m a r i l y i n Euhedral zircon crystals are observed as

association with biotite. It tends to be euhedral, inclusions in quartz and biotite grains. Size is less
with the typical diamond sections (figs. than 100 microns. Metamictic aureoles are poorly
3.2.1.18-3.2.1.19). The maximum dimension developed on the contact with biotite, but zircon is
of these crystals may is on the order of 500 not metamict (fig. 3.2.1.20). Some crystals contain
microns, and the modal content is less than 1%. inclusions of inherited zircon (fig. 3.2.1.21).
Crystals are almost colorless. They are not
zoned, but many crystals may have Apatite
polysinthetic twinning. The abundance of
titanite can explain the absence of Fe-Ti It is subhedral, and tends to be
oxides. In many cases, titanite crystals are concentrated in the biotite bands. Grain size is
preferentially concentrated within small bands. small, less than 100 microns.
3.2.1.2. BIOTITE LEUCOTONALITES OF Plagioclase
THE EL CARMEN FACIES
Plagioclase tends to develop prismatic
These rocks were sampled in the El euhedral crystals, ranging in size 6 mm to 1
Carmen stock (samples ec-17, Z-3, Z-4). The cm, and its modal content may achieve up to
rock is leucocratic, faneritic and 65%. All the crystals are twinned under the
holocrystalline, coarse-grained and has a very albite law, and the crystals show conspicuous
simple mineral composition: quartz, plagioclase undulatory zoning (figs. 3.2.1.22-3.2.1.26).
and minor K-feldspar, with accessory biotite Strong sericite alterations are found mainly in
as the unique mafic mineral. the cores, whereas the crystal borders are
clean.
Quartz
Microcline
Quartz is anhedral and crystal size ranges
between 5 and 10 mm. The modal content is Only a few grains of anhedral microcline,
close to 25 %. less than 5 mm in diameter, were found
pl mic pl
pl
pl pl
mic pl mic
bt
pl pl
qtz qtz
pl pl
pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.22.General overview of sample EC- Figure 3.2.1.23. The above image, in crossed
17, enriched in plagioclase with a distinct zoning. polars. Note the zoning of the plagioclase
Chloritized biotite (bt) is also present. Quartz crystals, and the occurrence of interstitial
(qtz) and microcline (mic) are interstitial. PPL. quartz and microcline .
pl
clc clc
qtz qtz
or or
pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.24. General overview of the sample Figure 3.2.1.25. The above image, in crossed
Z-4 in PPL. Plagioclase (pl) is euhedral and minor polars. Hydrothermal K-feldspar (or) replaces
amounts of quartz (qtz) and chloritized biotite plagioclase.
(clc) occur in interstitial position.
occupying interstitial positions among the
euhedral plagioclase crystals. The modal pl
content is lesser than 5 %. Microperthite is pl
rare and it is not zoned; tartan twinning is mic
distinct. K-feldspar has a cloudy aspect, and
tends to be affected by hydrotermal alteration, pl pl
mainly sericitization.
Biotite
Subhedral tabular biotite crystals, qtz pl pl

between 1 mm to 6 mm in diameter, occur in
accessory quantities, in the order of 5% modal.
Crystals are often bent or kinked. Color is Figure 3.2.1.26. General view of sample Z-
greenish brown. Chlorite alteration may occur 3 i n c ro s s e d p o l a r s . N o t e e x t e n s i v e
along grain borders and cleavages, acompanied sericitization in plagioclase (pl)
with fine-grained secondary epidote, magnetite
and titanite.
alla
Zircon pl
Euhedral zircon crystals are observed as clc

inclusions in quartz and biotite grains. Size is
less than 100 microns. Metamictic aureoles are epi
poorly developed on the contact with biotite,
but zircon is not metamict.
pl
Apatite
Apatite crystals are subhedral, shortly Figure 3.2.1.27. Allanite (alla) and epidote (ep)
prismatic in habit, and are included in the above associated with chlorite (clc) filling an open
minerals. The grain size is small, less than 100 cavity between plagioclase crystals. PPL. Sample
microns. Z-3.
Ilmenite
pl
Ilmenite is only a trace mineral in these
rocks, and is almost completely replaced by
late titanite, along grain borders and cleavages. clc alla
The size of these crystals should be around 1
mm. amf
epi
Other secondary minerals that can appear pl

in these rocks are related with hydrothermal
replacement, and they are found as veins and
cavities infilling. These associations comprise
small amounts of epidote and allanite (fig. Figure 3.2.1.28. The above image in crossed
3.2.1.27-33.2.1.28), chlorite, quartz and polars. Note that epidote has higher
pyrite. Potassic alteration locally overprints the interference colors than allanite, perhaps by
mineral paragenesis. metamictization of allanite.
pl pl
amp pl amp
pl pl
pl clc
clc
pl pl
pl pl
pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.29.General overview of sample Z- Figure 3.2.1.30. The above image, in crossed
2, with plagioclase (pl) and altered mafic polars.
minerals to chlorite (clc) and secondary
amphiboles (amp). PPL.
pl
pl
pl qtz
Z-4 in PPL. Plagioclase (pl) is euhedral and minor polars.
amounts of quartz (qtz) and chloritized biotite
(clc) occur in interstitial position.
3.2.1.3. PORPHYRITIC DIORITES OF low grade of metamorphism (alteration?) (figs

THE EL CARMEN FACIES 3.2.1.22-3.2.1.34).
These rocks were sampled in the El Carmen Plagioclase

stock (sample HLM-A-Z-5; HLM-A- Z-2, A-t-
006). The rock is phaneritic and fine-grained, with Plagioclase tends to develop prismatic
a slight porphyritic texture. The mineral composition euhedral crystals, ranging in size 6 mm to 1
includes plagioclase with amphibole as the unique cm, and its modal content may achieve up to
mafic mineral (figs. 3.2.1.29-3.2.1.32). 65%. All the crystals are twinned under the
In some areas however, the intensity of albite law, and the crystals show conspicuous
regional metamorphism was high enough to undulatory zoning. Strong sericite alteration is
convert the mafic minerals into assemblages observed mainly in the cores, whereas the
containing epidote and pumpellyite, evidencing crystal borders are clean.
pum
pum
or pl
pl
F i g u re 3.2.1.33. Metamorphosed Figure 3.2.1.34. The above image, in cross-

porphyritic rock in prehnite-pumpellyite polarized light.
facies. Pumpellyite (pum) outstands by its high
relief and green color. PPL, sample Z-5.
clc cal
cal
clc
epi
epi
Figure 3.2.1.35. Radial aggregates of Fe- Figure 3.2.1.36. The above image in crossed
rich epidote, associated with chlorite (clc) polars.
and calcite (cal) replacing the primary
associations. PPL, sample Z2.
Amphibole enriched in the actnolite component. The total

content of the amphibole is in the order of 35%
Amphibole is of the uralitic type, and is modal of the phenocrysts.
found replacing prismatic crystals that could
correspond originally to pyroxenes. The crystal Epidote
size of the bigger crystals is about 5 mm, but
most of the crystal are found in the fine-grained Epidote is found as a secondary
matrix and tend to be only 1mm. alteration(?) or metamorphic mineral, since it
The replacement of the pyroxene is appears as a pseudomorph of other minerals,
complete (fig. 3.2.1.29-3.2.1.30), and the and can also be found filling porosity in the
resulting amphibole is fibrous and greenish; rock. In the last case it may develop
probably is a member of the tremolite-actinolite aggregates of radial crystals (fig. 3.2.1.35-
series. The borders of the grains tend to be 3.2.1.36). It is stout prismatic or acicular in
pum
pl
pl
pum
Figure 3.2.1.37. General view of a porphyritic Figure 3.2.1.38. The above image in crossed
rock affected by low-grade metamorphism in polars.
prehnite-pumpellyite facies. PPL; sample Z-5.
pum
pum
pre
pre
Figure 3.2.1.39. Aggregates of prehnite (pre) and Figure 3.2.1.40.The above image in crossed
pumpellyite (pum) replacing a mafic mineral. polars.Note the fibrous estructure of the
PPL, smaple Z5. aggregates.
habit, and the color is pale yellow, thus 3.2.1.40). Both minerals are indicative of a
indicating a moderate content in iron. very low grade of metamorphism
Pumpellyite (and prehnite) Apatite
These minerals are found in association as Apatite crystals are subhedral and very
pseudomorphs after mafic minerals such as rare, with short prismatic habit, and are found
pyroxenes, amphiboles and biotite (fig. included in the above minerals. Size of crystals
3.2.1.37-3.2.1.38). is less than 100 microns.
Pumpellyite develops fibrous aggregates
of small crystals that overgrow prehnite. Magnetite
Prehnite is colorless and tends to occur in
the center of th replaced crystals, and Magnetite is the dominant opaque mineral
pumpellyite at the borders (fig. 3.2.1.39- in these rocks, despite it has been partly
replaced by late hydrothermal pyrite. It is
abundant, and it could achieve 1% of the rock. mic <mu
Magnetite occurs in euhedral, octahedral, pl
crystals, and it is fine grained, less than 20
microns in diameter. qtz
All of the silicate minerals have been partly
replaced by hydrothermal minerals, mainly bt mic
chlorite and epidote. These secondary minerals
are fine-grained, and generally fill small veins
mic
or pseudomorph the aforementioned minerals.
pl pl
3.2.1.4. PERALUMINOUS GRANITES

OF THE CARACOLÍ FACIES F i g u re 3 . 2 . 1 . 4 1 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f a
peraluminic granite of Caracolí facies
The Caracolí granites are somewhat (sample WR-148) in PPL.
exceptional because of their peraluminous
character. This facies was studied in sample <mu
(sample WR-148, Figure 3.2.1.1).
The Caracolí granites are holocrystalline,
phaneritic and medium-grained. They mainly qtz pl
consist of plagioclase, K-feldspar and quartz;
accessory minerals, in addition to biotite, bt mic mu>
comprise minerals typical of peraluminic
environments, as primary muscovite, almandine
and cordierite (fig.3.2.1.41-3.2.1.42). mic
Plagioclase pl
Plagioclase occurs as subhedral to Figure 3.2.1.42. The above image, crossed

anhedral crystals, with a proportion around 25 polars. Q, quartz; mic, microcline; pl,
Modal percent. The habit is short plagioclase; mu, muscovite; bt, biotite.
prismatic, with a maximum length of 6 mm.
Twinning is complex, on the albite and pericline
laws; in addition, simple twinning on Karlsbad
and other less common laws is conspicuous.
Optical zoning is concentric, often with
sericitized cores. pl
mic
Microcline
amf
K-feldspar is one of the dominant minerals
in these rocks, and may reach up to 30 %
modal. The crystals of K-feldspar are anhedral qtz
to subhedral prismatic. Crystal size is in the
order of 4-8 mm. Tartan twinning, although
poorly developed, suggests the degree of Figure 3.2.1.43. Detail of a microcline
triclinicity is high. In addition, many crystals crystal, showing tartan and simple
have simple twins (fig. 3.2.1.43). twinnning, and microperthites. Crossed
Microperthites are of the distinct patchy type. polars, sample WR-148.
mic
qtz
qtz
mic pl
mic
pl
mic
qtz
Figure 3.2.1.44. Replacement of microcline Figure 3.2.1.45. Similar as above, including

crystals (mic) by quartz (qtz) in the Caracolí plagioclase (pl), from sample WR-148 in
facies (sample WR-148) in crossed polars. crossed polars.
pl
pl qtz
qtz
mu
bt
alm>
pl <bt pl
Figure 3.2.1.46. Muscovite (mu) and biotite Figure 3.2.1.47. Skeletal garnet crystals,
in the Caracolí peraluminic granite. PPL. Qtz quartz; mic, microcline; alm
Crossed polars. almandine; mu, muscovite; bt, biotite.
Quartz 3.2.1.46). The pleochroism is in reddish-

brown hues, and the size of these crystals is in
Anhedral quartz is other dominant mineral the range 2-3 mm. Biotite can be partly
(about 35 % modal), and shows wavy replaced by greenish chlorite and epidote
extinction. Grain size is in the range 2-5 mm. following grain borders and cleavages.
It may replace feldspars, thus suggesting that
some part of the quartz could be produced Muscovite
during subsolidus processes (figs. 3.2.1.44-
3.2.1.45). Dioctahedral white mica is a common
accessory mineral in these rocks, and may
Biotite achieve up to 5 % modal, in a very similar
proportion to biotite. It occurs as subhedral
It is a common accessory in these rocks, platelets; it is colorless in thin section and the
and the proportion is close to 5 % modal of crystals are in the range 2-5 mm in length
the rock. It occurs as subhedral plates (fig. (fig.3.2.1.46).
mic <mu mic <mu

pl
qtz qtz
bt mic bt mic
mic mic
pl pl pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.48. Garnet crystals partly Figure 3.2.1.49. The above image in crossed
replaced by chlorite (sample WR-148) in polars. Noote polysynthetic cyclic twinning
PPL. in cordierite (crd). Sample WR-148.
<mu <mu
qtz pl qtz pl
bt mic bt mic
mu> mu>
mic mic
pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.50. Longitudinal section of a Figure 3.2.1.51. The above image, crossed
cordierite crystal (crd) associated with polars. Sample WR-148, Caracolí intrusion.
almandine (alm),and chlorite (clc). PPL.
Almandine Cordierite
Garnet crystals are very rare, occurring Cordierite occurs as a trace mineral, as
as a trace mineral, intergrown with cordierite, subhedral colorless pseudohexagonal twinned
biotite, quartz and muscovite, within crystals, of short prismatic habit, having about
“peraluminous knots”, and may be partly 3 mm in length. Cordierite crystals are rich
altered to dark green chlorite along irregular in inclusions of quartz and muscovite, and are
fractures. Garnet crystals are not intimately intergrown with almandine in the
poikiloblastic, and are devoid of mineral aforementioned cordierite-bearing knots.
inclusions. The typical cyclical twinning may be seen
Garnet is anhedral, skeletal (3.2.1.47- in the basal sections (fig. 3.2.1.50, 3.2.1.51).
3.2.1.49) or subhedral, forming trapezoedrons These crystals tend to be partly altered to Fe-
(fig. 3.2.1.48-3.2.1.49) and has a pale rose dark green rich chlorite along the poor
color. The grain size ranges 200 microns- 1 cleavages and twinning planes (fig. 3.2.1.50,
mm. 3.2.1.51).
Apatite
mic <mu
Apatite crystals are not so common in pl
these rocks, but some euhedral prismatic
grains, less than 100 microns in length, can be qtz
identified as inclusions in biotite.
The crystals of apatite are arranged in the bt mic
hexagonal prisms and the hexagonal bypyramids;
in some crystals the habit is long prismatic.
mic
Zircon pl pl
It is common in these rocks, although is a

trace mineral. Several zircon populations (labelled Figure 3.2.1.52. Type 1 zircon crystals into
as A, B and C) can be established according with biotite from the Caracolí intrusion. PPL,
the shape and size of the crystals. sample wr-148.
Type A zircon is largely prismatic, almost
acicular, composed of tetragonal prism and <mu
bypyramids of less than 150 microns in length
by 10 microns in width (fig.3.2.1.52).
Type B zircon is also euhedral and short qtz pl
prismatic in habit, and it is about 200 microns
in length and 100 microns in width (fig. bt
mu>
3.2.1.53). It has inclusions of other generations
of zircon (particularly, type C zircons).
Type C zircon s are small (less than 30 mic
microns in size) and subhedral, rounded and
short prismatic (fig. 3.2.1.54). pl
All of these zircon generations are strongly
radioactive because of high contents of Th and Figure 3.2.1.53. Type 2 zircon crystal (zr2)
U, and produced dark and pleochroic metamictic included in plagioclase near pleochroic
aureoles in the surrounding biotite crystals, when biotite. Note metamictic aureolas on biotite
zircon is included into this mineral. (bt). PPL.
Finally, primary opaque minerals are

almost absent, probably because of subsolidus mic <mu
hydrothermal alteration, which developed
euhedral pyrite crystals. This hydrothermal
process is related with the development of
qtz
secondary quartz replacing feldspars, as has
been indicated in this section. Some subhedral bt mic
magnetite opaque crystals can be recognized
in some grains (fig. 3.2.1.54).
mic
pl
3.2.1.5. PERALUMINOUS GRANITES
OF THE NARIÑO FACIES (?) Figure 3.2.1.54. Type 3 zircon (zr3) as
rounded grains included in a biotite crystal.
The Nariño area occupies the southern Magnetite (mt) is also present. PPL, sample
Portion of the Sonson Batholith, which based WR-148.
upon the present work, is now recognized and in thin section (quartz, plagioclase, microcline)
a composite pluton comprised of intrusive of point to a granitic composition. Unfortunately,
at least two ages; Permo-Triassic and these rocks have been strongly altered by a
Paleocene. In the Narino area it is a succession of hydrothermal and supergene
homogeneous intrusive which was previously fluids.
assigned to the Jurassic (Gonzalez, 2001). Therefore, the primary characteristics
Based upon the present work, in addition to have been overprinted by the growth of various
some rocks that can be considered as subsolidus minerals. In particular, with the data
metavolcanic rocks and metaarkoses, located available at the present moment, it is difficult,
along the pluton margins (respectively, samples for example, to define if the muscovite is
WR-61, figs. 3.2.1.55-3.2.1.56 and WR-62, primary magmatic or secondary. This is critical
figs. 3.2.1.57-3.2.1.58), some intrusive rocks in the classification of these rocks, because a
have been recognized (sample WR-63, see primary muscovite (+biotite) could point to a
figs. 3.2.1.59-3.2.1.60 and s.s). two-mica peraluminous composition.
In the case of the WR-63, the mineral Moreover, part of the quartz is likely
constitution and modal proportions observed related to strong subsolidus silicification.
pl mic pl
pl
pl pl
mic pl mic
bt
pl pl
qtz qtz
pl pl
pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.55.General overview of sample Figure 3.2.1.56. The above image, in crossed
WR-61, in which quartz and plagioclase polars.
crystals are distinguished. PPL, Nariño
area.
WR-62 in PPL. Anhedral aggregates of rounded polars.
quartz, plagioclase and microcline, pointing to
a meta-arkose origin.
or or
or or or
pl pl
pl pl
Figure 3.2.1.59. General view of the WR- Figure 3.2.1.60. The above image, in crossed
63 sample, showing altered feldspars and polars.
quartz. PPL.
pl
mic
or
pl
qtz
Figure 3.2.1.61. Other view of the above Figure 3.2.1.62. The above image in crossed
ro c k , s h o o w i n g a h i g h e r c o n t e n t i n p o l a r s , n o t e t h e m i c ro p e rt h i t e s i n
feldspars. PPL. microcline.
Therefore, further study is necessary to almost completely erased by the development of

characterize in detail the composition of these a coarse-grained sericitization and, in some cases,
rocks. The present descriptions serve as a a potassic alteration (figs. 3.2.1.59-3.2.1.63).
first approximation.
Microcline
Plagioclase
K-feldspar may be found as anhedral or
Plagioclase occurs as subhedral to subhedral roughly prismatic crystals. The
anhedral crystals, with a proportion around amount should be about 30% modal.
30% modal. The habit is short prismatic, with Occurrence of tartan twinning suggests that the
a maximum length of 6 mm. Zoning has not K-feldspar should be triclinic and produced by
been observed, and polysynthetic twinning on slow cooling (fig. 3.2.1.64), although this
the albite law seems to be present. However, twinning is not observed in all the crystals of
all the internal textures of the grains have been K-feldspar. On the other hand, microperthites
pl
mic
F i g u re 3 . 2 . 1 . 6 3 . St ro n g l y s e r i c i t i z e d Figure 3.2.1.64. Microcline crystal (mic),

plagioclase crystal. Crossed polars. Sample including some quartz grains (qtz). Note tartan
WR-63. twinning. Crossed polars. Sample WR-63.
pl
mus
qtz
qtz
clc
or pl
qtz qtz
Figure 3.2.1.65. Muscovite crystals (Mu). Figure 3.2.1.66. Colorless clinochlore platelets
The association also includes quartz (qtz) filling secondary porosity in granite. PPL.
and plagioclase (pl). Crossed polars, sample Sample WR-63.
WR-63.
are found in many crystals (fig. 3.2.1.62), but Muscovite

not in all of them.
Therefore, it is possible that both K- Muscovite may appear, in addition to the
feldspar polymorphs can be present, thus subsolidus sericite, as subhedral platy crystals,
indicating that part of the K-feldspar could be around 0.5-1 mm in diameter. Shapes of these
produced by subsolidus processes. crystals suggest magmatic crystallization (fig.
3.2.1.65), but more evidence should be necessary.
Quartz
Chlorite
Is extremely abundant in these rocks, and
it may reach up to 40% modal. However, as Chlorite occurs as porosity infillings, as a
indicated, some quartz is subsolidus and secondary mineral, in euhedral tabular crystals, less
cannot be used easily for classification than 300 μm in length (fig. 3.2.1.66). It records late
purposes. low-temperature hydrothermal alteration.
3.2.2.- Whole-rock geochemistry of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks 183
3.2.2. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE PRE-

JURASSIC MAGMATIC ROCKS
Major and trace elements (including REE) Both of the analyzed samples are medium-
analyses for selected pre-Jurassic rocks were to coarse-grained granitic rocks with quartz
carried out in order to characterize and and plagioclase as main components. The
compare them from a geochemical point of diamond-drill core intervals from where the
view. samples were collected present local
Analyzed samples were grouped into late hydrothermal alteration (i.e. alunite and
Ordovician intrusive rocks of the Angostura caolinite in fractures) and mineralization (i.e.
Project in the Santander Massif (Samples WR- quartz veinlets in stockworks).
194 and WR-195), Caboniferous intrusives Despite, the rock chips were selected
hosting the gold mineralization (i.e. El Carmen from areas which seem to be relatively
vein) at El Bagre sector of the Bagre-Nechí unaltered under naked-eye inspection, the
Mining District (Samples WR-132, WR-133, hydrothermal alteration effects are observed
WR-134, WR-135, WR-205, WR-206, WR- in geochemical results and must be interpreted
207, WR-208 and WR-209) and Permian- with caution.
Triassic Intrusives of the Central Cordillera and
associated to the trace of the Palestina Fault Major elements geochemistry
and Suture System (Samples WR-60, WR-61,
WR-62, WR-63, WR-130, WR-131, WR- Both of the samples exhibit relatively high
148, WR-244 and WR-290). SiO2 and low Al2O 3 contents (68.5-69.8% and
10.9-13.4%, respectively). Low CaO, Na 2O
and MgO, and high K 2O contents (0.11-
3 . 2 . 2 . 1 . L AT E O R D O V I C I A N 0.13%; 0.19-0.21%. 0.32-0.82% and 3.22-
INTRUSIVE ROCKS OF THE 4.30%, respectively) are observed.
ANGOSTURA PROJECT These major elements contents reflect
hydrothermal alteration effects on the intrusive
Two samples of late Ordovician granitic rocks, such as the SiO 2 and K 2O enrichment
gneisses collected from diamond-drill cores and Al 2O 3, CaO, Na 2O and MgO depletion.
(AL-07-09/196-212.25m and AL-08-02/352- The hydrothermal alteration effects above
367.5m) of the Angostura Project (Greystar mentioned make no possible any reliable
Resources Ltd.) were selected for whole-rock analyses of the major elements geochemistry
geochemistry analyses (Samples WR-194 and as clearly affect most of the classification plots.
WR-195).
Zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS Trace elements geochemistry
geochronological analyses of both samples
returned late Ordovician ages (Section With respect to trace elements, the trace
3.2.2.1). elements contents of the late Ordovician
184 SECTION 3.2.- PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - PETROLOGY
intrusives of the Angostura Project were

compared against Bulk Continental Crust and
Primordial Mantle values after Taylor and
McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979)
respectively, through multi-elemental spider-
diagrams (Figures 3.2.2.1 and 3.2.2.2).
Hydrothermal alteration may cause Large Ion
Lithophile elements mobilization, but High Field
Strength elements and Rare Earth Elements are
relatively immobile and can be used with caution
for petrogenetic interpretations.
Trace elements from both samples show
remarkable Rb, Th and U enrichments (91- Figure 3.2.2.1. Bulk Continental Crust-
221ppm, 10.2-11.2ppm and 26.4-29.5ppm, normalized trace element spider-diagram
respectively). Large Ion Lithophile elements (e.g. for early Paleozoic intrusive rocks of the
Ba and K) also show enrichments, but their Santander Massif.
anomalies in the multielemental plots may be
obscured by the Rb, Th and U higher enrichments
mentioned above. In contrast, High Field Strength
elements (e.g. Nb, Ta and Ti) are depleted
(Figures 3.2.2.1 and 3.2.2.2).
Moreover, Rare Earth Elements contents
were compared against the chondrite values after
Boynton (1984) (Figure 3.2.2.3). The samples
from the intrusives of the Angosturas Project show
moderate decreasing slopes with LREE
enrichment with respect to HREE, indicating
moderate fractionation ((La/Lu) N =6.5 and
9.1).The sample WR-194 returns higher REE
contents (REE=162) with respect to sample F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -
WR-195 (REE=85.7). Moderate negative Eu normalized trace element spider-diagram
anomalies are also shown by both samples (Eu/ for early Paleozoic intrusive rocks of the
Eu*=0.65 and 0.76). Santander Massif.
3.2.2.2. CARBONIFEROUS
INTRUSIVES OF THE EL BAGRE
SECTOR OF THE BAGRE-NECHI
MINING DISTRICT
At El Bagre sector in the southern Bagre-

Nechí Mining District, diorites (Samples WR-
206 and WR-207) and leucotonalies (Samples
WR-132, WR-205, WR-208 and WR-209)
of Carboniferous age (section 3.2.3.2) hosting
the vein-type gold mineralization of El Carmen
and La Ye veins were analyzed. F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 3 . C h o n d r i t e - n o r m a l i z e d
The diorite samples were collected at El multielemental REE diagram for early
Cordero sector, where they are cut by the Paleozoic intrusive rocks of the Santander
leucotonalite samples of El Carmen Stock. Massif .
On the other hand, leucotonalite samples the K 2O vs. SiO2 plot of Peccerillo and Taylor
of el Carmen Stock (Section 3.2.1.2), which (1976), where they plot into the Tholeiite series
host gold mineralization of El Carmen and La field (Figure 3.2.2.5).
Ye veins were collected at both sites. The A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand
In addition, a pre-mineral diabase dike (1943) show all of the leucotonalite samples
(Sample WR-134) at El Carmen Project and plotting into the peraluminous field, whereas
two post-mineral porphyry dikes (Samples the diorite and pre- and post-mineral dikes plot
WR-133 and WR-135) at El Carmen Project into the metaluminous field, in both cases,
and La Ye mine were selected for whole-rock samples are of the I-type granite series (A/
geochemical analysis. CNK<1.1) (Figure 3.2.2.6).
The analyzed samples include unaltered The feldspar triangle by O’Connor (1965)
surface/underground rock samples at La Ye clearly show the trondhjemitic Na-rich affinity
Mine and El Carmen sector, and diamond-drill for samples of the leucotonalite rocks of the
core samples of El Carmen Project (Mineros El Carmen Stock and the pre- and post-
S.A.). mineral dikes (Figure 3.2.2.7).
The R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot by
Major Elements Geochemistry Batchelor and Bowden (1985) show diorite
and leucogranite samples plotting into the
The diorite samples of El Cordero sector mantle fractionates field, and the pre- and post-
(Samples WR-206 and WR-207) returned low mineral dikes plotting into the pre-plate
SiO 2 and high Al 2O 3 contents (48.37-48.83% collision (subduction-related) field (Figure
and 17.03-17.15%, respectively). High CaO 3.2.2.8).
(11.05-12.43%) and MgO (7.39-7.69%) and
low Na 2O (1.38-1.39%) and K 2 O (0.04- Trace Elements Geochemistry
1.10%) contents are also observed.
The leucotonalite samples at El Carmen Tr a c e e l e m e n t s c o n t e n t s o f t h e
and La Ye areas show similar behavior between Carboniferous intrusives at El Bagre Sector
them, with high SiO2, Al2O3 and Na2O contents and the related pre- and post-mineral dikes
(68.77-72.47%, 13.64-15.56% and 3.53- were compared against the Bulk Continental
4.31%, respectively). Moderate CaO (2.60- Crust (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and the
3.57%) and low MgO (0.62-1.40%) and K 2O Primordial Mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values
(1.02-1.22%) contents are characteristic by plotting them in multielemental ‘spider-
features. diagrams’ (Figures 3.2.2.9 and 3.2.2.10).
Pre-mineral and post-mineral dikes A general Large Ion Lithophile elements
yielded similar major element signatures to that (e.g. Ba and K) enrichment and High Strength
of the tonalites of El Carmen Stock, with Field elements (e.g. Nb, Ta, Ti) depletion is
moderate SiO 2 (53.91-63.51%), and high observed. Sr shows weak to moderate negative
Al 2O 3 and Na 2O contents (14.22-16.03% and anomalies.
4.01-5.49%, respectively). High CaO (4.01- In particular, diorite samples from El
6.59%) and low MgO (2.64-5.01%) and K 2O Cordero show conspicuous negative Ta and Zr
(0.24-0.81%) contents are observed. anomalies and positive Sr anomalies.
Diorite samples plot in the tholeiite field Moreover, Rare Earth Elements were
of the AFM triangle plot of Irvine and Baragar compared against the chondrite values after
(1971), whereas the leucotonalite samples and Boynton (1984) (Figure 3.2.2.11).
pre- and post-mineral dikes plot in the calc- El Cordero diorite samples yielded low
alkaline field (Figure 3.2.2.4). REE contents (REE=24.7-34.7ppm). The
Low-K values are a remarkable patterns are relatively flat with REE values
characteristic of all of the samples including about 10x the chondrite values ((La/Lu)N= 1.0)
diorites, leucotonalites and pre- and post- and subtle negative or positive Eu anomalies
mineral porphyries. This is clearly observed in (Eu/Eu*=0.96-1.16).
Figure 3.2.2.4. AFM triangular plot (Irvine Figure 3.2.2.5. K 2O vs. SiO 2 plot (Peccerillo
and Baragar, 1971) for the Carboniferous and Taylor, 1976) for the Carboniferous
intrusives and dikes at El Bagre sector. intrusives and dikes at El Bagre sector.
F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 6 . A / N K v s . A / C N K p l o t F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 7 . F e l d s p a r t r i a n g l e
( S h a n d , 1 9 4 3 ) f o r t h e C a r b o n i f e ro u s (O’Connor, 1965) for the Carboniferous
intrusives and dikes at El Bagre sector. intrusives and dikes at El Bagre sector.
Figure 3.2.2.8. R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot Figure 3.2.2.9. Bulk Continental Crust-
(Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the normalized trace element spider-diagram
Carboniferous intrusives and dikes at El for the Carboniferous intrusives and dikes
Bagre sector. at El Bagre sector.
F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 1 0 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e - Figure 3.2.2.11. Chondrite-normalized

normalized trace element spider-diagram multielemental REE diagram for the
for the Carboniferous intrusives and dikes Carboniferous intrusives and dikes at El
at El Bagre sector. Bagre sector.
The leucotonalite samples of El Carmen District (Section 3.2.2.1; Samples WR-130

Stock and the pre- and post-mineral dikes and WR-131), the peraluminous granite close
returned moderate REE contents to Caracolí townsite (Section 3.2.1.4; Sample
( REE=49.8-99.8ppm), with gentle to WR-148), hornblende granodiorite close to
moderate decreasing slopes patterns ((La/ Puerto Nare townsite (Sample WR-244), and
Lu) N=1.7-12.1) and LRRE enrichment with a tonalite intrusive close to La Plata townsite
respect to HREE indicating weak fractionation. (Sample WR-290).
Weak negative Eu anomalies are observed, For these samples zircon U-Pb LA.MC-
with exception of the sample WR-205 which ICP-MS and analyses were performed
show moderate positive Eu anomaly. returning Permian-Triassic (ca. 275-234Ma)
magmatic crystallization ages (Section 3.2.3.3).
3.2.2.3. PERMIAN-TRIASSIC Major Elements Geochemistry

INTRUSIVES
The Permian-Triassic granites and granitic
Selected Permian-Triassic intrusives gneisses analyzed show a wide range of SiO 2
(granites/granitic gneisses) cropping out along contents (58.04-75.10%) and moderate to high
the Central Cordillera were analyzed for Al 2O 3 contents (13.30-18.55%). MgO, CaO,
whole-rock geochemistry. Na 2O and K 2O contents are variable with
The sampled intrusives include the contents between 0.19-2.65%, 0.2-5.71%,
peraluminous granites of the southern area of 2.03-6.59% and 1.14-4.44%, respectively.
the ‘Sonsón Batholith’ (Section 3.2.1.5; The entire samples exhibit a medium- to
Samples WR-60 to WR-63) here in called high-K calc-alkaline affinity in the AFM-
under the informal name of ‘Nariño Batholith’, triangle plot by Irvine and Baragar (1971) and
where zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses the K2O vs. SiO2 plot by Peccerillo and Taylor
r e t u r n e d P e r m i a n - Tr i a s s i c m a g m a t i c (1976) (Figure 3.2.2.12 and 3.2.2.13).
crystallization ages for the (ca. 234-246Ma) The A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand
(Section 3.2.3.3). (1943) shows all of the samples being clearly
In addition, samples from the metatonalite subalkaline and plot between the peraluminous
gneiss at Nechí at the El Bagre-Nechí Mining and metaluminous fields. This is a common
Figure 3.2.2.12. AFM triangular plot (Irvine F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 1 3 . K 2 O v s . S i O 2 p l o t

and Baragar, 1971) for the Permian-Triassic ( P e c c e r i l l o a n d Ta y l o r, 1 9 7 6 ) f o r t h e
granitoids. Permian-Triassic granitoids.
Figure 3.2.2.14. A/NK vs. A/CNK plot F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 1 5 . F e l d s p a r t r i a n g l e

(Shand, 1943) for the Permian-Triassic (O’Connor, 1965) for the Permian-Triassic
granitoids. granitoids.
Figure 3.2.2.16. R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot Figure 3.2.2.17. Al 2O 3 vs. MgO protolith
(Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the discrimination plot (Marc, 1992) for the
Permian-Triassic granitoids. Permian-Triassic granitoids.
characteristic with other Permian-Triassic
intrusives along the Central Cordillera (Vinasco
et al., 2006) and the lower Magdalena valley
and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
(Cardona et al., 2010) (Figure 3.2.2.14).
Moreover, the feldspar triangle plot by
O’Connor (1965) show most of the samples
plotting into the granite field, with the exception
of the two samples from the Nechí metatonalite
gneiss (WR-130 and WR-131) which plot into
the granodiorite field, and the sample of the
Figure 3.2.2.18. Bulk Continental Crust- granitic rock close to La Plata townsite
normalized trace element spider-diagram (Sample WR-290) which plot into the
for the Permian-Triassic granitoids. trondhjemite field (Figure 3.2.2.15).
Batchelor and Bowden (1985) show samples
from the Nariño Batholith, and the Caracoli and
Puerto Nare granitoids plotting into the Syn-
collision field. Samples from the Nechí
metatonalite gneiss plot into the Pre-plate
collision (subduction-related) field and La Plata
granitoid sample plot into the Post-collision
uplift field (Figure 3.2.2.16).
The Al2O3 vs. MgO protolith discrimination
plot by Marc (1992) show all of the samples
plotting into the orthogneiss field, as do the
samples from the lower Magdalena valley and
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta areas
(Cardona et al., 2010) (Figure 3.2.2.17).
F i g u re 3 . 2 . 2 . 1 9 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -
normalized trace element spider-diagram Trace Elements Geochemistry
for the Permian-Triassic granitoids.
Trace elements contents of the Permian-
Triassic granites and granitic gneisses were
compared against the Bulk Continental Crust
(Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and the
Primordial Mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values
by plotting them in multielemental ‘spider-
diagrams’ (Figures 3.2.2.18 and 3.2.2.19).
Samples from the peraluminous granitoids
from the Nariño Batholith are particulary
enriched in Rb, Th and U (119-162ppm,
13.50-15.50ppm and 3.1-4.65ppm). They
also show negative Ba, Nb, Ta, Sr and Ti, and
positive Zr anomalies.
On the other hand, samples from the
Figure 3.2.2.20. Chondrite-normalized Nechi metatonalite gneiss show Large Ion
multielemental REE diagram for the Lithophile elements (e.g. Ba, K, Sr) and Zr
Permian-Triassic granitoids. enrichment and High Strength Field elements
(e.g. Nb, Ta, Ti) depletion is observed.
The Caracoli intrusive sample (WR-148) fractionated patterns with LREE enriched with
show similar trace elements patterns to that of respect to HREE ((La/Lu)N=6.4-12.2) (Figure
the Nariño Batholith. 3.2.2.20). The samples also show weak to
With respect to the Rare Earth Elements, moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/
the Permian-Triassic intrusives returned Eu*=0.50-1.0).The granitoid sample from
moderate to high REE contents (REE=110.6- Puerto Nare (Sample WR-244) show general
189.0ppm). depletion in REE with respect to other
In the chondrite-normalized REE plot Permian-Triassic samples, and one of the
using the values proposed by Boynton (1984), samples of the leucotonalite gneiss from Nechí
most of the Permian-Triassic granites and (Sample WR-131) exhibit LREE depletion with
granitic gneisses samples show moderately respect to other Permian-Triassic samples.
3.2.3. - Geochronology of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks 191
3.2.3. GEOCHRONOLOGY OF THE PRE-JURASSIC

MAGMATIC ROCKS
A complete set of 18 samples from pre- included within the Precambrian (Grenvillian)
Jurassic rocks were dated by zircon U-Pb LA- inliers associated to the Orinoco Orogeny (1.3-
MC-ICP-MS and SHRIMP techniques in 0.9Ga; Section 2.2.3.2) (Cordani et al., 2005;
order to establish precise magmatic Cardona et al., 2010a).
crystallization/metamorphism ages. The Guamoco Gneiss returned a
The summarized zircon U-Pb Mesoproterozoic age of 1148.0±23.5Ma
geochronology results are presented in Table (Figure 3.2.3.1).
3.2.3.1. Inheritance ages of ca. 1200Ma are also
observed and are interpreted as the magmatic
crystallization age of the protolith.
3.2.3.1 THE GUAMOCO GNEISS
The oldest sample is a high-grade 3.2.3.2. E A R LY PA L E O Z O I C

metamorphic rock collected at La Libertad INTRUSIVES
Mine, in the Guamoco area (Sample WR-219).
The sample is quartz-feldspar biotite Early Paleozoic (Ordovician) granitic
gneiss (i.e. the Guamoco Gneiss), close to the gneisses were dated in the Santander Massif
trace of the Palestina Fault System, and (Samples WR-194 and WR-195) and in El
Bagre sector at the western border of the
Segovia Batholith (Sample Z-2), associated to
the trace of the Otú Fault, in the contact of
early Paleozoic metamorphic rocks of the
Valdivia Group and late Jurassic intrusives of
the Segovia Batholith.
In the Santander Massif, samples from the
Angostura Project diamond-drill cores
(Greystar Resources, Ltd.) were selected for
zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses. The
samples include hydrothermally altered
phaneritic granitic gneissic rocks form two
different drill-holes (Sample WR-194: DH AL-
08-02/352-367.5m and Sample WR-195: DH
Figure 3.2.3.1. Concordia plot for zircon U- AL-07-09/196-212.25m).
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the Both of the samples returned Ordovician
Guamoco Gneiss (Sample WR-219). magmatic crystallization ages of
462.5±13.1Ma (WR-194) and 460.0±8.9Ma Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis. The sample

(WR-195) (Figures 3.2.3.2 and 3.2.3.3). also returned an Ordovician magmatic
These ages compare well with other early crystallization age of 473.4+6.9/-6.4Ma
Paleozoic ages reported in the Santander (Figure 3.2.3.4).
Massif (Goldsmith, 1971; Boinet et al., 1985), Inheritance ages of ca. 760, 970 and
and recent early Paleozoic zircon U-Pb LA- 1200Ma were obtained. That would indicate
MC-ICP-MS in intrusives of the Quetame and assimilation of older basement rocks in the area.
Floresta massifs in the Eastern Cordillera
(Horton et al., 2010).
The ages would be related to subduction- 3.2.3.3. THE CARBONIFEROUS
related magmatism developed during the early INTRUSIVES OF EL BAGRE SECTOR
Paleozoic Quetame Orogeny (Section 2.2.3.2).
On the other hand, at El Bagre sector, a Carboniferous intrusives were sampled at
zircon concentrate sample (Z-2) from a El Bagre area in the southern Bagre-Nechí
granodiorite saprolite rock along the old road Mining District.
from Zaragoza to El Bagre, close to the The samples include two zircon
Quebradona creek, was selected for zircon U- concentrates from diorite saprolite samples at
Table 3.2.3.1. Zircon U-Pb results for pre-Jurassic rocks in the Colombian Andes.
INHERITANCE
SAMPLE LITHOLOGY GEOLOGICAL UNIT LOCALITY COORDINATES AGE (Ma) METHOD
AGES
Mesoproterozoic rocks
Quartz-feldspar La Libertad Mine 74° 29’ 2.0” W
WR-219 Guamoco Gneiss 1048.0±23.5 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 1200Ma
biotite gneiss (Guamocó) 7° 44’ 25.0” N
Early Paleozoicgranitoids
Angostura Project 72° 53’ 29.0” W
WR-194 Granitic gneiss Santander Massif intrusives 462.5±13.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(Greystar Resources) 7° 23’ 13.8” N
Angostura Project 72° 53’ 26.9” W
WR-195 Granitic gneiss Santander Massif intrusives 460.0±8.9 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(Greystar Resources) 7° 23’ 12.7” N
Intrusive associated 74° 50’ 18.6” W ca. 760; ca. 970
Z-2 Granodiorite (saprolite) El Bagre area 473.4+6.9/-6.4 LA-MC-ICP-MS
to the Otú Fault trace 7° 31’ 42.6” N and ca. 1200Ma
Carboniferous granitoids
Host rock of El Cordero creek, 74° 48’ 42.8” W
WR-206 Diorite (saprolite) 333.1+4.7/-4.8 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
El Carmen Stock El Bagre 7° 31’ 47.9” N
Host rock of Los mangos, 74° 48’ 33.1” W
BC-7 Diorite (saprolite) 326.0+5.6/-5.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
El Carmen Stock El Bagre 7° 31’ 29.6” N
El Carmen Stock El Carmen Project, 74° 48’ 18.7” W
Z-4 Biotite leucotonalite 317±10 SHRIMP -
Host rock El Carmen vein diamond-drill core 7° 32’ 12.2” N
Biotite leucotonalite El Carmen Stock El Carmen sector, 74° 48’ 23.8” W
WR-205 322.5±5.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(saprolite) Host rock El Carmen vein football field 7° 32’ 29.5” N
El Carmen Stock La Ye Mine, 74° 49’ 15.24” W
WR-208 Biotite leucotonalite 310.6+5.3/-5.2 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
Host rock El Carmen vein El Bagre 7° 33’ 53.2” N
El Carmen Stock La Ye Mine, 74° 49’ 15.24” W
WR-209 Biotite leucotonalite 313.6+4.8/-5.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
Host rock El Carmen vein El Bagre 7° 33’ 53.2” N
Permian-Triassic granitoids
ca. 1800;
Southern Sonson Batholith- 75° 14’ 21.8” W ca. 1200-1000;
WR-63 Granodiorite Las Marias creek 245.4±4.8 LA-MC-ICP-MS
‘Nariño Batholith’? 5° 28’ 39.4” N ca. 900-800;
ca. 500Ma
Southern Sonson Batholith- Santa Clara creek, 75° 11’ 8.9” W ca. 1800-1000;
WR-61 Granodiorite 237.2±4.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS
‘Nariño Batholith’? Nariño Antioquia 5° 37’ 9.6” N ca. 500-400Ma
Southern Sonson Batholith- 75° 11’ 7.8” W ca. 1600-1000;
WR-60 Biotite orthogneiss? Campoalegre creek 234.5±4.2 LA-MC-ICP-MS
‘Nariño Batholith’? 5° 28’ 45.4” N ca. 600-400Ma
74° 46’ 34.0” W ca. 1000;
WR-130 Meta-tonalite gneiss Permian-Triassic granitoids Santa Elena, Nechí 235.2±4.4 LA-MC-ICP-MS
8° 8’ 35.3” N ca 400Ma
Migmatite gneiss Los Muertos Hill, 74° 46’ 43.0” W
NSE-1C Permian-Triassic granitoids 281.5+4.4/-4.5 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 320Ma
(saprolite) Nechí 8° 9’ 57.7” N
Hornblende biotite 18Km SE from 74° 32’ 29.8” W ca. 1200-800;
12023251 Permian-Triassic granitoids 274.5±5.3 LA-MC-ICP-MS
diorite Remedios 6° 57’ 27.5” N ca. 600-400Ma
Cansarocines, 75° 54’ 48.6” W
WR-290 Tonalite Permian-Triassic granitoids 274.8±4.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 750Ma
La Plata, Huila 2° 26’ 10.3” N
Hornblende 8.2Km NW from 74° 38’ 57.1” W ca. 1600-1000;
WR-244 Permian-Triassic granitoids 262.9±4.5 LA-MC-ICP-MS
granodiorite Puerto Nare 6° 27’ 11.9” N ca. 600-400Ma
El Cordero sector. One of the samples is was Four samples of the biotite leucotonalite
collected close to the El Cordero creek rocks from ‘El Carmen Stock’ (Section
(Sample WR-206) and the other one is the host 3.2.1.2) were also selected for zircon U-Pb
rock of the vein mineralization at Los Mangos LA-MC-ICP-MS and SHRIMP analyses
(Sample BC-7). The diorite is clearly intruded (Samples Z-4, WR-205, WR-208 and WR-209).
by the ‘El Carmen Stock’. Two of the ‘El Carmen Stock’ samples
The Carboniferous magmatic were collected at El Carmen Project (Mineros
crystallization ages obtained for the diorite S.A.) sector, they include a diamond-drill core
samples were 333.1+4.7/-4.8Ma (Sample sample (Z-4) and zircon concentrates from a
WR-206) and 326.0+5.6/-5.1Ma (Sample saprolite rock sample (WR-205).
BC-7) (Figures 3.2.3.5 and 3.2.3.6). The In addition, another two samples from ‘El
results seem to be very consistent, and no Carmen Stock’ were collected at La Ye Mine
inheritance ages were observed in these diorite sector; both of them correspond to the host
samples, apart from a ca. 500Ma inheritance rock of La Ye vein mineralization (WR-208 and
age in a single zircon crystal. WR-209).
Figure 3.2.3.2. Concordia plot for zircon U- Figure 3.2.3.3. Concordia plot for zircon U-
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of early Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of early
Paleozoic granitic gneiss of the Santander Paleozoic granitic gneiss of the Santander
Massif (Sample WR-194). Massif (Sample WR-195).
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the early Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
Paleozoic intrusive close to Zaragoza Carboniferous diorites of the El Cordero
(Sample Z-2). area (Sample WR-206).
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the Pb SHRIMP analysis of the Carboniferous
Carboniferous diorites of the El Cordero leucotonalite of El Carmen Stock, host rock
area (Sample BC-7). at El Carmen Project (Sample Z-4).
Pb SHRIMP analysis of saprolite sample of Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
the Carboniferous leucotonalite of El carboniferous leucogranite of the el Carmen
Carmen Stock (Sample WR-205). Stock, host rock at La Ye Mine (Sample WR-208).
Figure 3.2.3.10. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb Figure 3.2.3.11. Concordia plot for zircon
LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the carboniferous U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
leucogranite of the el Carmen Stock, host Permian-Triassic granitoid of the Nariño
rock at La Ye Mine (Sample WR-209). Batholith (Sample WR-63).
The samples of the ‘El Carmen Stock’ also and Rb-Sr analyses carried out on samples
returned Carboniferous ages spanning the 323- from the northern area returned ages in a broad
310Ma interval (Figures 3.2.3.7 to 3.2.3.10). late Jurassic-late Cretaceous range (see
As occur with the diorite samples, no compilation of Maya, 1992), and the Jurassic
inheritance ages were observed in the these age has been favored in most of the geological
biotite leucotonalite rocks of ‘El Carmen literature for the whole batholith (Aspden et
Stock’. al., 1987; Cediel and Caceres, 2000;
No similar magmatic rock ages have been Gonzalez, 2001; Gomez et al., 2007).
reported in the Colombian geological literature Recent zircon U-Pb magmatic
and they could be associated with a more crystallization ages carried out on samples from
restricted subduction-related magmatic event the northern area of the batholith returned
during Carboniferous times. consistent Paleocene ages (Ordoñez-Carmona
et al., 2001; this work, Section 5.2.4.1).
A sample collected at the Las Marias
3.2.3.4. THE PERMIAN-TRIASSIC creek, in the eastern border of the batholith,
INTRUSIVES at the southern area (WR-63; Section 3.2.1.5),
returned a Permian magmatic crystallization age
Zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses of 245.4±4.8Ma, suggesting that the batholith
returned Permian-Triassic ages for different is probably a composite intrusive body (Figure
samples along the Central Cordillera. 3.2.3.11).
In addition, two samples collected at the
The ‘Nariño Batholith’ peraluminous Santa Clara (Sample WR-61) and
granites Campoalegre (Sample WR-60) creeks also in
this southern area yielded Triassic ages of
The most surprising result was obtained 237.2±4.1Ma and 234.5±4.2Ma (Figures
for the southern area of what is mapped in 3.2.3.12 and 3.2.3.13).
official Colombian regional-scale and Here, the informal name of ‘Nariño
department-scale geological maps as the Batholith’ is used to differentiate this Triassic
Sonsón Batholith (e.g. Gonzalez, 2001). peraluminous magmatic suite in the southern
The Sonsón Batholith (Feininger et al., area from the northern metaluminous
1972) is an intrusive located to the south of Paleocene magmatic suite (Section 5.2).
the Antioquia Batholith, comprising an area of Further detailed mapping of the intrusive body
about 1100km2. Early geochronological K-Ar is necessary in order to clearly distinguish and
Figure 3.2.3.12. Concordia plot for zircon Figure 3.2.3.13. Concordia plot for zircon
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
Permian-Triassic granitoid of the Nariño Permian-Triassic granitoid of the Nariño
Batholith (Sample WR-61). Batholith (Sample WR-60).
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of saprolite
Permian-Triassic granitoid at the Santa sample of the Permian-Triassic granitoid at
Elena sector (Sample WR-130). the Los Muertos Hill (Sample NSE-1C).
P e r m i a n - Tr i a s s i c g r a n i t o i d c l o s e t o Permian-Triassic granitoid close to La Plata
Remedios (Sample 12023251). (Sample WR-290).
establish the contact between these magmatic

suites within the batholith.
The Nechí metatonalite gneisses
The sample from the metatonalite gneisses

from the Santa Elena sector in Nechí (Sample
WR-130; Section 3.2.1.1) returned a Triassic
age of 235.2±4.4Ma (Figure 3.2.3.14), with
few inheritance ages at ca. 1040Ma, 600Ma
Figure 3.2.3.18. Concordia plot for zircon and 420Ma.
U-Pb SHRIMP analysis of the Permian- In addition, a zircon concentrate from
Triassic granitoid close to Puerto Nare saprolite rock sample of a migmatite gneiss
(Sample WR-244). collected at the Los Muertos Hill, close to the
Figure 3.2.19. Zircon U-Pb ages obtained for pre-Jurassic rocks in the Colombian Andes.
Cauca river (Sample NSE-1C) returned a In the southern sector of the Central
Permian age of 281.5+4.4/-4.5Ma (Figure Cordillera, another sample close to the La
3.2.3.15), with no significant inheritance ages. Plata townsite (Sample WR-290) was also
Both ages compare well with other analyzed.
Permian-Triassic granites and granitic gneisses The sample collected close to the
reported over the Central Cordillera, the lower Remedios townsite (12023251) and to the La
Magdalena valley, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Plata townsite (WR-290) returned very similar
Marta and the Peninsula de La Guajira (e.g. Permian magmatic crystallization ages of
Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibañez-Mejía, 2008; 274.5±5.3Ma and 274.8±4.6Ma, respectively
Villagomez et al., 2008; Cardona et al., 2010b; (Figures 3.2.3.16 and 3.2.3.17).
Montes et al., 2010; Weber et al., 2010). Inheritance ages obtained for sample
12023251 span the ca. 1200-1000 Ma.
Other Permian-Triassic intrusives On the other hand, the sample collected
close to Puerto Nare townsite (WR-244)
Additional Permian-Triassic intrusives in returned a slightly younger Permian magmatic
the Central Cordillera close to the trace of the crystallization age of 262.9±4.5 Ma (Figure
Palestina Fault System were analyzed. 3.2.3.18), with several inheritance ages at ca.
In the northern sector of the Central 1200-1000 Ma, 600 Ma and 400 Ma.
Cordillera, two samples were collected close Zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS and
to the Puerto Nare townsite (Sample WR-244) SHRIMP results for pre-Jurassic rocks are
and to the Remedios townsite (Sample summarized in Figure 3.2.3.19, and compared
12023251) in the Antioquia Department. with results in the bibliography.
3.2.4. - Isotope geochemistry of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks 199
3.2.4. ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE PRE-

JURASSIC MAGMATIC ROCKS
R b - S r, S m - N d a n d P b - P b i s o t o p e 3.2.4.1. Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE

geochemistry analyses were carried out for GEOCHEMISTRY
samples from the Carboniferous diorite
(Samples WR-206 and WR-207) and Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry
leucotonalite (‘El Carmen Stock’; Samples results are summarized in tables 3.2.4.1 and
WR-132, WR-208 and WR-209) intrusives 3.2.4.2.
from El Bagre sector; the Nechí metatonalite The Mesoproterozoic Guamoco Gneiss
gneisses (Samples WR-130 and WR-131) and sample (WR-219) yielded moderate Rb and
the peraluminous granitoid from the southern Sr contents (66.37ppm and 332.55ppm,
Sonsón Batholith (‘Nariño Batholith’; Samples respectively), and show extreme low initial 87Sr/
86
WR-60, WR-61 and WR-62). Sr ratio (0.69583). It also shows high Sm
Table 3.2.4.1. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for the pre-Jurassic intrusives of the
Colombian Andes.
87
SAMPLE AGE (Ma) Rb (ppm) Sr (ppm) Rb/86Sr 87
Sr/86Sr (0) 87
Rb/86Sr (i)
The Guamoco Gneiss
KD-WR-219 1048 66.37 332.55 0.57370 0.70443 0.69583
Diorite (El Carmen sector)
KD-WR-206 333 40.13 359.62 0.32083 0.70622 0.70470
KD-WR-207 330 0.57 292.68 0.00584 0.70481 0.70478
Leucotonalite ‘El Carmen Stock’
KD-WR-208 311 25.16 252.62 0.28628 0.70620 0.70493
KD-WR-132 317 25.99 200.80 0.37222 0.70684 0.70516
KD-WR-209 314 28.14 215.80 0.37497 0.70609 0.70441
Nechí Metatonalite Gneiss
KD-WR-130 235 58.80 882.11 0.19164 0.70548 0.70484
KD-WR-131 235 102.01 658.26 0.44560 0.70712 0.70563
Southern Sonson Batholith (‘Nariño Batholith’)
KD-WR-60 235 159.82 226.77 2.02817 0.71575 0.70897
KD-WR-61 238 133.07 192.85 1.98660 0.72062 0.71389
KD-WR-62 240 100.95 176.67 1.64419 0.71480 0.70918
Table 3.2.4.2. Sm-Nd results for pre-Jurassic rocks in the Colombian Andes.
SAMPLE AGE (Ma) Sm (ppm) Nd (ppm) 147
Sm/144 Nd 143
Nd/144Nd(m) 143
Nd/144Nd(T) Nd(T)
The Guamoco Gneiss
KD-WR-219 1048 8.519000 52.069000 0.098910 0.512838 0.51216 16.61
Diorite (El Carmen sector)
KD-WR-206 333 1.602000 7.741000 0.125205 0.512685 0.51241 3.79
KD-WR-207 330 - - - - - -
Leucotonalite (‘el Carmen Stock’)
KD-WR-208 311 2.440500 8.681097 0.169968 0.512724 0.51238 2.58
KD-WR-132 317 2.850000 13.053000 0.131998 0.512542 0.51227 0.58
KD-WR-209 314 - - - - - -
Nechí metatonalite gneiss
KD-WR-130 235 4.469000 31.255000 0.086438 0.512436 0.51230 -0.76
KD-WR-131 235 3.749000 18.163000 0.124769 0.512432 0.51224 -1.99
KD-WR-60 235 5.503000 26.716000 0.124528 0.512291 0.51210 -4.74
KD-WR-61 238 5.304000 25.315000 0.126650 0.512359 0.51216 -3.45
KD-WR-62 240 5.477000 29.229000 0.113281 0.512309 0.51213 -4.00
and Nd contents (8.51ppm and 52.07ppm, The initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios for these rocks
respectively) and extreme high  Nd value are moderate (0.70484 to 0.70563) and  Nd
(+16.61). values negative (-0.76 to -1.99).
At El Bagre area in the Bagre-Nechí The peraluminous intrusive in the southern
Mining District, the Carboniferous diorite Sonsón Batholith (i.e. the ‘Nariño Batholith’;
samples (WR-206 and WR-207) from El Sample WR-62), returned modetare Rb and
Cordero sector returned variable Rb contents Sr contents (100.95ppm and 176.67ppm,
(0.57-40.13ppm) and moderate Sr contents respectively), and high Sm and Nd contents
(292.68-359.62ppm), and low Sm and (5.48ppm and 29.23ppm, respectively); high
moderate Nd contents (1.60 and 7.74, initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio (0.70918) and negative
respectively). These samples returned similar  Nd value (-4.0).
low initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios (0.70470-0.70478) Sr and Nd isotope geochemistry results
and the sample WR-206 show positive  Nd obtained in this work for Permian-Triassic
value (+3.79). samples are presented in a Sr-Nd plot in the
Moreover, samples of the Carboniferous Figure 3.2.4.1.
leucotonalite samples of ‘El Carmen Stock’
returned low Rb and moderate Sr contents
(25.16-28.14ppm and 200.8-252.62ppm,
respectively), and low Sm and Nd contents
(2.44-2.85ppm and 8.68-13.05ppm,
respectively).
They returned low initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios
(0.70441 to 0.70516) and positive  Nd values
(+0.58 to +2.58).
At the Nechí area, the Triassic Nechí
metatonalite gneiss samples returned moderate
Rb (58.80-102.01ppm) and high Sr (658.26-
882.11ppm) contents, and low Sm (3.74- Figure 3.2.4.1. Sr-Nd diagram for the pre-
4.47ppm) and moderate Nd (18.16- Jurassic intrusive rocks of the Colombian
31.25ppm) contents. Andes.
3.2.4. - Isotope geochemistry of the pre-Jurassic magmatic rocks 201
The Carboniferous intrusives broadly Table 3.2.4.3. Lead isotopes results for the
yielded low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70441 to pre-Jurassic intrusive rocks.
0.70516) and positive  Nd (+0.58 to +3.79) 206Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 208Pb/204Pb
SAMPLE
values. They plot close to the Mantle Array,
The Guamoco Gneiss
suggesting a mantle-derived source for these
magmas. KD-WR-219 18.29 15.58 39.02
On the other hand, Permian-Triassic Diorite (El Carmen sector)
intrusives form the Nechí metatonalite gneiss KD-WR-206 18.92 15.65 38.79
and the ‘Nariño Batholith’ returned variable KD-WR-207 18.79 15.67 38.52
high initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0.70484 to Leucotonalite (El Carmen Stock)
0.70918) and negative  Nd (-0.76 to -4.00)
KD-WR-208 18.58 15.66 38.48
values. These values plot mainly in the enriched
source field, suggesting a variable crustal KD-WR-132 18.45 15.64 38.54
component in the source for the magmas. KD-WR-209 18.51 15.64 38.37
Similar variable high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios Nechí metatonalite gneiss
(0.708-0.714) and remarkable negative  Nd KD-WR-130 18.57 15.64 39.20
values (-1.1 to -8.8) are reported by Vinasco KD-WR-131 18.74 15.67 38.60
et al. (2006) for Permian-Triassic rocks on the
Central Cordillera. These authors interpret the
KD-WR-60 18.81 15.67 38.96
highly variable isotopic signatures as reflecting
the complex nature of the protoliths which may KD-WR-61 18.81 15.69 38.95
be a consequence of an incomplete isotopic KD-WR-62 18.89 15.67 39.04
homogenization of the crustal sources or
country rock contamination.
The Guamoco Gneiss returned the most
3.2.4.2. Pb-Pb ISOTOPE radiogenic values ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb=18.29, 207 Pb/
204
GEOCHEMISTRY Pb=15.58 and 208Pb/ 204 Pb=39.02).
Carboniferous intrusives from El Bagre
Lead isotope geochemistry results sector cluster in narrow Pb isotope ranges
obtained for selected pre-Jurassic rocks are ( 206P b / 204P b = 1 8 . 4 5 - 1 8 . 9 2 , 207
Pb/
204 208 204
presented in table 3.2.4.1. Pb=15.64-15.67 and Pb/ Pb=38.37-
Pb isotope data for samples of the pre- 38.79), with diorite samples being slightly more
Jurassic rocks are broadly radiogenic ( 207Pb/ radiogenic than leucotonalite samples from ‘El
204
Pb>15.55). Carmen Stock’.
Figure 3.2.4.2. Thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb) and uranogenic ( 207Pb/ 204Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) diagrams for the pre-Jurassic intrusive rocks. Lead isotope evolution curves
after the Plumbotectonics model by Zartman and Doe (1981).
Moreover, the Nechí metatonalite gneisses The values plot broadly close to the orogenic
(Sampes WR-130 and WR-131) and the lead evolution curve of Zartman and Doe (1981).
‘Nariño Batholith’ peraluminous granite Chiaradia et al. (2004) presented lead
(Sample WR-62), cluster in a similar range isotope values for Triassic S-type granite rocks
( 206P b / 204P b = 1 8 . 5 7 - 1 8 . 8 9 , 207
Pb/ from Ecuador (e.g. Moromoro and Tres
204 208 204
Pb=15.64-15.67 and Pb/ Pb=38.60- Lagunas granites in the Loja and Tahuín
39.20). terranes), which returned similar values to those
Lead isotope results for pre-Jurassic presented in this work for Permian-Triassic
rocks are presented in the Uranogenic ( 207Pb/ rocks of the Central Cordillera of Colombia
204
Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb) and Thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ ( 206P b / 204P b = 1 8 . 5 6 8 - 1 9 . 1 4 1 , 207
Pb/
204
Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204 Pb) plots in the Figure 204
Pb=15.631-15.668 and 208
Pb/
204
3.2.4.2. Pb=38.443-38.862).
SECTION 3.3.
Gold deposits spatially related

to pre-Jurassic intrusives
3.3.1. - Gold deposits spatially related to the El Carmen Stock 205
3.3.1. GOLD DEPOSITS SPATIALLY RELATED TO THE

EL CARMEN STOCK
The lower Cauca-Nechi river basin, Ar geochronological analysis of a sample of

including the El Bagre - Nechí Mining District, sericite closely related to the vein-type
has long been recognized as an important mineralization at the La Ye Mine, and a sample
historic alluvial gold district in Colombia (e.g. of post-mineral intermediate dike at El Carmen
Shaw, 2000; Sillitoe, 2008; Londoño et al., Project are also presented.
2009; López et al. 2009). Moreover, Pb-Pb isotope geochemistry
R e c e n t l y, L o n d o ñ o e t a l . ( 2 0 0 9 ) analyses in sulfide samples (pyrite and galena)
described vein-type deposits in the Nechí and from La Ye Mine (i.e. La Ye Vein) and Los
El Bagre areas, These areas are located in the Segovianos Mine (in the El Carmen Vein) are
northern and the southern portions of the presented.
district, respectively.
At Nechí, vein-type gold mineralization is
contained in structures over 2 metres wide, 3.3.1.1. GEOLOGY AND
which can be followed for more than 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
kilometres along strike. The veins are hosted DEPOSITS
in inferred Precambrian migmatites and biotite
hornblende quartz-feldspar gneiss, and in The geology of the El Bagre area,
quartz diorite intrusive rocks that has been encompassing the El Bagre and Zaragoza
associated to the late Jurassic Segovia townsites, is dominated by a metamorphic
Batholith (Londoño et al., 2009). basement comprised of inferred Precambrian
In the southern portion of the district, and early Paleozoic rocks (i.e. biotite
surrounding the El Bagre and Zaragoza hornblende quartz-feldspar gneisses and
townsites, the important El Carmen - La Ye actinolite-chlorite/muscovite schists). The
auriferous vein system is hosted within intrusive basement is intruded by diorite to quartz-diorite
rocks of the Carboniferous El Carmen Stock plutonic rocks of the late Jurassic Segovia
(Section 3.2.3.3). Batholith (Cediel and Caceres, 2000;
Based upon the ease of logistical access and Londoño, 2001; Gomez et al., 2007).
the availability of unweathered materials for study Neogene sediments partially cover the
(including recent drill core), the El Carmen – La Ye pre-existing units and alluvial deposits of the
vein system was chosen for detailed study. Following Nechí and Tiguí rivers are also present (Figure
a brief summary of the very limited published 3.2.1.1).
information regarding this mineralization, the results The structural geology in the area is
of this study are presented. dominated by the trace of the Otú Fault, which
In order to constrain mineralization/ near Zaragoza strikes N-S to N30ºW. The Otu
hydrothermal alteration age in the district, K- fault locally demonstrates left-lateral
206 SECTION 3.3.- GOLD DEPOSITS SPATIALLY RELATED TO PRE-JURASSIC INTRUSIVES
displacement, although regionally may be District to the south andelsewhere (Figures

interpreted as a west-vergent, low-angle 3.3.1.2 and 3.3.1.3).
detachment. U-Pb (zircon) magmatic crystallization
Numerous vein-type gold occurrences in ages obtained for leucotonalites of the El
are hosted in the El Carmen Stock, a ca. 20 Carmen Stock and associated diorite, yielded
square kilometre intrusive that has been group Carboniferous ages ranging from ca . 334-
in with the Segovia Batholith in historical 310Ma.
regional- and department-scale geological Two main mineralized veins are recognized
maps (e.g. Cediel and Caceres, 2000; in the area: La Ye and El Carmen veins (Figure
Londoño, 2001; Gomez et al., 2007). 3.3.1.1), surrounded by various smaller
Regardless, intrusive rocks of the El satellite veins.
Carmen Stock exhibit a characteristic The vein-type mineralization is exploited
leucocratic aspect which clearly differs from mostly by small- to medium-scale underground
the typical hornblende biotite diorite to quartz- mining works of an artisanal nature (Figures
diorite facies of the Segovia Batholith, as 3.3.1.4 and 3.3.1.5).
described by Feininger et al. (1972), and In addition, recent exploration activities
observed in the Segovia-Remedios Mining including diamond drilling has been carried at
Figure 3.3.1.1. Location map of the El Bagre gold mineralization. Present study sample
points at La Ye and El Carmen are indicated.
El Carmen by the Medellin-based company maps (e.g. Cediel and Caceres, 2000;
Mineros S.A. Londoño, 2001; Gomez et al., 2007).
Londoño et al. (2009), highlighted the
marked structural control of the vein-type
mineralization of La Ye and El Carmen, as well La Ye Vein
as the displacement associated with dextral
inverse faults, which they interpreted to La Ye vein, strikes N20°W/52°SW. It
facilitate the emplacement of post-mineral averages 1 metre wide in averand is, hosted in
dikes along northeast – southwest trend (Figure the Carboniferous El Carmen Stock
3.3.1.5). leucogranites (Section 3.2.3.3), Both are in
Structural evidence led these authors to turn cut by a Series of medium-grained acid
propose an Orogenic Gold Deposit model for and aphanitic basic dikes, which are emplaced
this vein-type mineralization, without discarding in post- mineral fault zones (Londoño et al.,
other gold mineralization types potentially 2009).
associated with different intrusive facies Ve i n mineralogy comprises
grouped into the Segovia Batholith as depicted quartz+pyrite+galena accompanied by minor
on regional- and department-scale geological amounts of chalcopyrite and scarce sphalerite.
Figure 3.3.1.2. Diamond drill core sample Figure 3.3.1.3. Detail of leucotonalite
of the leucotonalite intrusive of the El intrusive from the El Carmen Stock (Sample
Carmen Stock (Sample Z-4). Z-4).
Figure 3.3.1.4. Panoramic view of small Figure 3.3.1.5. Vein-type gold mineralization
underground exploitations of the El Carmen hosted in the El Carmen Stock at the Los
Vein (e.g. Los Segovianos Mine). Segovianos Mine, El Carmen Vein.
Electrum particles are observed

macroscopically associated with galena
(Figures 3.3.1.6 and 3.3.1.7).
Internal reports of Mineros S.A. cited by
Londoño et al. (2009) indicate the presence
of lead tellurides (e.g. altaite), and a
paragenetic sequence with pyrite as the earliest
mineral species followed by galena and
chalcopyrite.
Vein selvages exhibit partial replacement
of the mafic minerals and plagioclases of the
leucogranitic host rock (i.e. El Carmen Stock),
by chlorite and epidote. Sericitic hydrothermal F i g u re 3.3.1.6. Quartz+sulfide
alteration is also observed. (galena+pyrite+chalcopyrite) vein at
A remarkable feature is the presence of northern La Ye Vein (Sample Z-10).
host rock fragments encapsulated within the
vein which have been completely altered to
aggregates of sericite (Figure 3.3.1.7).
Calcite appears as a late mineral species
filling fractures (Londoño et al., 2009).
El Carmen Vein
El Carmen Vein strikes N5°E/45°EIt

averages 1.2 metres wide, and it is also hosted
within Carboniferous El Carmen Stock
leucogranites (Section 3.2.3.3).
Diamond-drill core (Mineros S.A.) from
El Carmen demonstrate pre-mineral and post-
mineral dikes which cut the leucogranites. F i g u re 3.3.1.7. Quartz+sulfide
As at La Ye, vein mineralization is (galena+pyrite+chalcopyrite) vein at
composed by quartz+pyrite with minor northern La Ye Vein. Sericite aggregates are
amounts of galena and chalcopyrite (3.3.1.8.). observed within the vein (Sample Z-15).
Coarse-grained electrum is observed in small
fractures (Londoño et al., 2009).
Host-rock alteration is similar to that
observed at the La Ye Vein, with chlorite and
epidote partly replacing micas and
plagioclases, respectively. Sericite is also
observed as aggregates within the vein and in
the vein selvages (Londoño et al., 2009).
3.3.1.2. AGE OF MINERALIZATION
In order to constrain the age of

mineralization / hydrothermal alteration of the
Figure 3.3.1.8. Quartz+pyrite mineralization
La Ye - El Carmen vein system, a sample of
at El Carmen Vein, Los Segovianos Mine
hydrothermal sericite collected at La Ye Mine
(Sample Z-11).
Table 3.3.1.1. K-Ar age results for hydrothermal alteration sericite at La Ye Vein and
the post-mineral dike at El Carmen Project (dike sample from diamond drill core).
K Ar40Rad Ar40 Atm Age
Sample Material Lithology Coordinates
(Wt. %) (nl/g) (%) (Ma)
Hydrothermal alteration
74° 49’ 15.3” W
BMY-5 Sericite Sericite aggregate 8.031 94.382 19 280±6
7° 33’ 53.2” N
La Ye Mine
Post-mineralization
74° 48’ 17.6” W
WR-135 whole-rock diorite porphyry dike 0.712 4.850 19 167±5
7° 31’ 42.8” N
El Carmen Project
(Sample BMY-5) was analyzed by the K-Ar hydrothermal alteration age in the area to at
method. least the early Permian. This age however must
In addition, a sample of a post- be investigated by by further geochronological
mineralization diorite porphyry dike (WR-135) data from the area, as it is also possible that
collected from diamond-drill cores of the El this age records post-K-Ar closure resetting
Carmen Project (EC-DDH-27/155.9m; associated with the proposed widespread
Mineros S.A.), was selected for analysis by Permo-Triassic tectono-thermal of Vinasco et
the whole-rock K-Ar method. al. (2006).
Table 3.3.1.1 presents the K-Ar results
returned by these analyses.
The sericite sample (BMY-5) yielded a 3.3.1.3. LEAD ISOTOPE
Permian age (280±6Ma), whereas the post- GEOCHEMISTRY
mineralization diorite porphyry dike sample
(WR-135) returned a Late Jurassic age of Lead isotope analyses on sulfide mineral
167±5Ma. separates from La Ye and El Carmen veins are
The late Jurassic age obtained for the presented in Table 3.3.1.2.
diorite porphyry dike compares well with Samples for lead isotope analyses were
several ages obtained for the Segovia Batholith collected at the northern and southern sectors
(Section 4.4.2) and indicates that gold of La Ye Vein (Samples Z-10, Z-15 and Z-
mineralization in theEl Carmen Stock of the El 12), and at the Los Segovianos Mine in the El
Bagre sector clearly pre-dates the intrusion of Carmen Vein (Sample Z-11).
the Segovia batholith, and thus, in general, the Lead isotope results from La Ye and El
late Jurassic magmatism. Carmen veins mineralization returned
Moreover, the age returned by the sericite radiogenic values ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb>15.55),
sample better constrains the mineralization/ clustered in narrow ranges (206 Pb/204Pb=18.324-
Table 3.3.1.2. Lead isotope geochemistry results returned by sulfide samples from La Ye and
El Carmen veins, at El Bagre sector.
Figure 3.3.1.9. Thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb) and uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) diagrams for sulfide samples from La Ye and El Carmen veins at El Bagre.
Lead evolution curves after the Plumbotectonics model by Zartman and Doe (1981).
18.450, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.618-15.651 and Stock, is coeval and probably associated to
208
P b / 204P b = 3 8 . 2 1 6 - 3 8 . 4 7 9 ) ( F i g u r e the late Jurassic magmatism responsible for the
3.3.1.9). emplacement of the Segovia Batholith, and it
Lead isotope ratios returned by sulfide clearly post-dates the gold mineralization.
samples compare well with lead isotopes The early Permian K-Ar sericite age
obtained for the leucotonalites of the El Carmen obtained for hydrothermal alteration at La Ye
Stock (Figure 3.3.1.9). can be assumed as the minimum age for the
On the other hand, these results are less mineralization. However, given the extensive
radiogenic and differ markedly from the lead nature of Permo-Triassic magmatism the
isotope results obtained for sulfide samples possibility of an older mineralization age reset
from the El Silencio Mine at the core of the by this tectono-magmatic event must be
Segovia-Remedios Mining District to the south considered.
(Section 5.4.9.7). The Segovia-Remedios Thus, mineralization age could be as old
district was compared with the La Ye - El Bagre as the Carboniferous ages for the El Carmen
vein system by (Londoño et al., 2009), and Stock magmatic suite, as documented herein,
these two areas were concluded to share a inferring a potential direct relationship between
similar age and genesis by these authors. magmatism and mineralization at La Ye – El
Carmen. Further geochronological analyses in
the area must be carried out in order to confirm
3.3.2.4. DISCUSSION AND the definitive age for the mineralization in this
CONCLUSIONS important district.
Despite the limited geochronological
The geochronological and isotope information with which to temporally correlate
geochemistry data obtained in this research for El Bagre area vein-type gold mineralization with
the vein-type gold mineralization at the El Bagre the vein-type mineralization in the Segovia-
(La Ye-El Carmen) in the El Bagre-Nechí Remedios Mining District to the south as
Mining District indicate that this mineralization attempted by Londoño et al. (2009), based upon
pre-dates the emplacement and crystallization the new data presented herein, there are now
of the late Jurassic intrusives of the Segovia arguments showing that mineralization in these
Batholith. areas is related to different metallogenic events.
The late Jurassic diorite porphyry dike For example, they clearly differ in the age
from the El Carmen Project, which cut the and petrochemistry of the host-rock (i.e.
Carboniferous leucotonalite of the El Carmen Carboniferous for the leucotonalites of the El
Carmen Stock at El Bagre and late Jurassic in different arrays, with the El Bagre samples
for the granodiorites of the Segovia Batholith being less radiogenic (e.g. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb =
at the Segovia-Remedios). 18.324-18.450) when compared with the
In addition, based upon field cross-cutting ElSilencio Mine sulfide samples (e.g. 206 Pb/
204
relationships and the age of hydrothermal Pb=18.687-18.710) which in turn returned
alteration at EL Bagre, gold mineralization at similar lead isotope ratios to those of sulfide
El Bagre pre-dates late Jurassic magmatism samples from gold occurrences within or
and may be as old as Carboniferous. peripheral to the late Cretaceous to Paleocene
Mineralization at Segovia-Remedios has been Antioquia Batholith (see Section 5.4).
shown by the present study (see Section 5.4.9) Based upon the evidence presented above,
to be Cretaceous in age. the El Bagre vein-type gold mineralization
Additionally, lead isotope results obtained constitutes the only demonstrably pre-Jurassic
for sulfide samples from both districts cluster gold mineralization in the Colombian Andes.
SECTION 3.4.
Synthesis of pre-Jurassic
magmatism Vs. Au Metallogeny
3.4.1. - Synthesis of pre-Jurassic magmatism vs. Au metallogeny 215
3.4.1. SYNTHESIS OF PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs.

Au METALLOGENY
Phanerozoic pre-Jurassic magmatism in Cordillera, in the Floresta and Quetame

the Colombian Andes has been well recognized massifs (Horton et al., 2010), and would be
in two specific periods: early Paleozoic (i.e. associated to the Quetame Orogeny in the
early to middle Ordovician) and Permian- Colombian Andes (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000;
Triassic times (Goldsmith, 1971; Boinet et al., Cediel et al., 2003), which at a regional scale
1985; Ordóñez, 2001; Cediel et al., 2003; may be compared with the Ocloy Orogeny in
Vinasco et al., 2006; Ordóñez-Carmona et al., Ecuador and Peru and the Ocloyic Orogeny
2006; Ibáñez-Mejía et al., 2008; Villagómez of northern Argentina (Ramos, 2000).
et al., 2008; Cardona et al., 2010b; Horton et The Carboniferous intrusives of the El
al., 2010; Montes et al., 2010; Weber et al., Bagre sector (i.e. the El Carmen Stock
2010; This Work) (Figure 3.4.1.1). leucotonalites) exhibit a clear Na-rich calc-
In addition, geochronological analyses alkaline affinity characterized by high Na 2O
carried out herein permit identification of a values (>3.5%) and low K2O values (<1.3%).
Carboniferous (ca. 330-310Ma) magmatic The Sr-Nd isotope data indicate a mantle-
event in the El Bagre sector of the El Bagre- derived source for the magmas with minor
Nechí Mining district (Figure 3.4.1.1). The crustal contamination with initial 87 Sr/ 86Sr
regional significance of this event has yet to ratios between 0.70441 and 0.70516, and
be defined. weakly to moderately high Nd values (+0.58
Whole-rock geochemical analyses of pre- to +3.79). To date, there is no record of other
Jurassic magmatic rocks indicate they are of a magmatic rocks from this age in the Colombian
mixed metaluminous – peraluminous nature. Andes.
Petrochemical differences are observed for Permian-Triassic rocks analyzed during
each magmatic period. the present work, along with other magmatic
Early Paleozoic rocks of the Santander rocks previously described in the Central
Massif exhibit strong hydrothermal alteration Cordillera (Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibáñez-Mejía
evidenced by the anomalous major elements et al., 2008; Villagómez et al., 2008), the
contents (e.g. depletion of MgO, Na2O, CaO, lower Magdalena Valley (Montes et al., 2010),
and enrichments of Al2O3 and K2O). However, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Cardona
trace element data suggest calc-alkaline affinity et al., 2010b) and the Península de La Guajira
and arc-related (subduction-related) origin. (Weber et al., 2010), permit definition of an
These rocks are coeval with other magmatic extensive, discontinuous belt of granitoid and
rocks reported to the south in the Eastern granitoid gneiss which extends from southern
216 SECTION 3.4. - PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - SYNTHESIS
Figure 3.4.1.1. Pre-Jurassic magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
Tectonic base map adapted from Cediel et al. (2003).
3.4.1. - Synthesis of pre-Jurassic magmatism vs. Au metallogeny
Figure 3.4.1.2. Time-space chart for pre-Jurassic magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
217
218 SECTION 3.4. - PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - SYNTHESIS
Ecuador to northern-most Colombia (Figure Geochronological data obtained in this

3.4.1.1). Various authors (e.g. Vinasco et al., work indicates that gold mineralization post-
2006; Cardona et al., 2010b) associate these dates the age of the hosting Paleozoic rocks,
granitoids with collisional and post-collisional and would be as young as late Miocene as
tectonics during assembly and break-up of the evidenced by Miocene hypabyssal intrusives
Pangea Supercontinent from ca. 280-230Ma. in the area cut by mineralized auriferous
I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y, w h o l e - r o c k quartz+pyrite veins and veinlets (see Section
geochemical analyses of the Permo-Triassic 6.10.1).
rocks show moderate to strong peraluminous Regarding auriferous quartz+pyrite+
character, as previously reported for other galena±chalcopyrite vein-type mineralization at
Permo-Triassic granitoids in the Colombian E l B a g r e s e c t o r, h o s t e d w i t h i n t h e
Andes (e.g. Vinasco et al., 2006; Cardona et Carboniferous biotite leucotonalite of El
al., 2010). Isotope geochemical data show high Carmen Stock, Londoño et al. (2009)
initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios between 0.7484 and compares the mineralization with the Segovia-
0.71389, and remarkable negative  Nd values Remedios mining district mineralization,
(-0.76 to -4.74), indicating crustal sources for suggesting that both were formed as Orogenic
the magmas as previously indicated for Gold Deposits, based upon structural evidence
Permian-Triassic rocks by Vinasco et al. including strong structural control in a brittle-
(2006). Thus the Permo-Triassic granitoids ductile regime evidenced by banded textures
represent the partial fusion of continental crust within the veins, syn-mineralization
with limited or no mantle-derived imput. deformation and mylonite deformation in vein
With respect to gold metallogeny, selvages, hydraulic fracturing with fragments
occurrences hosted within pre-Jurassic of the host-rock embedded within the veins
magmatic rocks include Angostura Project in and sigmoidal parallel veins to the principle
the California Mining District at the Santander structure.
Massif (Felder et al., 2005), where auriferous On the basis of the new petrography and
quartz+pyrite veins are hosted in early geochemical and geochronological data
Paleozoic granitic rocks; those from the El presented in this work, it is possible to
Bagre sector at the El Bagre-Nechí Mining establish numerous differences with respect to
District (El Carmen and La Ye veins; Londoño the composition, geochemistry and age of the
et al., 2009), where quartz+pyrite+galena host-rock at El Bagre and Segovia-Remedios.
veins are hosted in the Carboniferous El Moreover, the age of mineralization at the
Carmen Stock leucotonalites; and those from Segovia-Remedios mining district has herein
the Nechí sector (Londoño et al., 2009) where been constrained to the late Cretaceous (ca.
auriferous quartz+pyrite±galena veins are 89-85Ma), being associated with the second
partly hosted in Permo-Triassic biotite granitic magmatic pulse identified within the magmatic
gneisses (Figure 3.4.1.2). suite of the Antioquia Batholith (see Section
Regarding gold mineralization at the 5.6.1).
Angostura Project, early attempts to constrain An intimate spatial relationship exists
the age of mineralization at the California between gold mineralization and the
Mining District by K-Ar dating of ‘alteration Carboniferous El Carmen Stock. Additionally,
minerals’ from a granodiorite porphyry yielded lead isotopic evidence indicates that sulfide
late Cretaceous to early Paleocene ages samples from the El Carmen veins exhibit a
between 66 and 60Ma (Nippon Mining similar lead isotopic signature to that of the El
Company, 1967 in Mathur et al., 2003). Carmen Stock (Section 3.3.1).
Moreover, Mathur et al. (2003) analyzed pyrite With respect to the age of mineralization/
from gravity concentrates from the active La hydrothermal alteration at El Bagre, the age of
Plata mine at the California District by the Re- a post-mineral dike at El Carmen (167±5Ma
Os method, obtaining an isochron with an age K-Ar/whole-rock) coincides with the age for
of 57±10Ma. the Segovia Batholith magmatic suite (ca. 167-
3.4.1. - Synthesis of pre-Jurassic magmatism vs. Au metallogeny 219
154Ma) and indicates that gold mineralization mineralization at Nechí may also be suspected,
pre-dates the intrusion of the Segovia Batholith given the physical distance (over 50 kilometres)
(host to the Segovia-Remedios gold between Nechí and any known occurrences of
mineralization). This observation rules out any Cretaceous aged intrusives.
temporal relationship between both districts. In summary, based upon this study, the
The coarse sericite fragment encapsulated gold districts of Segovia-Remedios, El Bagre
within the mineralized La Ye vein yielded a K- and Nechí, which have long been considered
Ar age of 280±6Ma (Permian). This age post- to form a genetically related regional trend of
dates by ca. 40Ma the crystallization age of gold occurrences (e.g. Shaw, 2003, Sillitoe,
the El Carmen Stock (ca. 322-310Ma). 2008), have been shown to be temporally and
Although this age may indicate the age for genetically unrelated. Studies which suggest a
mineralization/hydrothermal alteration at the El fundamental, genetic - structural control among
Bagre district, it clearly coincides with early the districts along the Otú fault corridor (e.g.
stages of the tectono-magmatic Permo-Triassic Londoño et al., 2009), are also considered to
event (ca. 280-230Ma). The possibility exists be in error.
that the El Carmen- La Ye veins and alteration The present study indicates that at least
were introduced during this event. The Permo- three distinct ages for gold mineralization along
Triassic event however, regardless of it the Segovia-Remedios - El Bagre – Nechí
apparently regional nature, is essentially trend can be supported, on the basis of field
devoid of gold mineralization elsewhere, which relationships and new petrochemical,
would make a Permo-Triassic age for the El geochronological and isotopic data. At least
Carmen mineralization highly anomalous. one area, Segovia-Remedios, can be intimately
Alternatively, the K-Ar age for the La Ye linked to magmatic activity associated with the
sericite may record an age reset by the regional Antioquia Batholith. The inferred ages of El
Permo-Triassic tectono-thermal event (Figure Bagre and Nechí can be broadly linked to
3.4.1.2). calc-alkaline magmatism in the Carboniferous
In the Nechí district, auriferous and late Jurassic, respectively.
quartz+sulfide veins cut both the Triassic The present study highlights on the one
metatonalite gneiss (section 3.2.1.1) and the hand, the complex and highly variable geology
northern-most late Jurassic magmatic suite of along the Otú fault corridor (in comparison with
the Segovia Batholith. Although no the generalized geology available in the public
mineralization age is available, field database), and on the other, the general lack
relationships indicate that mineralization post- of modern geological – geochrolological
dates the Permo-Triassic granitoids and is syn- control upon the physical limits and ages of the
or post- emplacement of the Segovia Batholith intrusive bodies in the region. The Segovia-
(ca. 167-154Ma). In this context Remedios - El Bagre - Nechí trend, for the
mineralization at Nechi appears unrelated to moment, must be considered a complex series
that at El Carmen – La Ye. of gold occurrences which have been
Moreover, taking into account the generated and affected via distinct tectono-
association of gold mineralization in the magmatic events. This conclusion will almost
Segovia-Remedios Mining District with late certainly require modification as detailed
Cretaceous magmatism related to the Antioquia studies of individual deposits within and
Batholith magmatic suite, a different origin for surrounding the trend become available in the
Segovia-Remedios mineralization and the future.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 4
JURASSIC
MAGMATISM VS. Au
METALLOGENY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 4.1.
Introduction
4.1.1.-General background 225
Jurassic magmatism in Colombia In this work, gold mineralizations

comprises major batholiths which are grouped associated to the Jurassic Norosí-San Martin
in a well-defined extensive and discontinuous Batholith and associated volcanoclastic
ENE-striking belt from the SW frontier with deposits in the Serrania de San Lucas are
Ecuador to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta considered to be representative examples of
in the Caribbean coast, following the eastern mineralizations associated to the Jurassic
border of the Central Cordillera. magmatism.
This well-defined Jurassic magmatic belt Complementary analyses (e.g.
is characterized by a slightly older/coeval petrography, whole-rock geochemistry,
associated vulcanoclastic sequences located to geochronology and isotope geochemistry) in
the east of the intrusive bodies and batholiths, selected areas of the Jurassic magmatic belt,
observed in the upper Magdalena valley, the including the Pueblo Bello, Segovia, Ibague
eastern border of the Serranía de San Lucas and Mocoa batholiths and associated
and the SE flank of the Sierra Nevada de Santa volcanoclastic sequence, were performed in
Marta. order to characterize and understand the nature
From a metallogenic point of view, of magmatism in a regional scale.
historical gold productive areas are related to Gold and silver mineralization of the
the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and Segovia-Remedios Mining District (e.g.
associated volcanoclastics, in the Serrania de Providencia, El Silencio and Sandra K mines),
San Lucas Region and the Ibague Batholith and historically associated to the Jurassic magmatic
associated volcanoclastic sequence of the belt for being hosted in the middle to late
Saldaña Formation in both, the northern (close Jurassic Segovia Batholith, are now recognized
to Ibague city) and southern (i.e. San Luis as associated to a younger metallogenic event
region) areas. probably related to early magmatic facies of
Most active producing areas include: the lat Cretaceous to Paleogene Antioquia
Simití, Santa Rosa de Sur, Cerro El Oso, San Batholith, as indicated by the geochronological
Carlos-Buena Seña, Santa Cruz and San and geochemical evidence (Chapter 5).
Martin de Loba, in the sourthern Bolivar G o l d m i n e r a l i z a t i o n a t t h e Ve t a s -
Department; Ibagué region in the Tolima California-Angostura region in the Santander
Department and San Luis region (e.g. San massif has also been considered to be of
Jorge and La Virginia) in the Huila Department middle to late Jurassic age, but recent
(Shaw, 2000). recognition of late Miocene magmatism closely
The southern Jurassic Mocoa Batholith is associated to mineralization (Mantilla et al.,
also recognized as hosting important Cu-Mo 2009; this work) along with field relationships
porphyry-style mineralization (Sillitoe et al., suggest a younger age for that important gold
1982; 1984). mineralization (Chapter 6).
4.1.2.- Distribution of magmatism 227
Subduction-related magmatism in an Palestina, seem to have played an important

extensional tectonic regime (i.e. Bolivar role in the emplacement of major batholiths
Aulacogen) during Jurassic times in the composing the Jurassic magmatic belt (Aspden
Colombian Andes defines a discontinuous et al., 1987; Cediel et al., 2003).
magmatic belt which crops out along the
eastern border of the Central Cordillera from
the southern frontier with Ecuador to the
northern Caribbean coast in the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta (Aspden et al., 1987).
Major batholiths within the Jurassic belt
include, from south to north, the Mocoa
(Alfonso, 2000), Ibague (Altenberger and
Concha, 2005), Segovia (Feininger et al.,
1972), Guamocó and Norosí-San Martin
(Granitoides de San Lucas; Clavijo et al.,
2008) and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
batholiths (i.e. Aracataca, Central, Pueblo
Bello, and Patillal batholiths; Tschanz et al.,
1974) (Figure 4.1.2.1).
In addition, several intrusives of early to
middle Jurassic age (Dörr et al., 1995) are also
found in the Santander Massif, all of them
grouped in the ‘Santander Plutonic Group’ by
Ward et al. (1973). These intrusives includes:
the Pescadero Granite, La Corcova and
Paramo Rico plutons, and the Santa Barbara,
Rionegro and Mogotes batholiths (Royero and
Clavijo, 2001).
Extensive deposits of arc-related
volcanism can be found to the east of the main
magmatic belt in the upper Magdalena valley
(e.g. Saldaña Formation) and the Norean and
Guatapurí formations in the Serrania de San
Lucas and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Figure 4.1.2.1. Distribution of Jurassic
respectively (Cediel and Caceres, 2000; magmatism along the Colombian Andes. Major
Gómez et al., 2007, Clavijo et al., 2008). pre-existing structures of Bucaramanga-Santa
Major pre-existing fault and suture systems Marta-Suaza and Palestina fault and suture
such as Bucaramanga-Santa Marta-Suaza and systems are also shown.
SECTION 4.2.
The Norosí-San Martín

Batholith and
Associated Volcanic Rocks
4.2.1.- Introduction 231
4.2.1. INTRODUCTION
The Norosi-San Martin Batholith and topographic expression differences between

associated volcanic rocks cover more than both areas.
90% of the total exposed area in the Serranía Recent geochronological data for the
de San Lucas (Cediel and Caceres, 2000; ‘Granitoides de San Lucas’ informal unit,
Gomez et al., 2007). considered to be the northern extension of the
Early geological publication on the geology Norosí Batholith returned a middle Jurassic age
of the Serranía de San Lucas by Bogota and of 166.9± 6 Ma by the Rb-Sr method
Aluja (1981) group the Jurassic intrusives of (INGEOMINAS – UIS, 2006).
the area in two main bodies: the Western The Jurassic volcanoclastic sequence
Batholith, outcropping to the western border located to the east of the Norosí-San Martin
of the serrania from Nechí townsite to the Batholith (i.e. Norean Formation; Clavijo,
south, and the Norosí or Eastern Batholith, a 1996), comprises a thick sequence (ca.
major intrusive which crops out along a N-S 4000m) of volcanoclastic deposits intruded by
trend with 180km long and variable width from hypabyssal intrusions and rhyolite domes
30 to 60 kms. (INGEOMINAS-UIS, 2006).
There is no formal definition in the Based on field relationships, the age of this
geological literature for this intrusive, and it is volcanoclastic sequence has been indirectly
sometimes included along with the Segovia established in the middle Jurassic, as it is
Batholith in a single big intrusion (e.g. Gonzalez observed overlying the early Jurassic
and Londoño, 2002). Morrocoyal Formation (Geyer, 1969) and
On the other hand, remote sensing being intruded by the late Jurassic ‘Granitoides
interpretations in the area of the Serrania de de San Lucas’ (INGEOMINAS-UIS, 2006).
San Lucas (Cediel and Caceres, 2000; In the present study, the Norosi Batholith
GEOTEC, 2003), allow to distinguish two units as defined by Bogota and Aluja (1981) and
with different morphological expression within the granodiorite phaneritic holocrystalline
the Norosi Batholith: the northern sector rocks cropping out in the Juana Sanchez and
characterized by a markedly strong San Martin de Loba townsites to the north of
topographic relief, and the southern sector, the Serrania de San Lucas and other localities
located to the south of Guamoco townsite with (Granitoides de San Lucas; INGEOMINAS-
a low topographic expression similar to that UIS, 2006), are grouped into the ‘Norosí-San
of the Segovia Batholith. Martin Batholith’ informal unit, as
The name ‘Guamoco Bathollith’ is petrographical, mineralogical, whole rock
proposed by GEOTEC (2003) for the southern geochemistry and geochronology data show
region in order to highlight the notorious similar characteristics between these intrusives.
4.2.2.- Regional Geology 233
4.2.2. REGIONAL GEOLOGY
In the Serrania de San Lucas, located to Paleozoic to early Jurassic (Bogotá and Aluja.
the NE of the main range of the Central 1981; Clavijo et al., 2008). These sedimentary
cordillera in the Colombian Andes, crop out rocks crop out in small areas to the N and SE
rocks in a wide range of ages, from Proterozoic borders of the serrania (Cediel and Cáceres,
up to recent times (Bogotá and Aluja, 1981; 2000; Gómez et al., 2007).
Clavijo et al., 2008) (Figure 4.2.2.1). The development of the Jurassic magmatic
Older rocks in the Serranía de San Lucas belt along the entire Colombian Andes affected
comprise Meso- to Neo-proterozoic (ca. 0.9- the region with the deposition of extensive early
1.3Ga) medium- to high-grade metamorphic to middle Jurassic volcanoclastic sequences,
rocks (i.e. San Lucas and Bucaramanga which crop out along a N-S band covering the
gneisses; Bogotá and Aluja, 1981; Clavijo et entire eastern border of the range (i.e. Norean
al., 2008; García et al., 2009) associated with Formation; Clavijo, 1996). These rocks
the granulite belt originated during the Orinoco comprise a thick sequence (ca. 4000m) of
Orogeny (Section 2.2.3). They are composed volcanic rocks intercalated with sedimentary
by banded quartz-feldspar gneisses with bands deposits product of a period of explosive
of biotite and hornblende. volcanism (Clavijo et al., 2008).
These rocks crop out to the north and the Coeval or slightly younger emplacement
western border of the Serranía, defining an N- of the early Jurassic intrusives (i.e. Norosí-San
S belt of 160km long by 20km width (Cediel Martin Batholith (and Guamoco Batholith??)
and Cáceres, 2000; Gómez et al., 2007). which partly intrude de volcanoclastic
Early Palezoic low-grade metamorphic sequence and other pre-existing rocks. This
rocks, comprising black graphitic schists also batholiths also crops out along a N-S trending
crop out in N-S band on the western sector of belt parallel to the volcanoclastic deposits to
the Serranía, named as informal metamorphic the west.
units of Pinillos and La Virgen, which are Middle to late Jurassic magmatism is
correlated with the metamorphic basement of represented by the intrusion of the Segovia
the Central Cordillera (i.e. Cajamarca and Batholith to the west of the serranía and other
Valdivia groups) and the Quetame Group of minor hypabyssal intrusives affecting mainly the
the Eastern Cordillera, respectively (Clavijo et volcanoclastic sequence (Clavijo et al., 2008).
al., 2008); these rocks would be related to the Relicts of late Jurassic sedimentation,
late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic Quetame following the Jurassic magmatism crops out in
Orogeny (Section 2.2.3). small lenses along the eastern border of the
Extensional tectonics associated with the Serranía (i.e. Arenal Formation; Clavijo, 1996).
late Paleozoic to middle Cretaceous Bolivar There is no record of Cretaceous
Aulacogen (Section 2.2.3) caused deposition sedimentation in the Serranía de San Lucas
of rift-related sedimentary sequences (e.g. region, which could be comparable with the
Sudan, Morrocoyal and Bocas formations) ery extensive sedimentary sequences observed
accompanied by incipient subaerial dacite- in the Eastern Cordillera and the Magdalena
andesite explosive volcanism during late Valley.
234 SECTION 4.2.- THE NOROSI-SAN MARTIN BATHOLITH AND ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC ROCKS
Figure 4.2.2.1. Geological map of the

Serranía de San Lucas region. Selected
localities for this work are also shown in
orange color.
Andesitic volcanic rocks cropping out

to the east of the Palestina fault and suture
system in the central portion of the range
mark a restricted Aptian to late Cretaceous
magmatic activity in the serrania (Clavijo et
al., 2008).
Pliocene to present sedimentary
deposits partially cover the flanks of the
Serranía de San Lucas, associated with the
sedimentary basins of the Magdalena and
Cauca Rivers (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000;
Gómez et al., 2007).
4.2.3.- Structural Geology and Tectonic Evolution 235
4.2.3. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC

EVOLUTION
In the present section a brief summary of river basin. This zone is associated to the
the structural features and tectonic evolution western part of the Magdalena valley graben.
of the Serranía de San Lucas is presented on The Central Zone or eastern flank of the
the basis of important contributions by Bogotá serranía is also limited on both eastern and
and Aluja (1981) and Clavijo et al. (2008). western sides by N-S to NE-SW faults. To
the west, faults are related to the Palestina Fault
System, which mark the contact between the
4.2.3.1 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Jurassic intrusive rocks of the Norosí-San
Martin Batholith and the Mesoproterozoic and
The Serranía de San Lucas, behaves as early Paleozoic metamorphic rocks to the west.
an isolated block exhibiting a complex Structural features in this zone affect mainly the
tectonics related to the evolution of the entire Jurassic intrusive rocks of the Norosí-San
region from the Mesoproterozoic to the Martin Batholith and the associated
present. volcanoclastic rocks of the Norean Formation.
At the regional scale, the block is Two major conjugated fault systems following
delimited to the west by the Palestina fault and N50-60°E and N20-30°W directions are the
suture system (Section 2.2.2.2), and to the most important and a third N-S direction
north and the south by regional faults of Espiritu subordinated system would be associated with
Santo Currumuru and Cimitarra, respectively later tectonic reactivations.
(Clavijo et al., 2008). The Western Zone is characterized by a
Bogota and Aluja (1981) divides the dominant N-S direction associated with the
Serranía de San Lucas region in three different Palestina Fault System, with a secondary
areas characterized by specific deformation conjugated fault system following the N45°E
styles, including: and N40°W directions. These structures affect
1) the Eastern Zone, to the east of the mainly the N-S belts of Mesoproterozoic and
range towards the Magdalena valley; Paleozoic metamorphic rocks. The movements
2) the Central Zone, comprising the of the N-S structures of the Palestina Fault
Eastern flank of the range, and system are considered to be responsible for
3) the Western Zone, comprising the reactivation of the N50-60°E structures of the
western flank of the range. Central Zone.
The Eastern Zone presents a gentle
topographic expression and is characterized by
a marked N-S to NE-SW structural trend with 4.2.3.1 TECTONIC EVOLUTION
subordinated NW-SE faulting, affecting
Cretaceous and Pliocene to quaternary Tectonic evolution of the Serranía de San
sedimentary rocks exposed in the Magdalena Lucas has involved different periods of
compressive and extensional tectonics linked by extensive magmatic and associated

to the geological history of the region in the volcanic-sedimentary rocks covering most of
northern Colombian Andes. the serranía area (e.g. Norosí-San Mart’in
Clavijo et al. (2008) present a summary Batholith and Norean Formation), which are
of the geological history and tectonic evolution related to four different tectono-stratigraphic
of the Serranía de San Lucas region, the events from late Triassic to late Cretaceous by
northern middle Magdalena valley and the Clavijo et al. (2008).
northwestern border of the Eastern Cordillera. A tectonic inversion event during the
They define eight different tentono- Eocene-Oligocene associated with the
stratigraphic events for this broad region from collision of the Farallones Plate with South-
the Meso-Proterozoic to present times. America, is regarded as responsible for the uplift
Two early metamorphic events affected of the Serranía de San Lucas and also for the
the region and are well-recorded by high- and inversion of pre-existing normal faults and
low-grade metamorphic rocks of Meso- to structures in this compressive tectonic regime.
Neo-Proterozoic and early Paleozoic ages The final Miocene to present tectono-
associated to the Orinoco and Quetame stratigraphic event is regarded as responsible
orogenies, respectively (Section 2.2.3.2). for the complete inversion of Jurassic and
The development of extensional tectonic Cretaceous sedimentary basins as a response
regime during the late Paleozoic to the early to generalized regional deformation and
Cretaceous associated with the Bolivar uplifting during the Northern Andean Orogeny
Aulacogen (Section 2.2.3.2) are well-recorded (Section 2.2.3.3).
4.2.4-Petrography of the Norosí-San Martín Batholith and associated volcanic rocks 237
4.2.4. PETROGRAPHY OF THE NOROSI-SAN MARTIN

BATHOLITH AND ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC ROCKS
The Norosí-San Martín de Loba batholith

is a big plutonic intrusion. Despite the extension qtz amp
of these outcrops, up to the moment only two
plutonic facies have been recognized: the
hornblende-biotite granodiorites of the San
Martín de Loba facies and thehornblende-
biotite granodiorites of the Juana Sánchez
facies. or
On the other hand, the Jurassic
magmatism in the region comprises also some pl bt
volcanic rocks, that will be desscribed at
theend of this in this section
Figure 4.2.4.1. General overvie of the sample SML-

4.2.4.1. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE 001. Note the alteration hydrothermal in the rock.
GRANODIORITES OF THE SAN Qtz, quartz; or, orthoclase, clc, calcite, bt, biotitepl
MARTÍN DE LOBA FACIES plagioclase. PPL.
Granodiorites of this type have been found

in the vicinity of the San Martín de Loba town
(samples SML-001, SML-021 and SML-22;
Figure 4.2.1).
The San Martín de Loba granodiorites
have a medium grained phaneritic
holocrystalline texture fig. 4.2.4.1- 4.2.4.6).
All the grains tend to have similar dimensions,
around 2-5 mm. These rocks are enriched in
amphibole, but biotite is the dominant mafic
mineral. The amphibole contains scarce
pyroxene relicts.
Figure 4.2.4.2. The above image, in crossed polars.
Quartz Note the strong sericitization of the plagioclase.
It is observed in a 25 to 35% modal

proportion. Quartz is occurs as an interstitial
mineral between plagioclase crystals, and Plagioclase
tends to occur as anhedral grains veery rich in
inclusions of corroded plagioclase. It is Plagioclase contents ranges between 40 and
intergrown with K-feldspar, and the textures 60% modal of the rock. Several generations of
among these minerals (triple points, curved crystals can be distinguished. A first generation
contacts) indicate textural equilibria. Grain size (A-type plagioclase) is found as inclusions in other
is tends to be in the order of 2-3 mm. Slightly minerals, mainly plagioclase or K-feldspar. These
wavy extinction is observed. crystals tend to be strongly corroded, and may
238 SECTION 4.2- THE NOROSÍ-SAN MARTÍN BATHOLITH AND ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC ROCKS
pl
pl pl
or
pl pl
qtz pl
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 3 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e Figure 4.2.4.4. The above image in crossed

granodiorite sample SML-21 in PPL. Note nicols. Note type 1 plagioclase (pl) is euhedral;
quartz (qtz) and orthoclase (or) are interstitial.
pl
pl pl
or
pl pl
qtz pl
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 5 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e Figure 4.2.4.6. The above image in crossed

granodiorite sample SML-21 in PPL. Note nicols. Note type 1 plagioclase (pl) is euhedral;
the alteration grade of the minerals. quartz (qtz) and orthoclase (or) are interstitial.
pl pl
Figure 4.2.4.7. Type B plagioclase crystal Figure 4.2.4.8. Type B plagioclase crystal
exhibiting albite twinning and zoning, partly exhibiting albite twinning and zoning, partly
masked by sericitization. Crossed nicols, masked by sericitization. Crossed nicols,
sample SML-022. sample SML-001.
correspond to relicts of plagioclase from a
previous rock, partly assimilated by the cpx>
granodiorites. Representatives of this generation
have agrain size in the order of 500 microns-1
mm, and are rare. The second population of
crystals (B-type plagioclase) is the dominant, and
consists of euhedral prismatic crystals with pl or
polysynthetic twinning on the albite law {010} and
distinct concentric zoning (fig. 4.2.4.7). The core
is more calcic, as can be envisaged by the higher
alteration degree to sericite in the central part of
the crystals; however, in many cases sericitization
may be extensive (fig. 4.2.4.8). Grain size is highly
variable and range between few hundredths of Figure 4.2.4.9. Orthoclase microperthite
microns up to few millimeters. Plagioclase (or). Crossed nicols. Sample SML-21.
euhedral grains are surrounded by anhedral
intergrowths of quartz and K-feldspar, and also
amphibole (see also images 4.2.4.1-4.2.4.8).
Therefore, plagioclase formed early in the pl
sequence of crystallization.
pl
K-feldspar
It has been identified optically as or

orthoclase, owing to the lack of tartan twins
and the scarce development of perthites. It
qtz
constitutes between 10 and 15% modal of
these granodiorite samples. It forms anhedral
grains, in textural equilibria with quartz. Both
minerals occur as interstitial grains between Figure 4.2.4.10. Symplectitic replacements of
plagioclase. Crystal size in most of the samples plagioclase (Pl) by orthoclase (Or)+quartz (Qtz) .
is between 3-6 mm, and therefore it contains Crossed polars. Sample SML-21.
inclusions of many minerals, mainly plagioclase.
Orthoclase is cloudy owing to the occurrence
of small microinclusions, and microperthites are
well developped but they are very fine-grained, amp
of the patchy tpe (fig. 4.2.4.9). Simple twinning
is absent. Symplectitic intergrowths at the bt
contact between plagioclase inclusions and the qtz
hosting orthoclase are very rare and poorly
developped (fig. 4.2.4.10). bt <clc
Biotite
bt
Biotite is a common accesssory mineral,
being its modal quantity close to 5-10%, and Figure 4.2.4.11. Different sections of biotite (bt),
it predominates over amphibole. Biotite bt
showing pleochroism and slight alteration to
develops subhedral tabular to anhedral crystals chlorite (clc). PPL, sample SML-21.
with dark reddish brown pleochroism (fig.
4.2.4.11).
pl
bt pl qtz
cpx amp
pl
cpx <cpx
pl
qtz
Figure 4.2.4.12. Abundant clinopyroxene Figure 4.2.4.13. Clinopyroxene (in position of

crystals (cpx) as accessory in sample SML-22. extinction, at 45º) replaced by amphibole.
Crossed nicols. Crossed nicols. Sample SML-21.
pl
amp
cpx
cpx
<opx
qtz
Figure 4.2.4.14. Zoned clinopyroxene crystal Figure 4.2.4.15. The above image in crossed
seen in PPL. Note the darker borders and some nicols. Inaddition to zoning, fine orthopyroxene
thin opaque inclusions arranged parrallel to the exsolution lamellae (opx) close to the position
c axis. Sample SML-22. of extinction are arranged along the c axis.
pl-B
pl -B
Mt>
cpx>
amp cpx>
pl-B
amp
Figure 4.2.4.16. Clinopyroxene (cpx, higher Figure 4.2.4.17. The above image in cross-
relief, colorless) replaced by olive-green polarized light. Note high interference colors
amphibole (amp). PPL, sample SML-1. Opaque in clinopyroxene.
magnetite inclusions (Mt) are distinct.
pl
Partial alteration to mixtures of
clinochlore, prehnite, titanite, magnetite and
ilmenite following grain borders and cleavages
is quite common. The pseudomorphic pl opx
clinochlore produced after this Fe-rich biotite or
pl
is also enriched in Fe and, hence, has a strong
greenish pleochroism. amp
Clinopyroxene opx
Clinopyroxene content is very variable in pl

the San Martín de Loba granodiorites. In some
cases it may largely dominate over amphiboles,
and attain up to 5% modal (as in sample SML- Figure 4.2.4.18. Orthopyroxene (Opx) replaced by
022, figure 4.2.4.12). In other cases, as in green amphibole (amp1). Orthoclase (or) and
samples SML-001, SML-021) it is almost plagioclase (pl) are observed. PPL. Sample SML22.
absent or strongly replaced by amphibole (fig.
4.2.4.13). Grain size is medium, and
millimeter-sized grains are not rare.
pl opx
Clinopyroxene composition is close to
diopside as seen by the optical properties, in pl
particular the high extinction angles (fig. or
amp1
4.2.4.13). It is almost colorless with a very amp1
pale green color, and may be concentrically opx
amp3>
zoned (fig. 4.2.4.14-4.2.4.15). When fresh,
clinopyroxene grains show orthopyroxene as
fine exsolution lamellae (fig. 4.2.4.14- pl
4.2.4.15). However, clinopyroxene is found
generally as strongly corroded inclusions in
amphibole crystals. Development of amphibole Figure 4.2.4.19. The above image in crossed
on pyroxene is pseudomorphic (fig. 4.2.4.16- polars; note the lower interference colors in
4.2.4.17), and they have similar optical enstatite remnaints. A late generation of
orientation. uralitic amphibole (amp3) is also distinct.
Orthopyroxene
Orthopyroxene is more rare than

clinopyroxene in these rocks (less than 1% bt
pl qtz
modal), and it is strongly corroded and qtz
replaced by late green amphibole (fig.
amp> <clc
4.2.4.18-4.2.4.19). Crystal size is also in the
millimeter range. It is close to the pole pl
enstatite, and hence it is colorless. qtz
Amphibole pl
Amphibole is present in lesser quantities

Figure 4.2.4.20. Basal section of amphibole (amp),
than biotite in these granodiorites, up to 5%.
showing a slight zoning. Sericitized plagioclase (pl),
It develops subhedral to anhedral crystals, but
quartz (qtz) and biotite (bt), partly replaced by
tends to be hemihedral (fig. 4.2.4.20). It is only
chlorite (clc), also occur. PPL, sample SML-21.
<amp4 <amp4
amp3 amp3
cpx> cpx> amp1

amp1
<amp2
<amp2
Figure 4.2.4.21. Amphibole crystal (amp1) showing Figure 4.2.4.22. The above image in crossed
partial zoned rims (amp2). Core has pyoxene (cpx) nicols. Note the extensive development of
partly uralitized (amp3). PPL, sample SML21. a late amphibole (amp4).
amp3 amp3
amp3 amp3
Figure 4.2.4.23. Detail of the pyroxene Figure 4.2.4.24. The above image in crossed
replacement by pale-green to colorless uralitic nicols. Note the radial groups in some
amphibole (amp3), in PPL. Sample SML-1. uralitic amphiboles.
slightly zoned, with some color changes at the is found replacing the ensemble of generations
borders of the grains, whose are lighter (figs. (fig. 4.2.4.21-4.2.4.22).
4.2.21-4.2.22). Both polysynthetic and simple twining are
However, crystal cores use to contain frequent. It also contains inclusions of biotite,
inclusions of strongly corroded pyroxene which may be also corroded, plagioclase,
crystals. On its turn, these pyroxenes are often magnetite and zircon. It may be locally partly
replaced by a late uralitic fibrous amphibole replaced along grain borders and cleavages to
(fig. 4.2.4.23-4.2.4.24), wich is only slightly fine-grained aggregates of clinochlore and
colored, in pale green hues (as correspond to epidote.
a member of the tremolite-actinolite series).
Therefore, this secondary amphibole can be Apatite
confused with a crystal core in a surficial
analysis of the sample. This mineral tends to occur as needle-
Moreover, a late generation of amphibole, shaped crystals, less than 50 microns in length
similar in composition to the uralitic amphibole, and only few microns in width, found as
inclusions in other minerals. It is only a trace
mineral in these rocks.
Zircon pl
qtz
Small zircon crystals are common as a
trace mineral in the San Martín de Loba
pl Zr> pl
granodiorites. They are euhedral, showing
generally a short prismatic habit (fig. 4.2.4.25). pl
Crystal size is less than 100 microns.
Magnetite
Magnetite is the most frequent opaque Figure 4.2.4.25. Euhedral zircon inclusion
mineral in these granodiorites, although it is less (zr) in sericitized plagioclase (pl). Crossed
than 3% modal. It develops euhedral {111} to polars, sample SML-1.
subhedral crystals, with sizes between 200 and
500 microns, widely scattered in the rock.
However, it may also appear as small (less than pl
20 microns) euhedral inclusions in pyroxenes, qtz
or as a component of fine-grained magnetite-
amphibole aggregates produced by
replacement of pyroxenes. No exsolutions or
zoning are observed in magnetite, and it is
partially replaced by hematite along cleavages. clc
ep>
Ilmenite
Ilmenite is less common than magnetite,

but it occurs as rounded grains, less than 500 F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 6 . S e c o n d a ry e p i d o t e
microns in diameter. It may be crusted by aggregates (ep) replacing a biotite crystals,
magnetite grains. It does not contain hematite in association with clinochlore (clc). PPL,
exsolutions. sample SML-1.
Epidote
pl
Fe-rich epidote is a typical replacement qtz
product of different primary minerals in these
rocks. It occurs as fine-grained anhedral grains
along grain borders and cleavages in
plagioclase and the above mentioned
clc
ferromagnesian minerals, in particular, biotite
(fig. 4.2.4.25-4.2.4.26). ep>
Titanite
pl-A
Titanite is very scarce and fine-grained Figure 4.2.4.27. The above image in crossed
(less than 50 microns). It was observed only polars. Note the anomalous interference
as anhedral crystals, product of alteration c o l o r s i n c l i n o c h l o re , a n d t h e h i g h
where Ti-rich biotite altered to chlorite. birrefringence in epidote.
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 8 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f a Figure 4.2.4.29. The above image in crossed

hornblende-biotite granodiorite of facies polars. Note the presence of a medium-
Juana Sánchez. Note the abundance of grained mesostase made up by quartz and
amphibole. PPL. Sample JS-7. feldspars.
Figure 4.2.4.30. G e n e r a l v i e w o f a Figure 4.2.4.31. The above image in crossed

hornblende-biotite granodiorite of facies polars. Note the presence of a medium-
Juana Sánchez. Note the abundance of grained mesostase made up by quartz and
amphibole. PPL. Sample JS-23. feldspars.
Pyrite JS-007) and in the proximities of San Martín de

Loba (sample SML-23; Figure 4.2.1.1).
Pyrite is common but in lesser amounts The mineral composition of the Juana
than magnetite. It develops euhedral to Sánchez granodiorites is quite similar to those
subhedral crystals. Grain sizes are very fine to ofSan Martín de Loba, and they also have a
fine, 50-100 microns. fine to medium grained holocrystalline texture,
but it differs from the San Martín de Loba
facies in having an aphanitic matrix (figs.
4.2.4.2.HORNBLENDE BIOTITE 4.2.4.28-4.2.4.31).
GRANODIORITES OF THE JUANA
SANCHEZ FACIES Quartz
Granodiorites of this type have been found It is observed in a 25 to 30% modal

in the vicinity of the Juana Sánchez town (sample proportion. Quartz is found only as anhedral
Figure 4.2.4.32. Plagioclase crystal, Figure 4.2.4.33. Plagioclase crystal,

showing polysynthetic twinning on the showing polysynthetic twinning on the
albite law and zoning. Crossed polars. albite law and concentric zoning. marked
Sample JS-7. by sericite. Crossed polars. Sample JS-23.
<pl1
pl2
pl1
pl2
Figure 4.2.4.34. Zoned plagioclase crystals Figure 4.2.4.35. Late zoned plagioclase
(pl2) enclosing older generations of unzoned generation (pl2) mantling a convolute-
plagioclase (pl1).PPL. Sample JS-7. zoned plagioclase (pl1). Smple JS-23.
subrounded crystals, filling interstitial spaces Plagioclase

between plagioclase euhedral crystals. It is
intergrown in this position with K-feldspar, and Plagioclase contents range between 40
the shapes of the contacts suggest textural and 60% modal of the rock. The same
equilibria. Grain size is highly variable, ranging generations of crystals distinguished in San
from few hundredths of microns up to few Martín de Loba facies are found also here.
millimeters. Most of the crystals are zoned and have
Slightly wavy extinction is observed, but polysynthetic twins on the albite law (figs.
it is not as strong as that observed on tonalites. 4.2.4.32-4.2.4.33), but in other cases these
Fluid inclusions tracks inside quartz grains are crystals have evidences to include earlier
observable under microscope in granodiorites generations, that use to be corroded (fig.
samples. No intergrowths between quartz and 4.2.4.34-4.2.4.35).
plagioclase borders (symplectite textures) The textural relations with quartz and K-
were observed. feldspar area also similar.
Figure 4.2.4.36. D e t a i l o f p a t c h y Figure 4.2.4.37. Simple twin iin a orthoclase

microperthitic intergrowths in an orthoclase crystal, probably on the Karlsbad law.
crystal. Crossed polars. Sample JS-7. Crossed nicols. Sample JS-23.
qtz qtz
or or
Figure 4.2.4.38. Detail of the afanitic matrix Figure 4.2.4.39. The above image in crossed
in the Juana Sánches facies. Orthoclase (or) polars.
and quartz (qtz) have textural equilibria
contacts. PPL. Sample JS-7.
K-feldspar simple twinning in many places (fig. 4.2.437),

and could be formed early.
Similarly to San Martín de Loba, it has The second population is anhedral, rounded,
been identified optically as orthoclase, owing and fine-grained (less than 200 microns in
to the lack of tartan twins. It constitutes diameter) and occurs in the aphanitic matrix in
between 15 and 20% modal of granodiorite textural equilibria with quartz (fig. 4.2.4.38-
samples. All of the ortoclase crystals have a 4.2.4.39).
cloudy aspect. The first population contains inclusions of
Two main populations of orthoclase many minerals, mainly plagioclase. The second
crystals can be distinguished, mainly based on occupies interstitial position among plagioclase
the grain size and shape. and other minerals,a long with quartz.
The first population has larger subhedral Symplectitic intergrowths at the contact
prismatic crystals (up to 1 cm in length), which between plagioclase inclusions and the hosting
show patchy microperthites (fig. 4.2.4.36) and orthoclase are very rare and poorly developped.
Figure 4.2.4.40. Aspect of a biotite crystal in Figure 4.2.4.41. Aspect of a group of biotite
a granodiorite of the Juana Sánchez facies. crystals from other granodiorite sample (JS-
Sample JS-7, in PPL. 23), in PPL.
qtz qtz
or or
Figure 4.2.4.42. The above image, in crossed Figure 4.2.4.43. Biotite crystal replaced by
polars. hornblende. Hornblende is also replacing a
pyroxene crystal. PPL, sample JS-23.
Biotite ilmenite following grain borders and cleavages

is quite common. The clinochlore produced by
Biotite is a common accesssory mineral, alteration is Fe-poor and do not have a strong
despite its modal quantity is lower than 5%. It pleochroism.
develops subhedral tabular toprismatic or also
anhedral crystals. Color is brownish, with pale Amphibole
to dark brownish pleochroism, being not so
reddish as in the San Martín de Loba facies Amphibole is present in a similar quantity
(fig. 4.2.4.40-4.2.4.42). Crystal size is in the to biotite in these granodiorites, up to 5%, or
millimeter range. may be locally the dominant mafic mineral.
In some thin sections biotite grains may It uses to mantle and to replace ortho-
be partly replaced by amphibole crystals (fig. and clino-pyroxene crystals, and develops
4.2.4.43).Partial alteration to mixtures of subhedral to anhedral crystals and is strongly
clinochlore, prehnite, titanite, magnetite and zoned in a similar way to the described in
qtz
<amp1
amp3
amp2
amp
Figure 4.2.4.44. Aspect of a zoned amphibole Figure 4.2.4.45. Aspect of the three amphibole
crystal (amp) in a granodiorite of the Juana generations: early (amp1), intermediate (amp2)
Sánchez facies. Sample JS-23, in PPL. and uralitic, late (amp3). PPL, sample JS-7.
amp3
amp3
amp1
amp1
Figure 4.2.4.46. Pyroxene core in amphibole Figure 4.2.4.47. The above image in crossed
(amp1), has been completely replaced by the polars. Note that the secondary amphibole
younger Fe-poor uralitic amphibole (amp3). is fine-grained.
PPL, Sample JS-23.
amp amp
cpx cpx
or
Figure 4.2.4.48. Clinopyroxene crystal (cpx) Figure 4.2.4.49. The above image in crossed
associated with magnetite (opaque mineral), polars. Note the higher interference colors
replaced along the grain borders by green in clinopyroxene.
magnetite. PPL, sample JS-23.
<cpx <cpx
<amp3
<amp3
Figure 4.2.4.50. Aspect of a partly uralitized Figure 4.2.4.51. The above image in crossed
clinopyronexe, replaceJS-23d by secondary polars. Note the strongly inclined extinction
green amphibole. Sample JS-23. angle of the clinopyroxene.
cpx
amp
amp
cpx
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 5 2 . St ro n g l y c o rro d e d Figure 4.2.4.53. The above image in crossed

clinopyroxene crystal. Green amphibole is nicols. Note twinning in both minerals.
found replacing amphibole along small
cracks. PPL. Sample JS-7.
amphibole from San Martín de Loba facies. Clinopyroxene

Hence, in addition to the two zonal generations
evidenced by slight changes in color (figs. Clinopyroxene is almost colorless and
4.2.4.44-4.2.4.45), an additional uralitic apparently not zoned, and occurs as strongly
amphibole occurs as a replacement of corroded inclusions in amphibole crystals (fig.
pyroxene in the cores of the crystals (fig. 4.2.4.48-4.2.4.49). Crystal size is in the 500-
4.2.4.46-4.2.4.47). Crystal size is around 1- 1000 microns range. Development of
2 mm. amphibole over pyroxene is pseudomorphic,
Amphibole also contains small corroded and optical orientation is similar (fig. 4.2.4.50-
inclusions of biotite, plagioclase, magnetite and 4.2.4.53). The clinopyroxene remnaints are
zircon. Replacement of amphibole along grain small, around 1 mm maximum.
borders, fractures and cleavages to fine- Clinopyroxene is widespread at the Juana
grained aggregates of clinochlore and epidote Sánchez granodiorites, although it does not
is widespread. overpass more than 2% modal.
amp amp
opx
opx
Figure 4.2.4.54. Green amphibole (amp) Figure 4.2.4.55. Aspect of the above image
corroding enstatite (opx). Sample JS-7, in in crossed nicols in the same position, note
PPL. straight extinction of orthopyroxene.
amp
opx
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 5 6 . St ro n g l y c o r ro d e d Figure 4.2.4.57. The above image in crossed

orthopyroxene crystal in an amphibole core polars.
(amp). PPL, Sample JS-23.
Orthopyroxene Apatite
As clinopyroxene, occurs as strongly This mineral tends to occur as needle-

corroded grains in the cores of some amphibole shaped crystals, less than 50 microns in length
crystals. It is rarer than clinopyroxene, and can and only few microns in width, found as
be distinghished by the strigh extinction along inclusions in other minerals, as quartz,
the longitudinal cleavage (figs. 4.2.4.54- plagioclase, biotite, ortho- and clino-
4.2.4.55). It is also colorless and not zoned, pyroxenes and amphibole.
and the composition is accordingly magnesian In addition, some shortly prismatic
and thus should correspond to enstatite. The crystals can be found. These crystals are made
original crystal size of these enstatite grains up by combinations of hexagonal bipyramids
should be also in the same range as those of and prisms (fig. 4.2.4.58), and are bigger, up
clinopyroxene, around 1 mm (figs. 4.2.4.56- to 150 microns in lenght, and occur also as
4.2.4.57). small inclusions in other minerals.
qtz
qtz
<ap
amp
Figure 4.2.4.58. Aspect of small euhedral Figure 4.2.4.59. Aspect of a zircon crystal
apatite crystals (ap) in a granodiorite of the included into a plagioclase crystal. Crossed
Juana Sánchez facies. Sample JS-7, in PPL. polars, sample JS-7.
Figure 4.2.4.60. Small subhedral zircon Figure 4.2.4.61. The above image in crossed
crystal included in the interstitial quartz polars.
grains. PPL, Sample JS-7.
Zircon Titanite
Zircon crystals are frequent in the Juana Titanite is very scarce and occurs as anhedral
Sanchez granodiorites, despite it is only a trace crystals. It is a product of alteration where Ti-rich biotite
mineral. Crystals tend to be euhedral, with a is altered to chlorite, or may be produced by
short prismatic habit, and are composed by replacement of ilmenite.
tetragonal prisms and a bypyramidal tetragonal
faces (figs. 4.2.4.59). Crystal size is small, less Allanite
than 500 microns (fig. 4.2.4.60-4.2.4.62).
Zircon may produce small metamictic aureolas Allanite is found as anhedral crystals, generally
on the surrounding biotite crystals when strongly zoned, with a rounded core with brownish
included into this mineral. Zircon is found as orange color, surrounded by borders of olive-green-
inclusions in all of the aforementioned rock- brown color. The border is not metamict but the core may
formnig minerals. be metamict, and the crystal size is smaller than 300 m
qtz
<hem
mag ilm
Figure 4.2.4.62. Magnetite crystal (mag), F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 6 3 . A s p e c t o f a t w i n n e d

partly replaced by hematite (hem) along the ilmenite grain (ilm) in quartz (qtz). Note the
octahedral cleavages. Sample JS-7, in PPL bireflectance and pleochroism in ilmenite.
reflected light. Sample JS-7, in PPL reflected light.
Magnetite grains, less than 1 mm in diameter. It does not

contain hematite exsolutions.
Magnetite is the more frequent opaque
mineral in these granodiorites, although it is less
than 1% modal. It develops euhedral to 4.2.4.3. ALTERED GRANODIORITE
subhedral crystals, with sizes between 200 and FACIES OF THE NIGUA INTRUSIVE
500 microns. No exolutions or zoning are
observed, and it is partially replaced by The Nigua Intrusive has been affected by
hematite along cleavages (fig. 4.2.4.. strong fenomena of hydrothermal alteration. A
sample (LN-3) was studied in thin section, allowing
Ilmenite only to provide an approximate idea about the
original composition of the plutonic rock.
Ilmenite is not very abundant, less than It is a granular, holocrystalline rock,
magnetite. It is found as anhedral rounded constituted by quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar
qtz
qtz
pl pl
Figure 4.2.4.64. General aspect of the Nigua Figure 4.2.4.65. The above image in crossed
intrusive, with sericitized plagioclase (pl) polars.
and quartz (qtz) in PPL. Sample LN-3.
and biotite (fig. 4.2.4.64-4.2.4.65). The
alteration degree does not allow to
discriminate a possible existance of other
accessory minerals as amphiboles.
Quartz
It is anhedral, and strongly affected by

deformation as revealed by undulous
extinction. The grain size is around 1-2 mm,
and it is found in high quantities, around 40%
modal, but their abbundance has been
probably increased by silicification during
hydrothermal processes. Figure 4.2.4.66. Strongly altered plagioclase
c r y s t a l s , re p l a c e d b y h y d ro t h e r m a l
Plagioclase orthoclase. PPL, Sample LN-3.
It is strongly sericitized, and their shape

is masked because this high alteration, as are
other optical properties. The grain size should
be close to 2 mm, and the abbundance was pl
probably around 40%.
K-feldspar
or
Some crystals are found, and it is difficult
to ascertain if they correspond to primary
crystals or to hydrothermal feldspar, or to a
mixture of both origins. Its proportion can be
in the order of 10% modal of the rock. It can Figure 4.2.4.67. The above image in crossed
be partly altered to sericite. polars.Note the existence of some
Perthites are not distinct, and this could plagioclase remnanints, and the original
be an argument for a hydrothermal origin of subhedral shape of plagioclase.
these grains. In some cases the occurrence of
plagioclase relicts into the orthoclase crystals
is an indicative of a secondary origin. These
crystals occur in the vicinity of veins infilled
with carbonates, quartz , sericite and sulfides
(figs. 4.2.4.66-4.2.4.67).
Biotie
ep clc
Biotite is completely altered to a fine-
grained mixture of green chlorite (clinochlore),
calcite and a fine-grained mineral, possibly a
member of the epidote group (fig. 4.2.4.68).
If biotite was the unique mafic present in the Figure 4.2.4.68. Strongly altered biotite
original plutonic paragenesis before the crystal. with clinochlore (clc) and a possible
hydrothermal alteration, its modal proportion member of the epidote group (ep).
could have been close to 5%.
4.2.4.4. DOÑA JUANA ANDESITE as some mafic xenoliths. The matrix is mainly
BASALTS composed by volcanic glass that has suffered
a devitrification process, thus producing some
These rocks are found in close spatial microespherical perlitic texture (figs. 4.2.4.69-
relation with the Jurassic intrusives, and could 4.2.4.72). These perlites have some tens of
be the volcanic equivalent of some of them, microns in diameter.
although they are more basic in composition.
In adition, some crystal tuffs may be also Quartz
present.
A millimetric banding is common in many Quartz is not common in these rocks, and
oof these rocks, indicating the existence of a only a few anhedral and angulous
lava flux. These andesite basalts are composed polycrystalline grains (possibly, fragments of
by clinopyroxene and plagioclase phenocrysts xenocrysts) have been recognized so far.
in a partly devitrified matrix. In addition, some Crystal size is small, less than 2 mm (fig.
quartz occurs, possibly as xenocrysts, as well 4.2.473-4.2.4.74).
cpx> cpx>
pl> pl>
<cpx <cpx
Figure 4.2.4.69. Banding in the Doña Juana Figure 4.2.4.70. The above image in crossed
andesite basalts. Note the occurrence of some polars. Note that most of the matrix is
clinopyroxene (cpx) and plagioclasephenocrysts volcanic glass (total extinction), which is
(pl). PPL, sample 120501. only partly devitrified.
pl> pl>
<cpx <cpx
Figure 4.2.4.71 Detail of the rock, showing ome Figure 4.2.4.72. The above image in crossed
pyroxene (cpx) and plagioclase (pl) phenocrysts. polars. Note that most of the matrix is
PPL, sample JS-7. composed by isotropic volcanic glass (total
extinction).
Clinopyroxene Plagioclase
It occurs as scarce phenocrysts, less than Plagioclase phenocrystas are also rare,
5% modal, less than 2 mm in lenght. They have and they are found in less quantities than 20%
a short prismatic habit, and are subhedral to modal (figs. 4.2.4.69-4.2.4.76).
euhedral (figs. 4.2.75-4.2.76). Crystals are These phenocrysts tend to be euhedral,
colorless, thus indicating a slow content in Fe forming lath-shaped crystals. Their crystal size
and Ti; on the other hand, the 45º extinction is small, less than 500 microns and, in most of
angle points to a augite-diopside composition. them, the lenght is between 100 and 300
Some of them display twinning, with simple or microns.
polysinthetic twins, but they are apparently Twinning on the albite law is widespread,
not zoned. Crystals are quite fresh. as well as concentric zoning, but these
Crystals may be very riich in diminute glass characteristics are hardly distinguishable owing
inclusions, that can give a certain grade of to the high content in fluid and glassy
turbidity to the crystal. inclusions. These are very fine and randomly
<pl <p1
<qtz <qtz
Figure 4.2.4.73. Aspect of a polycrystalline quartz Figure 4.2.4.74. The above image in crossed
(qtz) xenolith in a vitreous matrix. Note the polars. The polycrystalline constitution is more
angulous borders of the grains. Some plagioclase evident.
(pl) is also present. PPL, sample120501 .
<mt
<pl <pl
<cpx <cpx
Figure 4.2.4.75. Clinopyroxene (cpx) and Figure 4.2.4.76. The above image in crossed
plagioclase phenocrysts (pl) scattered in a polars.
vitreous matrix. Opaque magnetite (mt) is
also present. PPL, sample 120501.
amp amp
cpx cpx
Figure 4.2.4.77. Aspect of a mafic xenolith Figure 4.2.4.78. The above image in crossed
in PPL. Note some clinopyroxene (cpx) and polars.
plagioclase (pl) crystals. Sample 120501.
distributed along all the crystal. Some 4.2.4.5. EL TIGRE IGNIMBRITES AND
zeolitization degree my be also present in many VULCANOSEDIMENTARY ROCKS
crystals.
These volcaniclastic rocks are also found
Mafic xenoliths in close spatial relation with the Jurassic
intrusives, and could be interpretated as the
Fragments of mafic plutonic rocks, less volcanic equivalent of some of them.
than 1 cm in diameter, are also distinguished. Ignimbrites are common in these series,
These rocks have a cummulate texture, with and they can be distinguished by the common
clinopyroxene crystals as cumulus phase, and occurrence of vitreous flattened fragments
plagioclase as intercumular phase (fig. (flames) and other pyroclastic fragments of acid
4.2.4.77-4.2.4.78). They may represent parts rocks (figs. 4.2.4.79-4.2.4.84). Some
of magmatic chambers of the same volcanic millimetric banding can be recognized in some
rocks. samples.
qtz> qtz>
Figure 4.2.4.79. Fragments of acid pyroclastic Figure 4.2.4.80. The above image in crossed
rocks, rich in quartz grains, in a matrix of polars.
volcanic glass. Some quartz phenocrysts (qtz)
also occur.PPL. Sample ET-2.
qtz> qtz
vg vg
Figure 4.2.4.81. Glass flames of volcanic Figure 4.2.4.82. The above image in crossed
glass (vg), accompanied with some quartz polars.
pheno and xenocrysts (qtz). PPL. Sample ET-
2.
<qtz
<qtz
vg
vg
Figure 4.2.4.83. Aspect of strongly corroded Figure 4.2.4.84. The above image in crossed
and embayed quartz phenocrysts (qtz) in polars.
PPL, scattered in a partly devitrified
matrix. Sample ET2.
Volcanic glass is the most important modal Quartz

component, and may achieve up to 50% of the
rock. It has a pale brownish color in thin Quartz is not common in these rocks, and
section, although the intensity of color can vary in some cases it may achieve up to 80% modal
according with the igneous banding of the of the phenocrysts, about 30% modal of the
rocks. whole rock.
Other components of these rocks should The crystals are anhedral, and may be
be phenocrysts, mainly quartz, feldspars and rounded, angulous or embayed (figs. 4.2.4.79-
biotite, and volcanic glass, partly devitrified. 4.2.4.84), thus indicating a mixture of different
The proportion of each component depends origins, primary magmatic and xenocrystic. In
of the type of bands. this case, xenocrysts can come from other
Some low-temperature hydrothermal igneous rocks, or can be produced by
alteration, manifested in a few zeolitization fragmentation of the same volcanic rock.
degree, is present in these rocks. Quartz grains are generally monocrystalline,
vg vg
bt
<bt
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 8 5 . A s p e c t o f b i o t i t e Figure 4.2.4.86. The above image in crossed

microphenocrysts (bt), altered to sericite, in polars.
PPL. Crystals are embedded in volcanic
glass (vg). Sample ET-2.
san san
dv dv
san san
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 4 . 8 7 . A s p e c t o f s u b h e d r a l Figure 4.2.4.88. The above image in crossed

sanidine grains (san), floating in a matrixof polars. Note that devitrification of the
partly devitrified volcanic glass (vg). Note perlites has produced secondary quartz.
perlites.PPL, sample ET-2.
and may display undulous extinction. Grain size Felspar

ranges between 1 and 5 mm.
Feldspars can be in part sanidine and in
Biotite part plagioclase, but they are hardly
distinguishable in some cases because
Biotite microphenocrysts occur scattered hydrothermal alteration to sericite. Therefore,
along the rock as small subhedral grains (up it is complicate to define a proportion among
to 0,5 mm in lenght). Most of them have been both phases.
replaced by late sericite accompanied with They occur as subhedral crystals, of
supergenic iron oxides (probably, goethite), tabular to prismatic habit (figs. 4.2.4.87-
thus evidencing a certain degree of 4.2.4.88). The grain size is less than 1 mm in
hydrothermal alteration affecting these rocks d i a m e t e r. Z o n i n g i s n o t d i s t i n c t , a n d
(fig. 4.2.4.85-4.2.4.86). polysynthetic twins are hardly distinguishable.
4.2.5.- Whole-rock geochemistry of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and associated volcanic rocks 259
4.2.5. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE NOROSI-SAN

MARTIN BATHOLITH AND ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC ROCKS
In order to characterize from a These samples were located at Juana

geochemical point of view the rocks of the Sanchez townsite (sample WR-1; section
Norosi-San Martin Batholith and the 4.2.4.2); at the San Martin de Loba townsite
associated volcanic rocks, a complete set of (sample WR-2; section 4.2.4.1) and at Monte
38 samples were analyzed for major, minor and Carmelo to the east of Alto del Rosario
trace elements including Rare Earth Elements townsite (sample WR-3). Moreover, a
(REE). monzonite facies collected at El Piñal Hill,
Samples collected include surface outcrop about 5km to the NE of the Sinai townsite
chip rock samples and recovered diamond- named as the ‘Papayal Monzonite’ (sample
drill cores (e.g. San Carlos Buena Seña WR-189) was also sampled.
Project). About 3km to the NW of the Buena Seña
townsite, a sample of moderately altered
granitic rock (WR-235) cropping out in small
4.2.5.1. NOROSI-SAN M A RT I N hills surrounded by the Quaternary sedimentary
B AT H O L I T H A N D H Y PA B Y S S A L cover were also collected.
INTRUSIVES To the south, in the northern Norosí-
Batholith, two granodiorite phaneritic
Fifteen geochemical samples from the holocrystalline rocks (samples WR-184 and
early Jurassic intrusives in the Serrania de San WR-185) were collected in the Cerro El Oso
Lucas were collected from different localities sector, about 14km to the SW of Buena Seña
along the entire exposed area, including: sparse townsite. In addition, a phaneritic diorite rock
intrusive rocks in the northernmost part of the (WR-186) which cut the batholith, was also
Serranía de San Lucas (e.g. ‘Granitoides de analyzed.
San Lucas’ informal unit – INGEOMINAS- In the middle area of the Serranía de San
UIS, 2006); The Norosí Batholith as defined Lucas, close to the Guamoco townsite, three
by Bogota and Aluja (1981), and the southern granodiorite samples were collected, two of
‘Guamoco Batholith’ as proposed by them (samples WR-288 and WR-303) at La
GEOTEC (2003) which shows a distinct low Fortuna sector, in the municipalities of Santa
topographical expression when compared the Rosa and Montecristo, about 19km to the NE
Norosí Batholith (Section 4.2.2; Figure of Guamoco townsite, and the other one
4.2.2.1). (sample WR-302) at the Marisosa sector, in
A set of five samples were collected in the the municipality of Santa Rosa, about 14Km
northernmost area of the Serranía de San to the SE of the Guamoco townsite.
Lucas, where granitic rocks considered to be To the south of the Serranía de San Lucas,
the northern prolongation of the Norosí four samples were collected in the ‘Guamoco
Batholith (‘Granitoides de San Lucas; Batholith’. These samples include three
INGEOMINAS-UIS, 2006) crops out. granodiorite samples (WR-240, WR-301 and
WR-304) and a mineralized granitic aplite dike to the north of the Serrania de San Lucas, and
(WR-241), all of them located in the Remedios intruding the sedimentary sequence of the early
Sector, about 32km to the SE of the Remedios Jurassic Morrocoyal Formation (Geyer, 1969),
townsite in the Segovia-Remedios Mining were analyzed.
District. Three samples of rhyolite porphyry dikes
M o r e o v e r, h y p a b y s s a l i n t r u s i v e s (samples WR-48, WR-242 and WR-243)
considered to be related to the Norosí-San intruding the associated volcanoclastic
Martín Jurassic magmatic system identified in sequence to the east of the Norosí-San Martin
different areas of the Serranía de San Lucas Batholith in the middle sector of the Serranía
were sampled for comparison with granitic de San Lucas, about 9km to the west of Santa
rocks of the batholith. Rosa del Sur townsite.
Two samples of andesite porphyry dikes Alteration filtersdiagrams by Wilt (1995),
(WR-231 and WR-232), closely related with indicate that most of the samples are relatively
the gold mineralization in the Santa Cruz area unaltered with some exceptions clearly indicated
Figure 4.2.5.1. Alteration filter diagrams after Wilt (1995) for the phaneritic intrusive rocks and
associated dikes of the Norosí-San Martin Batholiths.
by anomalous high (>75%) silica contents and MgO, CaO, TiO 2, P2O5 and FeO t with respect
sodic/potassic alteration (Figure 4.2.5.1). to SiO2. Positive correlation is observed
between TiO 2 and SiO2. Na2O contents do not
Major Element Geochemistry define correlation either positive or negative
(Figure 4.2.5.2).
Granodioritic rocks of the Norosí-San In general, different families of porphyry
Martin Batholith returned silica contents in a dikes of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa del Sur and
range between 58% and 75%. Remedios sectors tend to be more acidic than
The complete magmatic suite is phaneritic samples and characterized by low
characterized by variable Al2O3 contents (12- CaO and MgO contents.
16%) and Na 2O 3 contents in a narrow range The Norosí-San Martin Batholith samples
around 3%. and the different families of porphyry dikes plot
Phaneritic rocks of the Norosí-San Martin into the calc-alkaline field of the AFM triangle
Batholith show negative correlations of Al2O3, plot by Irvine and Baragar (1971), exhibiting
Figure 4.2.5.2. Harker variation diagrams for the phaneritic intrusive rocks and associated dikes
of the Norosí-San Martin Batholiths.
Figure 4.2.5.3. AFM triangular plot (Irvine Figure 4.2.5.4. K 2O vs. SiO 2 plot (Peccerillo
and Baragar, 1971) for the Norosí-San and Taylor, 1976) for the Norosí-San Martin
Martin Batholith samples. Batholith samples.
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 5 . 5 . A / N K v s . A / C N K p l o t Figure 4.2.5.6. Toltal alkalis (TAS) plot

(Shand, 1943) for the Norosí-San Martin (Cox et al., 1979) for the Norosí-San Martin
Batholith samples. Batholith samples.
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 5 . 7 . F e l d s p a r t r i a n g l e Figure 4.2.5.8. R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot

(O’Connor, 1965) for the Norosí-San Martin (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the
Batholith samples. Norosí-San Martin Batholith samples.
Figure 4.2.5.9. Bulk Continental Crust- F i g u re 4 . 2 . 5 . 1 0 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -

normalized trace element spider-diagram normalized trace element spider-diagram
f o r t h e N o ro s í - S a n M a rt i n B a t h o l i t h f o r t h e N o ro s í - S a n M a rt i n B a t h o l i t h
samples. samples.
a well-defined calc-alkaline trend (Figure porphyry dikes is evident by their tendency to

5.2.5.3). plot out of the fields or in the granite field.
In the K2O vs. SiO2 plot by Peccerillo and Papayal monzonite plot in the granite field due
Taylor (1976), most of the samples plot into the to its more alkaline character (Figure 4.2.5.7).
high-K calc-alkaline series field (Figure 4.2.5.4). Most of the samples of the Norosí-San
Most of the phaneritic samples of the Martin Batholith plot on the pre-plate
Norosí-San Martin Batholith plot in the (subduction-related) field of the geotectonic
metaluminous field of the A/CNK vs. A/NK plot proposed by Batchelor and Bowden
plot by Shand (1949), indicating I-type calc- (1985); dikes exhibit a more scattered behavior
alkaline tendency for the magmatism (A/ (Figure 4.2.5.8).
CNK<1.1). Effects of alteration on some of
the samples are seen with the displacement to Trace Element Geochemistry
the peraluminous field (Figure 4.2.5.5).
Porphyry dike samples plot mostly on the Trace element contents and variations in
peraluminous field, probably due to the the samples of the Norosí-San Martin de Loba
alteration evidences observed in most of them. Batholith and the porphyry dike suites are
The Papayal monzonite sample plot in the illustrated on variation “spider-grams”
peraluminous field. normalized to both Bulk Continental Crust
The total alkalis (TAS) plot by Cox et al. (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and Primordial
(1979) indicate a well-defined trend with Mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values (Figures
variable compositions between between diorite 4.2.5.9 and 4.2.5.10).
and granite for the Norosí-San Martin Broadly, Norosí-San Martin Batholith
Batholith samples and related porphyry dikes phaneritic rocks show a subduction-related
(Figure 4.2.5.6). geochemical signature characterized by Large
When plotted on the CIPW norm- Ion Lithophile (LIL) elements enrichment (K
calculated feldspar triangle proposed by and Ba), and High Field Strength (HFS)
O’connor (1965), most of the Norosi-San elements depletion (Nb, Ta and Ti) (Pearce et
Martin Batholith samples plot in the al., 1984; Pearce and Peate, 1995). Bulk
granodiorite field, and, again, the effect of continental earth-normalized patterns show
calcic/potassic alteration observed in the relatively flat trends while Primordial Mantle-
normalized trace-element trends exhibit Other granitoid rocks in this northernmost

fractionated decreasing trends (Figures 4.2.5.9 area of the serrania indicate similar REE
and 4.2.5.10). geochemical signature (i.e. the Buena Seña
Trace element whole-rock geochemistry Granitoid and the Papayal Monzonite;
of samples from different areas of the batholith REE=130 and 149ppm; (La/Lu) N=5.0 and
show similar patterns with moderated to strong 6.0 and Eu/Eu*=0.79 and 0.52, respectively).
positive Ba anomalies and negative Nb-Ta and Granitoid phaneritic holocrystalline rocks
Ti anomalies (Figures 4.2.5.9 and 4.2.5.10). from El Oso hill also behave in a similar way
A remarkable feature in samples of the (REE=124-135ppm; (La/Lu) N=5.61-6.62
Norosí-San Martin Batholith and the porphyry and Eu/Eu*=0.59-0.65).
dike suites is the moderate to strong negative Samples from the middle sector of the
Sr anomaly shown by all of the samples. Norosí Batholith show slightly higher REE
contents (REE up to 213ppm) and also
Rare Earth Element Geochemistry slightly higher fractionated pattern ((La/
Lu)N=7.5) with similar negative Eu anomalies
Rare Earth Element (REE) contents of the (Eu/Eu*=0.56-0.69).
samples of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith The southern region (Guamoco Batholith?)
were compared by plotting REE diagrams using samples returned slightly lower REE contents
normalizing chondritic values of Boynton (REE=92-116ppm) with similar fractionated
(1984) (Figure 4.2.5.11). patterns and variable negative Eu anomalies
All of the samples analyzed show similar ((La/Lu)N=4.4-8.2; Eu/Eu*=0.17-0.96).
behavior with moderated decreasing Porphyry dikes from Santa Rosa del Sur area
fractionated patterns with moderated Eu returned similar RRE contents (REE=114-
negative anomalies related with primary 148ppm) to the northern part of the Serrania de
plagioclase fractionation (Rollinson, 1993). San Lucas (i.e. San Marin de Loba-Juana
Relatively flat HREE patterns are a common Sanchez region). Decreasing fractionated patterns
characteristic in all of the analyzed samples. are also similar ((La/Lu)N=2.9-5.5) with also
Granodiorite rocks of the San Martin de variable moderate to strong negative Eu anomalies
Loba-Juana Sanchez area to the north of the (Eu/Eu*=0.13-0.73).
Serrania de San Lucas returned moderated On the other hand, porphyry dikes from
REE contents (REE=124-135ppm) with the Santa Cruz area returned variable REE
moderate decreasing patterns ((La/Lu)N=5.61- contents (REE=119-172ppm) with weak to
6.62) and moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/ moderate decreasing slope patterns ((La/
Eu*=0.59-0.65) (Figure 4.2.5.11). Lu)N=2.8-5.4) and weak negative Eu anomalies
(Eu/Eu*=0.80-0.93).
The aplite dike sampled in the southern
region returned relatively low REE contents
(REE=78ppm) and highly fractionated
decreasing slope patterns and weak negative
Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.80-0.93).
4.2.6.2. VOLCANIC ROCKS

ASSOCIATED TO THE NOROSI-SAN
MARTIN BATHOLITH
Eight-teen samples for geochemical

analyses were collected in the volcanoclastic
Figure 4.2.5.11. Chondrite-normalized
sequence associated to the Norosí-San Martin
multielemental REE diagram for the Norosí-
Batholith (Norean Formation; Clavijo, 1996).
San Martin Batholith samples.
As with the Norosí-San Martin Batholith Batholith, a set of three andesite samples
samples, the sample collection was carried out (WR-297, WR-299 and WR-300) were also
over selected areas of covering the northern sampled for geochemical analyses.
and southern sectors of the exposed Alteration filters by Wilt (1995), indicate
volcanocalstic sequence. that some of the volcanic rocks samples
An important characteristic of the present alteration at different degrees, as
sequence is the bimodal character with acid evidenced by anomalous high silica contents
rocks (e.g. rhyolite tuffs) and basic to (>75%) (e.g. samples WR-293 and WR-294)
intermediate rocks (e.g. andesites and basaltic and sodic or potassic alteration (Figure
andesites) closely related (Clavijo, 1996). 4.2.5.12).
Samples of both, acid and basic/intermediate
rocks were included for geochemical analyses. Major element geochemistry
To the North, between the northern
Norosí Batholith as defined by Bogota and The volcanoclastic rocks associated to the
Aluja (1981) and its northern prolongation Norosí-San Martin Batholith returned silica
represented by the granitic intrusives of the contents in a range between 60 and 80%. They
‘Granitoides de San Lucas’ informal unit are also characterized by positive correlation
(INGEOMINAS – UIS, 2006), five samples of K 2O and negative correlations of Al 2O 3,
of dacite to rhyolite tuffs of the volcanoclastic CaO, TiO 2, P 2O 5 and FeOt with respect to
sequence were collected in the El Piñal area, SiO2 (Figure 4.2.5.13).Positive correlations of
about 5km to the south of the Papayal K 2O with respect to SiO2 is also observed,
townsite: at the El Piñal Hill (samples WR-190 whereas Na 2O show scattered behavior with
and WR-191), at the Terrones Hill (sample- no positive or negative correlation.
192) and at Macedonia (sample WR-193). In Major element plots show clear
the same area, a sample of andesite basalt differences between acid (i.e. rhyolites) and
(WR-6; section 4.2.4.4) at the ‘Finca Doña intermediate to acid (i.e. andesities) rocks.
Juana’ was also collected. All of the acid volcanoclastic rock samples
In the same northern sector of the cluster and plot close to the A vertex into the
serranía, about 21km to the SW of the El Piñal calc-alkaline field of the AFM triangle plot by
area, around the Buena Seña townsite, in the Irvine and Baragar (1971), indicating a high
San Carlos Buena Seña Project area (AGAC), evolved character (Figure 4.2.5.14).
another set of six samples were collected. On the other hand, andesite samples plot
These samples include four samples of lapilli partly into the calc-alkaline series field and
tuffs and pyroclastic breccias (samples WR- partly into the tholeiite series field, but this must
292 to WR-295) from recovered diamond-drill be associated to the altered character
cores, and two andesite samples (WR-296 and previously identified in some of the samples
WR-297) collected to the north of San Carlos (e.g. andesite samples of the Santa Rosa del
Hill. Moreover, another sample of a rhyolite Sur area).
crystal tuff (WR-7; section 4.2.4.5) was In the K2O vs. SiO2 plot by Peccerillo and
collected at the El Tigre creek, about 8km to Taylor (1976), most of the samples plot into the
the west of Buena Seña townsite. high-K calc-alkaline series field (Figure
In the middle region of the Serranía de San 4.2.5.15).
Lucas, about 9km to the west of Santa Rosa Most of the volcanoclastic rocks of the
del Sur townsite, a set of three samples was San Lucas region plot in the metaluminous
collected. These samples include two samples field of the A/CNK vs. A/NK plot by Shand
of lithic agglomerates (samples WR-45 and (1949), indicating I-type calc-alkaline
WR-46) and one sample of rhyolite (WR-47). tendency for the magmatism (A/CNK<1.1)
About 24km to the south of Santa Rosa (Figure 4.2.5.16).
del Sur townsite, close to the contact with the The acid rhyolite samples from the San
granitic rocks of the Norosí-San Martin Carlos-Buena Seña region plot into the
peraluminous filed, probably due to the The samples of the volcanoclastic rocks
hydrothermally altered character of the rocks of the San Lucas region plot scattered into the
previously observed in hand samples geotectonic plot proposed by Batchelor and
inspection (Figure 4.2.5.16). Bowden (1985) (Figure 4.2.5.19).
The total alkalis (TAS) plot by Le Bas et
al. (1986) show intermediate to basic Trace Element Geochemistry
volcanoclastic rocks (e.g. andesites) plotting
scattered between the basaltic andesite and Trace element contents and variations in
the dacite field, whereas acid volcanoclastic the samples of the volcanoclastic rocks of the
rocks plot into the rhyolite field (Figure Serrania de San Lucas region are illustrated
4.2.5.17). on variation “spider-diagrams” normalized to
The CIPW norm-calculated feldspar both Bulk Continental Crust (Taylor and
triangle proposed by O’connor (1965), show McLennan, 1995) and Primordial Mantle
the acid volcanoclastic rocks plotting into the (Wood et al., 1979) values (Figures 4.2.5.20
rhyolite field, whereas the intermediate to basic and 4.2.5.21).
volcanoclastic rocks plot into the rhyodacite The volcanoclastic rocks of the San Lucas
and dacite fields (Figure 4.2.5.18). region show a subduction-related geochemical
Figure 4.2.5.12. Alteration filter diagrams after Wilt (1995) for the volcanoclastic rocks of the
Serranía de San Lucas region.
signature characterized by Large Ion Lithophile Bulk continental earth-normalized patterns
(LIL) elements enrichment (K and Ba), and show relatively flat trends while Primordial
High Field Strength (HFS) elements depletion Mantle-normalized trace-element trends
(Nb, Ta and Ti) (Pearce et al., 1984; Pearce exhibit fractionated decreasing trends (Figures
and Peate, 1995). 4.2.5.20 and 4.2.5.21).
Most of the acid volcanoclastic samples On the other hand, trace element
are characterized by moderate negative Sr geochemistry in whole-rock samples from
anomalies. In particular, some of the samples different areas of the batholith show similar
of the El Piñal Hill area show strong negative patterns, and are characterized by moderated
Sr anomalies. to strong positive Ba and K anomalies and
Intermediate to basic volcanoclastic rocks negative Nb-Ta and Ti anomalies (Figures
show weak positive Sr anomalies. 4.2.5.20 and 4.2.5.21).
Figure 4.2.5.13. Harker variation diagrams for the volcanoclastic rocks of the Serranía de San
Lucas region.
Figure 4.2.5.14. AFM triangular plot (Irvine F i g u re 4 . 2 . 5 . 1 5 . K 2 O v s . S i O 2 p l o t

and Baragar, 1971) for the volcanoclastic ( P e c c e r i l l o a n d Ta y l o r, 1 9 7 6 ) f o r t h e
rocks of the Serranía de San Lucas region. volcanoclastic rocks of the Serranía de San Lucas
region.
Figure 4.2.5.16. A/NK vs. A/CNK plot Figure 4.2.5.17. Toltal alkalis (TAS) plot
(Shand, 1943) for the volcanoclastic rocks of (Cox et al., 1979) for the volcanoclastic rocks
the Serranía de San Lucas region. of the Serranía de San Lucas region.
F i g u re 4 . 2 . 5 . 1 8 . F e l d s p a r t r i a n g l e Figure 4.2.5.19. R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot

(O’Connor, 1965) for the volcanoclastic rocks (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the
of the Serranía de San Lucas region. volcanoclastic rocks of the Serranía de San Lucas
region.
Rare Earth Element Geochemistry
Rare Earth Element (REE) contents of the

samples of the volcanoclastic rocks of the San
Lucas region were compared by plotting REE
diagrams using normalizing chondritic values of
Boynton (1984) (Figure 4.2.5.22).
The analyzed samples of the
volcanoclastic rocks of the San Lucas region
exhibit similar trends with moderate decreasing
fractionated patterns and moderated to weak
Eu negative anomalies. Flat HREE patterns are
a common characteristic in all of the analyzed
Figure 4.2.5.20. Bulk Continental Crust- samples.
normalized trace element spider-diagram Intermediate to basic volcanoclastic rocks
for the volcanoclastic rocks of the Serranía de returned moderate to low REE contents
San Lucas region. (REE=41-89ppm) with gentle to moderate
decreasing patterns ((La/Lu) N =1.7-5.8) and
weak to moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/
Eu*=0.55-0.95) (Figure 4.2.5.22).
On the other hand, acid volcanoclastic
rocks of the El Piñal Hill and the Santa Rosa
del Sur areas yielded moderate REE contents
(REE=114-150ppm) with steep decreasing
patterns ((La/Lu) N=6.5-8.4) and weak to
moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/
Eu*=0.52-0.93) (Figure 4.2.5.22).
The acid volcanoclastic rocks of the San
Carlos Buena Seña area yielded lower REE
contents (REE=43-64ppm) with respect to
the other acid volcanoclastic rocks of the El
Figure 4.2.5.21. Primordial Mantle-normalized tra-
Piñal Hill and Santa Rosa del Sur.
ce element spider-diagram for the volcanoclastic
The are also characterized by gentle
rocks of the Serranía de San Lucas region.
decreasing slope patterns ((La/Lu) N =0.83-
1.65) with moderate negative Eu anomalies
(Eu/Eu*=0.54-0.85).
Figure 4.2.5.22. Chondrite-normalized REE

diagram for the volcanoclastic rocks of the
4.2.6.- Geochronology and Isotope Geochemistry 271
4.2.6. GEOCHRONOLOGY AND ISOTOPE

GEOCHEMISTRY
Geochronological data on the Jurassic responsible for the cooling ages obtained for
intrusives of the Serranía de San Lucas are the San Martin de Loba-Juana Sanchez are
scarce. intrusives.
Recent geochronological data by K-Ar For this research, a complete set of 14
and Rb-Sr methods published by new zircon U-Pb ages for rocks of the Norosí-
INGEOMINAS-UIS (2006) indicate early to San Martin Batholith, the associated volcanic
middle Jurassic ages for the intrusive rocks and rocks and the porphyry dikes of the Santa Cruz
associated volcanoclastic sequence (Clavijo et and Santa Rosa del Sur areas and the southern
al., 2008). sector (Guamoco Batholith?) is presented.
Rb-Sr geochronological analyses for the In addition, Sr-Nd-Pb isotope analyses
‘Granitoides de San Lucas’ informal unit in the are also presented in order to characterize from
northern sector of the serranía returned a an isotopic point of view the magmatic suite.
middle Jurassic age of 166.9±6Ma.
In addition, lavas and tuffs of the
volcanoclastic sequence (Norean Formation; 4.2.6.1. ZIRCON U-Pb MAGMATIC
Clavijo et al., 1996) around Simití-Santa Rosa CRYSTALLIZATION AGES
and Brisas-Monterrey sectors also returned a
middle Jurassic age of 161±27 Ma . Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS and
On the other hand, K-Ar analyses of the SHRIMP results obtained from samples of the
rhyolite dikes of the Santa Cruz mining area Norosí-San Martin Batholith, the associated
returned an early Jurassic age of 194±6Ma. volcanoclastic sequence and hypabyssal
On the basis of these results, Clavijo et intrusions (i.e. porphyrytic dikes) intruding the
al. (2008) constrained the age for the Jurassic early Jurassic Morrocoyal Formation at the
magmatism in the serranía to the early to late Santa Cruz mining area, the volcanoclatic
Jurassic times. sequence at Santa Rosa del Sur sector and the
Mesz (2008) presented five K-Ar ages southern Norosí-San Martin Batholith
in biotite, chlorite and plagioclase mineral (Guamoco Batholith?) at the Remedios sector
separates from four granodiorite samples in the are presented in Table 4.2.6.1.
northern area of the Serrania de San Lucas, The complete set of data returned late
around San Martin de Loba and Juana Sanchez Tr i a s s i c t o m i d d l e J u r a s s i c m a g m a t i c
townsites, and a gabbroid intrusion in the La crystallization ages in a relatively narrow range
Cabaña Mine, about 3.5km to the SE of the between 202 and 174Ma.
Pueblito Mejia townsite. The phaneritic holocrystalline
He identifies two magmatic events, the granodiorite rocks of the Norosí-San Martin
first one in the Carbonifeous associated to the Batholith indicate early Jurassic magmatic
gabbroid intrusion of La Cabaña and a second crystallization ages between 194Ma and
one in the late Triassic to early Jurassic 182Ma (Table 4.2.6.1).
Table 4.2.6.1. Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS and SHRIMP ages for magmatic rocks in the
SAMPLE LITHOLOGY GEOLOGICAL UNIT LOCALITY COORDINATES AGE (Ma) METHOD Inheritance ages
San Martin de Loba-

74° 1’ 34.9” W
WR-1 Granodiorite Juana Sanchez Juana Sanchez 182.0±3.0 SHRIMP -
8° 58’ 9.2” N
granodiorites
San Martin de Loba-

San Martin de 74° 2’ 22.3” W Upper intercept at
WR-2 Granodiorite Juana Sanchez 186.3+4.4-5.2 LA-MC-ICP-MS
Loba 8° 56’ 26” N ca. 1300Ma
granodiorites
San Martin de Loba-

Monte 74° 6’ 2.9” W
WR-3 Granodiorite Juana Sanchez 189.0±4.0 SHRIMP -
Carmelo 8° 47’ 15.6” N
granodiorites
Papayal – 73° 58’ 31.3” W 193.6±5.4

WR-189 Monzonite ‘Papayal Monzonite’ LA-MC-ICP-MS -
Cerro El Piñal 8° 41’ 27.5” N
San Martin de Loba-

Weakly altered 73° 56’ 0.4” W 184.6±4.8
WR-235 Juana Sanchez Buena Seña LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 1300-900Ma
granitoid 8° 40’ 3.2” N
granodiorites
74° 11’ 6.8” W

WR-185 Granodiorite Norosí Batholith Cerro El Oso 184.6±3.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
8° 28’ 20.5” N
74° 10’ 19.6” W Upper intercept at

WR-186 Diorite Norosí Batholith Cerro El Oso 193.4±5.8 LA-MC-ICP-MS
8° 27’ 45” N ca. 1200Ma
74° 21’ 2.4” W

WR-288 Granodiorite Norosí Batholith Guamoco 187.2±2.8 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
7° 48’ 38” N
Remedios 74° 28’ 54.7” W

WR-240 Granodiorite Guamoco Batholith 186.8±2.9 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
sector 6° 52’ 4.4” N
Multiple
Andesite 74° 11’ 51” W inheritance ages
WR-232 Hypabyssal intrusives Santa Cruz 178.1±5.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS
porphyry dike 8° 42’ 36.3” N between ca. 1600
and 900Ma
Rhyodacite Santa Rosa del 74° 8’ 41.1” W

WR-242 Hypabyssal intrusives 201.6±3.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
porphyry dike Sur 7° 58’ 2.36” N
Dacite porphyry Santa Rosa del 74° 7’ 45” W

WR-243 Hypabyssal intrusives 174.3±2.7 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
dike Sur 7° 58’ 5.5” N
Granitic aplite Remedios 74° 28’ 50.5” W

WR-241 Hypabyssal intrusives 192.0±3.2 LA-MC-ICP-MS
dike sector 6° 52’ 2.8” N
73° 56’ 0.4” W

WR-190 Dacite crystal tuff Volcanoclastic sequence Cerro El Piñal 196.1±4.4 LA-MC-ICP-MS Ca. 1200-900Ma
8° 40’ 3.2” N
The ‘Papayal Monzonite’ (sample WR- for the Buena Seña Granitoid (sample WR-
189; Figure 4.2.6.1), which intrude the 235), in the same northernmost area of the
volcanoclastic sequence close to the Cerro El serranía (Figure 4.2.6.6).
Piñal returned an age of 193.6 ± 5.4Ma, Two different magmatic crystallization
indicating an early magmatic intrusive facies ages were obtained for the diorite (sample
which set a minimum age for these effusive WR-186) and granodiorite (sample WR-185)
deposits. This age is well-correlated with the rocks at the Cerro El Oso. The diorite sample
age obtained for the dacite crystal tuff returned a 193.4±5.8Ma age (Figure 4.2.6.7),
collected in the Cerro El Piñal (Sample WR- while the granodiorite sample returned a
190) which returned an slightly older magmatic 184.6±3.6Ma age (Figure 4.2.6.8).
crystallization age of 196.1 ± 4.4Ma (Figure These magmatic ages would register an
4.2.6.2). early magmatic facies coeval with the Papayal
The granodiorite rocks of the San Martin Monzonite intrusion and a later one coeval with
de Loba-Juana Sanchez sector (Samples WR- the granodiorite samples of the San Martin de
1, WR-2 and WR-3), in the northernmost part Loba-Juana Sanchez sector.
of the Serrania de San Lucas returned ages of Granodiorite rocks from the area close
182.0±3.0Ma, 186.3+4.4-5.2Ma and to Guamoco townsite (sample WR-288) and
189.0±4.0Ma, respectively (Figures 4.2.6.3, southern Guamoco Batholith (sample WR-
4.2.6.4 and 4.2.6.5). These ages are well- 240) in the Segovia sector returned almost
correlated with the 184.6±4.8Ma age obtained coeval ages of 187.2±2.8Ma and
Figure 4.2.6.1. Concordia plot for zircon U- Figure 4.2.6.2. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the ‘Papayal LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the dacite crystal
Monzonite’ (Sample WR-189). tuff at Cerro Rl Piñal (Sample WR-190).
Figure 4.2.6.3. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb Figure 4.2.6.4. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb
SHRIMP analysis of the granodiorite sample of LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the granodiorite
Juana Sanchez townsite (Sample WR-1). sample of the San Martin de Loba townsite
(Sample WR-2).
Figure 4.2.6.5. Concordia plot for zircon U- Figure 4.2.6.6. Tera-Wasserburg concordia plot
Pb SHRIMP analysis of the granodiorite for zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
sample of Monte Carmelo (Sample WR-3). granite sample of Buena Seña (Sample WR-235).
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the diorite LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the granodiorite
sample of Cerro El Oso (Sample WR-186). sample of Cerro El Oso (Sample WR-185).
Figure 4.2.6.9. Tera-Wasserburg concordia plot Figure 4.2.6.10. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb
for zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the granodiorite
grandiorite of Guamoco (Sample WR-288). sample of the Remedios area (Sample WR-240).
Figure 4.2.6.11. Tera-Wasserburg concordia Figure 4.2.6.12. Tera-Wasserburg concordia

p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S plot for zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis
analysis of the granitic aplite dike of the of the rhyodacite porphyry dike of the Santa
Remedios area (Sample WR-241). Rosa del Sur area (Sample WR-242).

p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S
analysis of the andesite porphyry dike of the analysis of the dacite porphyry dike of the
Santa Cruz area (Sample WR-232). Santa Cruz area (Sample WR-232).
186.8±2.9Ma respectively (Figures 4.2.6.9 These ages would indicate a younger

and 4.2.6.10). magmatic event within the magmatic suite which
Again, these well-constrained ages, along intruded the late Triassic to early Jurassic
with the ages obtained at Cerro El Oso and at volcanoclastic sequence of the Norean
the San Martin de Loba-Juana Sanchez areas Formation, the late Triassic to early Jurassic
define a broad magmatic event extended along sedimentary rocks of the Morrocoyal
the entire extension of the batholith from south Formation, and probably the early Jurassic
to north. intrusive rocks of the Norosí-San Martin
With respect to the hypabyssal intrusions, Batholith.
the older age was obtained at the Guamoco Inheritance ages between ca. 1200-
Batholith where an aplite dike (sample WR- 900Ma were obtained in some of the analyzed
241) is seen intruding phaneritic holocrystalline samples from both, the rocks of the Norosí-
rocks of the intrusive. San Martin Batholith and the porphyry dikes
This granitic dike returned an age of A summary of the magmatic
192.0±3.2Ma which would indicate earlier crystallization ages obtained in this research is
magmatic facies in the main body of the presented in Figure 4.2.6.15, where an
intrusive (Figure 4.2.6.11). extensive magmatic period spanning from late
Moreover, a rhyodacite porphyry dike Triassic to the beginning of the middle Jurassic
sampled at Santa Rosa del Sur (Sample WR- is well defined by the obtained
242) returned a crystallization age of geochronological results.
201.6±3.6Ma, just in the limit between late
Triassic and early Jurassic (Figure 4.2.6.12).
This age suggests that volcanism would 4.2.6.2 Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE
have started by the late Triassic and continues GEOCHEMISTRY
up to the early to middle Jurassic times.
Andesite and dacite porphyry dikes from Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope analyses were
Santa Cruz mining area (sample WR-232) and carried out for some of the samples of the
Santa Rosa del Sur area (sample WR-243) Norosí-San Martin Batholith, the associated
returned magmatic crystallization ages of volcanoclastic sequence and the hypabyssal
178.1±5.6Ma and 174.3±2.7Ma, respectively intrusives at Santa Cruz (Tables 4.2.6.2 and
(Figures 4.26.13 and 4.2.6.14). 4.2.6.3; figure 4.2.6.16).
Figure 4.2.6.16. Sr-Nd plot for the samples

of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and
associated volcanoclastic rocks.
returned lower initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio

(0.70529) which compares well with the initial
ratio obtained for the ‘Papayal Monzonite’ in
the El Piñal area (0.70521) and the sample
WR-193 of the volcanoclastic sequence.
Extreme low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios
(<0.70700) were returned by the sample of
the southern Norosí Batholith (WR-240) and
the other sample of the volcanoclastic sequence
at El Piñal area (WR-191).
The sample of the porphyry dike at the
Santa Cruz area (WR-232) returned the
highest initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio (0.70851).
All of the samples, with exception of the
Figure 4.2.6.15. Zircon U-Pb ages for the sample from the northern Norosí Batholith at
magmatism in the San Lucas region. Cerro El Oso area (WR-185) and the sample
of the volcanoclastic sequence (WR-193),
In general, phaneritic holocrystalline returned negative  Nd values (-0.53 to -6.90),
rocks of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith suggesting, again, a significant crustal
returned similar Rb contents (73-199ppm) but component in the source of these magmatic
variable Sr contents (43-548ppm). rocks (Figure 4.2.6.16).
Granodiorite rocks of the San Martin de The Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd obtained in this
Loba-Juana Sanchez area and the northern work suggest important contribution of crustal
Norosí Batholith returned similar higher Sr material in the genesis of the magmatic rocks
contents (277-548ppm) when compared to of the Serranía de San Lucas region. This
other rocks of the in the middle and southern isotope signature is probably related to crustal
areas of the Norosí Batholith (Sr=43- contamination with the metamorphic
102ppm). Mesoproterozoic basement in the area.
Moreover, their high initial 87Sr/86Sr
ratios define a narrow range (0.70674-
0.70744), indicating important contribution of 4.2.6.3. LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
crustal material in the genesis of these rocks.
Conversely, the granitic rock sample Lead isotope data obtained for samples
(WR-288) of the middle area of the batholith of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith, the
Table 4.2.6.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and
associated volcanoclastic rocks of the San Lucas region.
Table 4.2.6.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and
associated volcanoclastic rocks of the San Lucas region.
Table 4.2.6.4. Lead isotope geochemistry associated volcanoclastic rocks and

results for the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and hypabyssal intrusives in the Santa Cruz area
associated volcanoclastic rocks of the San yielded radiogenic velues ( 207Pb/ 204Pb>15.5)
Lucas region. (Table 4.2.6.4).
In particular, the sample from the
southern sector of the Norosí Batholith (WR-
240; Guamoco Batholith?) returned extreme
radiogenic values ( 206Pb/ 204Pb = 21.55, 207Pb/
204
Pb = 15.76 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 40.72) when
compared against the values returned by other
rocks of the magmatic suite ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb =
17.90-18.61, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.56-15.64 and
208
Pb/ 204 Pb = 37.48-38.45).
In both, the Uranogenic and Thorogenic
plots, clear reparation between the rocks of
the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and the
associated rocks from the volcanoclastic
sequence is observed (Figure 4.2.6.17).
Analyzed samples from the Norosí-San
Martin Batholith cluster in a narrow range and
show more radiogenic values than the
associated early Jurassic volcanic rocks
(Figure 4.2.6.17).
Figure 4.2.6.17. Thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb) and uranogenic ( 207Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) diagrams for the samples of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and associated
volcanoclastic rocks in the San Lucas region. Lead isotope evolution curves after the
Plumbotectonics model by Zartman and Doe (1981).
SECTION 4.3.
Gold Deposits Associated with the

San Lucas Au Province
4.3.1. - Distribution of Gold Occurrences in the San Lucas Au Province 281
4.3.1. DISTRIBUTION OF GOLD OCCURRENCES IN

THE SAN LUCAS Au PROVINCE
Gold occurrences spatially associated to

the Norosí-San Martin Batholith are better
exposed to the north of the Serranía de San
Lucas (e.g. Juana Sánchez, San Martín de
Loba, La Puya-La Chiva, La Puerta, San
Martín, Tinoco, Cerro Julio, Nigua, La Aper-
tura, La Cabaña, La Gloria, Mina Azul, La
Estrella, La Palmera, Culoalzado, San Carlos,
Mina Ancha, La Culebra, El Pinal and Cerro
El Oso).
A broad division can be made in two
groups including gold mineralization hosted
within the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and
those hosted peripheral to it, mainly in the
Jurassic volcanoclastic sequence (i.e. the
Norean Formation) (Figure 4.3.1.1).
4.3.1.1. GOLD OCCURRENCES

HOSTED WITHIN THE NOROSI-SAN
MARTIN BATHOLITH
The principal gold deposits hosted within

the Norosí-San Martin Batholith include the
San Martin de Loba – Juana Sanchez area, the
Cerro El Oso area and the San Pedro Frio area
(Figure 4.3.1.1).
The gold mineralization at the San Martin
de Loba-Juana Sanchez area comprises
mesothermal veins hosted within the phaneritic
biotite hornblende granodiorite of the northern
Norosí-San Martin Batholith.
Mineralogy of the veins includes
quartz+pyrite+chalcopyrite+sphalerite+galena
with strongly pervasive sericitic alteration,
accompanied by tourmaline veins following Figure 4.3.1.1. Distribution of gold occurrences
NW trend. in the northern Serrania de San Lucas.
282 SECTION 4.3.GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAN LUCAS GOLD PROVINCE
In the Cerro El Oso area, located in the Cabaña area and the Santa Rosa del Sur area.
Norosí municipality, several gold occurrences They are hosted in the high grade
hosted in quartz-monzonite rocks of the metamorphic basement of the Serrania de San
Norosí-San Martin Batholith (e.g. Mina Brisa, Lucas (e.g. La Cabaña Mine), or in the Jurassic
Mina Vieja, Mina Treinta, Mina Ochenta, Mina volcanoclastic sequences associated to the
Gringa-Mina Nueva) are exploited. Norosí-San Martin Batholith (i.e. the Norean
Structurally-controlled mineralization Formation) (Figure 4.3.1.1).
styles comprise quartz-sericite alteration zones Evidences of porphyry intrusions closely
accompanied by disseminated pyrite, breccias related to the mineralization has been observed
with disseminated sulfides (pyrite+ galena) in in some occurrences (e.g. Santa Rosa del Sur;
the matrix, and quartz+sulfide (pyrite+galena) Santa Cruz).
veins and veinlets. Structurally-controlled gold mineralization
comprises quartz+sulfide (pyrite±galena
±sphalerite) veins and disseminated sulfides in
4.3.1.2. GOLD OCCURRENCES hydrothermal alteration (e.g. argillic and
HOSTED PERIPHERAL TO THE quartz-sericite) zones.
NOROSI-SAN MARTIN BATHOLITH The Cerro San Carlos-Buena Seña area
is the one of the most important areas in the
The gold deposits and occurrences region, where Anglogold Ashanti Colombia
hosted peripheral to the Norosí-San Martin developed an extensive exploration program
Batholith include the El Piñal area, the Santa including diamong-drill perforation during
Cruz area, the Cerro San Carlos area, the La 2005.
4.3.2.-San Martín de Loba gold deposits 283
4.3.2. SAN MARTÍN DE LOBA GOLD DEPOSITS
4.3.2.1. INTRODUCTION although in a first period the main production

was alluvial (Restrepo, 1888). Discovery of
The San Martin de Loba mining area is veins in diferent sectors, including the La Puya,
found in the San Lucas Range, in Northern La Chiva, La Puerta, El Caño and Juana
Colombian Andes, in the Bolívar province. The Sanchez sectors allowed the development of
area is found at both banks of the Magdalena, tens of small artisanal mining operations.
which is among the most important rivers in Historical production of 1.75MOz Au over
Colombia. This river could allow fluvial more than 300 years has been recorded, and
transport of ores. a total resource of 3.5 MOz is calculated.
Two main mining areas are found close to During the early XXI century international
the Magdalena (fig. 4.3.2.1): the first is at the mining companies are carrying out systhematic
nort bank, in the vicinity of Juana Sánchez studies trying to discover deposits mineable by
town; the second is at the South bank, proxy open pit.
to the San Martin de Loba town. The second
one is the most important. In fact, these areas
are among the most important productive gold 4.3.2.2. GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSIT
districts in Colombia.
Gold mining in the San Martín de Loba The deposits are located on the north
district is reported since the XVIII century, extreme of the Norosí batholith, and are
Fig. 4.3.2.1. Situation of the San Martín de Loba gold deposits.

284 SECTION 4.3.GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAN LUCAS Au PROVINCE
La Pelea Hill
Fig. 4.3.2.2.Geological situation of the San Martín de Loba gold deposits in relation with
the Norosí batholith (left). Right: detailed geological map of the area.
related with some of the apofisis of this
batholith (fig. 4.3.2.2), which is found in the
San Lucas Range.
Gold mineralization in the San Martín de
Loba mining district is found in veins. Most of
the gold-mineralized veins are found in the
vicinity of San Martín de Loba, and are
trending NW-SE, with subordinated NE and
E-W structures. Similar trends are observed
in the Juana Sánchez sector (fig. 4.3.2.2,
4.3.2.) and in the La Pelea Hill . Veins are
currently exploited by a complex system of
galleries and some trenches (fig. 4.3.2.3-4-3- Figure 4.3.2.3. Artisanal trenches in the La
2-5). Puya sector, exploiting in the present day
Veins are hosted in the 180-190Ma some quartz veins. Most of mining in the
Norosí-San Martín de Loba batholith, mainly area is by underground galleries. Note
composed by granodiorites, which are strongly intense alteration of the host rocks and soil
affected by hydrothermal alteration. development.
C r e t a c e o u s t o Te r t i a r y s e d i m e n t s
unconformably cover older rocks, being
responsible for a flat topography where the
batholith outcrops are found in small hills. On
its turn, the ensemble is covered by the alluvial
sediments of the Magdalena river and
vegetation cover is dense. Therefore, the
outcrops of the granitic rocks are limited.
At La Puya, 60-70ºSW-dipping mineralized
veins are hosted within anastomosing, broadly
WNW-striking left-lateral shears and joints. Veins
have a thickness in the decimeter order, and are
composed of at least two generations of veins. In Figure 4.3.2.3. Present-day active artisanal
nakes eyes the next mineral association can be mining by vertical pits in the top of the La
distinguished: quartz + Calcite + Sericite + Puya sector.
Tourmaline + Pyrite + Chalcopyrite +
Arsenopyrite + Sphalerite + Galena + gold, with
related strong to pervasive Qtz-Ser+\-Py
alteration extending for tens of centimeters into
the intrusive wallrocks; potassic alteration, with
magnetite development may be also present and
similar associations are found in other sectors,
particularly in the Juana Sánchez sector (fig.
4.3.2.5-4.3.2.16).
4.3.2.3. MINERAL PARAGENESIS
In addition to the indicated mineral species

easily distinguished in naked eye, the mineral Figure 4.3.2.4. Ancient abandoned old pit
association comprises some additional species, open in the La Pelea Hill. Note the hosting
in particular sulphosalts. This description is granodiorites.
Figure 4.3.2.6. Quartz veins with tourmalinization Figure 4.3.2.7. Tourmalinization (black) along
(greyish-black in the image) in the La Puya sector. a system of subparallel quartz veins in
granodiorites, in the La Puya sector.
Figure 4.3.2.9. Magnetite veins, in Juana Sánchez
Figure 4.3.2.8. Veins with potassic alteration, La Puya.
Figure 4.3.2.10. Schorl veins, hosted in

granodiorites, in Juana Sánchez Figure 4.3.2.11. Other perspective of the above image.
Figure 4.3.2.12. Outcrop of a tourmalinized Figure 4.3.2.13. Detail of the above image.
vein in granodiorite, in the San Martin de Note cm-wide hydrothermal breccias in the
Loba town. border of the structure. These breccias have
been strongly silicified and tourmalinized
(black).
Figure 4.3.2.14. Stockwork-like veinlets Figure 4.3.2.15. Joint in the granodiorites,

w i t h s t ro n g t o u r m a l i n i z a t i o n a n d c o v e re d b y r a d i a l g ro u p s o f b l a c k
silicification, hosted in the granodiorites. tourmaline crystals. North of the San Lucas
San Lucas sector. sector.
Figure 4.3.2.16. Schorl veins (black) in Figure 4.3.2.17. A detail of the above image;
g r a n o d i o r i t e s a f f e c t e d b y s t ro n g note the occurrence of some quartz veinlets
hydrohermal alteration (mainly sericitic). in the association.
La Puya mine area.
based on the study of about 20 polished crystals are prismatic elongated (in many
sections and thin/polished sections, mainly from cases, fibrous) and are grouped in radial
La Puya area. aggregates (fig. 4.3.2.22-4.3.2.23). Under the
The hydrothermal alteration in the microscope tourmaline has a greenish-brown
vicinities of the quartz veins consists of pleochroism, thus indicating a high iron content
tourmalinization and potassic alteration. and a composition probably close to the schorl
Tourmaline is found in some cases as a end member.
product of vein infilling, and tourmaline veins Potassic alteration is widespread in the
up to 10 cm thick have been seen in the Juana vicinity of veins, and is manifested by the
Sánchez sector. Hoowever, most of tourmaline replacement of plagioclase by K-feldspar (fig.
is developed in the exocontact of the quartz 4.3.2.24-4.3.2.25).
veins (fig. 4.3.2.18-4.3.2.19), and also The iron necessary to form toourmaline is
appears up to some meters in distance to the probably associated with the destruction of
veins (fig. 4.3.2.20-4.3.2.21). Tourmaline can mafic minerals; the Ti also liberated in this
be easily recognized in hand saple by a black process produces precipitation of abundant
color and vitreous luster.; their mm-sized brookite platelets (fig. 4.3.2.26-4.3.2.27).
pl pl
qtz>
qtz> pl
srl
srl
srl
srl
qtz>
Figure 4.3.2.18. General view of the porphyrytic Figure 4.3.2.19 The above image in crossed
andesite of the Rio Dulce facies. PPL. Sample polars. Note the strong hydrothermal alteration
WR-55. Note scarce quartz (qtz), plagioclase, (pl) of the rock, manifested by extensive
amphibole (amp), biotitee (bt). tourmalinization. La Puya gold mine, sample
<srl <srl
pl
qtz qtz
Figure 4.3.2.20. Disseminated tourmaline (srl), Figure 4.3.2.21. The above image in crossed
interstitial among primary minerals, at some polars.Pl is plagioclase. La Puya gold mine,
distance of the quartz veins (qtz). PPL, La Puya sample SM-SML-2.
gold mine, sample SM-SML-2.
srl
srl
qtz qtz
Figure 4.3.2.22. Detail of the radial tourmaline Figure 4.3.2.23. The above image in crossed
fans (srl) in the contact of the quartz veins; polars. La Puya, sample SM-SML-2.
some secondary quartz is also present. La Puya,
sample SM-SML-2.
<KF <KF
<KF <KF
pl pl
<qtz <qtz
Figure 4.3.2.24. Plagioclase crystal (pl) the Figure 4.3.2.25. The above image in crossed
host granodiorites partly replaced by K- polars. La Puya, sample SM-SML-2.
feldspar (KF) and quartz (qtz). PPL. La Puya,
sample SM-SML-2.
bro
qtz bro
qtz
srl
srl
Figure 4.3.2.26. Brookite tabular crystals Figure 4.3.2.27. The above image in crossed
(bro) in a geodical cavity between schorl polars; note the high interference colors of
(srl). PPL. Late quartz (qtz) fullfill the porosity. brookite are masked. La Puya, sample SM-
La Puya gold mine, sample SM-SML-2. SML-2.
Sericitization is other common alteration late generation of quartz. Kaolinite occurs in fine
in the deposit, and is found in many places crystals, only few microns in diameter.
replacing the above existing K-feldspar The most important ore minerals in the
alteration; in other places, it is produced at the deposit are pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena,
expenses of plagioclase crystals (fig. 4.3.2.28- sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetraedrite, gold and, in
4.3.2.29). However, sericite crystals re found minor quantity, there are many Bi-Ag-Pb
commonly inside the quartz veins. In many sulphosalts.
cases, it occurs in interstitial position among
the quartz crystals, along with many sulfides Pyrite
as sphalerite and galena, this indicating that
sericite is a mineral produced in intermediate It is the first ore to be formed, and
stages of the sequence (fig. 4.3.2.30). overgrowths the tourmaline fans (fig.
Kaolinite alteration is rare in these 4.3.2.32). It occurs in association with quartz,
deposits, and only in a place has been recognized and tends to develop euhedral crystals, either
with some doubt (fig. 4.3.2.31). Kaolinite should cubes or pyritohedrons (fig. 4.3.2.33). Crystal
be a late mineral, produced in association with a size is variable, but most of the crystals have
pl pl
qtz>
qtz> pl
srl
srl
srl
srl
qtz>
Figure 4.3.2.28. Potassic alteration (KF) along Figure 4.3.2.29 The above image in crossed
quartz veins (qtz), partly overprinted by polars. Note the strong sericitization in a distal
development of sericite (ser). PPL. La Puya gold position respect the quartz vein. La Puya gold
mine, sample SM-SML-2. mine, sample SM-SML-2.
qtz2
kao
<ser <ser <qtz2

qtz1 qtz1
qtz1
Figure 4.3.2.30. Sericite interstitial among bigger Figure 4.3.2.31. Kaolinite crystals (kao)
quartz crystals (qtz1), in association with a late scattered in a late generation of quartz
generation f quartz (qtz2). Crossed polars, La (qtz2) cutting an early generation (qtz1). La
Puya gold mine, sample SM-SML-4d. Puya gold mine, sample SM-SML-4d.
some mm in diameter. It is the most common corrodes pyrite (fig. 4.3.2.34). This generation
sulphide in the deposit. has a reddish color, and has an iron content ranging
3-5%. The Cd content is moderate, about 1%.
Arsenopyrite The grain size is millimetric.
Arsenopyrite crystals tend to be Galena 1

developed directly on pyrite, but they may also
be scattered in quartz (fig. 4.3.2.33). It occurs in large crystals, up to several
Arsenopyrite is euhedral, showing typical mm in diameter, and replaces pyrite (fig.
diamond sections, and is zoned. Crystal size 4.3.2.34). It has a nule content in silver, and is
is generally less than 1 mm. in equilibria with sphalerite 1.
Sphalerite 1 Chalcopyrite
A first generation of sphalerite occurs in It crosscut the above minerals (figs.

anhedral crystals filling spaces among quartz, and 4.3.2.34-4.3.2.35) or is found as a
<srl
py
qtz
py <srl
<srl apy>
qtz srl>
<srl
Figure 4.3.2.32. Pyrite (py) and quartz (qtz) Figure 4.3.2.33. Tourmaline needless (srl)
crystals overgrowing schorl (srl) radial overgrowth by quartz (qtz) with pyrite (py) and
acicular groups. La Puya gold mine, sample arsenopyrite (apy) euhedral crystals. PPL,
SM-SML-6a. reflected light. Sample SM-SML-17.
<cpy
qtz
sl
ga>
<ga
<cpy <ga <cpy
qtz
py apy
Figure 4.3.2.34. Quartz (qtz) and pyrite (py) Figure 4.3.2.35. Arsenopyrite euhedral crystals
crystals replaced by sphalerite (sl) and galena (apy) scattered in quartz (qtz) replaced by
(ga), whose are replaced by chalcopyrite (cpy). chalcopyrite (cpy). PPL, reflected light. La
La Puya, sample SM-SML-6a. Puya, sample SM-SML-17.
replacement product of sphalerite in the typical crystallization of gold was in equilibria with this
disease textures (fig. 4.3.36-4.3.37). mineral.
Its composition is rich in silver, more than
Gold 1 0,5 Ag apfu, thus being a silver-rich electrum;
no other components have been found.
This first generation of gold is found in
close association with galena 1 and, in minor Sphalerite II
extension, with sphalerite 1 and chalcopyrite.
This ensemble is found only in small cracks in Sphalerite II occurs as small veinlets cutting
pyrite, thus suggesting that pyrite may contain across other minerals, and, in particular, cutting
gold (figs. 4.3.2.38-4.3.2.43). and replacing sphalerite along grain borders and
It is the most common type of gold in the small irregular cracks (fig. 4.3.2.44). This
deposit. It occurs as small anhedral grains, 20- generation is undistinguishable from sphalerite II
50 microns in diameter. It tends to have a in reflected light (fig. 4.3.2.45). It has a clear
rounded borders, in particular when is found color, which is explained by its very low content
in association with galena, suggesting that in Fe (close to 0 wt %). Cd is close to 1wt %.
<cpy
cpy
qtz>
sl1
sl1
Figure 4.3.2.36. Sphalerite of the first F i g u re 4 . 3 . 2 . 3 7 . T h e a b o v e i m a g e i n

g e n e r a t i o n ( s l 1 ) p a r t l y re p l a c e d b y reflected PPL. Note that chalcopyrite
chalcopyrite (cpy), in transmitted PPL. La disease occurs along the cleavages of the
Puya gold mine, sample SL-SML-4d. sphalerite 1.
py
sl1
<Au
<qtz
ga> sl>
py sl>
<ga
sl1
Figure 4.3.2.38. Pyrite crystals are cut by F i g u re 4 . 3 . 2 . 3 9 . P y r i t e re p l a c e d b y

sphalerite 1 (sl1) and galena 1 (ga1), in s p h a l e r i t e , w h i c h i s re p l a c e d b y
association with gold 1 (Au1). Reflected chalcopyrite, and by galena (ga) and gold
PPL, sample SL-SML-6b. (Au). Reflected PPL, sample SL-SML-6b.
sample SM-SML-2.
sample SM-SML-2.
bro
qtz bro
qtz
srl
srl
Figure 4.3.2.44. Brookite tabular crystals Figure 4.3.2.45. The above image in crossed
(bro) in a geodical cavity between schorl polars; note the high interference colors of
(srl). PPL. Late quartz (qtz) fullfill the porosity. brookite are masked. La Puya, sample SM-
La Puya gold mine, sample SM-SML-2. SML-2.
Galena II Gold II
This generation of galena is found in small Gold II has a yellowish hue, more distinct
veinlets and, in many cases, replacing sphalerite than in gold I, because it is enriched in Au (less
I grains along grain borders (fig. 4.3.2.46). This than 50% Ag, normally close to 30%) when
generation of galena also replaces the compared with gold I.
chalcopyrite formed during the «chalcopyrite It occurs as anhedral grains, filling small
disease» (fig. 4.3.2.47). veins, in association with Fe-poor sphalerite
This galena is optically undistinct from the II (fig. 4.2.48), Ag-rich galena II (fig. 4.2.49
above generation, but the textural relationships and next images) and a complex generation of
help to reveal its presence. It is distinctly enriched sulphosalts (see next pages for detailed
in silver (up to 60% component matildite in some description of these minerals). Grain size is
cases), thus representing intermediate terms of the small, less than 100 microns and generally in
series galena-matildite (galena solid solutions). It the order of 50 microns.
is associated with Ag-poor electrum (Gold II) and Rounded contacts with all the
sulphosalts. aforementioned minerals suggest textural
ga> <cpy
sl1
sl sl1
ga>
qtz ga>
Figure 4.3.2.46. Sphalerite of the first generation Figure 4.3.2.47. Sphalerite of the first generation
(sl1) scattered in quartz (qtz) are replaced along (sl1) replaced by chalcopyrite disease (cpy). The
grain borders by galena of the second generation ensemble is replaced by galena of the second
(ga2). Reflected PPL. generation (ga2). La Puya gold mine.
<srl <srl
pl
qtz qtz
Figure 4.3.2.48. Pyrite crosscut by veinlets of Figure 4.3.2.49. Galena solid solutions (galena
sphalerite of the second generation, along with s.s.) filling veinlets in pyrite, accompaned with
galena solid solutions. and gold of the second gold of the second generation. Reflected PPL.
generation. Reflected PPL. La Puya gold mine.
equilibria between gold and the accompanying contents in Fe and As are very low, less than 1
minerals. wt %.
Tetraedrite (Cu,Fe,Ag,Zn) 12Sb 4S 13 Gustavite Ag 3Pb 5Bi 11S24
Is not common in this deposit, and has This silver sulfosalt is rare in the deposit,
been found as scarce irregular grains filling and has been found filling small cracks in pyrite
small cracks into pyrite, in association with or sphalerite. The grain size is less than 100
galena II and gold II (figure 4.3.2.50). The microns, and is associated with galena II and
rounded contacts of tetrahedrite with galena gold (fig. 4.3.2.51).
suggest textural equilibria between these
minerals. Matildite AgBiS 2
Tetraedrite has a greenish color, and its
composition is close to the tetraedrite end It is also uncommon, and has similar
member, being slightly enriched in silver (up occurrence to gustavite (fig. 4.3.2.52-
to 4 wt %) and zinc (up to 4 wt %). The 4.3.2.53).
Figure 4.3.2.50. Tetrahedrite grain filling Figure 4.3.2.51. Gustavite filling small cracks
cracks into pyrite, along with galena solid and porosity in pyrite grains, in association with
solutions and gold-rich electrum of the second gold of the second generation and galena solid
generation. Reflected PPL. solutions.
Figure 4.3.2.52. Matildite and gustavite filling Figure 4.3.2.53. The above image under the
small cracks and porosity in pyrite grains, in scanning electron microscope in mode of
association with galena solid solutions (galena backscattered electrons.
s.s.) and gold of the second generation.
Figure 4.3.2.54. Emplectite grains, in association Figure 4.3.2.55. Detail of the above
with galena solid solutions (PbSs.s.) and gold of image under the scanning electron
the second generation, replacing pyrite. La Puya microscope, in mode backscattering.
gold mine.
PbSss>
mat>
Au2> <tth
PbSss> <tth
py py
PbSss>
<Pbs
Au2> Au2> <fmt
PbSss>
<emp
Figure 4.3.2.56. Association of galena solid Figure 4.3.2.57. Detail of the above
solutions (PbSss), electrum and sulfosalts image under the scanning electron
replacing pyrite: mat, matildite; emp, emplectite; microscope, in mode backscattering
pbs, polybasite; tth, tetrahedrite; fmt, famatinite.
Figure 4.3.2.58. Association of galena solid Figure 4.3.2.59 Detail of the above
solutions (PbSss), electrum and ourayite image under the scanning electron
replacing pyrite. Reflected PPL, La Pouya microscope, in mode backscattering
gold mine.
Emplectite CuBiS2
This sulfosalt is very scarce, and has been found

as discrete grains, less than 5 microns. It replaces
pyrite, in association with galena solid solutions and
gold of the second generation. However, it seems
to have been formed before galena and should be
replaced along cleavages (fig. 4.3.2.54-4.3.2.55).
Polybasite [(Ag,Cu)6(Sb,As)2S7][Ag9CuS4]
This silver sulfosalt is found as small rounded

grains, asn an association in equilibria with galena
solid solutions and gold of the second generation, Figure 4.3.2.60. Representation of the
both replacing pyrite (fig. 4.3.2.56-4.3.2.57). compositions of gold of the first generation
(shown in red) and gold of the second
Famatinite Cu3SbS4 generation (shown in blue and green colors).
As the aforementioned sulfosalts, famatinite is

found in equilibria with Au-rich electrum and galena
solid solutions. It has been formed in equilibria with
galena solid solutions (fig. 4.3.2.56-4.3.2.57).
Ourayite Ag3Pb4Bi5S13
This sulfosalt forms also small grains in equilibria

with galena solid solutions, and is replacing pyrite
(fig. 4.3.2.58 and 4.3.2.59).
Heyrovskite Pb10AgBi5S18
Heyrovskite is also very rare, and has been

F i g u re 4 . 3 . 2 . 6 1 . Representation of the
found filling small cracks into pyrite. It is not
compositions of galena and sulfosalts in the
associated with gold or galena s.s.
diagram of Foord and Shawe (1989).
4.3.2.3. MINERAL CHEMISTRY

Gold of the second generation is depleted in Ag,
The most significative changes in the despite it is associated withAg-rich minerals and despite
mineral chemistry between the ore minerals are galena is Ag-rich. The composition rangesAu50-Au80
those related within gold, the composition of (fig. 4.3.2.60). There are significative variations in the
both generations of galena and sphalerite, and same sample, thus suggesting lack of equilibria.
the composition of the sulphosalts.
Galena s.s.
Gold
As indicated, galena of the first generation is
Gold of the first generation is, in fact, depleted in Ag and Bi, whereas galena of the second
silver, ranging Au20-Au45. It is found in may be significatively enriched in these elements,
association with Bi- and Ag-free galena (fig. towards the matildite term in the series galena-matildite
4.3.2.60). (fig. 4.3.2.61). The matildite component in galena
may achieve quantities close to 8%, which has been 4.3.2.4. MINERAL SEQUENCE
indicated as produced at temperatures higher than
215ºC (Craig, 1967). The kaolinite alteration seems not to be
The composition of some of the sulfosalts very developed in this deposit and it is difficult
can also be represented in the diagram of Foord to adscribe this alteration to some pulses of
and Shawe (1989). Hence, mineral formation of sulphides. Therefore, in a first
compositions of the gustavite-lillianite series approximation three main stages of formation
correspond to terms close to the gustavite can be established in the San Martín de Loba
component (Ag 3Pb 5Bi 11 S 24 ), but with 20% gold deposit (fig. 4.3.2.62):
molar proportions of the lillianite component a) Stage 1. It is produced at high
(Pb3Bi2S6). temperature, and the result is the development
On the other hand, the position of the of the potassic alteration and silicification (with
gustavite series in the ternary diagram suggest minor development of pyrite and brookite) in
that these minerals cannot be found in equilibria the host rocks. in the veins, a first generation
with galena. In fact, this mineral has been found of drusical quartz is produced, in association
as replacements in pyrite, but without galena with minor tourmaline, pyrite and arsenopyrite.
s.s. in contact with him. Some sphalerite could be formed in he
Members of the tetrahedrite group are in episode.
all the cases close to the Sb end-members and b) Stage 2. A second generation of fine-
to tetrahedrite s.s., because the As content is grained quartz, associated with sericite,
extremely low or nule. On the other hand, in produces a pervasive alteration of the host
the other metal position, copper is dominant, rock. In the veins, the above minerals are
although Ag is high (up to 4%) and Zn is also overgrown with this association. Pyrite and
high (up to 4%). Hence, these tetraedrites have a arsenopyrite are replaced by Fe-rich
high proportion of the freibergite component. Iron, sphalerite, Ag-Bi-poor galena, chalcopyrite
bismuth and Hg contents are not significant. and Ag-rich gold.
Figure 4.3.2.62. Sequence of crystallization in the San Martín de Loba gold deposits.
c) Stage 3. The above associations are, on Table 4.3.2.1. Sulfur isotope composition
its turn, replaced by a new sequence of Fe-poor of sulfide samples from the San Martin de
sphalerite, accompanied with Ag-Bi-rich galena Loba gold occurrences.
solid solutions, a second generation of gold (Au-
rich) and sulfosalts. This stage produces the most LOCATION SAMPLE MATERIAL 34S
complex mineral association. Sphalerite 2.8
SML-4
Pyrite 3.8
Pyrite 3.3
La Puya-La Chiva, SML-6
4.3.2.5. SULFUR ISOTOPE San Martin de Loba, Sphalerite 2.9
GEOCHEMISTRY San Lucas
Sphalerite 2.9
SML-7
Pyrite 3.2
In order to complement ore characterization SML-8 Sphalerite 0.7
of the San Martin de Loba gold occurrences,
Pyrite 3.5
fourteen sulfide (e.g. pyrite, sphalerite and gale- Caño La Puerta Vein,
San Martin de Loba, SML-15 Galena -2.3
na) separates from mineralized veins and veinlets San Lucas
Sphalerite 1.1
were analyzed for sulfur isotopes (table 4.3.2.1
and figure 4.3.2.63). SML-27 Pyrite 3.2
La Puya-La Chiva, Sphalerite 2.2
The analyzed samples returned values for San Martin de Loba,
 S, in a narrow range from -2.3 to +3.8 per
34
San Lucas SML-29 Galena -0.9
mil. Pyrite and sphalerite samples returned Pyrite 1.6
consistent positive values spanning the range
between +0.7 and +3.5, whereas galena samples
returned negative values of -2.3 and -0.9.
The sulfur isotope results are similar and are
consistent with positive sulfur isotope values
obtained from sulfide samples of other gold
occurrences in the San Lucas region (e.g. the San
Martin de Loba and La Cabaña Mine gold
occurrences; see sections 4.3.3.5 and 4.3.4.6).
Moreover, the slightly positive values close
to zero obtained for the sulfide samples of the
San Martin de Loba gold occurrences are
consistent with a mantle-derived source for sulfur.
.
4.3.2.6. LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Lead isotope data obtained for two

Figure 4.3.2.63. Sulfur isotope results in
sulfide (pyrite and galena) samples La Puya-
sulfides from auriferous veins at the Cerro San
La Chiva gold mineralization in the San Martin
Carlos Project. Pyrite: py.
de Loba region yielded radiogenic values
( 207 Pb/ 204Pb>15.5) (Table 4.3.2.2).
Table 4.3.2.2. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the San Martin de
Loba gold occurrences.
LOCATION SAMPLE MATERIAL 206Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 208Pb/204Pb
La Puya-La Chiva, Galena 18.10 15.57 37.48

San Martin de Loba, SML-29
Bolivar. Pyrite 18.15 15.63 37.65
Figure 4.3.2.64. Lead isotope composition for sulfide from gold occurrences at the San Martin de
Loba region. Lead isotope evolution curves after Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe
(1981) are shown for comparison.
When compared to the lead isotope values host-rock (i.e. the Norosí-San Martin Batholith;
206
obtained for igneous rocks of the San Lucas Pb/ 204Pb = 18.35-18.61, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb =
region they exhibit less radiogenic values than their 15.60-15.64 and 208Pb/204Pb = 37.90-38.45).
4.3.3.-La Cabaña gold deposits 301
4.3.3. LA CABAÑA GOLD DEPOSITS
4.3.3.1. INTRODUCTION
The La Cabaña mine is located in the

property named "La Cabaña", in the proximities
of the Pueblito Mejia town, in the
"corregimiento" of Barranco de Loba, Bolivar
department (fig.4.3.3.1). Some similar deposits
have been exploited between San Juan de
Loba and La Cabaña, in the so called La
Apertura mine, close to the Alto del Rosario
town, in the Nigua municipality (fig. 4.3.3.1).
The La Cabaña mines were discovered
some years ago in a remote area in the Serranía
de San Lucas, where many polytical and
security problems happened during the first
years of the present century. However, it is
possible to get acces by road up to the mine
during all the year. The Nigua mines are older,
and have been exploited in some tens of tunnels
for more than 20 years ago.
All these explotations are typical small
artisanal explotations developed on rich gold
veins that allow an easier exploitation and
benefit of the ores.
In La Cabaña there are several small
galleries with some tens of meters in lenght,
that were opened in the proximities of the
Quebrada Blanco, a secondary creek tributary
of the Quebrada Mejía. In addition to the
tunnels, some facilities for mineral milling and
processing are found in the vicinities of the
tunnels (fig. 4.3.3.2-4.3.3.3). The description
is based on some samples SL-LC-1a, SL-LC-
1b, SL-LC-1c, SL-LC-1d, SL-LC-1e, SL-
LC-1f, SL-LC-1g, SL-LC-1h.
Similar facilities are found in the Nigua
mines (fig. 4.3.3.4-4.3.3.5). These mines have
well developed galleries, some of them more than
150 m in lenght (100 m in the case of La
Apertura). There are more than 25 tunnels in this
claim. The galleries have been recently Fig. 4.3.3.1. Situation of the La Cabaña and
restaurated. La Apertura gold deposits.
Figure 4.3.3.3. Detail of he mills at the La

Cabaña mine.
Figure 4.3.3.2. Entrance of the tunnel at the La

Cabaña mine.
Figure 4.3.3.4. Detail of the ore storage in La Figure 4.3.3.5. Entrance of the tunnel in the La
Cabaña mine. Apertura mine.
Figure 4.3.3.6. Mineworks in the La Apertura mine. Figure 4.3.3.7. Detail of ore storage in La Apertura.
4.3.3.2. GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSITS centimeters to several decimeters. The alteration
is mainly of the sericitic type, but caolinite may
The La Cabaña veins are hosted by gneisses be also present.
of the pre-Jurassic basement, probably Meso- The internal structure of the veins is diverse.
Proterozoic in age (fig. 4.3.3.8). These materials are Some veins have a simple symmetrical comb
unconformably covered by vulcanosedimentary texture, wih sulfides growing at the borders and
sequences of Jurassic age (Bogotá and Aluja, 1981, the quartz at the core (fig. 4.3.3.10); others veins
INGEOMINAS-UIS, 2006). show a polyfasic infilling, and quartz+sulfide i
There are several veins, and they have a N- found cementing a hydrothermal breccia with
S direction and are deeping about 60º to the east fragments of quartz or older mineralization (fig.
(fig. 4.3.3.9). The width ranges from some 4.3.3.11-4.3.1.23).
Figure 4.3.3.8. Detail of an outcrop of thehosting

Proterozoic gneisses, showing metamorphic
banding.
Figure 4.3.3.9. Vein hosted in gneisses, with

sericitic alteration at the selvages. La Cabaña
gold mine.
Figure 4.3.3.10. Vein with symmetrical comb Figure 4.3.3.11. Hydrothermal breccia, with
texture, with sulfides at the borders and quartz quartz fragments cemented by a later generation
at the center. La Cabaña gold mine. of quartz + sulfides.La Cabaña gold mine.
Typical textures in the products of vein some cases, textures are similar to these
ifiliing comprise: exhibited by hydraulic breccias (fig. 4.3.3.16).
a) textures of symmetrical banding, with All these types of textures tend to develop
quartz+sulfides (pyrite, galena and sphalerite) geodical porosity i the center of the cavities,
in the borders and quartz or calcite in the center showing euhedral crystals inside (fig.
(fig. 4.3.3.12). 4.3.3.17).
b) comb tectures, typically with large The remaining porosity can be in some
euhedral prismatic quartz crystals growing cases infilled by calcite and quartz,
perpendicularly to the vein selvages (generally accompanied by a late generation of sulfides.
with more than 3 cm in leght). Quartz is The sphalerite of this generation is Fe-poor and
overgrown by large crystals of sulfides, mainly overgron the earlier (fig. 4.3.3.18-4.3.3.19).
pyrite, galena and sphalerite (fig. 4.3.13). A late chalcedon replaces all the above
c) breccia textures. Fragments can be preexisting minerals.
centimeter-sized, and are overgrown by All these textures suggest infilling of open
sulfides and quartz (fig. 4.3.3.14-4.3.3.15). In spaces in the epizone.
sulfides
qtz
sulfides
Figure 4.3.3.12. Symmetrical banding in the Figure 4.3.3.13 Comb textures in the veins,
sequence of vein infilling, Sulfides and with euhedral prismatic quartz crystals
quartz are in the borders, and quartz is at surrounded by sulfides (sphalerite and
the center. La Cabaña gold mine. pyrite). Note sericite alteration on the
selvages. La Cabaña gold mine.
sulfides
sulfides
Figure 4.3.3.14. Hydrothermal breccia with Figure 4.3.3.15. Hydrothermal breccia with
sericitized fragments of the host rocks, sericitized fragments of the host rocks,
cemented by sulfide aggregates. La Cabaña cemented by sulfide aggregates. La Cabaña
gold mine. gold mine.
cal
F i g u re 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 6 . H y d r a u l i c b re c c i a s Figure 4.3.3.17. Detail of the center of a

developped on the hosting rock, infilled by vein, with geodical porosity. Some quartz
quartz + sulfides, mainly sphalerite galena and calcite cr ystals are distinguished
and pyrite.La Cabaña gold mine. overgrowing black sphalerite.La Cabaña
sl2>
sulfides
cal cal
sl1>
sl1
Figure 4.3.3.18 Veins inflling with the center Figure 4.3.3.19. Detail of the above image,
of the vein occupied by calcite growths (cal), showing Fe-poor sphalerite (sl2)
accompanied by Fe-poor amberine sphalerite overgrowing Fe-rich sphalerite (sl1). White
(sl2).La Cabaña gold mine. cleavaged calcite crystals (cal) fullfill the
remaining porosity. La Cabaña gold mine.
sulfides
chc
sulfides
chc sulfides
sulfides
Figure 4.3.3.20. Late greenish chalcedony Figure 4.3.3.21. Detail of the above image.
aggregates as a late product of veein infilling N o t e t h e f i n e - g r a i n e d a g g re g a t e s o f
in the veins, replacing calcite and closing the chalcedony (chc) defining a waxy luster.La
open porosity. La Cabaña gold mine. Cabaña gold mine.
4.3.3.3. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS cases, a second generation of fine-grained

quartz, with similar patterns to some varieties
Alteration products present in the deposit of chalcedon (fig. 4.3.3.24) can also be found.
largely consist of quartz and sericite. Kaolinite has been identified as a late
Silicifications in the exocontacts is fairly hydrothermal product, which may replaced
common, and is accompanied by sericitization. sericite alteration across thin veins (fig.
The silified areas have fine-grained quartz. 4.3.3.25).
Quartz is also the first mineral to be found as Ores largely consist of pyrite, sphalerite,
vein infilling of the veins, amb comb textures galena, chalcoyrite and gold, but several
are common. The early generations of quartz generations of some of these minerals have
are fine-grained, less than 1 mm in lenght, and been identified.
are accompanied with ankerite and probably
adularia(fig. 4.3.3.22) followed by calcite (fig. Pyrite
4.3.23). Calcite is found as big anhedral
crystals, and platy calcite has not been It is found as mm-sized euhedral crystals.
dentified up to the present moment. In some Many of them occur as small euhedral crystals
<qtz
qtz>
cal cal
ad
ank>
<qtz
qtz
Figure 4.3.3.22. Silicification of host rock and a Figure 4.3.3.23. Sequence of vein infilling, with
first generation of quartz (qtz) and adularia (ad) quartz with comb textures at the borders (qtz)
as vein infilling followed with ankerite (ank) and and calcite at the center. Crossed polars. La
calcite (cal). Crossed polars. La Cabaña. Cabaña.
py
qtz2
ser
qtz1> kao
ser
Figure 4.3.3.24. Sericitization at the exocontact Figure 4.3.3.25. Sericitization of the host
(ser). Vein infilling of quartz com (qtz1) and rock (ser), cross-cut by veins with quartz
chalcedon-like quartz (qtz2). Crossed polars. La and kaolinite (kao). Crossed polars. La
Cabaña. Cabaña.
(less than 1 mm) scattered in the host rcks, Galena
but it is also a common component of the
hydrothermal infilling of the veins. Inside the Galena is very common in these deposits,
veins it occurs as subhedral crystals, up to some and is found in a close association with
mm in diameter, scattered among the quartz sphalerite, replacing pyrite (fig. 4.3.1.26).
grains.
Chalcopyrite
Sphalerite I
It is relatively scarce, and is found only in
It is other common mineral in this deposit. the disease textures in sphalerite.
Sphalerite has a black color in hand sample
(variety marmatite, up to 8,44 wt % Fe) and a Gold
reddish color in transmitted light, and it is
replaced in a variable grade by the typical It is common as small grains, less than 50
disease textures. Sphalerite replaces pyrite microns in diameter, associated with galena and
along grain borders and veinlets (fig. 4.3.3.26). sphalerite (fig. 4.3.3.27-4.3.3.29). Gold has
sl py
ga>
ga>
py
Au>
py
Figure 4.3.3.26. Pyrite crystals partially Figure 4.3.3.27. Detail of the replacement of
replaced at the bordersand veinlets by pyrite (py) by sphalerite (sl) and galena (ga),
sphalerite (sl) and galena (ga). Reflected PPL, accompanied by small gold grains (Au). Reflected
La Cabaña. PPL. La Cabaña.
py
py
sl
Au> <Au
sl
ga
ga
Figure 4.3.328. Detail of the replacement of Figure 4.3.3.29. Detail of the replacement of
pyrite (py) by sphalerite (sl) and galena (ga), pyrite (py) by sphalerite (sl) and galena (ga),
accompanied by small gold grains (Au). Reflected accompanied by small gold grains (Au). Reflected
PPL. La Cabaña. PPL. La Cabaña.
a yellowish-cream color, thus indicating a Moreover, sphalerite II has a slightly lower

significative silver content in its structure reflectivity than sphalerite I. These
(electrum, 40-60 wt % Au). characteristics indicate a low content of Fe in
sphalerite I (up to 0,1 wt% Fe).
Quartz II Sphalerite II can be found infilling vein
porosity, overgrowing quartz and intergrown
It is a generation consisting of fine-grained with kaolinite (fig. 4.3.3.33-4.3.3.35). In these
quartz crystals, which cros-cut other cases, it may develop euhedral crystals or
generations of minerals, including quartz and botryoidal crusts.
sulfides ( fig. 4.3.3.30-4.3.3.32). Sphalerite may also be found as a
replacement product of sphalerite I, along
Sphalerite II veinlets or grain borders (fig. 4.3.3.36-
4.3.3.39). Sphalerite of the second generation
It is differentiated of sphalerite I by the it is not affected by chalcopyrite disease, thus
colour and reflectivity. Sphalerite II is more indicating that thechalcopyrite replacement is
clear in colour than sphalerite I; in fact it may produced before the crystallization of sphalerite
be almost colorless (fig. 4.3.33-4.3.3.39). II, probably at a higher temperature.
<qtz1 <qtz1
py
py
qtz2> qtz2>
py
py
Figure 4.3.3.30. Quartz of the second Figure 4.3.3.31. The above image in crossed
generation cutting across quartz of first polars. Note fine grained texture in quartz
generation and sulfides. PPL. La Cabaña. of the second generation (qtz2).
sl2> qtz
<qtz1
py
sl1
qtz2>
py sl py <sl2
kao
Figure 4.3.3.32. The above image, reflected Figure 4.3.3.33. Sphalerite of the second
PPL. Py, pyrite, sl, sphalerite, qtz, quartz generation (sl2) intergrown with kaolinite
(kao) overgroths quartz (qtz), pyrite (py)
and sphalerite I (sl1). PPL, La Cabaña.
py
qtz qtz
sl2>
sl2>
sl2>
py py
kao kao
qtz
Figure4.3.3.34. The above image, in crossed Figure 4.3.3.35 The above image reflected
polars. Note the existence of t20 light, PPL.
generations of quartz. The youngest is finer.
La Cabaña.
py
py py
py sl2>
sl2>
sl1
sl1 sl1
sl1
Figure 4.3.3.36. Sphalerite of first generation Figure 4.3.3.37. The above image, in
(sl1) cut by chalcopyrite (cpy). and replaced reflected PPL. Note the chalcopyrite disease
on the borders by the second generation of in sl1.
sphalerite (sl2). PPL. La Cabaña.
sl1 py sl2
sl1
sl2> qtz2>
py qtz2> py
sl1 sl1 sl1

sl1
Figure 4.3.3.38. Sphalerite of first generation Figure 4.3.3.39. The above image, in
(sl1) cut by chalcopyrite (cpy). and replaced reflected PPL. Note the chalcopyrite disease
on the borders by the second generation of in sl1.Note fine-grained quartz (qtz) in
sphalerite (sl2). PPL. La Cabaña. association with sphalerite II.
Figure 4.3.3.40. Mineral sequence in the La Cabaña mine.
4.3.3.4. MINERAL SEQUENCE 4.3.3.5. SULFUR ISOTOPE

GEOCHEMISTRY
According to the textures at macro and
microscale, two main stages can be established In order to complement ore mineralization
for the formation of the La Cabaña gold characterization at La Cabaña Mine gold
deposits (fig. 4.3.3.40): deposit, four sulfide (e.g. pyrite, sphalerite and
galena) separates from mineralized veins were
a) a first stage of brecciation in fault analyzed for sulfur isotopes (Table 4.3.3.1 and
surfaces, followed by circulation of a Figure 4.3.3.41).
hydrothermal fluid that produced a strong The analyzed samples returned values for
sericitization and silicification of the host rock.  S in a narrow range from -0.9 to +2.2 per
34
This fluid produced into the veins the mil.

development of a sequence of open cavitirs, In addition, a pyrite sample from La
with comb textures composed by quartz, Apertura Mine, close to the Nigua townsite
ankerite, pyrite, sphalerite, galena, yielded a positive value of +4.2.
chalcopyrite (scarce, only as chalcopyrite Sulfur isotope results reveal certain
disease) and native gold. Calcite can close the similitude and are consistent with positive sulfur
remaining geodical porosity. Sphalerite in this
generation (sphalerite I) is iron-rich, and gold Table 4.3.3.1. Sulfur isotope composition
has diverse contents in Ag (ranging from 40- of sulfide samples from the La Cabaña
60 wt% Au. This is the main mineralization Mine.
episode.
b) a second stage of deposition. This LOCATION SAMPLE MATERIAL 34S
produces an early chalcedony that can also Pyrite +2.2
LC-1
infill porosity; in other cases, it replaces the La Cabaña Mine, Sphalerite +1.2
preexisting calcite. A last generation of fine- San Lucas LC-5 Galena -0.9
grained quartz (quartz II) is accompanied with LC-6 Pyrite +1.3
a late generation of Fe-poor sphalerite
La Apertura Mine,
(sphalerite II) N-1 Pyrite +4.2
Nigua, San Lucas
grade metamorphic basement could be
responsible for the broad positive isotope
signature of the sulfide samples.
4.3.3.6. LEAD ISOTOPE

GEOCHEMISTRY
Lead isotope data obtained for pyrite,

sphalerite and galena samples of the La
Cabaña Mine yielded similar radiogenic values
( 207 Pb/ 204Pb>15.5) (Table 4.3.3.2).
When compared to the lead isotope values
obtained for igneous rocks of the San Lucas
Figure 4.3.3.41. Sulfur isotope results in region they exhibit less radiogenic values than
sulfides from auriferous veins at the Cerro San phaneritic rocks of the Norosí-San Martin
Carlos Project. Pyrite: py. Batholith (i.e. 206 Pb/ 204Pb = 18.35-18.61,
207
Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.60-15.64 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb =
isotope values obtained from sulfide samples 37.90-38.45) (Figure 4.3.3.42).
of the San Martin de Loba and Cerro San Moreover, pyrite and sphalerite samples
Carlos gold occurrences (sections 4.3.2.5 and returned similar values to those for the
4.3.4.7). volcanoclastic rocks associated to the Norosí-
A mantle-derived source for sulfur can San Martin Batholith at El Piñal Hill (i.e. 206Pb/
explain the values for  34S close to zero (i.e. 204
Pb = 17.90-17,98, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.56 and
<+3 per mil), but a contribution from high- 208
Pb/ 204Pb = 37.90-38.45) (Figure 4.3.3.42).
Table 4.3.3.2. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the La Cabaña Mine.
Pyrite 18.12 15.59 37.50

La Cabaña Mine, Sphalerite 18.12 15.61 37.56
LC-1
San Lucas
Galena 18.18 15.68 37.83
Figure 4.3.3.42. Lead isotope composition of mineralization at the Cerro San Carlos Project.
Lead isotope evolution curves after Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe (1981) are shown
for comparison.
4.3.4.-Cerro San Carlos gold deposits 313
4.3.4. CERRO SAN CARLOS GOLD DEPOSITS
4.3.4.1. INTRODUCTION In addition to the vein deposits, many

alluvial workings were carried out.
The San Carlos deposits (also called D u r i n g e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e 2 0 1 0 ’s ,
«Senderos de Oro») are found on the flanks Angolgold started a systematic study of the
of a a hill 500 m east of the Buena Seña town, area, looking for a large deposit. The company
in the Bolivar province. made several km of drillings on the Culo Alzado
Vein deposits in this area have been mined and San Carlos hills, coupled with geochemical
for a long time by artisanal miners, who exploration in the area, allowing to establish a
produced about 1.300.000 ounzes Au in the complex mineralized area with a lenght of 2
last 30 years. Similar deposits are found in the km, characterized by strong hydrothermal
flanks of Culo Alzado Hill, and small vein alterations.
deposits are found in the vicinity of Buena Seña The area is strongly vegetated, and
town. outcrops are scarce.
Fig. 4.3.4.1. Situation of the Cerro San Carlos-Buena Seña-Culo Alzado gold deposits.
4.3.4.2. GEOLOGY OF THE AREA 4.3.4.3. STRUCTURE OF THE DEPOSITS
As indicated, outcrops in the area are In the San Carlos hill the style of
scarce, but it is possible to establish the mineralization is either disseminated or as
existence of a Mesoproterozoic gneissic veins. Veins exploited by artisanal miners are
basement, intruded by granodiorites of possible subparallel with two main directions: one is
Jurassic age. This ensemble is unconformably N050-060E and the other N20-N45E; all of
overlain by a thick sequence of Jurassic these structures are subvertical. The width of the
volcanosedimentary rocks. In the San Carlos major veins can achieve up to 1 m thickness,
and Culo Alzado hills, however, the cores cut although in most of the cases the veins have a
only vlcanoclastics, lacking intrusives. The decimetric thickness. Other widespread vein sets
volcaniclastic rocks are relatively undeformed have N-S and E-W directions, but these are filling
and have smooth dippings. joints and do not have significative mineralization,
The volcanosedimentary sequence starts and therefore these were not exploited by artisanal
with agglomerates wich are overlain by minings.
epiclastic sediments and ignimbritic rhyolites Similar styles of mineralization are found
(Lower vulcanosedimentary sequence). These in the vicinity of Buena Seña and in parts of
rocks are covered by basalt flows (Upper Culo Alzado hill. However, in Culo Alzado
volcanosedimentary sequence). some veins can achieve higher tenors of
Two main trends of fractures have been sulfides, and in a case the galena content may
described in the area. The dominant is NE- achieve up to 20% in volume.
SW, and the other is N-S. Fractures are sub- The main vein systems are concentraded
vertical, as are the veins in the area. along an E-W corridor, associated with a major
On the other hand, fotointerpretation of sinistral fault system trending N4E.
the area suggest the existence of a circular Hydrothermal alteration is intensive in this
structure centered on the San Carlos hill, thus domain, that measures about 2 km in lenght
suggesting the existance of a dome-type by 400 m width. All the artisanal workings are
structure below the hill. This domal structure concentrated into this corridor. Vein infilling
could be linked with a porphyrytic intrusive consists of quartz with minor pyrite, and the
(fig. 4,3,4,2). other minerals are extremely rare.
Fig. 4.3.4.2. Geological profile of the San Carlos-Culo Alzado area, showing the types of
hydrothermal alteration. Based on an unpublished geological profile by Anglogold.
Hydrothermal alterations are strong in all
the hills, and kaolinite and sericite are the most
commonly distributed, with minor
developments of potassic and chloritization.
Some sodicocalcic alteration could be present
in some parts, as indicated by the develpment
of associations wit albite and amphibole. pl
Silicification is also intensive, and this explains KF> <qtz
why part of the mineralized areas constitute
positive reliefs, including the top of the San
Carlos hill. Pyritization is widespread, and
pyrite may constitute up to 10% modal in some
altered rocks.
The style of the deposit can be assimilated Figure 4.3.4.3. Plagioclase crystal (pl) replaced
to the porphyry copper deposits, despite the by K-feldspar (KF) at the interception with a
fact that the mineralization is not in the intrusive quartz vein. Crossed polars, Cerro San Carlos,
itsef, but in the host rock. core 1, sample 1-45.
4.3.4.4. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND <KF

TEXTURES pl
<KF
The main hydrothermal alterations present,
as indicated above, are kaolinitization and <KF
sericitization, with minor choritization, sodico-
calcic and potassic alterations.
Potassic alteration
Potassic alteration has been observed

mainly in the drill 2 and 1, and in all the cases Figure 4.3.4.4. P lagioclase crystal (pl) replaced
it is overprinted by the other types of by K-feldspar (KF) at the interception with a
alteration, in particular, sericitization and, in quartz vein. Crossed polars, Cerro San Carlos,
lesser amounts, chloritization and sodico-calcic core 1, sample 1-45.
alteration.
Potassic feldspar is hardly distinguishable <KF
owing to the nature of the host rock and the pl
fine grain of the associations. This generation
of K-feldspar is fine-grained (less than 50
<KF
microns) and has a dirty appearance because
it uses to be enriched in fluid inclusions. bt
Perthite or tartan polysynthetic twinning is mt>
absent in these samples, as are twinning of the
adular type. Therefore, it could be orthoclase. mu>
In some cases it is possible to distinguish <KF
plagioclase phenocrysts partially replaced by
orthoclase (fig. 4.3.4.3-4.3.4.5). The Figure 4.3.4.5. Plagioclase crystal (pl) replaced
replacement proceeds along small veinlets or by K-feldspar (KF) at the interception with a
along grain borders. In some cases the quartz vein. Crossed polars, Cerro San Carlos,
replacement may be complete. core 1, sample 1-45.
Secondary feldspar may also replace early also found in the central part of the veins, in
primary magmatic K-feldspar crystals (fig. association with chlorite and molybdenite (fig.
4.3.4.6). 4.3.4.9-4.3.4.11) and with chlorite-molybdenite
Biotitization is rarely preserved owing to the and epidote (fig. 4.3.4.12-4.3.4.13). These
extensive chloritization; however, biotite occurs crystals are generally very enriched in fluid
as small relicts into chlorite or small crystals (fig. inclusions and cryptocrystalline hematite
4.3.4.7) inclusions, and take a reddish color and a turbid
Areas with potassic alteration are also in aspect (fig. 4.3.4.14-4.3.4.15).
many cases enriched in magnetite crystals, K-feldspar is formed early in the mineral
sometimes replaced by pyrite. sequence and may be partly or totally replaced
Inside the quartz veins the vein infilling is by all the late alteration types, including
constituted by quartz, K-feldspar, pyrite and, in chloritization, sodic-potassic, kaolinitization and
minor amounts, molybdenite and chalcopyrite. K- sericitization. In these cases the K-feldspar
feldspar crystals use to be found in the vein crystals are pseudomorphosed by
selvages (fig. 4-3-4-7-4.3.4.8). However, in cryptocrystalline aggregates of t h e
many cases anhedral crystals of K-feldspar are aforementioned minerals.
<KF2 <bt
amp> amp>
pl <amp pl <amp
qtz> qtz>
<bt
<KF1 bt> bt>
qtz> qtz>
Figure 4.3.4.6. Primary K-feldspar crystal Figure 4.3.4.7. Largely altered biotite tabular
(KF1) replaced by secondary hydrothermal K- crystaals produced during the potassic alteration.
feldspar (KF2). Crossed polars, Cerro San Sample. Cerro San Carlos, core 2, sample sc-
Carlos, core 1, sample sc-1-45. 2-19.
qtz
qtz
<KF <KF
pl <clc KF>
<KF
<KF
qtz>
<KF
<KF <KF
Figure 4.3.4.8. K-feldspar crystals (KF) at Figure 4.3.4.9. The aboove image in
the selvage of a quartz vein (qtz). Note crossed polars.Cerro San Carlos, core 1,
chloritization outside (clc). PPL, Cerro San sample sc-2-19.
Carlos, core 1, sample sc-2-19.
<KF
<mb
<mb
qtz qtz
Figure 4.3.4.10. Vein infilling with quartz Figure 4.3.4.11. The above image in PPL,
(qtz),K-feldspar (KF), chlorite (clc) and reflected light. Note the association of
molybdenite (mb). PPL. Cerro San Carlos, molybdenite with this generation of chlorite.
core 1, sample sc-2-19. Cerro San Carlos, core 1, sample sc-2-19.
ep>
KF> <mb
KF>
<ser pl
qtz
qtz
<pl
Figure 4.3.4.12. Vein infilling with quartz (qtz), Figure 4.3.4.13. The above image, in reflected
K-feldspar (KF), partly altered, associated with PPL. Note bireflectance of molybdenite. Cerro
epidote (ep), chlorite (clc) and molybdenite (mb). San Carlos, core 1, sample sc-2-19.
PPL. Cerro San Carlos, core 1, sample sc-2-19.
qtz
qtz
KF KF
Figure 4.3.4.14. K-feldspar at the border Figure 4.3.4.15. The above image in crossed
o f a q u a r t z v e i n , p a rt l y re p l a c e d b y polars.
kaolinite. PPL. Cerro San Carlos, core 1,
sample sc-4-30.
Sodic-calcic alteration Intermediate argillic alteration
Sodic-calcic alteration can be related to Intermediate argillitic alteration is well

a widespread occurrence of albitic plagioclase, developed in many parts of the deposit, in
in association with a secondary fibrous pale particular, cores 1 and 3. Kaolinite is found as
greenish amphibole, probably a Fe-rch member white soft aggregates composed by small crystals
of the tremolite-actinolite series, which can (cryptocrystalline range), intergrown with fine-
occur filling veins, sometimes in association grained quartz, and it is replaced by associations
with epidote and pyrite, although pyrite is of quartz-sericite (fig. 4.3.4.18-4.3.4.19).
formed early (fig. 4.3.4.16-4.3.4.17).
Uralitic amphibole is fine-grained, poorly Sericitic alteration
colored and rare, but in some rocks it may
constitute the vein infilling and the selvages, Sericitic alteration is pervasive, and from
and in other cases may replace intensively the the textural point of view it can be classified
rock, achieving up to the 40% of the total of into: a) cryptocrystalline sericite, the most
the rock. common in the deposit (fig. 4.3.4.20-
clc
<amp clc
<amp
py
py
pl
pl
Figure 4.3.4.16. The above image in Figure 4.3.4.17. The above image in crossed
crossed polars. Cerro San Carlos deposit. polars. Note that amphibole is found into the
Sample sc-2-10. veinlets cutting across pyrite. Note higher
interference colors in amphibole (amp).
kao
kao kao
ser>
ser>
Figure 4.3.4.18. Fine-grained kaolinite Figure 4.3.4.19. The above image in crossed
alteration (kao) enveloped and crosscut by polars. Note that sericite has higher interference
late sericite (ser). PPL. Cerro San Carlos, color tahn kaolnite.
sample sc-2-10.
ser ser
F i g u re 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 0 . F i n e - g r a i n s e r i c i t e Figure 4.3.4.21. The above image, in cross-

replacing all the rock, with a vein filled up polarized light.
with larger crystals of sericite. PPL, San
Carlos, sample.sc-2-54.
ol ser
py py
ol ol
pl <ser
ol <ser
py
Figure 4.3.4.22. Pyrite vein (py)with quartz Figure 4.3.4.23. The above image in crossed
(qtz) and sericite (ser) intestitial among the pyrite polars. Note the development of sericite in
grains. fractures among the pyrite crystals.
py
ser> py
py ser> py
Figure 4.3.4.24. Pyrite crystal (py) broken and Figure 4.3.4.25. The above image in reflected
crosscut by sericite (ser). Crossed poalrs. San light, PPL. Tarnishing reveals the internal zoning
Carlos, sample 4-41. in pyrite grains. Note that zoning is cut by uartz-
sericite veins. San Carlos, sample 4-41.
4.3.4.21); b) vein infilling, typically coarse- owing to these differences in interference color;
sized, in association with quartz (fig. 4.3.4.20- composition cannot be very rich in iron because f
4.3.4.23); c) pseudomorphs of feldspars or the pale green color. Crystal size of the chlorite
other primary magmatic minerals. grains is medium, in the order of some hundreds
Sericite alteration crosscut the zoning of of microns in diameter.
the sulfides, thus indicating a very late It is found filling veins or replacing most
crystallization. This texture also indicate that of the aforementioned alteration minerals. It is
no pyrite was poduced in ths episode (fig. found replacing K-feldspar and biotite
4.3.4.24-4.3.4.25). alterations (fig. 4.3.4.16-4.3.4.17), sodic-
calcic alteration, and is commonly found
Chloritic alteration replacing sericite alteration (fig. 4.3.4.18-
4.3.4.25). It is associated with sulfide
Chlorite crystals from San Carlos are pale mineralization, at the least with pyrite and
green in color, subhedral, platy tabular, and have sphalerite (fig. 4.3.4.21-4.3.4.23).
blue to yellowish abnormal interference colors. It is replaced by braunite and magnetite
Probably there are several generations of chlorite (fig. 4.3.4.24-4.3.4.25).
clc
FK
clc FK
Figure 4.3.4.16. K-feldspar of the potassic Figure 4.3.4.17. The above image in crossed
alteration (FK) replaced by chlorite (clc). polars. Note the abnormal interference colors in
PPL. San Carlos. chlorite.
kao
kao
ser>
Figure 4.3.4.18. Fine-grained association Figure 4.3.4.19. The above image in crossed
of chlorite+epidote (bownish aggregates) polars. Note that sericite (clear interference
replacing sericite. Late braunite veins are colros) is replaced.
also distinguished. PPL.
ser
Figure 4.3.4.20. The above image in PPL, Figure 4.3.4.21. Sericitic alteration (ser)
reflected light. Note that pyrite is associated crosscut by associations with pyrite (opaque) and
with chloritization. chlorite (green). PPL.
ol
ol ser
ser
ser
pl clc
ol <py
Figure 4.3.4.22. The above image in crossed Figure 4.3.4.23. The above image in PPL,
polars. Clinochlore has abnormal interference reflected light.
colors (dark bluish and yellowish brown).
clc
clc
py ser ser>
Figure 4.3.4.24. A detail of the above image; Figure 4.3.4.25. The above image in crossed
note that braunite (opaque) is commonly poalrs. Note two generations of chlorite as seen
present in late veins. Chlorite (clc) occupies by the different interference colors.
interstitial position between sericite (ser).
Molybdenite pseudomorphically by tabuular hematite wich can

be replaced by pyrite (fig. 4.3.4.31-4.3.4.33))
It is rare in the deposit, but it may be common
in the core 2, in association with zones with potassic Pyrite
alteration overpinted by sodic-calcic alteration (fig.
4.3.4.26-4.3.4.27). It occurs as platy subhedral It is common in all the deposit, and is found
crystals that may achieve up to 1 mm in diameter. either as a disseminated pyritization of the host
These platelet are usually bent and affected by rocks or as a product of vein infilling. It is found
kinkbanding (fig. 4.3.4.29-4.3.4.30). replacing magnetite and hematite (figs. 4.3.4.31-
4.3.4.34), generally associated with clorite (fig.
Magnetite 4.3.4.35).
In all the cases, pyrite tends to be euhedral
It is common in some parts of the deposit, and to develop untwinned cubic crystals {100},
probably in association with K-feldspar alteration. but it is often corroded and replaced in many cases
It occurs as pseudomorphs of primary magmatic by many minerals. The grain size is diverse, and
minerals, and can be on its turn replaced ranges between several mm and less than 10
<epi
<epi
<mb qtz
<mb qtz
FK
FK
<epi
<mb
F i g u re 4.3.4.26. Quartz vein with Figure 4.3.4.27. The above image in

molybdenite platelets (mb) at the borders, crossed polars. Cerro San Carlos deposit,
in association with epidote (epi). FK is sample SC-2-19.
altered potassic feldspar. PPL.
<mb
<epi qtz
FK qtz mb>
ser>
<epi
<mb
Figure 4.3.4.28. The above image in PPL, Figure 4.3.4.29. Similar association as above
reflected light. Cerro San Carlos deposit, in a small quartz veinlet. Note the abundance of
sample SC-2-19. molybdenite. PPL. Cerro San Carlos deposit,
sample SC-2-19.
ol ser
py py
ol mb> ol
qtz
pl <ser
ol <ser
Figure 4.3.4.30. The above image in reflected Figure 4.3.4.31. Magnetite crystals (mt)
light, PPL. Note strong bireflectance in replaced by pyrite (py). PPL, reflected light.
molybdenite. Cerro San Carlos deposit, sample Cerro San Carlos gold deposit. Sample sc-
SC-2-19. 2-1.
py
ser> py
py ser> py
Figure 4.3.4.32. Association of magnetite, Figure 4.3.4.33. The above image in reflected
hematite and pyrite (opaque minerals) with light, PPL. Pyrite (py) replaces both magnetite
chlorite (clc). San Carlos deposit, sample (mt) and hematite (hem). Chalcopyrite (cpy) is
SC-2-06. also present.
Figure 4.3.4.34. Pyrite crystal (py) replacing Figure 4.3.4.35. Pyrite aggregates (py), closely
bth hematite (hem) and magnetite (mt). PPL, intergrown with chlorite (clc). San Carlos, sample
reflected light. San Carlos deposit, sample sc-2-05.
SC-2-01.
microns. The crystals are strongly zoned, as chalcopyrite grains have been found scattered
revealed by etching or tarnishing. among sericite aggregates.
Sphalerite Rhodochrosite
It is rare in the deposit, but has been found It has been found in several samples, filling
as small anhedral grains, less than 1 mm in thin veinlets or associated with potassic
diameter, intergrown with sericite. Color is alteration in silicified areas (fig. 4.3.4.38). It
yellowish, thus suggesting a low iron content tends to be euhedral in cavities, as lens-shaped
in this mineral. It is replaced by chalcopyrite crystals.
disease (figs. 4.3.4.36-4.3.4.37).
Ankerite
Chalcopyrite
It is more rare, but has been found in the
It is rare in the deposit, as is sphalerite. same mineral associations as ankerite (fig.
In addition to the chalcopyrite disease, a few 4.3.4.39).
sl
sl
Figure 4.3.4.36. Sphalerite anhedral grain Figure 4.3.4.37. The above image in PPL,
intergrown with sericite and quartz. PPL, reflected light. Cerro San Carlos deposit,
transmitted light. Cerro San Carlos deposit, sample SC-1-30.
sample SC-1-30.
mt>
rho
py
ank
qtz
FK
Figure 4.3.4.38. Rodochrosite vein (rho) Figure 4.3.4.39. Ankerite vein (ank) cutting
with K-feldspar (KF) in a silicified rock across pyrite (py), which is replacing magnetite
(qtz). Cerro San Carlos deposit, sample SC- (mt). PPL, reflected light. Cerro San Carlos
1-65. deposit, sample SC-2-05.
4.3.4.5. MINERAL SEQUENCE preserved owing to extensive replacement by
successive alteration pulses. In this stage
The most important problem in the deposit quartz veins are produced that deposited
is to establish the distribution of gold in it, molybdenite and probably some pyrite.
because up to the present moment gold has Sodic-calcic alteration was produced in
not been found as discrete grains. It is also the most surficial areas, and overprints the
possible that gold can occur inside the pyrite potassic alteration. It produces albitization of
structure. Other metalic minerals are not very plagioclases and a calc-silicate association,
common. including amphiboles and epidote.
Other interesting problem is to determine Argillic aleration produces extensive
the sequence of mineral alterations, and the kaolinite development along the margins of the
relationship between the mineral alterations potassic areas, and overprints the potassic
and the metals. The problem is that many alteration when present.
alterations are overprinting the earlier Phillic alteration produces extensive
alterations, thus creating complex sericitization, that overprints all of the above
intergrowths. Moreover, some alterations are alterations at all the possible depths. It is
different according a zonal distribution, as associated with some sulfide enrichment, in
indicated in fig. 4.3.4.2. particular, sphalerite and chalcopyrite.
The mineral sequence is indicated in figure Probably some gold can be mobilized during
4.3.4.40. The gold potential for each alteration this stage.
stage is not known at the present moment. A late chloritization stage has produced
Potassic alteration is the first in being the replacement of all the above associations.
formed, and it is restrict to some parts of the Biotite has been completely replaced by
deposit that could correspond with the area chlorite. This stage could also produce
situated above the cupola of a porphyrytic removilization of some gold and some sufides.
intrusive. This type of alteration is not well Braunite is probably late in this stage.
Figure 4.3.4.40. Sequence of mineralization and hydrothermal alteration in the San Carlos
gold deposit.
Table 4.3.4.1. Ar isotope composition of sulfide samples from the Cerro San Carlos
Project.
SAMPLE MATERIAL LITHOLOGY COORDINATES
(Wt. %) (nl/g) (%) (Ma)
Whole-rock/ Hydrothermally altered 74° 6’ 3.7” W 3.782 24.611 10 160±5

SCBS-2
Sericite lapilli tuff 8° 32’ 41.7” N 3.782 25.100 4 163±5
Weighted Average 162±4
4.3.4.6. K-Ar GEOCHRONOLOGY Table 4.3.4.2. Sulfur isotope composition

of sulfide samples from the Cerro San
In order to constrain hydrothermal Carlos Project.
alteation (mineralization) age for the Cerro San LOCATION SAMPLE MATERIAL 34S
Carlos gold mineralization, a sample of
SCBS-2-07 Pyrite +3.0
associated hydrothermally altered lapilli tuff
(Sample SCBS-2) was analyzed by the K-Ar
methodology.
The analyzed sample is a lapilli tuff of the San Carlos Project, SCBS-3-64 Pyrite +2.7
San Lucas SCBS-3-09 Pyrite +2.8
Jurassic volcanoclastic sequence associated to
the Norosí-San Martin Batholith (i.e. the SCBS-4-40 Pyrite +4.5
Norean Formation), hosting auriferous SCBS-4-34 Pyrite +2.8
quartz+sulfide (pyrite) veins and veinlets and SCBS-4-41 Pyrite +3.0
exhibiting strongly pervasive sericite
hydrothermal alteration.
It was collected from the Cerro San
Carlos diamond-drill cores at the Cerro San
Carlos Project (AngloGold Ashanti Colombia
2005).
The whole-rock analysis of this sample
yielded a late Jurassic age of 162±4Ma (Table
4.3.4.1), which is interpreted as the age for
hydrothermal alteration and probably
mineralization at the Cerro San Carlos in the
San Lucas region.
4.3.4.7. SULFUR ISOTOPE

GEOCHEMISTRY
In order to complement ore mineralization

characterization at Cerro San Carlos gold
deposit, eight sulfide (pyrite) separates from Figure 4.3.4.41. Sulfur isotope results in
mineralized veins and veinlets of diamond-drill sulfides from auriferous veins at the Cerro San
cores from Cerro San Carlos Project were
analyzed for sulfur isotopes (Table 4.3.4.2 and
Figure 4.3.4.41).
The analyzed samples returned broadly Such a sulfur isotope results are similar
positive values for 34S, in a narrow range from and are consistent with the slightly positive
+2.7 to +4.5 per mil. sulfur isotope values obtained from sulfide
Table 4.3.4.3. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the Cerro San Carlos
Project.
Culo Alzado,
CA-1 Pyrite 18.02 15.56 37.53
San Lucas
San Carlos Project,

SCBS-4 Pyrite 18.09 15.59 37.65
San Lucas
Figure 4.3.4.42. Lead isotope composition of mineralization at the Cerro San Carlos Project.
Lead isotope evolution curves after Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe (1981) are shown
for comparison.
samples of the San Martin de Loba and La When compared to the lead isotope values
Cabaña Mine gold occurrences (sections obtained for igneous rocks of the San Lucas
4.3.2.5 and 4.3.3.5). A magmatic origin for region they exhibit less radiogenic values than
sulfur can explain these values for 34S. phaneritic rocks of the Norosí-San Martin
Batholith (i.e. 206 Pb/ 204Pb = 18.35-18.61,
207
Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.60-15.64 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb =
4.3.4.8. LEAD ISOTOPE 37.90-38.45) (Figure 4.3.4.42).
GEOCHEMISTRY Moreover, pyrite samples returned similar
values to those for the volcanoclastic rocks
Lead isotope data obtained for two pyrite associated to the Norosí-San Martin Batholith
samples of the San Carlos Project and Culo at El Piñal Hill (i.e. 206Pb/204Pb = 17.90-17,98,
207
Alzado area yielded similar radiogenic values Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.56 and 208Pb/ 204Pb = 37.90-
( 207 Pb/ 204Pb>15.5) (Table 4.3.4.3). 38.45) (Figure 4.3.4.42).
SECTION 4.4.
Other Intrusives of Jurassic Age

with Spatially Associated Gold
Occurrences
4.4.1. INTRODUCTION
As described above (Section 4.1.2), Moreover, the Mocoa Batholith hosts an

Jurassic magmatism in the Colombian Andes important Cu-Mo porphyry-type deposit
is distributed along a well-defined (Sillitoe et al., 1982; 1984), and significant Au
discontinuous magmatic belt following the anomalies have been indicated as by-product
eastern flank of the Central Cordillera from (Alfonso, 2000).
Ecuador in the south up to the Sierra Nevada In the Santander Massif, high sulfidation
de Santa Marta in the Caribbean coast (Figure epithermal gold mineralization (i.e. Vetas-
4.1.2.1). California Mining District), historically
Besides the Jurassic intrusives and considered to be spatially associated with the
associated volcanoclastic sequences in the intrusive rocks of the Santander Plutonic
Serranía de San Lucas (e.g. Norosí and Group, is now considered much younger and
Guamoco batholiths and San Martin de Loba- associated to late Miocene hypabyssal
Juana Sanchez granodiorites, and Norean intrusives widely distributed in the area.
Formation) which purport significant gold The Jurassic intrusives and associated
mineralizations, other important gold volcanoclastic deposits in the Sierra Nevada
mineralizations spatially associated with Jurassic de Santa Marta area have very scarce known
intrusives and the related volcanoclastic sequences gold mineralization associated.
are well-known in the Segovia Batholith (e.g. In the following sections new petrography,
Segovia-Remedios Mining District; Contreras; geochronological, geochemical and isotope
2005; Echeverri, 2006) and the Ibague geochemistry on these Jurassic intrusives and
Batholith and associated volcanoclastic rocks related volcanoclastic deposits data is
of the Saldaña Formation (e.g. Pacarní District presented in order to characterize and compare
in the Tolima Department and San Luis District them in a broad regional scale within the
in the Huila Department) (Shaw, 2000). Jurassic magmatism context.
4.4.2.The Segovia Batholith 333
4.4.2. THE SEGOVIA BATHOLITH
ThenomenclatureforJurassicintrusivesinthenorthern
Central Cordillera is nowadays a debatable and confuse
subject in the geological literature.As mentioned in Section
4.2.1, early geological studies of the Serranía de San Lucas
(Bogotá andAluja,1981) recognizes two independent N-
S trending batholiths in the region: the 'Western Batholith'
and the 'Eastern Batholith' or 'Norosí Batholith' (Section
4.2). Álvarez (1983), proposed the name of Segovia
Batholith to group all the Jurassic intrusives cropping out in
the northern Central Cordillera to the east of the Otú Fault,
including both, the Eastern and Western batholiths
previously described by Bogotá andAluja (1981).
Ballesteros (1983) distinguishes the Segovia and
Norosí batholiths as independent units. The geological map
of the Antioquia Department by González (2001) group
theJurassicintrusivesunderthenameof'SegoviaBatholith'.
On the basis of petrography, mineralogy, whole rock
Figure 4.4.2.1. Geological map of the western Serrania de San Lucas. Locations for samples of the Segovia
Batholith are also shown in orange color.
334 SECTION 4.4. OTHER INTRUSIVES OF JURASSIC AGE WITH ASSOCIATED Au OCCURRENCES
geochemistry, geochronology and isotope geology results, 4.4.2.2. PETROGRAPHY OF AMPHIBOLE

in this work the term 'Segovia batholith' is preferred to BIOTITE GRANODIORITE SEGOVIAFACIES
name the N-S trending late Jurassic intrusive strip cropping
out in the western border of the Serrania de San Lucas The Segovia intrusive consists of a granodiorite stock
(i.e. the Western Batholith of Bogota and Aluja, 1981). accompanied of a porphyrytic dike cortex. These
The exposed area of the Segovia Batholith is structurally granodiorites are fine to medium grained. Mineral
controlled by two important regional faults: the Otú Fault composition consists of quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase
to the west and El Bagre fault to the east, both of them as essential minerals, with lesser biotite and amphibole as
located to the west of the Palestina Fault System (Figure the main accessory minerals (fig. 4.2.2.2-4.2.2.3).Akey
4.4.2.1). The Segovia Batholith is composed of massive point is the occurrence of pyroxene inclusions. The rock
biotite diorite to quartz-diorite medium- to coarse-grained may be hydrothermally altered in different grades.
phaneritic rocks. Local compositional variations to quartz-
monzonites, granodiorites and gabbros are also observed. Quartz
In some areas the rocks are slightly banded to strongly
gneissic in aspect.There is no detailed geological mapping It is interstitial between plagioclase, intergrown with
of the different lithological facies within the batholith. K-feldspar. The modal content can be in the order of 30%.
pl pl
amp
amp> mic
Figure 4.4.2.2. General view of the amphibole- Figure 4.4.2.3. The above image in crossed
biotite granodiorite of the Segovia facies in polars. Sample a-2-007. Pl, palgioclase; qtz,
PPL. Note amphibole (hb) and chloritized quartz; mic, microcline.
biotite (bi).
pl
pl
qtz
qtz
Figure 4.4.2.4. Detail of a plagioclase crystal Figure 4.4.2.5. Detail of a lagioclase crystal
(pl), showing twinning on the albite law but no exhibiting clear zoning. Amphibole- biotite
zoning. Quartz (qtz) is also observed. Crossed granodiorite of the Segovia facies, in crossed
polars. Sample a-2-007. polars. Sample a-2-007.
It anhedral, and the grain size is in the range 5-8 mm.All the the spaces between plagioclase (fig. 4.4.2.6). They are
quartz crystals exhibit undulatory extinction. found in lower proportions than the above minerals, in the
order of 20% modal. Crystals are anhedral and have larger
Plagioclase size than the aforementioned minerals, in the range 6-15
mm. Patchy microperthites are very abundant and in some
Plagioclase is dominant (around to 35 % modal) as crystals may occupy about 4'% in volume of the crystal.
euhedral crystalswith a short prismatic habit. Grain size is in
the range 4-10 mm. Crystals may not be zoned (fig. 4.4.24). Biotite
When present, zoning is concentric (fig. 4.4.2.5), and
polysynthetic twinning is on the albite law. Crystals are Biotite is found in accessory quantities, up to 5
strongly sericitized, in particular, in the more calcic cores. % modal, and the crystal size is in the range 4-6
mm. They occur as subhedral tabular crystals
Microcline showing moderate reddish-brown pleochroism (fig.
4.4.2.7). Biotite crystals tend to be altered to
Microcline has been identidfied on the basis of its greenish clinochlore aggregates, associated with
optical properties. It is found in association with quartz in minor titanite, epidote and calcite.
mic bi
pl
Figure 4.4.2.6. Detail of a microcline crystal Figure 4.4.2.7. Detail of a biotite grain (bi), only
(mic) interstitial among plagioclase crystals partly chloritized. PPL.Sample a-2-007, Segovia
(pl). Crossed nicols. Sample a-2-007, Segovia facies.
facies.
amp
amp
<opx
opx
Figure 4.4.2.8. Detail of an amphibole crystal Figure 4.4.2.9. The above image in crossed
(pl), showing relictic inclusions of orthopyroxene polars. Note the low intereference colors in
(opx). Note other amphibole generation around orthopyroxene. Sample a-2-007.
the pyroxene. PPL. Sample a-2-007.
Orthopyroxene properties suggest that they are Ca-Mg-rich

quadrilateral members, diopside or augite.
Orthopyroxene is very rare, but this mineral is
found as small relicts into amphibole crystals (fig. Amphibole
4.4.2.8-4.4.2.9). These restites are highly corroded
and, hence, it is not possibe to evaluate the primary The amphibole content is higher than in the
shape of these grains. They are colorless and have biotite case, and can overpass 10% modal. There
a very low interference color, and could therefore are different types of amphibole. It may occur as
correspond to enstatite. No exsolutions are seen. euhedral pismatic crystals with the typical sections
(fig. 4.4.2.10), but it also can be present as a
Clinopyroxene pseudomorph after pyroxenes. The euhedral family
is dominant, and the crystal size in in the order of 1-
As enstatite, it is very rare, and is found only 2 cm. These crystals are greenish and strongly zoned,
as small strongly corroded relicts into amphibole with changes in the hues of greenish. A first
crystals. They are colorless, and do not have generation is brownish-green, and the second, green
exsolutions, twinning or zoning. The optical (fig. 4.4.2.11-4.4.2.12). Polysynthetic twinning is
qtz
mic pl pl
amp
<amp1
<amp2
<amp2 amp1
pl
pl
mic
Figure 4.4.2.10. Detail of a zoned amphibole Figure 4.4.2.11. Detail of a zoned amphibole
crystal, showing the first (amp1) and the crystal, showing the first (amp1) and the
second (amp2) generation of amphiboles. second (amp2) generation of amphiboles.
Sample a-2-007. Segovia batholith. . Sample a-2-007. Segovia batholith.
amp2>
<amp1
<amp1
amp2> amp3
amp4>
Figure 4.4.2.12. Detail of a zoned amphibole Figure 4.4.2.13. Detail of a zoned amphibole
crystal, showing the first (amp1) and the crystal replacing pyroxene, showing the third
second (amp2) generation of amphiboles. (amp3) and the fourth (amp4) generations of
Sample a-2-007. Segovia batholith. amphiboles. Sample a-2-007. Segovia batholith.
common. Some of these crystals may contain Apatite
corroded inclusions of restitic clinopyroxenes.
Around the restitic pyroxene there is a small aureola Apatite is rare in these rocks, where is
where the amphibole color is pale green, almost only a trace mineral. The shape is the typical
colorless, indicating a lower Fe content. in these rocks, long prismatic crystals
The pseudomorphic amphibole, when formed composed by hexagonal prism and pinacoids
after pyroxene, is fibrous, of the uralitic variety, or (fig. 4.4.2.14). The grain size is small, less than
may appear as small crystals pseudomorphic of a 150 microns.
larger crystal. It tends to be strongly zoned, with
colorless cores (third generation of amphibole) and Zircon
dark green borders (fourth amphibole generation,
fig. 4.4.2.13). The composition corresponds to Zircon crystals are also rare. They tend
changes in the series tremolite-actiolite. to be euhedral, as at the least 2 generations
Replacement of amphibole may produce are seen: a) short prismatic crystals (fig.
mixtures of clinochlore with fine-grained titanite, 4.4.2.15) and b) bypyramydal crystals (fig.
calcite and epidote. 4.4.2.15-4.4.2.17). Crystals of the first family
bt
<ap
zr2> <zr1
Figure 4.4.2.14. Apatite crystals (ap) as Figure 4.4.2.15. Subhedral crystal of zircon,
euhedral inclusions in biotite grains (bt). PPL, showing a bypyramidal habit (zr2), and
amphibole-biotite granodiorites of the Segovia containing an inclusion of a smaller, prismatic
batholith, sample A-2-007. zircon crystal (zr1).
<amp1 bt
<zr1
amp2
<zr1
<zr
<zr2
Figure 4.4.2.16. Zircon crystal producing Figure 4.4.2.17. Two generations of zircon:
metamictic aureolas on a crystal having type 1 (zr1) is prismatic and occurs as
amphiboles of the first (amp1) and second inclusions in biotite (bt); type 2 (zr2) is
(amp2) generations. PPL. Sample A-2-007. bypyramidal.
are found enclosed by the second All of them Epidote

are less than 50 microns in length. Zircon
crystals are common as inclusions in biotite and As clinozoisite, it is found as a
amphibole, and, occasionally, on quartz replacmeent product of biotite (fig. 4.4.2.20),
crystals. They are not metamictic, but they and tends to be anhedral. The iron content is
produce small pleochroic aureolas when low and, therefore, the color is pale yellow.
included into biotite.
Ilmenite
Clinozoisite
Ilmenite is the only oxide mineral found
Clinozoisite crystals occur as a as accessory in these rocks, and magnetite is
replacement product of biotite (figs. 4.4.2.18- lacking. Ilmenite is found in trace amounts, and
4.4.2.19). It is found as subhedral prismatic it occurs as subhedral cristals, up to 250
crystals, up to 2 mm in length. It is a trace microns in size, slightly rounded (fig. 4.4.2.21).
mineral, and can be associated with In many cases, the cystal is skeletal, it is also
clinochlore. No zoning or twinning is observed strongly corroded and in every case it has an
in this mineral. envelope of titanite.
pl pl
clz> <clz
bt
bt clz>
<clz
pl
pl <clz clz> pl
pl
Figure 4.4.2.18. Clinozoisite crystals (clz) Figure 4.4.2.19. The above image in crossed
replacing biotite (bt). PPL. Sample A-2-007. polars.
Segovia batholith.
ilm>
epi> <bt
qtz
Figure 4.4.2.20. Epidote (epi) replacing biotite Figure 4.4.2.21. Tabular euhedral ilmenite
(bt) along cleavages. Crossed polars, sample A- crystals. PPL, reflected light.
2-007. Amphibole-biotite granodiorites of the
Segovia facies.
4.4.2.- The Segovia Batholith 339
4.4.2.2. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY Most of the samples of the Segovia
Batholith are of the I-type granite series (A/
Whole-rock analyses of major, minor and CNK<1.1) and plot in the metaluminous filed
trace elements (including Rare Earth Elements) of the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand (1943)
were carried out on six samples collected in (Figure 4.4.2.24).
six different places at the Segovia Batholith. Again, the altered chatacter of the El
Samples include a hornblende diorite Dorado sample is observed by plotting in the
collected at Morroputo sector (Nechi) in the peraluminous field (Figure 4.4.2.24).
northern Segovia Batholith (Sample WR-210); The total alkalis (TAS) plot by Cox et al.
two granodiorite samples collected at the El (1979) show the samples of the Segovia
Silencio (Sample WR-127) and Providencia Batholith clustering and plotting into the diorite
(Sample WR-128) mines in the Segovia- and granodiorite fields (Figure 4.4.2.25).
Remedios Mining District, and two quartz- In the feldspar triangle plot by O’Connor
diorite and granodiorite samples in the south (1965), the samples of the Segovia Batholith
end of the Segovia Batholith, on both sides of plot into the granodiorite field, but the samples
the trace of the Palestina Fault System, at El of the Segovia-Remedios area (WR-127 and
Cairo-Normandia (Sample WR-248) and at El WR-128) plot close to the boundary with the
Dorado (Sample WR-245) sectors (Figure wuartz-diorite field, whereas the samples from
4.4.2.1). the Morroputo sector (WR-210) and the El
In addition, a post-mineralization diorite Cairo-Normandia area (WR-248) plot close
porphyry dike (Sample WR-135) at El Bagre to the boundary with the tonalite field (Figure
which cut the late Paleozoic (Carboniferous) 4.4.2.26).
El Carmen Stock, yielding a late Jurassic age Most of the analyzed samples plot into the
(167±5Ma whole-rock K-Ar; Section 3.3.1.2) pre-plate collision (subduction-related) field of
is included for comparison. the tectonic R1 vs. R2 plot by Batchelor and
No significant hydrothermal alteration/ Bowden (1985), with exception of the weakly
weathering evidences are observed in the samples, altered sample of El Dorado which plots into the
with exception of the sample from El Dorado post-collision uplift field probably due again to
sector, which seem to be weakly altered. its weakly altered character (Figure 4.4.2.27).
Major Elements Geochemistry Trace Elements Geochemistry
The analyzed samples from the Segovia Trace elements contents were compared
Batholith returned SiO 2 contents in a narrow against Bulk Continental Crust (Taylor and
range between 57% and 64%, with high McLennan, 1995) and Primordial Mantle
aluminum and moderate to high sodium (Wood et al., 1979) values (Figures 4.4.2.28
contents (Al 2O 3>15%; Na 2O=2.4-4.21). and 4.4.2.29).
All of the samples of the Segovia Batholith They all show similar patterns with a
are of medium- to high-K calc-alkaline affinity, subduction-related geochemical signature
with the rocks of the Segovia-Remedios area expressed in High Field Strength Elements
samples (WR-127 and WR-128) plotting in (HFSE) depletion (e.g. Nb-Ta, Ti) and Large
the high-K calc-alkaline series field and the Ion Lithophyle (LIL) enrichments (e.g. K, Ba,
samples from Nechi (WR-210) and El Cairo- Sr) (Pearce et al., 1984; Pearce and Peate,
Normandia (WR-248) plotting in the field of 1995).
medium-K calc-alkaline series (Figures The Segovia-Remedios samples (WR-127
4.4.2.22 and 4.4.2.23). and WR-128) exhibit a remarkable enrichment
The sample from El Dorado (WR-245) in U and Th (U=2.5-2.9ppm and Th=8-
plot in the high-K calc-alkaline series field 10ppm) with respect to the samples from other
probably due to weak alteration as mentioned localities of the batholith (U=1.2-1.8ppm;
above. Th=4.0-5.0ppm).
340 SECTION 4.4.- OTHER INTRUSIVES OF JURASSIC AGE WITH ASSOCIATED Au OCCURRENCES
Figure 4.4.2.22. AFM plot (Irvine and F i g u re 4 . 4 . 2 . 2 3 . K 2 O v s . S i O 2 p l o t

Baragar, 1971) for samples of the Segovia geotectonic plot (Peccerillo and Taylor,
Batholith. 1976) for samples of the Segovia Batholith.
Figure 4.4.2.24. A/CNK vs. A/NK plot Figure 4.4.2.25. Total alkalis (TAS) plot
(Shand, 1943) for samples of the Segovia (Cox et al., 1979) for samples of the
Batholith. Segovia Batholith.
Figure 4.4.2.26. Feldspar triangle plot Figure 4.4.2.27. R 1 vs. R 2 plot geotectonic
(O’Connor, 1965) for samples of the Segovia plot (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for
Batholith. samples of the Segovia Batholith.
Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry
Rare Earth Elements contents of the

samples from the Segovia Batholith are
moderate (R=93-142ppm), and they
were compared against chondrite values
(Boynton, 1984), showing similar geochemical
patterns characterized by moderately
decreasing fractionated slopes ((La/Lu)N=5.5-
10) and no Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.90-1.03).
A remarkable flat Heavy Rare Earth Elements
(HREE) pattern is observed ((Gd/Lu) N=0.90-
1.03) (Figure 4.4.2.30).
Figure 4.4.2.28. Bulk Continental Crust-

4.4.2.3. ZIRCON U-Pb normalized trace element spider-diagram
GEOCHRONOLOGY for the volcanoclastic rocks of the Serranía de
San Lucas region.
The zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS
analyses of samples from the Segovia Batholith
returned late Jurassic ages (ca. 158-167Ma)
(Table 4.4.2.1).
The hornblende diorite rock sample at
Morroputo in the Nechi area (Sample WR-
210) returned a late Jurassic age of 166.5+2.3/
-2.5Ma (Figure 4.4.2.31).
At El Bagre area, a zircon mineral pan
concentrate from a granodiorite saprolite sample
in Los Chorros sector (Sample BV-3) returned
also a late Jurassic magmatic crystallization age
of 164.6±2.4 Ma (Figure 4.4.2.32).
In the Segovia-Remedios Mining District F i g u re 4 . 4 . 2 . 2 9 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -
sector, the hornblende biotite granodiorite normalized trace element spider-diagram
sample collected inside the Providencia Mine for the volcanoclastic rocks of the Serranía de
(Sample WR-128) also returned a late Jurassic San Lucas region.
age (158.7±2.0Ma) (Figure 4.4.2.33).
This age compares well with results of
zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS analyses of two
zircon mineral pan concentrates in saprolite
samples from the school site close to the
Providencia Mine (Sample MP-1C =
160.7+2.4/-2.3Ma) and from the Pomarrosa
Mine area (Sample MPR-1C = 159.0±2.4Ma)
(Figures 4.4.2.34 and 4.4.2.35).
In addition, the granodiorite rock sample
analyzed from El Cairo-Normandia area
(Sample WR-248), located to the west of the
Palestina Fault System in the southern sector
of the batholith, returned a late Jurassic age of
diagram for the volcanoclastic rocks of the
162.7±2.6Ma (Figure 4.4.2.36).
Table 4.4.2.1. Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS ages for samples of the Segovia Batholith.
SAMPLE LITHOLOGY GEOLOGICAL UNIT LOCALITY COORDINATES AGE (Ma) METHOD Inheritance ages
Morroputo 74° 1’ 34.9” W

WR-210 Diorite Segovia Batholith 166.5+2.3/-2.5 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(Nechi) 8° 7’ 27” N
Granodiorite
Los Chorros 74° 45’ 48.5” W
BV-3 saprolite Segovia Batholith 164.6±2.4 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(El Bagre) 7° 35’ 9.7” N
(pan concentrate)
Segovia- 74° 41’ 41.8” W

WR-128 Granodiorite Segovia Batholith 158.7±2.0 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
Rmedios 7° 3’ 41.9” N
Saprolite Segovia- 74° 41’ 38.1” W

MP-1C Segovia Batholith 160.7+2.4/-2.3 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(pan concentrate) Rmedios 7° 3’ 46.8” N
Saprolite Segovia- 74° 42’ 15.8” W

MPR-1C Segovia Batholith 159.0±2.4 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(pan concentrate) Rmedios 7° 3’ 10.8” N
El Cairo- 74° 36’ 35.2” W

WR-248 Quartz-diorite Segovia Batholith 162.7±2.6 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
Normandia 6° 36’ 21.7” N
74° 38’ 57.1” W

WR-245 Granodiorite Segovia Batholith El Dorado 163.1±2.8 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
6° 27’ 11.9” N
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the diorite U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
of the Morroputo area (Sample WR-210). granodiorite saprolite of the Los Chorros
area (Sample BV-3).
granodiorite of the Providencia Mine granodiorite saprolite of the Providencia
(Sample WR-128). area (Sample MP-1C).
This age mirrors the magmatic
crystallization age obtained for the granodiorite
sample of the small N-S trend intrusion at El
Dorado Sector (Sample WR-245 =
162.7±2.6Ma), which seem to have been
displaced ca. 28km by later reactivation and
right-lateral movement along the fault system
(Feininger, 1970) (Figure 4.4.2.37).
A remarkable feature is that no inheritance
ages were obtained in the analyses of samples
from the Segovia Batholith. This interesting
feature would imply a rapid emplacement with
no significant assimilation of older
Figure 4.4.2.35. Concordia plot for zircon
Mesoproterozoic/Paleozoic basement rocks as
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
observed in some samples from the early to
saprolite of the Pomarrosa Mine area
middle Jurassic batholiths (e.g. San Martin de
(Sample MPR-1C).
Loba-Juana Sanchez granodiorites and Norosí
Batholith) of the Serrania de San Lucas.
A summary of the ages obtained for the
phaneritic holocrystalline rocks of the Segovia
Batholith is presented in the Figure 4.4.2.38.
Geochronological results obtained in this
work, confirm the middle Jurassic K-Ar
(amphibole) age of 160±7Ma reported by
Feininger et al. (1972) and the zircon U-Pb
Figure 4.4.2.36. Tera-Wasserburg concordia

p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S
analysis of the quartz-diorite of the El
Cairo-Normandia area (Sample WR-248).

p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S
analysis of the granodiorite of the El Dorado Figure 4.4.2.38. Zircon U-Pb ages for the
area (WR-245). Segovia Batholith.
Table 4.4.2.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for samples of the Segovia Batholith.
Table 4.4.2.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for samples of the Segovia Batholith.
Table 4.4.2.4. Lead isotope geochemistry

results for samples of the Segovia Batholith.

of the Norosí-San Martin Batholith and
associated volcanoclastic rocks.
age of 154±1.6Ma presented by Frantz et al.
(2007) for this batholith (Londoño et al.,
2009) (Figure 4.4.2.38).
Moreover, the geochronological evidence The results of the isotope geochemistry
shows that late Jurassic magmatism extends analyses are shown in tables 4.4.2.2, 4.4.2.3
along the entire Segovia Batholith as appears and 4.4.2.4.
in geological maps and literature, from the Low initial 87Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0.70385-
Nechí townsite in the north down to the north 0.70434) and variable positive  Nd values
of Puerto Nare townsite in the Magdalena (1.04-1.33) indicate a mantle-derived source
valley (Figure 4.4.2.1). for the magmas with minor continental crustal
contribution (Figure 4.4.2.39).
On the other hand, lead isotope ratios for
4 . 4 . 2 . 4 . R b - S r, S m - N d A N D P b - P b the samples of the Segovia Batholith (206 Pb/
204
ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY Pb=18.92-20.21, 207 Pb/ 204Pb=15.64-15.70
and 208Pb/ 204Pb=38.79-39.41) are much more
Three rock samples of the Segovia radiogenic when compared with rocks of the
Batholith were selected for Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and early to middle Jurassic batholiths of the
Pb-Pb isotopes analyses, including the diorite Serrania de San Lucas (e.g. San Martin de
sample from Morroputo sector in the Nechi Loba-Juana Sanchez granodiorites, Norosí and
area (Sample WR-210), the granodiorite Guamoco Batholiths), and show more similar
sample from the Providencia Mine at the values to those yielded by samples of the
Segovia-Remedios Mining District (Sample Antioquia Batholith (i.e. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb=18.74-
WR-128) and the granodiorite samples of the 19.21, 207 Pb/ 204Pb=15.58-15.67 and 208 Pb/
204
El Dorado area. Pb=38.48-39.05)(Figure 4.4.2.40).
Figure 4.4.2.40. Thorogenic ( 208Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb) and uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) diagrams for the samples of the Segvoia Batholith. Lead isotope evolution
curves after the Plumbotectonics model by Zartman and Doe (1981).
4.4.3.The Ibagué batholith and the Saldaña Formation 347
4.4.3. THE IBAGUÉ BATHOLITH

AND THE SALDAÑA FORMATION
4.4.3.1. INTRODUCTION for the early intrusion phases of the batholith,

suggesting that the batholith is a composite
The Ibagué Batholith (Nelson, 1957) is an heterogeneous intrusive. Moreover, the
NNE-SSW trending Jurassic intrusive geochemical signature of the dike sample
extended by ca. 12000km2 over the eastern indicates subduction-related magmatism.
flank of the Central Cordillera. It has about Villagómez et al. (2008) and Villagómez (2010)
150 km of length by 40 of width. It is a
heterogeneous intrusion, comprising many
monzonitic rocks.
The lithological composition of the
intrusive is highly variable with different
phaneritic holocrystalline quartz-diorite to
granite facies. They are usually medium- to
coarse-grained, composed by quartz,
plagioclase, k-feldspar, hornblende and biotite
in variable proportions.
The Ibagué Batholith is intruded by several
stocks and dikes of andesite, dacite and
alaskite/pegmatite composition (Núñez, 1998).
Most of the contacts of the intrusive with
the host rocks, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks of the Proterozoic, Paleozoic and
M e s o z o i c , a r e t e c t o n i c . H o w e v e r,
metamorphic aureolas are observed in the
contact of the batholith with the Triassic
Payande Formation, causing recrystallization
of the calcareous rocks and the development
of skarns.
Petrochemical characterization of the
Ibagué Batholith by Álvarez (1983) indicates
a calc-alkaline continental margin affinity with
I-type granitoids.
The age of the Ibagué Batholith was
initially constrained by several Rb-Sr and K-
Ar in mineral separates and whole-rock
samples as early Jurassic to early Cretaceous
(ca. 183-131Ma) (Maya, 1992). Recent
geochemical and geochronological data on an Figure 4.4.3.1.Simplified geological map of th
andesite dike intruding the northern sector of eastern flank of the Central Cordillera,
the Ibagué Batholith by Altenberger and showing the outcrops of the Ibagué batholith,
Concha (2005), returned an early Jurassic the Saldaña formation and the distribtion of
hornblende K-Ar age of 177.3±8Ma. These samples. Adapted from Cediel & Cáceres
authors interpreted this age as the minimum age (2000).
reported two zircon U-Pb LA- ICP-MS ages base of the volcanoclastic sequence is marked
on granite and diorite samples of the northern by a late Triassic thin shallow marine
Ibagué Batholith, which returned middle to late sedimentary deposit (i.e. Chicalá Member;
Jurassic ages of 159.6±2.4Ma and Mojica and Prinz-Grimm, 2000). Moreover,
165±15Ma. the volcanoclastic sequence of the Saldaña
Additional recent zircon U-Pb LA-MC- Formation is overlaid by sequences of Aptian
ICP-MS also returned magmatic crystallization sediments in angular unconformity (i.e. Yaví and
ages of ca. 160Ma and ca. 190Ma for the Alpujarra formations; Florez and Carrillo,
northern and southern areas of the batholith 1994).
respectively (Agustín Cardona, personal Small andesite/dacite hypabyssal
communitacion). intrusives intrude the Saldaña Formation along
Other intrusives cropping out in the upper the upper Magdalena valley, and several gold
Magdalena valley and the Garzon Massif (i.e. and copper mineralization styles are also
Altamira Granite, Garzon Granite and Las reported associated to this think volcanoclastic
Minas Granite) returned magmatic sequence (e.g. Lobo-Guerrero, 2003).
crystallization ages spanning the 173-188Ma
interval (Agustin Cardona, personal
communitacion). 4.4.3.2. PYROXENE QUARTZMONZONITE
On the other hand, the late Triassic- OF THE IBAGUÉ FACIES
Jurassic Saldaña Formation (Cediel et al.,
1981) is a thick continental volcanoclastic The Ibagué facies is one of the most
sequence that crops out to the east of the typical among those found at the South part of
Ibagué Batholith along the upper Magdalena the batholith. The sample WR-214, used for
valley. It is the southern expression of the the description, was collected at the Damitas
extensive volcanoclastic deposits deposited creek, Iquira Municipality in the southern
during Triassic-early Jurassic times associated Ibagué Batholith.
with the development of the Bolivar Aulacogen The Ibagué quartzmonzonites are
(Section 2.2.3). holocrystalline, faneritic and coarse-grained.
The published geochemical results on They mainly consist of K-feldspar, plagioclase,
rocks of the Saldaña Formation evidence its clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene and amphibole,
calc-alkaline character (Castañeda, 2002). with lesser amounts of biotite, quartz,
The age of the Saldaña Formation is magnetite, apatite and zircon (figs. 4.4.3.2-
constrained by stratigraphic relationships. The 4.4.3.3).
pl or or
pl
or or
bt bt
cpx cpx
or or
pl pl
F i g u re 4 . 4 . 3 . 2 . General view of the Figure 4.4.3.3. The above image in crossed

quartmontzonites of the Ibagué facies, in PPL. polars. Note twinning in clinopyroxene and
Note clinopyroxene (cpx), biotite (bt), orthoclase the abbundance of feldsspars. Quartz is
(or) and plagioclase (pl). Sample WR-214. lacking in the image.
Plagioclase apatite, amphibole and epidote, and may be
altered in low grade to sericite.
Plagioclase, rich in albite component
according with the optical properties, is the Orthoclase
dominant mineral in the rock, and its content
is close to 50 % modal. Plagioclase is subhedral Orthoclase occurs in a lesser proportion than
and the habit is bladed; the maximum length of plagioclase, around 20% modal. The crystals of
the crystals is about 1,5 cm; crystals are K-feldspar are anhedral and are found in
strongly corroded on the borders by K- interstitial position among the plagioclase crystals
feldspar (figs. 4.4.3.4-4.4.3.6), in many cases, (fig. 4.4.3.5).The maximum length of the crystals
with the development of myrmekitic textures. is about 1 cm. Twinning is absent, and patchy or
Twinning is on the albite law, and in many cases vein microperthites are distinct (fig. 4.4.3.6). They
the polysynthetic twinning is bent (fig. 4.4.3.5), are very abundant, thus indicating a high proportion
indicating that the rock has been affected by of the albite component in the original crystal.
deformation; optical zoning is poorly developed. Different generations of orthoclase are seen (fg.
Plagioclase crystals contain euhedral inclusions of 4.4.3.7)
cpx>
<cpx
pl or
pl
pl
Figure 4.4.3.4. Detail of an orthose crystal Figure 4.4.3.5. Bent plagioclase crystal, partly
(or) replacing twinned and unzoned corroded by orthoclase . Crossed nicols. Sample
plagioclase crystals (pl) that enclose WR-214.
clinopyroxene (cpx). Crossed nicols.
<cpx <cpx
pl
or2
or pl
or1
pl
pl
Figure 4.4.3.6. Microperthite in a orthoclase Figure 4.4.3.7. Two generations of K-

grain (or) which corrodes plagioclase crystal. feldspar (or1 and or2) as evidenced by the
Note myrmekitic textures in the contact. Crossed i n t e r f e re n c e c o l o r s . B o t h c o r ro d e s
nicols. plagioclase. Crossed polars.
Quartz size of these crystals can achieve the centimeter

order. Complex intergrowns can be observed in
Only accessory quantities of quartz are the contacts (fig. 4.4.3.10-4.4.3.11).
present, less than 5% modal. It is anhedral and Biotite can be partly replaced by chlorite
is situated in interstitial positions among the and epidote following grain borders and
feldspars (fig. 4.4.3.8). It formed very late in cleavages.
the magmatic sequence. It shows wavy
extinction. Clinopyroxene
Biotite Pyroxene crystals are common in these

rocks, and may constitute up to 10% modal of
It is a common accessory in these rocks, the rock. They are colorless, with a maximum
although it does not overpass 7% modal of the extinction angle of 45º. These optical
rock. They occur as subhedral prismatic properties suggest that they may correspond
reddish-brown crystals. They contain inclusions to diopside or augite. Pyroxene crystals are
of ortho- and clinopyroxenes (fig. 4.4.3.9). The subhedral, with a long prismatic habit (fig.
pl or or
pl bt
cpx
or
qtz> <bt
pl bt
pl
pl
Figure 4.4.3.8. Quartz grains interstitial Figure 4.4.3.9. Biotite grains (bt), showing
among plagioclase subhedral tabular strong pleochroism, overgrow clinopyroxene
crystals. Sample WR-214. (cpx). Plagioclase (pl) and orthoclase (or)
are also indicated. PPL, sample WR-214.
<bt
<amp1
cpx
bt>
Figure 4.4.3.10. Biotite (bt) corroding a Figure 4.4.3.11. The above image in crossed
c l i n o p y ro x e n e c r y s t a l ( c p x ) . N o t e polars. Sample WR-214.
symplectitic intergroths of biotite and
secondary amphibole (amp). PPL.
4.4.3.9-4.4.3.11). Zoning may be present, with suggest that they may correspond to Mg-rich
cores enriched in inclusions of opaque minerals, members of the series enstatite-ferrosilite.
and they contain orthopyrooxene exsolution Enstatite crystals are subhedral, with a long
lamellae. The size of these crystals is in the prismatic habit. They contain clinopyroxene
centimeter order. exsolution lamellae (fig. 4.4.3.13). The size of the
The clinopyroxene is often partly replaced crystals is in the centimeter order.
by amphibole during late stages of magmatic The orthopyroxene may be also often
crystallization. This replacement is along grain mantled and partly replaced by subhedral
borders and cleavages. amphibole. This type of replacement can be
considered as primary magmatic.
Orthopyroxene
Amphibole
Orthopyroxene crystals are less common (up
to 4 % modal) and smaller than clinopyroxenes In addition to the amphiboles found as a
(well less than 1 cm in lenght). They are colorless, replacement product of pyroxenes along grain
with some brownish hue. These optical properties borders (figs. (4.4.3.14-4.4.3.15), an olive-
opx opx
cpx cpx cpx cpx

cpx cpx
Figure 4.4.3.12. Orthopyroxene crystals (opx) Figure 4.4.3.13. SThe above image in crossed
in association with clinopyroxene crystals poalrs. Note exsolutions of clinopyroxene in
(cpx). Sample WR-214. orthopyroxene (in the position of extinction), and
the inverse relation.
opx
<amp
Figure 4.4.3.14. A secondary greenish Figure 4.4.3.15. The above image, in crossed
amphibole (amp) rimming a colorless polars.
orthopyroxene crystal (opx), in PPL. Sample
WR-214.
green amphibole is a common accessory, around Apatite

4 % modal. It is subhedral, with a long prismatic
habit, with a length in the order of 1 cm. Zoning Apatite crystals are common in the rock,
may be present and is revealed by slight although they are only a trace mineral, that
concentric changes in the color. They are found occurs in inclusions in other minerals. The size
in all the cases as overgrowns on the of the crystals tends to be in the order of 0,5
pyroxenes, and both crystals share the mm (fig. 4.4.3.16), but some skeletal or fibrous
crystalligraphic c axis. aggregates have been also observed (fig.
4.4.3.17).
Titanite
Zircon
Titanite is not very abundant (less than 1%
modal), but the crystals are of moderate size Zircon crystals are scarce and very small
(up to 1 cm). They are rarely euhedral, and 8less than 100 microns). They tend to be
most of the cases the crystals are irregular. prismatic and rounded, and are found as
These crystals are not twinned or zoned, and inclusions in biotite and other minerals (fig.
are found scattered across the rock. 4.4.3.18).
bt pl
ap> pl
or
<ap
ap> <ap ap>
qtz
pl or
<ap pl
Figure 4.4.3.16. Euhedral apatite crystals (ap), Figure 4.4.3.17. Fibrous apatite crystals
associated with orthoclase (or), plagioclase (ap), found as inclusions in plagioclase (pl).
(pl), biotite (bt) and quartz (qtz). PPL. PPL. Sample WR-214.
mt>
bt
<zr ilm>
zr>
cpx
amp> <clc
Figure 4.4.3.18. Zircon crystals (zr) producing Figure 4.4.3.19. Ilmenite (ilm) inclusions in
metamictic aureolas on biotite (bt), partly clinopyroxene (cpx) with Schiller texture.
replaced by chlorite (clc). A green amphibole M a g n e t i t e ( m t ) i s a l s o p re s e n t . P P L ,
(amp) is also present. PPL. Sample WR-214. reflected light. Sample WR-214.
cpx
bt
ilm
ilm
pl
Figure 4.4.3.20. Ilmenite crystals (ilm) Figure 4.4.3.21. The above image in crossed
associated with clinopyroxene. PPL, reflected p o l a r s . N o t e a f e w a n i s o t ro p y i n t h e
light. Sample WR-214. interference colors.
Magnetite On the other hand, in the southern sector,

a set of eight samples analyzed corresponds
Magnetite is quite common, although just to gabbros (Sample WR-160), diorites
as a trace mineral. The crystals are anhedral, (Samples WR-165, WR167, WR-168 and
rounded grains, around 500 microns in size. WR-214), quartz-diorites/granodiorites (WR-
No exsolutions or alterations have been 166 and WR-169) and granites (WR-291).
observed on them. In addition, five samples of the
volcanoclastic rocks of the Saldaña Formation
Ilmenite were also analyzed for comparison with the
granitic rocks of the Ibagué Batholith. These
Ilmenite is quite common, and is found samples were collected in the upper
either as small lamellar inclusions in pyroxenes Magdalena valley along a wide region between
(Schiller texture, fig. 4.4.3.19) or as discrete the Pital townsite in the south and the Alpujarra
larger anhedral grains, up to 400 microns in townsite in the north. These samples include a
size (fig. 4.4.3.21, 4.4.3.22). No hematite wide alkaline compositional spectra from
exsolutions are observed. basaltic trachy-andesites (Samples WR-105
and WR-163), trachy-andesites (Sample WR-
164), trachytes/trachydacites (Sample WR-
4.4.3.2. WHOLE ROCK 161) and rhyolites (Sample WR-162).
GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE IBAGUÉ
BATHOLITH Major Elements Geochemistry
A set of 20 samples from the Ibagué The whole-rock geochemical results show
Batholith were analyzed for whole-rock highly variable silica contents (SiO 2=49 to
geochemistry. The analyzed samples include 71%). Moreover, Na 2 O, K 2 O and Al 2 O 3
different lithologies in a wide spectrum, from contents spans the ranges 2.36 and 4.89%,
gabbro/diorite rocks to granite samples. 0.23 and 5.96% and 12.44 to 17.65%,
In the northern area of the batholith, the respectively. MgO values found are in the
set of six samples analyzed includes gabbros 0.52-4.56% interval.
(Sample WR-75), diorites (Sample WR-103) The AFM plot after Irvine and Baragar
and quartz-diorites/granodiorites (Samples (1976) shows how rock samples from the
WR-99, WR-100, WR-246 and WR-247). Ibagué Batholith and the volcanoclastic

Baragar, 1971) for samples of the Ibague geotectonic plot (Peccerillo and Taylor,
Batholith and the Saldaña Formation. 1976) for samples of the Ibague Batholith
and the Saldaña Formation.
(Shand, 1943) for samples of the Ibague (Cox et al., 1979) for samples of the Ibague
Batholith and the Saldaña Formation. Batholith and the Saldaña Formation.
(O’Connor, 1965) for samples of the Ibague plot (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for
Batholith and the Saldaña Formation. samples of the Ibague Batholith and the
Saldaña Formation.
sequence of the Saldaña Formation seems to define The feldspar triangle plot by O’Connor
a calc-alkaline trend (Figure 4.4.2.22). (1965) show most of the samples of the Ibagué
The K2O vs. SiO2 plot by Peccerillo and Taylor Batholith and the Saldaña Formation plotting into
(1976) shows a marked high-K calc-alkaline trend the granodiorite field, but it also show some
for the rocks of the Ibagué Batholith. Some samples scattered plotting into the tonalite,
exceptions to this general trend include the samples trondhjemite, granite and wuartz-monzonite fields
WR-99, WR-103, WR-246 and WR-247 from the (Figure 4.4.3.26).
northern sector of the batholith which plots within The tectonic environments discrimination plot
or close to the tholeiite series field (Figure 4.4.3.23). by Batchelor and Bowden (1985) show most of
The samples WR-160 and WR-168 the samples of the Ibagué Batholith plotting into
collected in the southern area of the intrusive the pre-plate collsion (subduction-related) field.
plot into the medium-K calc-alkaline series but The samples WR-99 and WR-246 from the
very close to the high-K calc-alkaline series northern ares plot into the mantle fractionates field,
field, so it is possible they pertain to this same whereas the samples WR-169 and WR-291 plot
series. Moreover, rock samples of the Saldaña into the late orogenic field (Figure 4.4.3.27).
Formation exhibit an alkaline character and On the other hand, samples from the Saldaña
plot all in the shoshonite series field. When Formation plot in a wide spectrum from pre-plate
plotted on the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand collision field through post-collision uplift to late
(1943), most of the rocks exhibit a clear orogenic fields.
metaluminous and I-type granite series affinity
(A/CNK<1.1). Samples WR-246 and WR- Trace Elements Geochemistry
247 shift to the right into the Peraluminous field
probably associated with weak to moderate Trace element contents obtained from
alteration/weathering, as do sample WR-162 samples of the Ibagué Batholith and the Saldaña
of the volcanoclastic Saldaña Formation Formation were compared to the bulk continental
(Figure 4.4.3.24). crust (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and
In the total alkalis (TAS) plot by Cox et primordial mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values in
al. (1979), the samples of the northern Ibagué multielemental “spider-gram” plots (Figures
Batholith plot in a wide range from the diorite to 4.4.3.28 and 4.4.3.29).
the quartz-diorite (granodiorite) fields, whereas All of the samples of the Ibagué Batholith
the southern samples span a wider range from and the Saldaña Formation exhibit similar patterns,
the gabbro to the granite fields (Figure 4.4.3.25). but some of the Ibagué Batholith samples (WR-
Conversely, the samples of the Saldaña Formation 100, WR-165, WR-167, WR-169, WR-214 and
plot into the alkaline field. WR 291) show enriched Th and U values
Figure 4.4.3.28. Bulk Continental Crust- F i g u re 4 . 4 . 3 . 2 9 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -

for the rocks of the Ibague Batholith and for the rocks of the Ibague Batholith and
the Saldaña Formation. the Saldaña Formation.
REE contents obtained from samples of the

Ibagué Batholith and the Saldaña Formation were
compared against chondrite values after Boynton
(1984; fig. 4.4.3.30).
Most of the samples of the Ibagué Batholith
show similar REE patterns, with moderate
fractionated decreasing slope ((La/Lu)N=4.3-8.8)
indicating enrichment of Light Rare Earth Elements
(LREE) with respect to Heavy Rare Earth
Elements (HREE). The samples WR-166 and
WR-169 show steeper decreasing slopes ((La/
Lu)N=13.3-13.8).
On the other hand, the rock samples of the
diagram for the rocks of the Ibagué Batholith
Saldaña Formation show similar REE patterns
((La/Lu)N=8.3-14.5ppm).
The samples WR-166, WR-246 and WR-247
show general depletion in REE contents. In
particular, samples WR-246 and WR-247 show
(Th>10ppm and U>2ppm). The rock samples of uneven patterns which would be de result of
the Saldaña Formation also show the same moderate alteration/weathering as observed above
enriched U and Th values. from particular behavior in major element plots.
Moreover, all of the Ibagué Batholith and In addition, the sample WR-162 of the
Saldaña Formation rock samples show strong Saldaña Formation exhibits a markedly overall
subduction-related signature with High Strength Field enrichment of REE contents.
(HFS) elements enrichments (e.g. Ba, K, Sr) and Most of the samples of the Ibagué Batholith
Lage Ion Lithophile (LIL) elements depletion (eg. and the Saldaña Formation show weak to
Nb, Ta, Ti). moderate negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.54-
0.99), and only the sample WR-166 show weak
Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry positive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*=1.14).
REE contents of the rock samples from the

Ibagué Batholith are moderate (REE=88- 4.4.3.3. ZIRCON U-Pb GEOCHRONOLOGY
173ppm) for most of the samples, and only the
sample WR-247 returned lower values Six samples of phaneritic holocrystalline rocks
(REE=43.7 ppm). Conversely, the rock samples of the Ibagué Batholith, two in the northern area
of the Saldaña Formation returned much higher and four in the southern area were dated by zircon
contents ((REE=193-527ppm). U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS method (table 4.4.3.1).
Table 4.4.3.1. Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS ages for samples of the Ibague Batholith.
GEOLOGICAL INHERITANCE
SAMPLE LITHOLOGY LOCALITY COORDINATES AGE (Ma) METHOD
UNIT AGES
Granodiorite San Luis 75° 38’ 7.3” W

WR-166 Ibague Batholith 188.5±3.3 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 1160Ma
(southern sector) Region (south) 2° 54’ 59.3” N
Diorite Damitas creek 75° 42’ 42.5” W

WR-214 Ibague Batholith 188.4+2.8/-2.7 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(southern sector) (Iquira) 2° 38’ 43.6” N
Diorite San Luis 75° 35’ 37.4” W

WR-167 Ibague Batholith 186.0±3.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 200Ma
(southern sector) Region (south) 2° 52’ 15.6” N
Granodiorite La Mina creek 75° 54’ 48.6” W

WR-291 Ibague Batholith 182.7±2.7 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
(southern sector) (La Argentina) 2° 26’ 10.3” N
Granodiorite SW Rovira 75° 18’ 33.7” W

(northern sector) (north) 4° 11’ 11.4” N
Granodiorite SW Rovira 75° 18’ 8.2” W

(northern sector) (north) 4° 10’ 49.9” N
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the diorite
granodiorite of the San Luis region (Sample sof the Damitas creek (Sample WR-214).
WR-166).
Figure 4.4.3.33. Concordia plot for zircon Figure 4.4.3.34. Tera-Wasserburg concordia
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the diorite p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S
of the San Luis region (Sample WR-167). analysis of the granodiorite of the La Mina
creek (WR-291).

p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - M C - I C P - M S
analysis of the granodiorite of the SW Rovira analysis of the granodiorite of the SW Rovira
area (Sample WR-246). area (WR-247).
samples (WR-167 and WR-214) and two

granodiorite samples (WR-166 and WR-291)
from the southern area, and two granodiorite
samples (WR-246 and WR-247) from the
northern area.
The magmatic crystallization ages obtained
for the rock samples of the Ibagué Batholith
are presented in Table 4.4.3.1.
The magmatic crystallization ages span the
early to late Jurassic 189-149Ma interval, with
older ages (189-182Ma) obtained in the
southern sector and younger ones (153-
149Ma) in the northern sector of the batholith
(Figures 4.4.3.31 to 4.4.3.36).
Inheritance ages for the zircon analyses of
these samples are scarce, only samples from
the San Luis a single zircon crystal of the
sample (WR-166) returned a Mesoproterozoic
age of ca. 1160Ma.
In addition, a single zircon crystal of the
sample WR-167 yiended an early Jurassic age
Figure 4.4.3.37. Zircon U-Pb ages for the of ca. 200Ma.
Ibague Batholith, compared with other ages A summary of the ages obtained for the
reported in the bibliography.. phaneritic holocrystalline rocks of the Ibagué
Batholith is presented in the Figure 4.4.3.37.
The results presented above compare well
Table 4.4.3.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for samples of the Ibague Batholith and the
Saldaña Formation.
The analyzed samples include two diorite
Table 4.4.3.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for samples of the Ibague Batholith and the
Saldaña Formation.
with the recent zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS in the southern area, whereas the younger one
obtained for the northern and southern regions is best exposed in the northern sector.
of the batholith (i.e. ca. 160 and ca. 190Ma,
respectively) (Agustin Cardona, personal
communication). 4 . 4 . 3 . 4 . R b - S r, S m - N d A N D P b - P b
The northern samples returned similar ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
ages to the magmatic ages presented by
Villagomez et al. (2008) and Villagomez (2010) Whole-rock Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope
in the same area. results for rock samples of the southern Ibagué
Regarding all the magmatic crystallization Batholith and the Saldaña Formation are shown
ages obtained for rocks of the Ibagué Batholith in Tables 4.4.3.2 and 4.4.3.3.
in the northern and southern areas up to this Samples selected for isotope
date (i.e. Villagomez et al., 2008; Villagomez, geochemistry analyses include three samples
2010; and this work), is possible to identify at of diorite and granite phaneritic holocrystalline
least two well-defined magmatic events in the rocks of the Ibagué Batholith in the southern
early Jurassic (189-182Ma) and in the middle- area (WR-214, WR-165 and WR-291), and
late Jurassic (160-149Ma) associated to the two trachyandesite/trachyte samples from the
intrusion of the Ibagué Batholith. Saldaña Formation (WR-161 and WR-164).
The older magmatic event is best exposed Rock samples from the Ibagué Batholith

results for samples of the Ibague Batholith

of the Ibague Batholith and the Saldaña
Formation.
Figure 4.4.3.39. Thorogenic (208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb) and uranogenic (207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/
204
Pb) diagrams for the samples of the Ibague Batholith and the Saldaña Formation. Lead
isotope evolution curves after the Plumbotectonics model by Zartman and Doe (1981).
and the Saldaña Formation returned moderate cluster in narrow ranges (206 Pb/204 Pb=18.72-
Rb (61-121ppm) and high Sr (262-559ppm) 18.85; 207 Pb/ 204Pb=15.62-15.63 and 208Pb/
204
contents. Pb=38.61-38.94) (Table 4.4.3.4).
Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios for the rock samples On the other hand, lead isotope results
from the Ibagué Batholith returned values obtained for rock samples of the Saldaña
spanning a wide interval (0.70489-0.70609), F o r m a t i o n a r e a l s o r a d i o g e n i c ( 207P b /
with  Nd values between -0.94 and 2.28. 204
Pb>15.55), but exhibit less radiogenic
Despite the wide range, they all plot close to values than those observed in the rock samples
the mantle array and the Bulk Earth value in f r o m t h e I b a g u é B a t h o l i t h ( ( 206P b /
204
the Sr-Nd plot (Figure 4.4.3.38). Pb=17.96-18.19; 207 Pb/ 204Pb=15.55-15.56
Lead isotope results for the Ibagué a n d 208P b / 204P b = 3 8 . 2 6 - 3 8 . 4 3 ) ( F i g u r e
Batholith are relatively radiogenic ( 207 Pb/ 4.4.3.39).
204
Pb>15.55). Moreover, lead isotope ratios
4.4.4.- The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta batholiths and associated volcanic rocks 361
4.4.4. THE SIERRA NEVADA DE SANTA MARTA

BATHOLITHS AND ASSOCIATED VOLCANIC ROCKS
The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a

triangle-shaped mountain located in the
Caribbean coast of Colombia (Section 2.1.2).
It is bounded by major fault systems: the Oca-
El Pilar Fault System to the north, the Santa
Marta-Bucaramanga Fault System to the
southwest, and a NE tending inferred fault
under a wide structural trough to the southeast
(i.e. inferred buried Cesar lineament; Tschanz,
1974) (Figure 4.4.4.1).
Early publications on the geology of the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Tschanz,
1974), indicate the existence of a Jurassic
magmatic belt located in the southeastern region
of the mountain range (i.e. Sierra Nevada
geotectonic province).
The Jurassic volcanic rocks (i.e. Guatapurí
Formation), were dated by Tschanz (1974) by Figure 4.4.4.1. Geological map of the sierra
K-Ar method in two hornblende mineral Nevada de Santa Marta and sample location.
separates from rhyodacite ignimbrite samples,
obtaining early Jurassic ages of 180±12Ma
and 175±13Ma.
On the other hand, Jurassic intrusives Aracataca, Ojeda, Central and Bolivar
were grouped into major batholiths within two batholiths) and “pink” granitic Southeastern
major magmatic belts: the granodiorite to Plutonic Belt (i.e. Pueblo Bello and Patillal
quartz-monzonite Central Plutonic Belt (i.e. batholiths) (Tschanz, 1974). Biotite and
Table 4.4.4.1. Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MC-MS ages for samples of the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta batholiths and associated volcanioc rocks.
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the rhyolite Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of the
of the Las Minas creek (Sample 12033372). g r a n o d i o r i t e o f t h e Ve re d a L a J a g u a
(Sample 12033367).
hornblende K-Ar ages published by this author ages for the intrusives (e.g. the Pueblo Bello
indicate early to middle Jurassic ages spanning Batholith) and the volcanoclastic sequence
the 189-162Ma interval. (e.g. Guatapurí Formation) in the southern Sie-
rra Nevada de Santa Marta (Figure 4.4.4.4).
These magmatic crystallization ages com-
4.4.4.1. ZIRCON U-Pb pare well with K-Ar ages obtained by Tschanz
GEOCHRONOLOGY (1974). Moreover, they are also coeval with
early to middle Jurassic intrusives analyzed at
In order to constraint the magmatic the Serrania de San Lucas (i.e. San Martin de
crystallization age for both, the Jurassic Loba-Juana Sanchez granodiorites; and Norosí
batholiths and the associated volcanoclastic and Guamoco batholiths) and associated
sequence in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mar- volcanoclastic sequence (i.e. Norean
ta area, two samples were collected for zircon Formation), and in the southern sector of the
U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis (Table Ibague Batholith.
4.4.4.1).
A rhyolite sample from the Guatapurí
Formation in the southern Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta (Sample 12033372) returned an
early Jurassic magmatic crystallization age of
183.3±0.3Ma (Figure 4.4.4.2). In this sample
few crystals returned slightly older inheritance
ages around 190-195Ma.
In addition, a granodiorite sample from
the Pueblo Bello Batholith in the southern Sie-
rra Nevada de Santa Marta (Sample
12033367) returned an early Jurassic
magmatic crystallization age of 179.8±3.3Ma
(Figure 4.4.4.3). Few zircon crystals returned
inheritance ages at ca. 200Ma; ca. 410Ma and
ca. 770Ma. Figure 4.4.2.4. Zircon U-Pb ages for the
The zircon U-Pb geochronologial results Pueblo Bello Batholith and associated
indicate early Jurassic magmatic crystallization volcanic rocks (i.e. Guatapurí Formation).
4.4.5.- The Mocoa Batholith 363
4.4.5. THE MOCOA BATHOLITH
The Mocoa Batholith (Alfonso, 2000), is

the southernmost expression of the late
Triassic-Jurassic magmatic belt in Colombia
(Aspden et al., 1987).
It is an elongated composite intrusive
body located in the SW Colombia over the
junction between the Central and Eastern
cordilleras, cropping out along a 190km
distance from the northern Nariño Department
up to the southern Huila Department, following
a SW-NE trend, and covering approximately
4200km 2 in area (Figure 4.4.5.1).
The Mocoa batholith comprises
phaneritic holocrystalline medium- to coarse-
grained rocks of variable composition
(monzogranite, quartz-monzodiorite, quartz-
diorite, granodiorite, and granite facies).
The intrusive rocks are composed of Figure 4.4.5.1. Location of the Mocoa
quartz, plagioclase, k-feldspar, biotite and Project and selected samples within the
hornblende in variable proportions. Most Mocoa Batholith.
common accessory minerals are: apatite, zircon
and titanite (Alfonso, 2000).
The contacts of the Mocoa Batholith with
facies is described intruding the pre-existing
adjacent formations are intrusive (e.g. Payandé
phaneritic rocks of the Mocoa Batholith.
and Saldaña formations) or tectonics (e.g.
Hosted in the Saldaña Formation occurs
Cretaceous units and younger geological
an important Cu-Mo porphyry-type
formations).
mineralization (i.e. the Mocoa Project)
As occur with the Ibague Batholith, a
associated with a biotite dacite porphyry stock
metamorphism aureole has been identified in
(Sillitoe et al., 1982; 1984) probably related
the contact with the late Triassic Payande
to the late hypabyssal intrusive facies of the
Formation, and is characterized by the
Mocoa Batholith magmatic suite. Intensive
development of skarns.
hydrothermal alteration is recognized.
At the microscope scale, Alfonso (2000)
The age of the Mocoa Batholith has been
describes different intrusive facies within the
constrained by K-Ar analyses published by
batholith including: microcline monzo-granites
Sillitoe et al. (1982). Two samples of magmatic
to granodiorites, k-feldspar granites
biotite mineral concentrates from granodiorite
(granophyres) and pyroxene tonalites. In
and adamellite samples of the phaneritic
addition, a late hornblende dacite porphyry
intrusive facies of the batholith returned late
364 SECTION 4.4.- OTHER JURASSIC INTRUSIVES WITH SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED Au OCCURRENCES
Triassic to early Jurassic ages of 210±4Ma and Major Elements Geochemistry

198±4Ma.
On the other hand, the age of The dacite porphyry samples from the
mineralization was also constrained by K-Ar Mocoa Batholith returned similar SiO 2
analyses in mineral concentrates and whole- contents around 65-66%, with similar Al2O 3
rock samples presented by Jaramillo et al. (15.53% and 15.99%), Na 2O (3.79% and
(1980) and Sillitoe et al. (1982). 4 . 8 1 % ) a n d K 2O ( 3 . 2 1 % a n d 3 . 8 2 % )
Jaramillo et al. (1980) published three K- contents. MgO values were also similar for
Ar whole-rock ages on hydrothermally altered both samples (0.89% and 0.91%).
samples including dacite/andesite porphyry Both of these samples exhibit a high-K
rocks collected at two different creeks within calc-alkaline character when plotted in the
the Mocoa prospect. The results of these Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) plot, as do the
analyses indicate middle to late Jurassic age Serrania de San Lucas middle Jurassic
for the mineralization and related hydrothermal porphyries (Figures 4.4.5.2 and 4.4.5.3).
alteration (183-170Ma). In the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand
Moreover, the hydrothermal alteration (1943), sample WR-187 plot in the
age on a sericite mineral concentrate from peraluminous field and sample WR-188 plot
altered dacite porphyry sample from a in the metaluminous field. Both of the samples
diamond drill core of the Mocoa project plot close to the metaluminous-peraluminous
published by Sillitoe et al. (1982) returned also limit and are of the I-type granite series (A/
a middle Jurassic age of 166±4Ma. CNK<1.1). Conversely, hypabyssal intrusives
In addition, the K-Ar age in magmatic of the Serrania de San Lucas plot far to the
feldspar mineral concentrate for a post-mineral right into the peraluminous field, probably
dacite dike presented by these authors returned because of their evident altered/weathered
a younger early Cretaceous age of 136±3Ma character (Figure 4.4.5.4).
(Sillitoe et al., 1982). The total alkalis (TAS) plot by Cox et
al. (1979) show the samples plotting into the
granodiorite field (Figure 4.4.5.5).
4.4.5.1. WHOLE-ROCK On the other hand, the feldspar triangle
GEOCHEMISTRY plot by O’Connor (1965) also show de
samples plotting into the granodiorite and
Whole-rock geochemical analyses of granite fields (Figure 4.4.5.6).
two samples collected from diamond drill cores The Batchelor and Bowden (1985)
at the Mocoa Project were carried out in order tectonic environment discrimination plot show
to characterize de porphyry facies associated both of the dacite porphyry samples of the
to the mineralization. Mocoa Batholith falling out of the pre-plate
The samples selected for geochemical collision (subduction-related) field. This similar
analyses include dacite porphyry rocks from behavior is shown by the samples of andesite/
two different drill-holes of the project: Sample dacite porphyry rocks intruding the Jurassic
WR-187 (MC08DH034, 464.34-465.00m volcanoclastic sequence at the Serrania de San
interval) and Sample WR-188 (MC08DH035, Lucas (Figure 4.4.5.7).
651.72-652.43m interval).
In addition, for comparative purposes, Trace Elements Geochemistry
andesite/dacite porphyry dikes of similar age
intruding the Jurassic volcanoclastic sequence When comparing trace element contents
at the Serranía de San Lucas at Santa Cruz of the dacite porphyry samples of the Mocoa
(WR-232) and Santa Rosa del Sur (WR-243) Batholith against Bulk Continental Crust
areas (Section 4.2.5), were also plotted in the (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and Primordial
same geochemical diagrams (Figures 4.4.5.2 Mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values, the
to 4.4.5.10). normalized multi-elemental ‘spider-gram’ plots
F i g u re 4 . 4 . 5 . 2 . A F M p l o t ( I r v i n e a n d Figure 4.4.5.3. K2O vs. SiO 2 plot geotectonic

Baragar, 1971) for the porphyries of the plot (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976) for the
Mocoa Batholith. porphyries of the Mocoa Batholith.
F i g u re 4 . 4 . 5 . 4 . A / C N K v s . A / N K p l o t Figure 4.4.5.5. Total alkalis (TAS) plot (Cox

(Shand, 1943) for the porphyries of the et al., 1979) for the porphyries of the
Mocoa Batholith. Mocoa Batholith.
(O’Connor, 1965) for the porphyries of the plot (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the
Mocoa Batholith. porphyries of the Mocoa Batholith.
show subduction-related patterns with Large

Ion Lithophile elements enrichment (e.g. Ba,
K and Sr) and High Strength Field elements
depletion (e.g. Nb-Ta and Ti; figures 4.4.5.8
and 4.4.5.9).
Comparatively, the middle Jurassic
hypabyssal intrusives of the Serrania de San
Lucas show similar patterns with marked
difference in the Sr contents, which are
depleted with negative anomalies.
REE contents are moderate in both
samples (REE=100.2 and 104.8ppm). The Figure 4.4.5.8. Bulk continental crust-normalized
REE elements patterns in spider-gram plots (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) trace element
normalized to the chondrite values (Boynton, ‘spider-diagram’ for dacite porphyry samplesof
1984), show fractionated decreasing slopes the Mocoa Project.
with LREE enriched with respect to HREE
((La/Lu) N=12.1 and 13.0). The sample WR-
187 exhibit subtle negative Eu anomaly (Eu/
Eu*=0.98), whereas the sample WR-188
show weak positive Eu anomaly (Eu/
Eu*=1.14).
Comparatively, the samples of hypabyssal
intrusives of the Serrania de San Lucas show
a general enrichment in REE contents
(REE=137-172ppm) and moderate negative
Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*= 0.73-0.80).
4.4.5.2. ZIRCON U-Pb

GEOCHRONOLOGY Figure 4.4.5.9. Primordial mantle-normalized
(Wood et al., 1979) trace element ‘spider-
In order to determine precise magmatic diagram’ for dacite porphyry samples of the
crystallization age for the hypabyssal intrusive Mocoa Project.
rocks associated to the mineralization at the
Mocoa Prospect, a dacite porphyry sample
was dated by zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS
(Figure 4.4.5.11).
The analyzed sample (WR-188) is a dacite
porphyry collected from diamond drill cores
of the Mocoa Project (MC08DH035, 651.72-
652.43m interval, B2Gold, 2008 diamond drill
program). The sample is a typical dacite
porphyry with quartz ‘eyes’ and plagioclase,
hornblende and biotite phenocrysts in a
greenish aphanitic matrix.
The dacite porphyry sample returned a
middle Jurassic age of 170.2±2.7Ma. A wide
range of inheritance ages at ca. 184Ma, ca.
Figure 4.4.5.10. Chondrite-normalized (Boynton,
230Ma, ca. 720Ma, 820Ma and ca. 1200Ma
1984) REE plot for dacite porphyry samples of
is observed, indicating possible assimilation of
the Mocoa Project.
results for the dacite porphyritic rocks of the
Mocoa Batholith.
samples from the Mocoa Project are

summarized in the tables 4.4.5.1, 4.4.5.2 and
4.4.5.3.
Figure 4.4.5.11. Tera-Wasserburg concordia The dacite porphyry samples of the
p l o t f o r z i rc o n U - P b L A - I C P - M C - M S Mocoa Project show relatively high initial 87Sr/
analyses of the dacite porphyry sample of the 86
Sr ratios (0.70600-0.70604) and negative
Mocoa Project (Sample WR-188).  Nd values (-3.32 and -5.60), indicating
considerable crustal component in the magma
source (Figure 5.5.4.12).
Similar behavior is observed on the
earlier magmatic facies of the batholith or much samples from the Jurassic intrusives of the
older basement rocks. Serrania de San Lucas and their associated
The magmatic crystallization age obtained volcanoclastic sequence and hypabyssal
for the dacite porphyry sample at the Mocoa intrusives, and would be related to crustal
Project is slightly older than the K-Ar contamination of the magmas, associated with
alteration age presented by Sillitoe et al. assimilation of the Mesoproterozoic
(1982) and also compares well, within the metamorphic basement underlying both areas,
error intervals, with the youngest hydrothermal the Serrania de San Lucas and the Garzon
alteration K-Ar ages published by Jaramillo et Massif.
al. (1981). On the other hand, lead isotope ratios are
radiogenic (207Pb-204Pb>15.55) and are similar
in both of the dacite porphyry samples ( 206Pb/
4.4.5.4. Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb ISOTOPE 204
Pb = 18.14-18.26; 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.57-
GEOCHEMISTRY 15.59 and 208Pb/ 204Pb = 38.21-38.29) (Figure
5.5.4.13).
Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb isotope The results compare well with those
geochemistry results for the dacite porphyry obtained for rocks of the volcanoclastic
Table 4.4.5.1. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for porphyries of the Mocoa Batholith.
Table 4.4.5.2. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for porphyries of the Mocoa Batholith.
sequence of the Saldaña Formation ( 206 Pb/

204
Pb = 17.96-18.19; 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.55-
15.56 and 208Pb/ 204Pb = 38.26-38.43). These
values are less radiogenic than those returned
by the Jurassic phaneritic rocks of the Ibagué
Batholith ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb = 17.96-18.19; 207 Pb/
204
Pb = 15.55-15.56 and 208 Pb/ 204Pb = 38.26-
38.43).

of the porphyries of the Mocoa Batholith.
Figure 4.4.3.13. Thorogenic (208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb) and uranogenic (207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/
204
Pb) diagrams for the porphyries of the Mocoa Batholith.
4.4.6.- Santander Jurassic Intrusives 369
4.4.6. SANTANDER JURASSIC INTRUSIVES
Jurassic intrusives of the Santander massif in in the Santander Massif could have been started
the Eastern Cordillera are well described in the earlier, by the late Triassic.
geological literature (e.g. Ward et al., 1973; Aspden High sulfidation epithermal gold-silver vein
et al., 1987) and regional- and department-scale mineralization within the Santander Massif is well-
geological cartography of Colombia (Cediel and recognized in the Vetas-California Mining District.
Caceres, 2000; Royero and Clavijo, 2001; Gomez In this important district, Precambrian metamorphic
et al., 2007). rocks of the Bucaramanga Complex are intruded
Ward et al. (1973) grouped the major Jurassic by the late Triassic-early Jurassic intrusives of the
intrusives of the Santander Massif area into the so- Santander Plutonic Group.
called ‘Santander Plutonic Group’, comprising two Steeply diping quartz-pyrite mineralized
plutonic series: 1) ‘pink’ granites and quartz- structures are associated to the regional-scale N-
monzonites and 2) ‘grey’ quartz-monzonites and NE trending Rio Cucutilla Fault zone (Royero and
granodiorites. The intrusives included into this group Vargas, 1999). Hydrothermal alteration envelopes
are: the Paramo Rico Pluton, La Corcova quartz- reach up to several meters width, characterized by
monzonite, the Mogotes Batholith, the Rionegro pervasive phyllic and argillic alteration of
Batholith, small diorite/tonalite stocks (e.g. Guaca metamorphic and plutonic rocks.
river diorite, Surata river diorite and tonalite), small Geochemical signature of the mineralization at
quartz-monzonite, granite and quartz-porphyry the Vetas California Mining District include Au-Ag-
intrusives intruding different geological units, and Cu-As-Mo-Te.
several felsic and mafic dikes and lamprophyres. Mineralization age for the Vetas-California
Recent geological mapping of the Santander mining district was first constrained by K-Ar
Department by Royero and Clavijo (2001) describe analyses in sericite concentrate from a gold-bearing
different units within the Santander Plutonic Group, vein selvage at California (Sillitoe et al., 1982). The
including: the Pescadero granite, the Santa Barbara age obtained in this analysis was 144±3Ma (late
quartz-monzonite, the La Corcova quartz- Jurassic-early Cretaceous).
monzonite/granite, the Paramo Rico and Rionegro Recently, it has been identified small hypabyssal
granodiorites/tonalites, and the Rionegro and intrusives (quartz-monzonite/dacite porphyries)
Mogotes pink quartz-monzonite and grey granite. intruding both, the Precambrian metamorphic
In addition, volcanic felsic and mafic rocks, basement and the late Triassic-early Jurassic
mainly rhyolites, of apparent late Jurassic age are intrusives of the Santander Plutonic Group.
also described by Royero and Clavijo (2001). Zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses
The age for this Jurassic magmatic episode returned late Miocene ages for these hypabyssal
within the Santander Massif was first constrained intrusives (Mantilla et al., 2009; this work).
by K-Ar analyses in mineral concentrates spanning Field evidence show that mineralization and
the 195-172Ma interval (early to middle Jurassic) associated hydrothermal alteration are closely related
(see compilation in Maya, 1992). to the hypabyssal intrusives in the district. Thus, the
Zircon U-Pb ages for the Paramo Rico tonalite- age for gold mineralization must be much younger
granodiorite presented by Dorr et al. (1995), span than the previously suggested late Jurassic age
the 210-205Ma interval, suggesting that magmatism (Chapter 6).
SECTION 4.5.
Synthesis of Jurassic magmatism

vs. Au Metallogeny
4.5.1. - Synthesis of Jurassic magmatism vs. Au metallogeny 373
4.5.1. SYNTHESIS OF JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au

METALLOGENY
Jurassic magmatism in the Colombian The oldest, late Triassic - early Jurassic
Andes represents the most extensive period of arc includes the batholiths of the Santander
plutonic activity in the Colombian cordilleras Massif (i.e. the ‘Santander Plutonic Group’)
(Aspden et al., 1987), defining a discontinuous and the Mocoa Batholith. In either case ages
SSW-NNE trending belt extending from the for these intrusive range from ca. 210-200Ma
southern limit with Ecuador to the Sierra (Dorr et al. 1995; Sillitoe et al., 1982) (Figure
Nevada de Santa Marta on the Caribbean 4.5.1.1).
Coast. This belt is part of a more extensive To the west, an early Jurassic magmatic
event which extends into southern-most arc is identified to include plutonic rocks of
Ecuador and Peru (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000; the southern Ibagué Batholith, and the major
Gómez et al., 2007). batholiths of the Serranía de San Lucas and
Thirty-one zircon U-Pb analyses carried Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. In all cases
out during this study, along with recently ages for the principal, volumetrically extensive
published and unpublished U-Pb ages for arc-related stage (i.e. the major batholiths)
Jurassic Plutons (e.g. Dorr et al., 1995; range between ca. 194-182Ma (this work; A.
Villagómez et al., 2008; A. Cardona, pers. Cardona pers, comm.). The extensive
comm.) indicate that “Jurassic” magmatism in volcanoclastic sequences observed at the
the Colombian Andes spans the entire Jurassic southeastern Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
period, with ages ranging from 201.6 to (Guatapurí Formation), the Serranía de San
145.5Ma. This “Jurassic” event includes the Lucas (Norean Formation) and the upper
latest Triassic, as evidenced by the age of Magdalena valley (Saldaña Formation) seem
rhyodacite porphyry from the Serranía de San to be mostly associated with this extensive arc-
Lucas (i.e. the Norean Formation; related magmatic event (Figure 4.5.1.1).
201.6±3.6Ma; Sample WR-242), and the U- Finally, a third, middle to late Jurassic arc,
Pb zircon age of ca. 210Ma published by Dorr which includes the ca. 167–158Ma Segovia
et al. (1995) for the Páramo Rico intrusive Batholith and the northen portion of the Ibagué
within the ‘Santander Plutonic Rock’ in the Batholith (ca. 160–149Ma) is defined (this
Santander Massif. work; Villagomez et al., 2008; A. Cardona
On the basis of new geochronological pers, comm.).
information generated during this study, Based upon the foregoing, overall
combined with literature-derived data (e.g. evolution and positioning of the Jurassic arcs
Dorr et al., 1995), at least three temporally is observed to migrate from east to west
and spatially separate magmatic arcs of (latest (Figure 4.5.1.1).
Triassic) - Jurassic age can be defined in the In marked contrast to the geochemical
Colombian Andes (Figure 4.5.1.1). data presented herein for the pre-Jurassic
374 SECTION 4.5. - JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - SYNTHESIS
Figure 4.5.1.1. Jurassic magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
(Permo-Triassic) granitoids, whole-rock medium- to high-K calc-alkaline affinity with
geochemical data for all Jurassic intrusives and a greatly reduced Eu signature.
associated volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks Early to middle Jurassic volcanoclastic
studied herein indicate clear metaluminous (I- rock samples from both the Serranía de San
type) geochemistry. The data support the Lucas and the upper Magdalena Valley exhibit
interpretation that the Jurassic arcs are of a K-rich geochemical signature. The San Lucas
subduction-related medium to high-K calc- Norean Formation has a high-K calc-alkaline
alkaline affinity. character whilst the upper Magdalena Saldaña
Although no whole-rock or isotope Formation exhibits a ‘shoshonite’ character.
geochemical data are available for the Sr-Nd isotope data for the Jurassic
batholiths of the Santander Massif and the intrusives indicate mantle-derived sources for
Mocoa Batholith, previous authors have the magmas with variable contribution of
concluded that these batholiths are also crustal sources, which would reflect the nature
subduction-related (Aspden et al., 1987; Dorr of the basement they intrude and the degree of
et al., 1995). interaction with upper crustal materials during
The whole-rock geochemical data magma ascent and emplacement. Sialic
presented in the above chapters permit the continental - metamorphic basement is
differentiation of the early Jurassic Serranía de observed in various areas throughout the
San Lucas – southern Ibagué plutonic suite Serrania de San Lucas whilst no such basement
from the late Jurassic Segovia – northern has been recorded along the Segovia Batholith
Ibagué suite. The Serranía de San Lucas - trend (Figure 4.5.1.2).
southern Ibagué Batholith exhibits a clear high- The highest contribution of crustal material
K calc-alkaline character, commonly recording is observed in the early to middle Jurassic
a strongly negative Eu anomaly, whereas the intrusives of the Serranía de San Lucas,
Segovia – northern Ibagué suite is of variable characterized by high initial 87Sr/ 86 Sr ratios
Figure 4.5.1.2.   Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for some of the Jurassic intrusives and associated
volcanoclastic rocks of the Colombian Andes.
Figure 4.5.1.3. Uranogenic (207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb) and thorogenic ( 208Pb/ 204Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) and plots for rocks of some Jurassic intrusives and associated volcanoclastic
rocks of the Colombian Andes. Lead isotope evolution curves from Plumbotectonics model
after Zartman and Doe (1981).
(>0.705) with negative  Nd values (-0.53 to - sources for the lead. The samples from the
6.90). Similar crustal-derived sources are Segovia Batholith plot between the orogene
recorded in the Mocoa Batholith porphyries and the upper crust lead isotope evolution
(ca. 170Ma) with high initial 87Sr/ 86 Sr ratios curves, suggesting a indicate higher
(>0.706) and negative  Nd values (-3.32 to - contribution of radiogenic lead, perhaps
5.60). sources from the early Paleozoic meta-
In addition, the southern Ibagué Batholith argillaceous rocks which host the batholith
samples and the volcanoclastic rocks of the (Figure 4.5.1.3).
Norean and Saldaña Formation yielded values Notably, lead isotope results from the
around the Bulk Earth composition ( 87Sr/ analyzed regions cluster on a per-region basis,
86
Sr (i)= 0.69950 to 0.70556;  Nd= -0.96 to - in narrow, well-defined ranges, from the less
4.83). radiogenic volcanoclastic rocks of the Norean
Samples from the Segovia Batholith Formation (Norosí Batholith) to the more
exhibit lower initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70385- radiogenic intrusive rocks of the Segovia
0.70434) and  Nd positive values (+1.04 to Batholith (Figure 4.5.1.3).
+6.52), indicating mostly mantle-derived The large volume of calc-alkaline
source for the magmas with little contribution magmatism generated during the late Triassic
of crustal sources. through late Jurassic, including a significant
In general agreement with these data, explosive volcanic component as recorded in
sialic continental - metamorphic basement is the Guatapurí, Norean and Sandaña
observed in various areas throughout the formations, in conjunction with the general east
Serranía de San Lucas and in the Garzón to west migration of arc axial traces over a
Massif (which hosts the Mocoa Batholith). No period of some 40 to 50 million years, suggest
such basement has been recorded along the the development of subduction-related arcs
Segovia Batholith. and emplacement of the main-phase batholith
Lead isotope geochemical results for the magmas under conditions of regional extension.
Jurassic intrusives and associated Such a magmatic - volcano-sedimentary
volcanoclastic rocks of the Colombian Andes environment would be in agreement with the
yield radiogenic values ( 207 Pb/ 204Pb>15.55), development of rift and back arc basin
plotting mostly over the orogene lead isotope volcanism-sedimentation, and plutonism during
curve of the Plumbotectonic model by Zartman the Bolivar Aulacogen, as described by Cediel
and Doe (1981). These data indicate mixed and Cáceres (2000) and Cediel et al. (2003).
Figure 4.5.1.4. Petrogenetic sketch showing the extensional tectonomagmatic environment

for the origin of Jurassic plutonism and associated volcanoclastic sequences due to ‘slab
rollback’ in a subduction zone located to the west of the present position of Colombia.
In all cases, a subduction zone located to the peripheral to the southern Ibagué Batholith
west, developing regionally within an (Figure 4.5.1.5).
extensional regime, related at least in part to In the Serranía de San Lucas, numerous
slab pull (slab rollback) (Hamilton, 1995; gold camps are observed. Many are hosted
Heuret and Lallemand, 2005) can be entirely within plutonic rocks, such as at San
envisioned (Figure 4.5.1.4). This general Martín de Loba-Juana Sánchez (La Puya-La
configuration terminates in the latest Jurassic Chiva-La Puerta), Tinoco, Cerro Julio, Nigua,
– early Cretaceous with the onset of the La Apertura, Mina Azul, La Estrella,
Northern Andean Orogeny. Culoalzado, Cerro El Oso, Mina Seca and San
The development of the initial rifting and Pedro Frio. Others are hosted primarily with
batholith emplacement was favored by the the penecontemporaneous Norean volcano-
location of preexisting fault and suture systems sedimentary sequence, including Las Nieves –
such as the Bucaramanga-Santa Marta-Suaza Casa de Barro, Mina Brisa, San Carlos - Mina
and the Palestina (Aspden et al., 1987; Cediel Ancha - La Palmera, Pueblito Mejía (Mina
et al., 2003; Pindell and Kennan, 2009). Mejía), Santa Rosa del Sur and Cerro Pelado.
With respect to gold mineralization, At El Piñal the mineralization is related to
deposits spatially and temporally associated Jurassic rhyo-dacite domes while at Santa Cruz
with Jurassic magmatic rocks include those mineralization is related to felsic porphyry
located within and peripheral to the Norosí- dykes. Additionally, important mineralization
San Martin Batholith, in the Serranía de San hosted in Precambrian metamorphic basement
Lucas region, and, although less well is observed in various locations in close
constrained, those located within and proximity to the Norosí Batholith, for example
378
Figure 4.5.1.5. Time-space chart for Jurassic magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
SECTION 4.5. - JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - SYNTHESIS
at Guamoco, Toribio and La Cabaña. In some in high-grade Mesoproterozoic gneisses. Veins
areas it is possible to observe and trace are accompanied by strongly pervasive
mineralization hosted in Precambrian basement quartz+sericite±pyrite alteration. The presence
to Jurassic intrusive and volcanic rocks, such of adularia in the veins, typical open-space
as at Pueblito Mejía, Cerro San Carlos, El filling textures (e.g. quartz-sulfide symmetrical
Oso – Mina Brisa, along the Mina Seca – Las banding and comb textures) and hydrothermal
Nieves – Casa be Barro trend, at San Pedro breccias are indicative of a low- to
Frio and Santa Rosa del Sur (El Golfo). intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
Gold occurrences studied in detail in this environment (i.e. associated to the
work include Intrusion-Related Gold Deposits quartz+calcite+adularia±illite assemblage;
in the Norosí-San Martín Batholith (e.g. San Simmons et al., 2005). Field observations
Martín de Loba-Juana Sánchez), porphyry- indicate that gold mineralization at La Cabaña
related(?) epithermal vein-type mineralization Mine is mineralogically similar to the nearby
hosted in the Jurassic Norean formation (e.g. Culoalzado and La Estrella vein-style
Cerro San Carlos – Mina Ancha - La Palmera), mineralization, hosted within the Jurassic
and epithermal to subepithermal veins hosted Norosí Batholith. Thus, despite the lack of age
in the Mesoproterozoic high-grade data for mineralization at La Cabaña, it seems
metamorphic basement (e.g La Cabaña) to be probably related to the Jurassic
(Sections 4.3.2, 4.3.3 and 4.3.4). magmatic/metallogenic event observed
At San Martín de Loba - Juana Sánchez throughout the Serranía de San Lucas region.
(Section 4.3.2), sheeted auriferous At Cerro San Carlos (Section 4.3.4),
quartz+calcite+sericite+tourmaline+sulfides auriferous quartz + pyrite veins and
veins and veinlets include early tourmalinization stockworks are hosted in the Norean
and potassic (k-feldspar) alteration along vein Formation volcanoclastic sequence.
selvages. Pervasive quartz+sericite±pyrite Mineralization is related to a kilometer-scale
alteration overprints this assemblage. The sericite-illite-pyrite alteration. Vein-type and
notable presence of tourmaline (schorl) in veins breccia mineralization such as at Mina Ancha
and veinlets closely associated with gold and La Palmera contains quartz + k-feldspar
mineralization and the high-temperature + pyrite ± chalcopyrite and molybdenite. The
potassic alteration suggest a close relationship existence of a circular structure centered upon
between gold mineralization and the cooling San Carlos hill, observed in DEM images and
history of the Norosí-San Martín Batholith, aerial photographs, suggests the presence of a
where mineralization would be introduced in porphyry-like intrusion below the hill.
the late volatile-rich stages. Features typical Overprinted hydrothermal alteration
of intrusion-hosted mineralization in Reduced assemblages are observed under microscope,
Intrusion Related Gold Systems (RIRGS; Hart, including potassic (k-feldspar; secondary
2007) such as the occurrence of sheeted biotite; magnetite; molybdenite), sodic-calcic
subparallel vein sets and aplite-pegmatite (amphibole; albite) and chlorite alteration
dikes, along with the presence of k-feldspar overprinted by strongly pervasive and widely
alteration, tourmaline and Bi-Ag-Pb sulfosalts distributed sericite and intermediate argillic
closely associated to gold mineralization, favor alteration (kaolinite), which could suggest the
a proximal mineralization style manifesting presence of a sub-volcanic porphyritic intrusion
close to the causative pluton. However, modal at ca. 1.5-2 km depth (see figures 1.2.2.1 and
magnetite in the host pluton suggests a more 1.2.2.2). K-Ar dating of strong alteration
oxidized character than those mentioned in the sericite associated with gold mineralization at
classical reduced ilmenite-series plutons Cerro San Carlos carried out in this work
described in the RIRGS literature (e.g. Hart yielded a middle Jurassic (162±4Ma) age.
and Goldfarb, 2005; Hart, 2007). In the southern Ibagué Batholith and
At the La Cabaña Mine (Section 4.3.3), peripheral Saldaña Formation volcanic rocks,
quartz+base metals sulfides veins are hosted auriferous quartz+sulfide veins are observed
primarily in two districts; Pacarni and San Luis. observed to the southwest in the Serranía de
Intrusive rocks from within and surrounding San Lucas. The age of mineralization at
these districts were dated during the course of Bosconia has not been established, but it can be
this study (ca. 189-182Ma U-Pb/Zr; this presumed a similar age to that of the hosting
work). The veins at Pacarní are hosted within volcanoclastic sequence and nearby Pueblo Bello
the Ibagué Batholith proper, whereas those at Batholith, both dated during the present study at
San Luis are hosted within Saldaña Formation 183.3±3.0 Ma and 179.8±3.3 Ma, respectively.
volcanic rocks. Additional gold systems related to Jurassic
Veins at Pacarní consist of quartz and magmatism include deposits in the northern
contain abundant base metal sulphides (galena, sector of the Ibagué Batholith at Rovira-
sphalerite, chalcopyrite). These veins are Chaparral and Infierno-Chili. Isolated
similar to those found in gold mineralizations auriferous veins are associated with porphyry
hosted in the Norosí-San Martín Batholith. copper mineralization. Magmatism and
These are considered to be of sub-epithermal porphyry Cu mineralization in this area is of
intrusion-related character. late Jurassic (ca. 160-149Ma) age (Sillitoe et
Gold mineralization at San Luis include al., 1982; this work).
breccias which exhibit epithermal Elsewhere, abundant vein-type gold
characteristics. Moreover, adularia alteration mineralization is hosted in the late Jurassic
is also found, as well asbanded and colloform Segovia batholith. However, as discussed in
s i l i c a a n d c h a l c e d o n y. A l l o f t h e s e Section 5.4.9, much of this mineralization can
characteristics suggest that these deposits are be constrained to non-Jurassic time periods.
of the low-sulfidation epithermal type. The same holds true for gold mineralization
At Pacarní and San Luis, mineralization hosted within the early Jurassic batholiths (i.e.
displays great similitude to the veins hosted the Santander Plutonic Group) of the
within the penecontemporaneous San Lucas Santander Massif, including the Vetas and
plutonic-volcanic suite. Radiometric age dating California mineral districts, where the majority
of the southern Ibagué Batholith during this of the mineralization is now known to be
study produced early Jurassic (ca. 189- associated with a Miocene mineralizing event
182Ma) ages for magmatism and volcanism, (Section 6.8.3).
essentially identical to that of the Norosí-San In conclusion, based upon the foregoing,
Martín de Loba Batholith of the Serranía de of the three regionally important Jurassic-age
San Lucas region. metaluminous, subduction-related calc-alkaline
In the Pacarní area, taking into account magmatic events defined in this chapter, only
field evidence indicating a close spatial relation the ca. 194 – 182Ma event appears co-genetic
between mineralization and the location the with regionally widespread gold mineralization
regional magmatic cupola (occurrence of roof (in the San Lucas, southern Ibagué and
pendants and late magmatic segregation southeastern Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
features like aplite/pegmatite dikes; M. regions). Coincidentally, in all three of these areas
Valencia, pers. comm.), a maximum age for the penecontemporaneous generation of abundant
mineralization close to the age of the host volcanism is recorded and has been in part
intrusion can be suggested (ca. 189-182Ma). preserved. The implied extensional tectonic
Elsewhere, in the early Jurassic intrusives regime associated with this volcanic activity and/
and volcano-sedimentary rocks on the or its preservation from erosion may be important
southeastern margin of the Sierra Nevada de factors related to the abundance of gold
Santa Marta, there is limited record of minor occurrences associated with the ca. 194 –
gold mineralization near Bosconia, hosted 182Ma magmatic arc. A similar volcanic
within volcanoclastic rocks of the Guatapurí expression was not produced or has been eroded
Formation. These deposits consist of minor with respect to the latest Triassic-early Jurassic
epithermal Au-Ag quartz veins similar to those and late Jurassic magmatic events.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 5
CRETACEOUS-
PALEOGENE
MAGMATISM VS. Au
METALLOGENY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 5.1.
Introduction
5.1.1.-General background 385
In terms of historical production, gold Moreover, high-sulfide content vein-type

occurrences and deposits spatially associated gold mineralization are associated to the
with Cretaceous magmatism are equally as Sonsón Batholith and its contact zones, and
important, or perhaps more, than those has been exploited near Sonsón and Argelia,
previously described for Jurassic magmatism in the northern and eastern sector of the
(Chapter 4). Regardless, significant gold intrusive.
production associated with Cretaceous Regarding metallogenic importance,
intrusives and their surrounding host rocks is special focus will be made on the Antioquia
well documented, and historical gold mining and Sonsón batholiths (Antioquia-Sonsón Au
districts with production over 1Moz Au have Province), as they concentrate the most
been recognized, mainly associated with the productive gold mining districts and and the
composite late Cretaceous to Paleocene most regionally extensive gold mineralization
Antioquia Batholith and the Paleocene Sonsón associated to the Cretaceous-Paleocene
Batholith. magmatic/metallogenic period.
The Antioquia Batholith and its surrounding On the other hand, despite vein gold
metamorphic rocks host vein gold mineralization of the Segovia-Remedios district
mineralization at several localities, including is hosted in the Jurassic Segovia Batholith, it
deposits and showings near Angostura, Anori must also be included within the Cretaceous-
Amalfi, Alejandría, Brice o, Belmira, Gómez Paleocene magmatogenic/metallogenic event,
Plata, San Carlos, Guadalupe, San Rafael, San as geochronological analyses completed during
Roque and Santa Rosa. In addition, exhaustive the present research have revealed.
exploitation of alluvial deposits has been Some comments will be made on other
developed into the Porce, Nare and Nus river minor Cretaceous - Paleocene - Eocene
valleys (INGEOMINAS, 1999). intrusions and their metallogenic expression.
5.1.2.-Distribution of the magmatism 387
5.1.2. DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAGMATISM
Subduction or arc-related calc-alkaline and other minor plutons (e.g. Jejenes Stock),
batholiths and stocks of Cretaceous to which are hosted within rocks of the Romeral
Paleocene age are concentrated in the and or Dagua assemblages (See Chapter 2;
Northern Central Cordillera of Colombia, Section 2.2.1). There is little published
limited by the Palestina Fault System to the geological or geochemical information
east and the Romeral tectonic zone in the west. regarding these intrusions, and precise
A d d i t i o n a l l y, v a r i o u s s m a l l s t o c k s o f radiometric age dates have only recently been
Cretaceous age are exposed along the margins produced for some (e.g. Buga, Sabanalarga).
of the Romeral and Cauca tectonic zones to The origin and nature of the relationship
the west (Fig. 5.1.2.1). between these stocks and their host rocks is
Two broad occurrences of Cretaceous- not well understood. Some may represent arc
Paleogene granitoids are recognized. The development in an intra-oceanic environment
eastern occurrence intrudes low-grade prior to accretion along the Colombian margin
metamorphic basement comprised of rocks of while others appear to intrude the Romeral or
the Cajamarca and Valdivia Groups and is Dagua terranes following accretion. Three
considered to be autochthonous (see chapter plutons within this trend have significant
2, section 2.2.1). The late Cretaceous to spatially-related Au mineralization, including
Paleocene Antioquia Batholith and its satellite the Buga Batholith and the Jejenes and Irra
plutons (Ovejas Batholith and Altavista, La stocks. New petrochemical and radiometric
Union and La Culebra stocks), the Paleocene age data for these plutons has been produced
Sonson Batholith, and other minor Paleocene during the present study (see section 5.5,
to Eocene intrusives such as El Bosque below).
Batholtih and the Manizales and El Hatillo Additional Paleocene-Eocene magmatism
stocks are included within this group. has been reported in the Sierra Nevada de
To the west, contained along and within Santa Marta, close to the Caribbean coast of
accreted oceanic volcanic and sedimentary Colombia (e.g. Santa Marta Batholith)
rocks of the Romeral tectonic zone and Cauca (Tchanz, 1974; Mejía et al., 2008; Cardona
fault system, various generally small granitoid et al., 2010). This magmatism is not discussed
stocks are observed. These stocks include the in detail as its gold metallogenic potential to
Sabanalarga, Buga and Santa Bárbara (Valle) date has not been demonstrated to be
Batholiths and the Mistrato and Irra Stocks, significant.
Fig. 5.1.2.1. (next page) Distribution of the Cretaceous-Paleogene granitoids in the Central
and Western Cordilleras of Colombia. The Jurassic Segovia Batholith is included as a
reference. The main fault systems are shown in red lines.
388 SECTION 5.1.- CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE MAGMATISM-INTRODUCTION
5.1.3.-Structural features of the Antioquia-Sonsón batholiths 389
5.1.3. STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE ANTIOQUIA-

SONSÓN BATHOLITHS
As previously mentioned, the Antioquia and corridor between two major approximately N-S striking
Sonsón Batholiths are located within the northern dextral fault systems: Palestina and Romeral (See
Central Cordillera in Colombia, in a regional structural chapter 2; sections 2.2.2.2 and 2.2.2.4) (Fig. 5.1.3.1).
Fig. 5.1.3.1. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Antioquia-Sonsón Au Province with the
distribution of interpreted major lineaments and structures.
390 SECTION 5.1.- CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE MAGMATISM-INTRODUCTION
Subordinate faults developed between NW-SE lineaments are clearly observed

these principle structures are a result of to transect the Antioquia Batholith, including
punctual Cenozoic reactivations driven by several features like the Caldera, El Biscocho,
tectonic assembly along the Pacific margin (see Balseadero and Nare faults/lineaments
sections 2.2 and 2.3) and the complex (Feininger and Botero, 1982; Gonzalez, 2001).
interaction and tectonic stress partitioning Most of these features splay from or merge
between the Romeral and Palestina fault with the Palestina Fault.
systems. An important structural feature in the central
Feininger (1970) documents late Antioquia Batholith is the E-W lineament partially
Cretaceous dextral reactivation along the controlling the path of the Nús river, which has
Palestina Fault. been identified as an active fault (the Cisneros
Orthogonal compression across the Fault; INGEOMINAS, 1999), and broadly
northern Central Cordillera during accretion of divides the batholith in two (Figure 5.1.3.1).
the Choco Arc led to reactivation of the Conversely, the Sonsón Batholith area is
Romeral Fault and the rotation of components dominated by a series of subparallel N30-40ºE
within the Romeral melange, resulting in the striking structures. A WNW-ESE lineament
record of both right- and left-lateral movements just to the north of the Nariño townsite is
(MacDonald et al., 1980). interpreted as the possible contact between the
West-vergent reverse faulting along the Triassic Nariño Batholith (see Chapter 3,
eastern margin of the Romeral fault zone to the Sections 3.1 and 3.2) and the Paleocene
west of the Antioquia Batholith continued into intrusive suite defined below as the Sonsón
the late Miocene (Cediel and Caceres, 2000). Batholith (see Section 5.3) (Figure 5.1.3.1).
SECTION 5.2.
The Sonsón Batholith

5.2.1.-Introduction and geological setting of the Sonsón Batholith 393
5.2.1. INTRODUCTION AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF

THE SONSÓN BATHOLITH
Located to the South of the Antioquia minor dykes and irregular bodies of quartz-
Batholith within the central portion of the diorite, aplite-felsite, diorite and gabbro. Field
Central Cordillera of Colombia, the Sonsón observations indicate that the volume of aplite-
Batholith, as presently represented on regional felsite and diorite, however, is markedly higher
geological maps (González, 2001), occupies in the northern portion of the batholith,
a surface area of ca. 1,100 km 2, extending for diminishing abruptly around and to the south
some 50 km length by an average of 20 km of the towns of Nariño and Sonsón,
width, along a NNE-oriented axis (Figs. respectively.
5.1.2.1 and 5.1.3.1). González (2001) Host rocks for the Sonsón Batholith
indicates that the batholith is of relatively include predominantly meta-sedimentary and
homogenous composition, consisting of greater -volcanic rocks of the early Paleozoic
than 90% biotite±hornblende tonalite with Cajamarca Group. A hornfelsed halo up to 300
Figure 5.2.1.1. Geological map of the Sonsón Batholith and sample location.
394 SECTION 5.2.- THE SONSON BATHOLITH
metres wide, containing assemblages of hornfelsing was absent in the Abejorral Fm.
pophyroblasts including andalusite± (pre-Albian age) along the SW contacts of the
cordierite±sillimanite or hornblende±diopside batholith. Based upon this information, and
(depending upon original wallrock upon K-Ar ages of 170±10 Ma (measured in
composition), is particularly well developed whole rock) and 160±4 Ma (obtained in
around the northern half part of the batholith. biotite), for samples located about 7 km to the
Various satellite dykes and small stocks north of the Sonsón village, González (1980,
associated with the batholith cut the Paleozoic 2001) reassigned the Sonsón batholith to the
sequence in this sector. To the north, the middle Jurassic.
batholith cuts syntectonic granitic gneisses of In more recent work, Ordóñez et al.
the ca. 290 Ma Rio Verde suite (Vinasco et (2001) published a 60.7±1.4Ma U-Pb
al., 2006). The contact with Permo-Triassic (SHRIMP, zircon) result for the batholith, and
gneissic and meta-sedimentary rocks to the included Rb-Sr and Nd-Sm isotopic analyses
south is not yet well defined but is tentatively for six samples of granodiorite, quartz diorite
placed to coincide with a northwest-trending and diorite collected in the Sonsón area (Figure
lineament passing just to the north of the town 5.2.1.1).
of Nariño (see figs. 5.1.3.1 and 5.2.1.1). Based upon the present study, the Sonsón
According to González (2001) the Sonsón Batholith, as shown by González (2001) is a
Batholith was originally mapped as a southern composite body containing at least two
satellite of the Cretaceous Antioquia Batholith geochemically and temporally distinct bodies;
(Figure 5.1.3.1). Feininger et al. (1972), in including a southern sector of peraluminous and
mapping the geological limits of Sonsón, meta-sedimentary composition and broadly
accepted this assignation based upon Permo-Triassic age, and a northern sector of
lithological arguments, and upon a K-Ar metaluminous igneous character and Paleocene
(biotite) age of 69±3 Ma published by Pérez age (see Chapters 3 and 4 for more
(1967), for a sample located near the town of information).
Sonsón. The present chapter focuses upon the
Further field definition was presented by northern metaluminous sector of Paleocene age
González (1980), who observed that (Figure 5.2.1.1).
5.2.2-Petrography of the Sonsón Batholith 395
5.2.2. PETROGRAPHY OF THE SONSÓN BATHOLITH
5.2.2.1. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE

GRANODIORITE OF THE SONSÓN FACIES
The Sonsón granodiorite is the most

representative facies in the batholith. It has
been studied on a representative sample
(sample WR-215, Figure J). bt
The Sonsón granodiorites are
holocrystalline, faneritic and coarse-grained. <amp
They mainly consist of plagioclase and quartz, amp>
with minor amounts of K-feldspar (microcline).
Contrastingly, these rocks are enriched in mafic <amp
accessory minerals as amphibole and biotite
(fig. 5.3.2.1-5.3.2.2), and hence they have a Figure 5.3.2.1. General view in PPL of the
relatively dark color. Some other accessory Sonsón tonalite. Note the abundance of
minerals of the epidote group can also be found. biotite (bt) and amphibole (amp). Sample
WR 215.
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral in the pl

rock, with a proportion around 35 % modal.
Plagioclase is euhedral, although it shows
evidences of corrosion when included in K- pl>
feldspar. The habit of the plagioclase crystals
is short prismatic, with a maximum length of 1 bt
cm. Twinning is complex, on the albite and
pericline laws (fig. 5.3.2.3, 5.3.2.4); optical <amp
zoning is concentric. Zoning may also be amp>
marked by slight sericite alterations on the
zoning surfaces. Corroded crystals of older
plagioclase generations may occur as inclusions Figure 5.3.2.2. The above image in crossed
(fig. 5.3.2.5, 5.3.2.6), as well as apatite, polars. Note the abundance of plagioclase
amphibole and biotite. and its different internal textures.Sample
WR 215.
Microcline
Microcline, which can be easily cm. Therefore, K-feldspar often includes

distinguished by the tartan twinning (fig. plagioclase crystals or mafic minerals and is
5.3.2.8) is not rare in these rocks, and may intergrown with quartz. In some cases, the
arrive up to 15% modal. The crystals of K- contact between plagioclase and K-feldspar
feldspar are anhedral, and have a larger size has conspicuous myrmekites (fig. 7.3.2.9).
than the plagioclase crystals: the maximum Patchy or vein microperthites are scarce and
dimensions of the crystals can reach about 2 thin.
396 SECTION 5.2- THE SONSON BATHOLITH
pl
pl
Figure 5.3.2.3. Two types of plagioclases: one showing Figure 5.3.2.4. A plagioclase crystal showing
albite law and the other combinations of albite and combinations of simple and polysynthetic twins.
pericline laws. Crossed polars.Sample WR 215. Crossed polars.Sample WR 215.
pl-2
<pl-1 <pl-1
pl-2
bt
Figure 5.3.2.5. A generation of plagioclase with Figure 5.3.2.6. A generation of plagioclase with
polysynthetic twinning (pl-2) includes an older polysynthetic twinning (pl-2) includes an older
generation with convolute zoning (pl-1). Crossed generation with convolute zoning (pl-1). Crossed
polars. Sample WR 215. polars. Sample WR 215.
pl
pl zr>
mic
symplectites>
mic
Figure 5.3.2.7. Tartan twinning in a microcline Figure 5.3.2.8. Microcline (mic) replacing a
cystal (mic). Microcline includes an euhedral plagioclase crystal (pl). Note the development of
plagioclase crystal (pl). Crossed polars. Sample myrmequites at the contact. Crossed polars.
WR 215. Sample WR 215.
Quartz
Anhedral quartz is other common mineral,

although in lesser amounts than plagioclase (about bt
30% modal), and shows wavy extinction.
Biotite
<bt
It is a common accessory in these rocks,
amp
and the proportion is close to 5 % modal of
the rock. The pleochroism is in reddish-brown
hues (fig. 5.3.2.9), and the size of these crystals
is in the range 2-3 mm. Biotite can be partly
replaced by chlorite and epidote following
grain borders and cleavages. Biotite may be Figure 5.3.2.9. The above imge in crossed polars.
found as corroded inclusions in amphibole Note the abundance of plagioclase and its different
crystals (fig. 5.3.2.9, 5.3.2.10), thus suggesting internal textures. Sample WR 215.
an early formation of biotite before the
amphibole.
Amphibole
Green amphibole is a common accessory

in these rocks, and may achieve up to 5 %
modal, in a very similar proportion to biotite.
It occurs as euhedral, prismatic, olive-green
crystals, which are in the range 3-10 mm in
length. Zoning pattern is complex, and cores
tend to be brownish (amphibole 1) and borders
dark green (amphibole 2; fig. 5.3.2.11). In
some cases, a late generation of uralitic pale- Figure 5.3.2.10. The above imge in crossed
green amphibole is found (amphibole 3) may polars. Nothe a simple twin in the amphibole
be found at the borders of the crystals. Since crystal.Sample WR 215.
this uralitic amphibole may also occur replacing
a previous material at the core of the crystals
and may be distributed in a patchy array into
the amphibole crystal (fig. 5.3.2.11, 5.3.2.13)
this amphibole likely was produced by
replacement of pyroxene relicts. However, no
pyroxene relicts were seen in these rocksup bt
to the momen. Polysyntheticor symple twinning
may be present in the early generations.
Amphibole crystals have inclusions of large amp amp
biotite crystals, thus suggesting that biotite
formed before than amphibole. bt
Allanite
Figure 5.3.2.11. Zoning in amphibole,
Allanite crystals are very rare, just as a sowing a brownish first generation followed
trace mineral. However, they are very distinct, by other dark green generation. PPL.
and appear as euhedral crystals of short Sample WR 215.
qtz
amp3
amp3 pl
amp 1-2 amp 1-2

pl
pl
Figure 5.3.2.12. Replacement of the two first Figure 5.3.2.13. The same image as above, in
generation of amphibole (amp 1-2) by the third (amp crossed polars.
3). PPL. Sample WR 215.
clc
<Zr
amp
bt
all
Figure 5.3.2.14. A zoned allanite crystall Figure 5.3.2.15. Detail of the above image
(all) in association with biotite (bt) partly in crossed polars. Note that allanite has
replaced by clinochlore (clc), zircon (zr) and masked interference colors. Sample WR
amphibole (amp). PPL. Sample WR 215. 215.
bt
<Zr
<apa <apa
<apa
bt
<apa <apa
<apa amp
<apa clc
Figure 5.3.2.16. Apatite crystals (apa) as Figure 5.3.2.17. Zircon crystal (Zr) producing
inclusions in a biotite crystal (bt) partly metamictic aureola on biotite (bt). Apatite (apa)
replaced by clinochlore (clc). PPL. Sample and amphibole (amp) are also indicated. PPL.
WR 215. Sample WR 215.
prismatic habit with rounded sections, that can
achieve 250 microns. They are brownish, and
qtz
have concentric zoning in plane-polarized light
(fig. 5.3.2.14). They must have a proportion
of Th, because they are radioactive and may
produce metamictic aureolas if the hosting
mineral is biotite or hornblende. Allanite itself amp3 pl
is not metamict, and has the interference colors
masked by the strong absorption colors (fig. amp 1-2
5.3.2.15). pl
pl
Apatite
Apatite crystals are not so common in Figure 5.3.2.18. General view of the Sonsón
these rocks, but some euhedral prismatic leucogranite; note the absence of mafic minerals.
grains, less than 100 microns in length, can be PPL. Sample WR 218.
identified as inclusions in other minerals, minly
biotite (fig. 5.4.2.16).
Zircon
It is common in these rocks, although is a

trace mineral. It is easily found as inclusions in
the biotite crystals, where produce metamictic
aureolas. Zircon is subhedral, roughly prismatic
with additional bypyramidal faces (fig.
5.3.2.17). Crystal size is variable, some have
only some tens of microns in length, but some
can achieve 0,5 mm. It does not show older
cores. Figure 5.3.2.19. The above image in crossed
polars. Note the presence of small quantities
Ilmenite of muscovite.
Ilmenite is the only opaque mineral present

in the fresh areas, and it may be relatively
common, although being a trace mineral (less The Sonsón leucogranites are
than 1% modal). It occurs as small anhedral holocrystalline, faneritic and fine-grained. They
grains (less than 250 microns in size). mainly consist of similar amounts of K-feldspar,
In the altered areas, ilmenite is partly or plagioclase and quartz. These minerals have
totally pseudomorphosed by sulfides, mainly similar grain size for all the components, in the
pyrrhotite. order of 2-3 mm, and many of them are
rounded and tend do display evidences of
textural equilibria (rounded borders, triple
5.2.2.2. LEUCOGRANITE OF THE NE OF points); however, evidences of replacement
SONSON FACIES among some feldspar grains can also be seen
when the rock is examined with more detail.
A small intrusion in the NE of the Sonsón These rocks are extremely poor in mafic
stock is distinct from the other facies of this minerals (fig. 5.3.2.18), and primary
batholith because the leucocratic character dioctahedral micas may be present (figure
(sample WR-218, Figure J). 5.3.2.19).
Microcline
Anhedral microcline can be easily

recognized by its optical properties, with a
distinct tartan twinning (figs. 5.3.2.20;
5.3.2.21) and abundant microperthites of the mic
vein type (fig. 5.3.2.22). It is not cloudy, and mic
is not altered. It may contain inclusions of
plagioclase (fig.5.3.2.23), which can be
corroded (fig. 5.3.2.24).
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the only mineral that tends Figure 5.3.2.20. Tartan twin in microcline
to be subhedral, and tends to develop short crystals (mic). Cross-polarized light. Sample
prismatic crystals. It has probably different WR-218.
generations. One has concentric zoning and do
not has polysynthetic twinning (fig. 5.3.2.23);
the other has polysynthetic twinning n the albite
law and is not zoned. Incipient sericitiazation qtz mic
can be appreciated in some cores, particularly mic
in those corresponding to zoned plagioclase.
pl
Myrmekitic replacement along the contacts
with K-feldspar are well developed (fig. mic
mic
5.3.2.24).
pl
Quartz
Anhedral quartz is other common mineral,

and shows wavy extinction. Figure 5.3.2.21. Different patterns of microcline
crystals (mic) according the different crystal
Muscovite orientation. Pl is plagioclase and qtz, quartz.
Crossed polars, sample WR 218.
It is just a trace mineral, and has been
found associated with biotite crystals (fig.
5.3.2.25). It is difficult to ensure a primary
origin for this mineral owing to the scarce
textural data, but the euhedral platelets seem per>
to correspond to magmatic muscovite (fig.
5.3.2.26). mic
Biotite
It is only a trace mineral in these rocks,

and is found as platy crystals whose length is
lesser than 250 microns. Most of the biotite pl-A
crystals have been totally replaced by chlorite, Figure 5.3.2.22. Vein perthites (per) in a
magnetite and rutile along grain borders and m i c ro c l i n e c ry s t a l ( m i c ) , a l m o s t
cleavages. Some fresh grains have a pale brown extinguished. Cross-polarized light, sample
color (fig. 5.3.2.27), indicating low Fe contents. WR-218.
qtz
mic
qtz
<myr
<pl
mic mic amp
pl
pl
Figure 5.3.2.23. Zoned plagioclase crystal (pl) Figure 5.3.2.24. Myrmekites (myr) at the contact
included in microcline (mic). Cross-polarized light. between plagioclase (pl) and microcline (mic).
Sample WR-218. Cross-polarized light. Sample WR-218.
clc> clc>
mu>
mu>
qtz
pl
Figure 5.3.2.25. Muscovite crystals (mu) around Figure 5.3.2.26. The above image in crossed polars.
biotite platelets replaced by clinochlore (clc). Note Note high interference colors in muscovite (mu) .
some metamict aureolas around small zircon grains. Sample WR-218.
PPL. Sample WR-218.
bt>
zr>
zr>
Figure 5.3.2.27. Unaltered biotite crystal, included Figure 5.3.2.28. Euhedral zircon crystals included
into a quartz grain who prevented the alteration. into altered biotite, replaced by clinochlore. PPL.
Note the pale brownish color. PPL. Sample WR- Sample WR-218.
218.
Apatite
Apatite crystals are relatively common in

these rocks, as euhedral hexagonal prismatic amp
grains with pinacoidal termination, less than
100 microns in length, normally as inclusions
in other minerals. <ilm
pl
Zircon
It is a common trace mineral, and is found

as subhedral, rounded grains, included mainly
in biotite. They produce conspicuous
metamictic aureolas when included in biotite Figure 5.3.2.29. Zoned amphibole crystals (amp)
(fig. 5.3.2.28), although the mineral itself is not corroding clinopyroxene grains (cpx). The
metamictic. The grain size is very small, less accompanying mineral is A-plagioclase (pl). PPL.
tha 50 microns.
Ilmenite
Ilmenite is the only opaque present in the fig. 5.3.2.29)). In the hydrothermally altered
fresh areas, and is very rare. It occurs as small areas, ilmenite is replaced by sulfides, mainly
anhedral grains (less than 250 microns in size; pyrite.
5.2.3.-Whole-rock geochemistry of the Sonsón Batholith 403
5.2.3. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE

SONSÓN BATHOLITH
In order to characterize from a geochemical In addition, in the northeastern portion of the

point of view the rocks from the northern Sonsón intrusive, 2Km to the south of theArgelia townsite,
Batholith, the granodiorite and granite samples close to the corner formed by the contact of the
previously described on petrography (Section 5.2.2) west to east “finger-like” northeastern apophysis and
and one porphyry dike sample were analyzed for the Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, a diorite porphyry
whole-rock geochemistry. dike (sample WR-217) cutting both, the granite
Sample location is presented in figure 5.2.1.1, facies and the Paleozoic basement, was also
and they include the tonalite sample collected in the analyzed.
northwestern border of the intrusive, 6Km to the Wilt (1995) alteration filters broadly indicates
north of Sonsón townsite (sample WR-215) and no remarkable alteration in the samples (fig. 5.2.3.1).
two granite (leucogranite) samples (WR-216 and Only the potassium index show high values (>3.5)
WR-218) collected more the eastern central sector for granites (leucogranites), but it must be indicated
where more felsic rocks than tonalite-granodiorite facies that no appreciable alteration is observed under
described in the batholith are recognized in the field. microscope (see section 5.2.2.2).
Figure 5.2.3.1. Alteration filters proposed by Wilt (1995)applied to the Sonsón Batholith samples.
5.2.3.1. MAJOR ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY Despite only three samples were analyzed,
some general characteristic can be observed
The Sonsón Batholith samples indicate variable regarding a general trend between more mafic
silica content, from 62% for granodiorite sample granodiorite sample and more felsic leucogranite
(WR-215) and 74-76% for leucogranites (WR-216 samples. Most major and minor oxides of the Sonsón
and WR-218). Diorite porphyry dike returned silica Batholith rocks are negatively correlated with SiO2
content of 65.23%. (TiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, P2O5 and FeOt). Positive
Figure 5.2.3.2. Harker diagrams for samples of the Sonsón Batholith.

Figure 5.2.3.3. Major element geochemical plots for Sonsón Batholith rock samples: a) AFM Plot
(Irvine and Baragar, 1971); b) TAS (Cox et al., 1979); c) K2O vs. SiO2 plot (Peccerillo and Taylor,
1976); d) A/NK vs. A/CNK plot (Shand, 1943), e) Feldspar triangle (O’connor, 1965); f) R1 vs. R2
geotectonic plot (Batchelor and Bowen, 1985).
Figure 5.2.3.4. Trace element ‘spider-diagrams’ for rocks of the Sonsón Batholith. Bulk
continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published by Taylor
and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979)
correlation of K2O with respect to SiO2 is also crystallzation of muscovite in these

observed. Na2O contents are not much variable leucogranites.
around 3% (Fig. 5.2.3.2). All of the samples of the Sonsón Batholith plot
In general, leucogranites show depletion on on the Pre-Plate (subduction related) field of the
oxides such as FeOt, CaO, MgO, P2O5 and TiO2. geotectonic diagram proposed by Batchelor and
It is coherent with petrography observations (section Bowden (1985) (Fig. 5.3.3.3f).
5.2.2.2) where leucocratic character (absence or
low contents of mafic rock-forming minerals) is
clearly distinguished from typical granodiorite 5.3.2.2. TRACE ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY
samples of this batholith (sample WR-215). High
silica contents is accompanied by high K2O (>4%) Trace element variations between samples
contents and depletion on Al2O3 contents (<13.5%) of the Sonsón Batholith and diorite porphyry
(Fig. 5.2.3.2). dike are illustrated on variation “spider-grams”
Sonsón Batholith samples follow a calc- normalized to both Bulk Continental Earth
alkaline trend (Fig. 5.2.3.3). When plotted (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and Primordial
together samples of granodiorite and Mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values (Fig.
leucogranites fall into the high-K calc-alkaline 5.2.3.4).
field of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976). On the For the Sonsón Batholith samples,
other hand, diorite porphyry dike plot in the fractionated decreasing trends are observed in
medium-K calc-alkaline field in the same plot Primordial Mantle-normalized trace-element
(Fig. 5.2.3.3). patterns (Fig. 5.2.3.4).
Despite all of the samples are of the I- A granodiorite sample of the Sonsón
type granitoids (A/CNK<1.1), tonalite and Batholith (WR-215) show subduction-related
porphyry dike samples plot in the metaluminous geochemical features such as Large Ion
field of the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot of Shand Lithophile (LIL) elements enrichment (Cs, Rb,
(1943), while leucogranite rocks do so in the K, Ba and Sr), and High Field Strength
peraluminous field (Fig. 5.3.3.3d). In the later Elements (HFSE, as Nb, Ta and Ti) depletion
case, this can be associated with the (Pearce et al., 1984; Pearce and Peate, 1995).
Leucogranite samples (WR-216 and WR-
218) show the same general pattern behavior
as granodiorite sample, but some remarkable
specific differences are observed. U and Th
contents are unusually high (12-16 and 21-
25ppm, respectively), and enrichment of K,
Th, U, Ta generates positive anomalies with
respect to granodiorite pattern (Fig. 5.2.3.4).
In addition, moderate to strong negative Ba,
Sr, Zr, and Ti anomalies are also observed in
leucogranite samples. Such an enrichment in
incompatible elements and depletion in
compatible elements evidence the more
evolved character of these rocks with respect
to granodiorite samples of the Sonsón
Batholith. This is in agreement with the mineral
p l o t f o r ro c k s a m p l e s o f t h e S o n s ó n
composition of these leucogranites, whose can
Batholith. Chondrite normalizing values
be interpretated as produced by crystal
after Boynton (1984).
fractionation.
5 . 3 . 3 . 3 . R A R E E A RT H E L E M E N T
GEOCHEMISTRY Granodiorite sample show steep slope
((La/Lu) N= 11.93) with slight moderate Eu
Rare Earth Element (REE) contents of anomaly (Eu/Eu*=0.73).
samples of the Sonsón Batholith were plotted Leucogranite samples show strong Eu
on REE diagrams using normalizing chondritic anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.23-0.34) when
values of Boynton (1984). compared with granodiorite sample. An evident
Regarding the REE content, it is much depletion on Heavy Rare Earth Elements
higher in granodiorite sample (REE=142.79 (HREE) (La-Sm) is also observed.
ppm) than in leucogranite samples (REE=68- Relatively flat Light Rare Earth elements
90 ppm). The enrichment in REE in the (LREE) patterns are observed for all the
granodiorite samples can be explained by the samples analyzed from the Sonsón Batholith
crystallization of allanite in these rocks(see suite ((Gd/Lu)N=1.10-1.64).
section 5.2.2). Diorite porphyry dike returned Light Rare
All of the samples indicate moderate Earth Element depletion when compared to
fractionated patterns with gentle decreasing granodiorite and leucogranite samples ((Gd/
slopes (Fig. 5.2.3.5). Lu)N=2.10). No Eu anomaly is observed.
5.2.4.-Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Sonsón Batholith 409

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE SONSON BATHOLITH
As described above, the age of the 5.2.4.1 ZIRCON U-PB GEOCHRONOLOGY

Sonsón Batholith has been a subject of debate OF THE SONSÓN BATHOLITH
for a long time, because the ages previously
obtained by biotite K-Ar and whole-rock Rb- Samples from the northern sector of
Sr analyses returned ages in a wide range Sonsón Batholith previously described under
between early Jurassic and late Cretaceous the petrographic microscope (see section
(Maya, 1992). 5.2.2) were dated by zircon U-Pb LA-MC-
In this wide range, a Jurassic age has been ICP-MS. The obtained ages define a
favored (González, 2001), on the basis of Paleocene to early Eocene range, between
some geological observations and relationships 60.9 and 54.8 Ma (Table 5.2.4.1 and Figure
with the host rocks (e.g. lack of contact 5.2.4.1).
metamorphism evidences in the sedimentary On the other hand, at the least the
rocks of the early Cretaceous Abejorral analyzed samples do not show evidences of
Formation). inheritance zircon ages that could be attributed
Zircon U-Pb SHRIMP ages were to assimilation from older rocks.
published for the Sonsón Batholith by Ordóñez A representative granodiorite sample of
et al. (2001). These authors obtained a the main facies of this stock (sample WR-215;
Paleocene age for the intrusion on a sample section 5.2.2.1) returned an age of 58.6±1.0
collected in the northern sector, close to the Ma, whereas two leucogranite samples
Sonsón townsite. The sample used was returned different ages of 55.8±0.9-1.0 Ma
described by this author as “one of the type (sample WR-216) and 60.0±0.9 Ma (sample
locality where the batholith was originally WR-218).
defined”. Therefore, the results obtained in the
In addition, Ordóñez et al. (2001) also present research confirm a Paleocene to early
published Sr-Nd isotope data for the Sonsón Eocene age for the Sonsón Batholith, as
Batholith suggesting mixing between mantle- previously reported by Ordóñez et al. (2001)
derived melts and precambrian crustal for the northern sector of this intrusion (Fig.
material. 5.2.4.2).
Table 5.2.4.1. Zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS U-Pb results on rocks from the Sonsón Batholith.
H o w e v e r, a s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y
described in the chapter 3, the southern
portion of the batholith returned Triassic ages.
In addition, the rocks of the southern portion
are completely different to those from the
northern portion in terms of geochemical and
isotopic signatures.
Therefore, these data suggest that the
definition of the Sonsón Batholith generally
accepted up to the present moment, suggesting
that it is an homogeneous intrusion of the same
age, must be re-evaluated.
Hence, detailed geological mapping must
be carried out in these intrusives in order to
Figure 5.2.4.1. Concordia plots of Zircon establish the contact between these clearly
LA-MC-ICP-MS U-Pb ages obtained in different intrusives.
samples of the Sonsón Batholith.
.Figure 5.2.4.2. Zircon U-Pb ages obtained in samples of the Sonsón Batholith.
5.2.4.-Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Sonsón Batholith 411
Table 5.2.4.2. Rb-Sr isotopic data for samples of the Sonsón Batholith. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr (i)
calculated after the obtained U-Pb ages.
Table 5.2.4.3. Sm-Nd isotopic data for samples of the Sonsón Batholith.  Nd(T)
calculated after the obtained U-Pb ages.
5.2.4.2 Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE 5.2.4.3). For Rb and Sr isotopes, leucogranite
GEOCHEMISTRY OF ROCKS OF THE show much higher concentrations of Rb and
SONSÓN BATHOLITH much lower concentrations of Sr (Table
5.2.4.2).
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope analyses were Initial strontium ratios calculated on the
made for granodiorite and leucogranite samples basis of the U-Pb age obtained for the samples
of the Sonsón Batholith (tables 5.2.4.2 and of the Sonsón Batholith are 0.70473
5.2.4.3; figure 5.2.4.6). (granodiorite) and 0.70408 (leucogranite).
Leucogranite sample (WR-218) returned Epsilon Nd values are slightly negative: -0.17
much lower contents on Sm and Nd than for granodiorite and -0.76 for leucogranite
g r a n o d i o r i t e s a m p l e ( W R - 2 1 5 ) ( Ta b l e (Table 5.2.4.3).
Figure 5.3.4.3.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for the Sonsón Batholith samples.
Results obtained for Sm-Nd isotope Table 5.2.4.4. Whole-rock Pb isotope

geochemistry for the samples of the Sonsón composition of rocks from the Sonsón
Batholith analyzed are similar to those reported Batholith.
by Ordóñez et al. (2001), which reported
values for Nd close to zero for samples of this
batholith. Rb-Sr isotope results and Sr initial
ratios are significatively lower than those
reported by Ordóñez et al. (2001).
Leucogranite sample show lower initial
strontium ratio than granodiorite sample (Fig.
5.2.4.3).
The granodiorite sample from the Sonsón
Batholith plots within the mantle array, but
close to the bulk earth value. Hence, this data
would indicate a mixing between mantle-
derived source and crustal material. A more
significant contribution of crustal material is
observed when compared with the more
mantelic Antioquia Batholith samples (section
5.3.4).
5.2.4.3 Pb ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF

THE SONSÓN BATHOLITH
Pb isotope data obtained for samples of

the Sonsón Batholith are radiogenic ( 207 Pb/
204
Pb>15.5) (Table 5.2.4.4). Values obtained
for the Sonsón Batholith samples are 206 Pb/
204
Pb = 18.77 and 18.88, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.64
and 15.65 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.69 and 39.05
for granodiorite and leucogranite samples Figure 5.2.4.4. Thorogenic (208Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/
respectively, thus, leucogranite sample show 204
Pb) and uranogenic (207Pb/ 204Pb vs. 206Pb/
Pb isotope composition more radiogenic in 204
Pb) plots for rocks of the Sonsón Batholith.
both thorogenic and uranogenic plots than Pb isotope evolution curves from
granodiorite sample (Fig. 5.2.4.4). Plumbotectonics model after Zartman and Doe
(1981).
SECTION 5.3.
The Antioquia Batholith

5.3.1.-Introduction and geological setting 415
5.3.1. INTRODUCTION AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Antioquia Batholith is a granitic Feininger et al., 1972; Hall et al., 1972;
intrusive body located on the axial region of Feininger and Botero, 1982; Álvarez, 1983
the Central Cordillera. Its shape and size and Saenz, 2003).
(7221km 2) are noticeable characteristics of The most complete and detailed
this body, as it is equidimensional, slightly publication on the Antioquia Batholith by
elongated in the NW-SE direction, conversely Feininger and Botero (1982) highlights its
to other batholiths on the Colombian Andes, broadly “homogeneous” aspect, recognizing
with a clear N-S to NNE-SSW elongated three “facies”: the normal facies, granodioritic
shape. to tonalitic in composition comprising 97% of
Smaller satellite igneous bodies such as: the exposed surface of the batholith, and two
the Ovejas Batholith, the San Diego Stock, the (gabbroid and felsic) subordinated facies.
Altavista Stock, the Belmira Stock, the La Petrographical analyses of 214 samples of the
Unión Stock, the Aquitania Stock, the Tres normal facies with minor optical variations in
Mundos Stock, the Caracolí Stock and the La the rock forming minerals, was presented as
Culebra Stock, are related to the main intrusion supporting evidence of the unusual
(Cediel and Cáceres, 2000; Gonzálezz, 2001). «homogeneous» character of the batholith
This ensemble of plutonic and hypabyssal observed in the field. They also considered
rocks is hosted by Pre-Mesozoic metamorphic previously published K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages in
rocks, including Permo-Triassic gneisses, the range of 83-58 Ma as evidence for a
interpreted as syntectonic Triassic intrusives. “short” magmatic episode responsible for its
The outcrops of these intrusives are limited to formation.
the west by the Espiritu Santo and San H o w e v e r, d e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t
Jeronimo N-S trending faults, and to the east homogeneity highlighted by Feininger and
by the Palestina-Otú faults, defining a belt Botero (1982), they tried, based on their own
about 100 km in width. (fig. 5.3.1.1). field experience and petrographical
Intensive surficial weathering evidenced in descriptions, to make some general
thick saprolitic profiles and extensive vegetal observations and to established regional spatial
cover over large areas of the batholith. variations across the batholith such as: 1)
Therefore, most of the fresh rock outcrops are increase of potassic feldspar from west to east
restricted to scarce road cuttings and outcrops and 2) decrease of color index and degree of
in the river banks. The scarcity of good deformation. No measured quantitative data
outcrops, and the problems of personal supports these general qualitative observations.
security that exist in the present moment in the Foliation was described as an uncommon
region, are a strong limitation for separating feature, but present in some normal facies of
and mapping intrusive phases inside the the Batholith (Feininger and Botero, 1982).
batholith. Apophysy batholith-related and post-
In spite of these problems, some attempts batholith dikes cutting the intrusion, dark grey
have been done to characterize the batholith. to grey-green very fine grained to aphanitic or
Several authors have studied and made porphyrytic, andesitic to felsite and alaskite in
important contributions on the knowledge of composition, were also described by Feininger
the Antioquia Batholith (Botero, 1963; and Botero (1982).
416 SECTION 5.3.- THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
Figure 5.3.1. Simplified geological map of the Antioquia Batholith region and sample
location.
The publication of Feininger and Botero major and some trace elements was carried out
(1982) had a important influence on most of as well for these samples.
the studies made in the last 30 years. The Recently published U-Pb analyses in
problem of this work is to consider as zircon, on 14 samples of the Antioquia Batholith
homogeneous a batholith in which at the least and related satellite plutons returns late
three types of rocks (granodiorites, tonalites Cretaceous ages in the range of 96.4 to 70.6
and gabbros) were mentioned. Ma (Correa et al., 2006; Ordóñez-Carmona
Álvarez (1983) presents a petrochemical et al., 2007; Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2007;
characterization of the Antioquia Batholith, Ibáñez-Mejía et al., 2007, Villagómez et al.,
based on major, minor and trace elements 2008), questioning the homogeneous
geochemistry on 22 samples. He indicates little monophase character of the intrusion. In fact,
petrochemical variations and interprets such such a composite polyphase character of large
“homogeneity” as typical feature linked to the igneous bodies has been demonstrated for
petrographical homogeneity indicated by other batholiths of the Western America coast,
Feininger and Botero (1982). He also indicates i.e. the Coastal Batholith of Peru (Cobbing and
major, minor and trace element transversal Pitcher, 1972; Mukaks, 1986) and the Sierra
variations by projecting data in E-W and N-S Nevada Batholith (Bateman and Dodge, 1970).
profiles. Samples collected from the Antioquia
Ordóñez and Pimentel (2001), assuming Batholith included regional-scale rock samples
the homogeneity establised in the Antioquia from different outcrops accross the batholith.
Batholith, obtained a whole-rock Rb-Sr Unaltered samples in outcrop hand sample
isochrone age of 98 ± 27 Ma, and also inspection were preferred, avoiding
presented Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotopic data on mineralized/hydrothermally altered rocks close
the batholith and its surroundings satellit to mine sites or highly weathered rocks in
intrusions (La Tolda Gabbro, San Diego Stock, surficial rocks.
Altavista Stock, Samana Gneiss and El Retiro In addition, mineralization/hydrothermal
Group). alteration samples were collected in mine sites
Saenz (2003) made petrographical at Cerro Gramalote, La Floresta, Santa Rosa
characterization of 13 samples of the Antioquia de Osos, El Guayabito, La Bramadora, El
Batholith and some individual samples of the Limon cascade at the upper Nus River and
related satellite bodies (Ovejas Batholith, Santo Domingo.
Altavista Stock, San Diego Gabbro and La Sample location of the Antioquia Batholith
Union Stock). Whole rock geochemistry for is presented in fig 5.3.1.
5.3.2-Petrography of the Antioquia Batholith 419
5.3.2. PETROGRAPHY OF THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLIT
Petrography descriptions of unaltered 5.3.2.1. MICROGABBRO OF LA

rocks allowed recognizing different intrusive QUIEBRA FACIES
facies. Despite the existing sampling does not
allow to made a geological mapping of these At El Guayabito (Alto de Sandiego or La
facies, it is possible to state that the intrusive Quiebra) a large xenolith of gabbro-diorite
suite of the Antioquia batholit is more measuring some squarred kilometers is hosted
complicated than the classically defined. within the main granitoids of the Antioquia
The newly defined intrusive facies are the batholith. The La Quiebra gabbro-diorite is
next: recorded on the 1:400,000 scale geological
map of Antioquia (Gonzalez, 2001). In fact,
a) microgabbro of la Quiebra facies the xenolith is composed of numerous large
blocks and smaller fragments of gabbro-diorite
b) hornblende quartz-diorites of La Maria intruded by granodiorites.
facies At the El Guayabito mine, within the
tunnels and in the road cuts, metre-scale blocks
c) hornblende biotite tonalites of San of microgabbro can be observed floating within
Rafael facies granodiorite. In natural outcrop the
microgabbro weathers to a Fe-rich saprolite
d) hornblende biotite granodiorites of unsuitable for petrochemical sampling.
Alejandria facies However, road construction and mining
activities reveal very fresh materials located at
e) hornblende biotite tonalites of San the regolith-bedrock interface, which are
Andrés de Cuerquia facies suitable for petrographic and petrochemical
analysis. One of such sample was collected
f) hornblende biotite granodiorites of La from a road cut during the present study (EG-
Floresta facies 1).
The rock has a bimodal grain size, with
g) hornblende biotite tonalites of plagioclase, enstatite and augite in a fine-
Gramalote facies grained mesosthase of crystals (1-2 mm in
length) with cumulate texture, and bigger
h) aplites and pegmatites of Gramalote scattered amphibole grains (up to 2 cm) with
intrusive poikiloblastic texture (fig. 5.3.2.1, 5.3.2.2).
Accessory and trace minerals include zircon,
i) porphyry tonalites of the El Rayo facies apatite, ilmenite and magnetite.
j) porphyritic tonalite dikes of Gramalote Plagioclase

Hill facies
Plagioclase tends to develop tabular-
k) porphyritic tonalite dikes of Yolombó bladed euhedral crystals, of less than 2 mm in
facies size, and occupies around 45% modal of the
rock. Convolute zoning may be present, but is
l) porphyritic quartz-diorite dikes of very rare (A-type crystals, fig. 5.3.2.3). In most
Granada facies of the cases, twinning is on the albite law (B-
420 SECTION 5.3- THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
type crystals, fig. 5.3.2.3), and concentric

zoning is not well developed. A-type crystals
include crystals of the B-type, and could be
produced in a late stage, probably in association
with the amphibole. Alteration to sericite is rarely
present.
Enstatite
amp
Orthopyroxene tends to develop short
prismatic subhedral crystals, about 1mm in
length, whose form about the 20% modal of
the rock. It has only a very pale rose color in
thin section. Fine exsolution lamellae of Figure 5.3.2.1. General view of the microgabbro
clinopyroxene are commonly developed (fig. sample in PPL. Note the poikilitic amphibole (amp)
5.3.2.5). hosting pyroxene and plagioclase grains.
Clinopyroxene cpx>
Clinopyroxene occurs as short prismatic

subhedral crystals. Augite crystals are slightly
larger than those of orthopyroxene, up to 4 mm
in lengh. They may achieve up to 25% modal
of the rock. Polysynthetic twinning is common,
and zoning may be developed. Orthopyroxene
exsolution lamellae are common (fig. 5.3.2.6,
5.3.2.7).
Amphibole
Figure 5.3.2.2. The above image in crossed nicols.
Amphibole develops anhedral to rounded Note the bigger size of the amphibole crystals and
poikiloblastic crystals, up to 2 cm in diameter, their irregular shape.Clinopyroxene (cpx) stands
whose include pyroxenes and plagioclases. The out by their higher interference colors.
pyroxene and plagioclase crystals which are
included in amphibole are strongly corroded
(fig. 5.3.2.8, 5.3.2.9). Despite the amphibole
is widely scattered in the rock, it does not
achieve 10% modal. These crystals are zoned,
with corroded cores of greenish color, and the
outer parts are of brownish color. Twinning has
not been observed. Amphibole can be partly pl
replaced by greenish clinochlore, accompanied
with minor amounts of titanite and epidote, both
as small anhedral grains.
Apatite
Figure 5.3.2.3. Convolute zoning in a late
Apatite crystals occur only as a trace generation of plagioclase cystals, that have
mineral, in less than 1% modal amounts, and inclusions of the early plagioclase family.
tend to be euhedral, as crystals with short Crossed nicols.
pl
amp opx>
cpx>
pl
Figure 5.3.2.4. Typical aspect of plagioclase crystals Figure 5.3.2.5. Exsolution lamellae of
of microgabbro in crossed nicols. Note polysynthetic clinopyroxene (cpx) into almost extinguished
twinning on the albite law; zoning is lacking. orthopyroxene (opx). Crossed nicols.
opx> <opx opx>
pl pl
cpx>
cpx>
Figure 5.3.2.6. Exsolution lamellae of Figure 5.3.2.7. Coexistance of exsolution lamellae

orthopyroxene (opx) in clinopyroxene (cpx). Note in cumulate crystals of clinopyroxene (cpx) and
twinning in clinopyroxene. Crossed nicols. orthopyroxene (opx). Crossed nicols.
pl>
pl> pl>
amp amp
opx opx
cpx> cpx>
Figure 5.3.2.8. Detail of the replacement of the Figure 5.3.2.9. A detail of the above assemblage in
assemblage between plagioclase (pl)-clinopyroxene crossed nicols. The interference colors of the relicts
(cpx)-orthopyroxene (opx) by late amphibole (amp). demonstrate that plagioclase and pyroxene have
Note opaque grains in amphibole. PPL. been replaced by amphibole.
prismatic habit, often rounded. Crystal size is 5.3.2.11). Mineral composition is made up by
less than 100 microns, and usually around 50 quartz, plagioclase, biotite, amphibole, augite,
microns in maximum length. apatite, zircon and magnetite.
Magnetite Quartz
Magnetite crystals are found in modal It occurs in a modal proportion close to

quantities less than 3% (fig. 5.3.2.1). They were 5%. Quartz crystals are anhedral, and are found
formed in diferent stages in the crystallization in interstitial spaces between crystals of
sequence. Some small euhedral grains crystallized plagioclase and mafic minerals (fig. 5.3.2.12).
early, as evidenced because they are found as Their grain size is very fine, between 500 microns
inclusions in pyroxenes and plagioclase. and 1 mm. Undulatory extinction is distinct.
However, other bigger, anhedral grains
were produced as a late product in the Plagioclase
crystallization sequence, because they occur
as interstitial grains between pyroxenes, and Plagioclase crystals are abundant (up to 50
in many cases they have inclusions of %). They tend to be subhedral whit a short
pyroxenes and plagioclase (fig. 5.3.2.8). prismatic habit. Grain borders are often corroded
Moreover, many of these magnetite grains are by the interstitial quartz. The crystal size is in the
intergrown with the late amphibole, and tend range between 5-7 mm. There are two
to have equilibria textures with this mineral plagioclase generations. One has polysynthetic
(curved borders, triple points; fig. 5.3.2.8). All twinning on the albite law and is not zoned (B-
these magnetite grains have exsolutions of type, fig. 5.3.2.13); the other one has convolute
ilmenite platelets. zoning and no twinning (A-type, fig. 5.3.2.14).
Type B crystals are often bent or affected by kink
Ilmenite bands. These crystals are not altered.
It occurs disseminated in the rock, as K-feldspar

anhedral grains. It shows equilibria contacts
with the above minerals. K-feldspar is almost absent and does not
exhibit microperthites. No zoning or twinning
Zircon has been observed.
Rare zircon grains may be found scattered Amphibole

in the rock, but it is only a trace mineral. They
are subhedral, short prismatic in habit and Amphibole is one of the most common
rounded. minerals in this rock, up to 35 % modal. The
grain size is in the range 3-15 mm. It tends to
be subhedral, and their crystals have long
5 . 3 . 2 . 2 . H O R N B L E N D E Q U A RT Z - prismatic habit. It shows a pleochroism in
DIORITES OF LA MARIA FACIES green hues, and may be zoned. Polysynthetic
twining is widespread. In most of the cases, it
Quartzodiorites of this type were found contains corroded pyroxene grains in the cores
near the Gramalote hill, in the La Maria creek (fig. 5.3.2.15, 5.3.2.16, 5.3.2.17, 5.3.2.18).
(sample WR-221). These rocks are intruded
by tonalites of the Gramalote facies. These Orthopyroxene
diorites are very dark in color due to a high
content in mafic minerals. It is rare in this rock, and is almost
They have a relativelly fine-grained (2-6 mm) completely corroded by amphibole (fig.
phaneritic holocrystalline texture (fig. 5.3.2.10, 5.3.2.15).
qtz qtz
bt bt
pl
pl
pl
pl
Figure 5.3.2.10. General view of La Maria quartz- Figure 5.3.2.11. The same image as above, in
diorites in PPL. Plagioclase (pl) is surrounded by crossed polars.
biotite (bt) and quartz (qtz).
qtz
bt
pl-B
pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.12. Detail of a plagioclase crystal Figure 5.3.2.13. A first generation of B-type
corroded by a late association of quartz (qtz) and plagioclase (pl-A) with polysynthetic twinning on
biotite (bt), in crossed polars. the albite law; it is not zoned. Note that the twinning
is bent. Crossed nicols.
pl-B
opx
pl -B
pl-A
amp
cpx>
<pl-B
pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.14. A-type plagioclase crystal with Figure 5.3.2.15. An amphibole crystal (amp) with
convolute zoning corrodes an early generation of strongly corroded restites of orthopyroxene (opx)
B-type plagioclase crystals with polysynthetic crystals. B-Plagioclase is also in the association (pl-
twinning. Crossed polars. B). Crossed polars.
Clinopyroxene
Clinopyroxene is a common accessory

mineral and its modal content achieves more amp
than 5%. It is anhedral, and their crystals have
been partially or totally replaced by amphibole.
Crystals are prismatic, whit short habit; length cpx pl
is less than 1 cm. It shows a slight pleochroism
in pale green to colorless hues. Zoning is
absent, and polysynthetic twining is the rule.
Biotite
Biotite is present in a significative modal Figure 5.3.2.16. Zoned amphibole crystals (amp)
amount, up to 5%. The grain size is quite corroding clinopyroxene grains (cpx). The
homogeneous and it is fine-grained, normally accompanying mineral is A-plagioclase (pl). PPL.
in the range 1-3 mm. Subhedral tabular crystals
have pleochroism in brown hues, thus
suggesting a moderate Fe content. Partial
alteration to associations of pale green
clinochlore and secondary magnetite are quite amp
common.
pl
Apatite cpx
Apatite is a trace mineral (<1%) that is

found mainly as inclusions in qartz, plagioclase,
biotite and amphibole. It forms subhedral
crystals of short prismatic habit with less than
50 microns in length. Figure 5.3.2.17. The above image in crossed polars.
Note the higher interference colors in the
Zircon clinopyroxene restitic crystals.
Zircon crystals are euhedral, and occur as

short prismatic crystals, less than 50 microns
length. Zircon crystals are common as
inclusions in biotite and amphibole, and,
occasionally, on quartz crystals. amp>
cpx
Epidote
Epidote is very rare, observed as anhedral

grains produced by alteration of calcic
amphiboles and plagioclases.
Magnetite pl-A
Figure 5.3.2.18. Detail, in crossed nicols, of a
Magnetite is the most frequent opaque cliniopyroxene crystal replaced by amphibole
mineral, but its quantity is usually less than 1%. (amp). All the blue grains corresponds to a grain
It develops anhedral crystals, with sizes of the early clinopyroxene (cpx).
between 50 and 100 microns. No exsolutions
qtz qtz
or zoning is observed, and it is partially
replaced by hematite and titanite along the grain
borders, indicating hight Ti content in the spinel.
pl
qtz amp
TONALITES OF SAN RAFAEL FACIES pl
amp
Tonalites of this type were found close to qtz
San Rafael town (samples RG-576 and RG- bt
578), but also in other parts of the batholit pl
(samples RG-609, RG-291 and HL120505).
The San Rafael tonalites have a dark Color Figure 5.3.2.19. General view, in PPL, of sample
Index and are enriched in mafic minerals. RG-291. Quartz (qtz), plagioclase (pl), amphibole
Tonalites present a fine to medium grained (amp) and biotite (bt) are dominant.
phaneritic holocrystalline texture (fig. 5.3.2.18, qtz
5.3.2.19, 5.3.2.20). Mineral composition is qtz
variable and no dependant on grain size
variations, with quartz, plagioclase, K-
feldspar, biotite, amphibole, clinopyroxene,
apatite, zircon and magnetite. These tonalites pl
are characterized by the common occurrence
of clinopyroxene as an accessory mineral. qtz amp
amp pl
Quartz
qtz bt
It occurs in a modal proportion near to
30%. Quartz crystals are anhedral, rounded
and occupy interstitial spaces between the Figure 5.3.2.20. The above image in crossed polars.
plagioclase crystals. Grain size is 3-5 mm in Note A-type twinning in plagioclase. Biotite is
average. Undulatory extinction is widespread. produced in a late stage. Sample RG-291.
Plagioclase
bt
Plagioclase crystals are abundant (up to
60%). They tend to be subhedral and exhibit
a short prismatic habit; borders of the grains or
can be partly corroded by late quartz. Grain
size is in the range between 5-8 mm. pl
Zoning is not well developed in most of
the plagioclase crystals, and subsolidus
alteration is almost nule. Only some qtz
sericitization has been observed in some cores
of crystals, accompanied in some cases by amp
small grains of secondary epidote. Figure 5.3.2.21. General view of a tonalite of the
Polysynthetic twinning is polysinthetic on the San Rafael facies (sample RG-609). Crossed polars.
albite law. Hence, these plagioclases have Quartz (qtz); plagioclase (pl); biotite (bt);
similarities with the B-type described in the orthoclase (or); amphibole (amp).
pl-B
bt pl-B pl-B
qtz
amp
qtz pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.22. Detail in crossed polars of some Figure 5.3.2.23. In crossed nicols, partly sericitized
corroded crystals of B-type plagioclase (pl-B) with A-type plagioclase crystal, associated with
biotite (bt) and quartz (qtz). Sample RG-609. amphibole and quartz. Sample HL120505.
pl-B
bt
qtz
pl-A
pl-B
pl-A
pl-B
pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.24. B-type plagioclase crystal with Figure 5.3.2.25. A-type plagioclase showing
convolute zoning (pl-A), interstitial among two B- convolute zoning (pl-A) in association with B-type
type plagioclase crystals (pl-B). Quartz (qtz) is also crystals (pl-A). Crossed nicols. Sample RG-609.
present. Sample RG-291.
<Zr qtz
pl-B
or
pl-B
pl
<sympl
or
amp
sympl>
pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.26. Symplectitic intergrowths (sympl) Figure 5.3.2.27. Another detail, in crossed nicols,
at the contact between orthoclase (or) and of a symplectitic intergrowths (sympl) between
plagioclase (pl). Amphibole (amp) is also orthoclase (or) and corroded A-type plagioclase (pl-
associated. Crossed polars, sample HL120505. A). Note a zircon grain (zr). Sample RG-291.
basic and intermediate rocks (fig. 5.3.2.22,
5.3.2.23), although some A-type plagioclase bt-1
showing convolute zoning is also observed
(fig. 5.3.2.24, 5.3.2.25). bt-2
K-feldspar
bt-1
K-feldspar content is variable. Near the
San Rafael town it may be close to 5% modal,
but in other parts the modal content is less than
1%, and lower in the mafic varities. It occurs clc
as anhedral grains, up to some centimeters in
maximum dimension, which occupy interstitial
position between plagioclase crystals, and Figure 5.3.2.28. Two generations of biotite: older
include crystals of plagioclase and amphibole. and larger (bt-1) and smaller (bt-2). The first is
Orthoclase may be in equilibria with quartz, altered to green clinochlore (clc). PPL. Sample RG-
but it tends to corrode the above mentioned
minerals. Symplectitic textures are found
where the orthoclase crystals are in contact
with plagioclase (figs. 5.3.2.26, 5.3.2.27).
Microperthites are very small, of the pod type. bt-1
Neither zoning nor twinning has been observed
thus sugesting that this K-feldspar corresponds
to orthoclase. bt-2>
amp
Biotite
Biotite is present in a significative modal

amount, up to 5%. The grain size is quite
homogeneous and normally in the range 4-6 Figure 5.3.2.29. Two gnerations of biotite: 1) older
mm. Subhedral tabular crystals have strong and larger (bt-1) and 2) smaller (bt-2). Note
pleochroism in dark brown hues, thus replacement along grain borders and fractures.
suggesting a high Fe content. PPL. Sample HL120505.
In some altered rocks, another type of
biotite, probably related to potassic alteration,
is very euhedral and has a small grain size, in
the order of some tens of microns, and would clc
be produced late in the sequence (figs.
5.3.2.29, 5.3.2.30). <tit
bt-1
Partial alteration to associations of pale
green clinochlore, titanite, epidote and mt
secondary magnetite are quite common (fig.
5.3.2.30).
Amphibole
Amphibole is present in similar modal Figure 5.3.2.30. Biotite of the first generation (bt-
proportions to those of biotite, up to 5%, but 1) altered to clinochlore (clc) and titanite (tit).
in some mafic facies the modal content can Euhedral magnetite inclusions are also present in
increase up to 25%. The grain size is in the biotite (mt). PPL. Sample RG-576.
pl pl
amp
amp
cpx cpx
Figure 5.3.2.31. Dark green amphibole (amp) Figure 5.3.2.32. The above image in crossed nicols.
corroding clinopyroxene (cpx). Note a clear Note twinning in amphibole and the corrosion of
amphibole rimming clinopyroxene. RG-576. PPL. the clinopyroxene grains. Sample RG-576.
pl
amp
pl cpx
cpx> cpx amp
amp
Figure 5.3.2.33. Amphibole crystal (amp) developed Figure 5.3.2.34. Amphibole crystals (amp)
by replacement of a clinopyroxene crystal (cpx). surrounding a clinopyroxene grain (cpx). Note slight
Crossed polars. Sample RG-576. color changes in amphibole close to the
clinopyroxene. PPL. Sample RG-609.
<cpx
<cpx
amp amp
pl-A pl-A
Figure 5.3.2.35. Amphibole crystal (amp) developed Figure 5.3.2.36. The above image in crossed polars.
by replacement of a clinopyroxene crystal (cpx). Clinopyroxene (cpx) is photographed at the
Note slight color changes in amphibole close to the extinction position. Note polysynthetic twinning in
clinopyroxene. PPL. Sample RG-609. amphibole (amp). Sample RG-609.
range 5-15 mm. It tends to be euhedral, and
crystals have long primatic habit. It shows a pl
strong pleochroism in dark green hues (fig.
5.3.2.31). Zoning is absent, but a clearer rim
amp
of amphibole occurs surrounding corroded
clinopyroxene crystals (figs. 5.3.2.31,
5.3.2.36). Polysynthetic twining is the rule.
Inclusions of euhedral biotite crystals indicate
a late growth of amphibole. <ap
<ap
Clinopyroxene
Clinopyroxene is a rare accessory and it

is not present in all the cases, and never its Figure 5.3.2.37. Apatite subhedral crystals (ap) as
modal content achieves more than 1%. It is inclusions in amphibole grains (amp). PPL. Sample
anhedral, and they have been partially or totally RG-576.
corroded and replaced by amphibole (figs.
5.3.2.31, 5.3.2.36). Crystals are prismatic,
with short habit, but in most of the cases it is
possible to distinguish only some anhedral and amp
highly corroded relicts; length is less than 500
microns. It shows a slight pleochroism in pale
green to colorless hues. Zoning is absent, and
polysynthetic twining is the rule. zr>
Apatite
Apatite is a trace mineral (<1%) that is qtz

found mainly as small inclusions in quartz,
plagioclase, biotite and amphibole. It forms Figure 5.3.2.38. Euhedral crystal of zircon, unzoned,
subhedral crystals of short prismatic habit, at the contact between quartz (qtz) and amphibole
partly rounded, with less than 100 microns in (amp). Crossed polars, sample RG-576.
lenght (fig. 5.3.2.37).
Zircon

short prismatic crystals, less than 50 microns amp
inclusions in biotite and amphibole, and,
occasionally, on quartz crystals. They are not
<zr
zoned, and they are not metamict, and do not pl
produce distinct metamictic aureolas in biotite
(figs. 5.3.2.38, 5.3.2.39).
Epidote
Figure 5.3.2.39. Euhedral prismatic crystal of
Epidote is very rare, observed as anhedral zircon, unzoned, as inclusions in amphibole crystals
grains produced by alteration of calcic (amp). Crossed polars, sample RG-609.
amphiboles and plagioclases.
Magnetite

mineral, but its quantity is usually less than 1%. It
develops anhedral crystals, with sizes between 50
and 100 microns. No exsolutions or zoning is
observed, ans it is partially replaced by hematite per> or
and titanite over the grain borders, indicating hight
Ti contents in magnetite crystals. pl

GRANODIORITES OF THE
ALEJANDRIA FACIES Figure 5.3.2.40. Orthoclase crystal (or) corroding
plagioclase crystals (pl). Note perthites in K-
Granodiorites of this type have been found feldspar (per). Crossed polars. Sample RG-615.
in the vicinity of the Alejandria town (sample RG-
615; Fig.5.3.1.1). They have almost the same
characteristics of tonalites of the area: they are or
pl
massive in appearance with the grayish white color
and “salt and pepper” texture. Mafic xenoliths, amp
pegmatite and aplite dikes, and porphyrytic mafic
dikes are seen as well. Weathered appearance
of rocks is similar to those of tonalites, as well as pl
vein and veinlets of quartz, carbonates, chlorite
and epidote. They are non-magnetic to weakly pl
magnetic under hand magnet and mafic proportion
is similar between biotite and amphibole.
A fine to medium grained phaneritic
holocrystalline texture, similar to that of the Figure 5.3.2.41. Plagioclase crystals of the B-type
tonalites, characterizes the granodiorites. Mineral (pl-B), with polysynthetic twinning on the albite law.
composition is quite similar to tonalites as well, Crossed polars. Sample RG-615.
but a higher K-feldspar content allows the
discrimination between these two clases. As in
the case of tonalites, mineral composition seems
to be independent from grain size variations.
Under the polarizing microscope, a slight
diminishing in proportion of biotite crystals with
respect to amphibole crystals is observed when
comparing granodiorite with tonalite samples. The pl-B
most noticeable characteristic of the Alejandria
granodiorites is the occurrence of pyroxene
restites, as happens with the San Rafael tonalites.
qtz
Quartz
It is observed in a 25 to 30% modal Figure 5.3.2.42. Plagioclase crystals of the

proportion. Quartz develops anhedral crystals, B-type (pl-B), with polysynthetic twinning
filling interstitial spaces between plagioclase on the albite law.. Crossed polars. Sample
euhedral crystals, and is intergrown with K- RG-615.
feldspar. Grain size is highly variable, ranging from
few hundredths of microns up to few millimeters.
Slightly wavy extinction is observed, but it is not
as strong as that observed on tonalites. Fluid
or <symp inclusions tracks inside quartz grains are
observable under microscope in granodiorites
samples.
pl K-feldspar
It has been identified optically as orthoclase.

As stated above, it constitutes between 10 and
15% modal of granodiorite samples. Anhedral in
Figure 5.3.2.43. Symplectitic intergroths (symp) shape, it usually surrounds early euhedral
close to the contact of plagioclase (pl) and plagioclase crystals and anhedral quartz crystals.
orthoclase (or). Crossed polars. Sample RG-615. Crystal size is often in the centimeter order, thus
enclosing early formed crystals, as plagioclase,
biotite and amphiboles. Orthoclase is not altered
clc and microperthitic textures are more common than
in the above described rocks, also of the pod
bt type (fig. 5.3.2.40). A slight wavy extinction similar
pl to that of quartz may be present in some cases.
<ep
Plagioclase
Plagioclase crystals constitute between 40

and 60% of the rock. Euhedral to subhedral in
shape, a short prismatic habit is typical in these
crystals. Grain size is highly variable and, in the
Figure 5.3.2.44. Biotite crystal partly same way as quartz, they range between few
replaced by clinochlore (clc) and epidote hundredths of microns up to few millimeters.
(ep). PPL. Sample RG-615. Concentrical zoning is found in a few crystals.
Most of the plagioclase crystals are not zoned,
and in some cases the zoned crystals occur as
pl-A inclusions into unzoned crystals. Polysynthetic
twining on albite law {010} is present in all the
amp cases (type B plagioclase), and other types of
twinning have not been observed (figs. 5.3.2.41,
<cpx 5.3.2.42). Plagioclase euhedral grains are
surrounded by anhedral intergrowths of quartz and
K-feldspar, thus indicating an early position of
plagioclase during the crystallization sequence.
Symplectite intergrowths with quartz are found
when plagioclase is in contact wiith K-feldspar
(fig. 5.3.2.43).
Figure 5.3.2.45. Colorless clinopyroxene Biotite

grain (cpx) partly replaced by dark green
amphibole (amp) PPL. Sample RG-615. Biotite is present in minor quantity, near to
5%. It develops subhedral tabular crystals with
brownish pleochroism. Biotite-quartz

symplectitic intergrowths are rarely seen, as pl
well as apatite and zircon inclusions. Biotite
crystals present a “clearer” and more amp
homogeneous aspect in granodiorites than in <cpx
tonalites. Partial alteration to clinochlore
following grain borders and cleavage is quite
common. When altered, biotite crystals present
slight wavy extinction and sinuous alteration
cracks filled by chlorite and sometimes by
epidote (fig. 5.3.2.44).
Amphibole
Figure 5.3.2.46. Clinopyroxene grain (cpx)
Amphibole is present in a slightly higher corroded by amphibole (amp). Crossed polars.
quantity than biotite in granodiorites, up to 8%. Sample RG-615.
It is characterized by a highly pleochroic green
color. It develops subhedral to anhedral crystals.
Concentrical zoning is absent. Polysynthetic
twining is frequent. Symplectite intergrowths with
quartz are very common, and frequently they
contain highly corroded clinopyroxene inclusions amp
(figs. 5.3.2.45-5.3.2.48). It also hosts inclusions <cpx
of biotite, plagioclase, magnetite and zircon. It
may be partly replaced along cleavages to
pl
clinochlore and epidote.
Clinopyroxene
Small relicts of clinopyroxene are not Figure 5.3.2.47. Clinopyroxene grain (cpx)
common as in the San Rafael tonalites, and are corroded by amphibole (amp). PPL. Sample RG-
smaller. Clinopyroxene is almost colorless, and 615.
the small size do not allow obtaining more
petrographic data. In all the cases are strongly
corroded along the grain borders (figs.
5.3.2.45- 5.3.2.48).
Apatite
amp
Apatite is not as common as in tonalites.
They are less than 60 microns length, and tend
to be hemihedral, with short prismatic habit. <cpx
They occur as inclusions in quartz and, in less
proportion, in biotite and amphibole.
Zircon
Figure 5.3.2.48. Clinopyroxene grain (cpx)
Zircon crystals are less frequent in corroded by amphibole (amp). Crossed polars.
granodiorites than in tonalites of the Antioquia Sample RG-615.
batholith. They can be present as inclusions in
quartz, and in less proportion in biotite and 5.3.2.5. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE
amphibole. TO N A L I T E S O F S A N A N D R E S D E
CUERQUIA FACIES
Titanite
Tonalites of this type were found close to
Titanite is very scarce. It was observed the San Andrés de Cuerquia town (sample RG-
only as anhedral crystals, product of alteration 543), but they are also occupying large
where Ti-rich biotite altered to chlorite. extensions in the NW part of the Antioquia
batholit (samples RG-506, RG-527 and RG-
Epidote 563).
Epidote is observed as a common product The San Andrés de Cuerquia tonalites

of alteration after calcic amphiboles and have a dark Color Index (C.I.) but the mafic
plagioclase. It is observed as open-space filling content is not very high. The grain size is quite
in cracks and occasionally following cleavages homogeneous, in the order of 5-10 mm.
of the altered biotite crystals. These tonalites present a medium grained
phaneritic holocrystalline texture. They are
Magnetite composed by quartz and plagioclase, and K-
feldspar is almost absent; amphibole and biotite
Magnetite is the more frequent opaque occur as accessory minerals (fig. 5.3.2.49-
mineral in granodiorites as occurs in tonalites, 5.3.2.52). The main difference of these
although quantity is less than 1%. It develops tonalites with those of the San Andrés facies
euhedral to subhedral crystals, with sizes is the absence of pyroxene.
between 70 and 100 microns. No exolutions
or zoning is observed, and it is partially Quartz
replaced by hematite.
Quartz occurs in a modal proportion close
Pyrite to 30%. Quartz crystals are anhedral, rounded
and occupy interstitial spaces between the
Pyrite is common but in lesser amounts plagioclase crystals. They exhibit undulatory
than magnetite. It develops euhedral to extinction.
subhedral crystals. Grain sizes are very fine to
Plagioclase
fine, 50-100 microns.
Chalcopyrite 60%). They tend to be subhedral and exhibit
a short prismatic habit; borders of the grains
Chalcopyrite is present in all analyzed can be partly corroded by late quartz. Grain
samples of granodiorite from the Antioquia size is in the range between 5-8 mm. As a
batholith, while it was not seen in tonalite samples. difference with the San Rafael tonalites, three
It is present as disseminated anhedral crystals with families of plagioclase crystals can be
very fine size (20-50 microns). Some chalcopyrite established based on the type of twinning and
grains present partial border alteration to Cu zoning. Some families are similar to those
sulfides such as bornite and covellite. described in the above rocks, but there is a
new type.
Hematite
A-type is not twinned and has complex
Hematite was observed replacing borders convolute zoning (fig. 5.3.2.53); these crystals
of magnetite crystals, but it also occur as a are rare.
secondary mineral along cleavage surfaces in
B-type is not zoned and twinning is only
biotite crystals.
on the albite law (figs. 5.3.2.54-5.3.2.57).
pl
pl
bt amp
bt amp
qtz
qtz
Figure 5.3.2.49. General view of a hornblende Figure 5.3.2.50. The above image in crossed nicols.
tonalite of the San Andrés de Cuerquia facies. Quartz (qtz); plagioclase (pl); amphibole (apm);
Sample RG-543. PPL. biotite (bt).
qtz qtz
bt
bt
pl
pl
amp
amp
Figure 5.3.2.51. General view of a hornblende Figure 5.3.2.52. The above image in crossed nicols.
tonalite of the San Andrés de Cuerquia facies. Quartz (qtz); plagioclase (pl); amphibole (apm);
Sample RG-543. PPL.. biotite (bt).
qtz
pl-B
amp>
cpx
pl-C pl-B
pl-A pl-B
pl-A
Figure 5.3.2.53. A-type plagioclase crystal (pl-A) Figure 5.3.2.54. B-type plagioclase crystals (pl-B)
showing convolut zoning. Other crystals are of the showing polysynthetic twinning on the albite law;
B (pl-B) and C (pl-C) types. Sample RG-527, crossed note corrosion at the crystal borders. Sample RG-
nicols. 527, crossed nicols..
pl-B amp
pl-B
pl-B
qtz
<bt bt
Figure 5.3.2.55. B-type plagioclase crystals (pl-B) Figure 5.3.2.56. B-type plagioclase crystals (pl-B)
showing polysynthetic twinning {010}; note slight showing polysynthetic twinning on the albite law.
zoning. Sample RG-543. crossed nicols. Sample RG-563. Crossed nicols.
qtz bt
amp
pl-C
pl-B
pl
cpx
pl-B
bt
Figure 5.3.2.57. B-type plagioclase crystals (pl-B) Figure 5.3.2.58. C-type plagioclase crystals (pl-C)
showing polysynthetic twinning on the albite law; showing polysynthetic twinning on the albite and
note corrosion at the crystal borders. Sample RG- pericline laws. Sample RG-527. Crossed nicols.
576. Crossed nicols.
bt
bt
amp>
pl-C cpx
pl-C pl-C
pl-C
amp
pl-A
Figure 5.3.2.59. C-type plagioclase crystals (pl-C) Figure 5.3.2.60. C-type plagioclase crystals (pl-C)
showing polysynthetic twinning on the albite and showing polysynthetic twinning on the albite and
pericline laws. Note slight zoning. Sample RG-563. pericline laws. Sample RG-576. Crossed nicols..
Crossed nicols.
This type of twinning is more common than the

above and it is widely spread in these rocks, pl-B
but it is not the most common. As described in
other rocks, twin planes can be slightly bent pl-C
or affected by kink-banding.
C-type is the most common. It uses to be

pl-A
strongly zoned and its twinning is complex, on
albite, pericline and Karlsbad laws (figs.
5.3.2.58-5.3.2.60). Crystals of the B-type
tend to appear as inclusions in those of the C-
type (fig. 5.3.2.61, 5.3.2.62).
All of the plagioclase types have grain Figure 5.3.2.61. C-type plagioclase (pl-C) with
borders corroded by quartz, and when inclusions of A-type (pl-A) and B-type (pl-B)
embayed in K-feldspar may exhibit plagioclases. Crossed polars, sample RG-543.
symplectitic textures (fig. 5.3.2.63).
Subsolidus processes, as hydrotermal
alteration, are developed on different grade.
Some plagioclase grains can have the cores
partly sericitized, and small secondary epidote
grains can also appear therein. pl-C
K-feldspar
The modal contents of orthoclase are very pl-B

low, not more than 1%. It occurs as anhedral
grains, interstitial between plagioclase crystals.
Microperthites are practically indistinct under
the optical microscope (fig. 5.3.2.63). Neither
zoning nor twinning has been observed. Figure 5.3.2.62. C-type plagioclase (pl-C)
Biotite with inclusions of B-type (pl-B) plagioclases.
Crossed polars, sample RG-563.
Biotite is present in a significative modal
amount, up to 5%. The grain size is quite
homogeneous and normally in the range 4-6 or symp>
mm. Subhedral tabular crystals have strong <symp
pleochroism in dark brown hues, thus
suggesting a high Fe content. In many cases,
biotite crystals have evidences of deformation,
as microkink bands (fig. 5.3.2.64). Partial
alteration to associations of pale green
clinochlore, epidote, titanite and secondary
magnetite are quite common (figs. 5.3.2.65, symp>
amp
5.3.2.66). It may be replacedby quartz (fig.
5.3.2.67). fk
Amphibole Figure 5.3.2.63. Symplectites (symp) between the
Amphibole is present in similar modal contact of plagioclase (pl) and orthoclase (or). The
proportions to those of biotite, up to 5%. The extinguished grain is amphibole (amp). Crossed
grain size is in the range 5-15 mm. It tends to polars. Sample RG-527.
pl bt
amp clc>
bt
cpx pl
pl
clc qtz
Figure 5.3.2.64. Biotite crystals affected by Figure 5.3.2.65. Biotite crystals (bt) replaced along
microkink bands, producing benting of the clevages grain borders and cleavages by clinochlore (clc) .
and undulouse extinction. Sample 576, crossed Sample 576, PPL.
bt
bt
ep
amp
ttn
pl
pl
Figure 5.3.2.66. Biotite crystals (bt) replaced along Figure 5.3.2.67. Biotite with brownish pleochroism
cleavage by titanite (ttn); epidote (ep) is also in the (bt) and amphibole with green ppleochroism (amp)
association, replacing a zoned plagioclase (pl). crystals partly replaced by quartz. Sample 527, in
Sample 527, crossed polars. PPL.
amp> amp>
cpx cpx
Figure 5.3.2.68. Amphibole crystals (amp) Figure 5.3.2.69. The above image, in crossed polars.
displaying zoning reflected as color changes Note slight differences in the interference color
at the border of the crystals. Sample 527, between core of crystals and borders. Plagioclase
in PPL. is mainly of A-type. .
be subhedral, with corroded borders, and their

crystals have a long prismatic habit. It shows
a strong pleochroism in dark green hues. Zoning
is rare, but a slight concentric zoning has been
found in a case, consisting on a euhedral core
pl with brownish green color, mantled by a border
bt of darker green color (figs. 5.3.2.68,
<ap 5.3.2.69). Polysynthetic twinning is found in
<ap all of these crystals. Inclusions of biotite and
qtz plagioclase are common, and indicate that
amphibole formed later than these minerals.
Amphibole crystals of this tonalite facies do
not have pyroxene relicts. On the other hand,
Figure 5.3.2.70. Apatite crystals (ap) at the border as biotite, amphibole crystals may be corroded
of biotite (bt) or as inclusions in quartz (qtz) or by late quartz grains (fig. 5.3.2.67).
plagioclase (pl). Sample RG-527, PPL.
Apatite
Apatite is a common trace mineral (<1%),

found as inclusions in the above indicated
amp minerals. It tends to be subhedral, whit short
prismatic habit, and occurs as inclusions in
pl other minerals (fig. 5.3,2.70). The longer
dimension does not exceed 50 microns in
length.
Zircon
Zircon crystals tend to be euhedral, as

short prismatic crystals. Crystal size is less than
Figure 5.3.2.71. Zircon crystal (zr) as a inclusion 50 microns in length. They are found as
in biotite grain (bt). Note that metamictic inclusions in all the above indicated minerals.
aureolas are lacking. Zircon is not zoned. Crossed They does not exhibit zoning when examinated
nicols. Sample RG-527. with optical microscope, and these crystals do
not produce metamictic aureolas on the hosting
biotite (fig. 5.3.2.71)or amphibole (fig.
5.3.2.72).
Epidote
Epidote has been found in a few cases as

a secondary mineral. It may occur filling small
zr>
veins with chlorite and as a pseudomorphic
material after biotite or amphiboles.
pl amp
Magnetite
Magnetite is found in small quantities, less

than 1%. Crystals are anhedral and rounded,
Figure 5.3.2.72. Zircon crystals (zr) as and their crystal size ranges between 50 and
inclusions in amphibole crystals (amp). 100 microns. They do not have exsolutions,
Plagioclase (pl). Crossed polars. Sample and it is not replaced by secondary minerals
RG-543. of titanium.
GRANODIORITES OF LA FLORESTA qtz
FACIES
pl
The type locality is close to La Floresta
de Yalí population (sample LF-10). It has been qtz bt
pl
found in other parts of the Yalí area (sample pl
LF-16), and close to the Guacharacas sector pl
qtz
(sample RG-632; Figure 5.3.1.1). pl pl
The textures and Color Index of some of
qtz qtz
these rocks may be similar to those from or
tonalites. All of them are phaneritic and
holocrystalline, with medium- to fine-grained
texture. However, they differ from tonalites in Figure 5.3.2.73. General view, in crossed nicols, of
the amount of K-feldspar. They are made up a granodiorite sample (LF-10), with quartz (qtz),
by quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase as orthoclase (or), plagioclase (pl) and biotite (bt).
essential minerals; the main accessory minerals
are hornblende and biotite (fig. 5.3.2.73-
qtz
5.3.2.75). Apatite, magnetite and zircon occur
as trace minerals.
or
Quartz pl
It is observed in a 25 to 30% modal

proportion. Quartz occurs in all the cases as bt
amp
rounded anhedral crystals, and their borders
develop textures of equilibria with K-feldspar;
both minerals are interstitial among euhedral
plagioclase crystals. Grain size is quite
homogenous, about 2-5 millimeters in diameter. Figure 5.3.2.74. General view of a granodiorite
Slightly wavy extinction is observed, but it is (sample RG-632), made up of quartz (qtz),
not as strong as that observed on tonalites. orthoclase (or), plagioclase (pl), amphibole (amp)
Fluid inclusions’ tracks inside quartz grains are and biotite (bt). PPL.
observable under microscope in granodiorite
samples. No intergrowths between quartz and
qtz
plagioclase borders (symplectite textures)
were observed.
or
pl
Plagioclase
Plagioclase crystals constitute about 40%

modal of the rock. Euhedral to subhedral in bt
amp
shape, short prismatic habit characterize them.
Grain size is usually a little less than 1 cm. As <ep
in the previously described facies in the
Antioquia batholith, there are several textural
populations of plagioclase. Figure 5.3.2.75. Detail, in crossed nicols, of the
A-type plagioclase was not observed in above association. Amphibole is partly replaced
thin sections, but B-type and C-type by late epidote grains (ep). Note that accessory
plagioclases are widespread. minerals are not euhedral.
qtz
pl-B
qtz pl-B <myr
pl-B
pl-B pl-B pl-B
pl-B pl
or or
qtz
Figure 5.3.2.76. B-type plagioclase showing Figure 5.3.2.77. B-type plagioclase showing
polysinthetic twinning on the albite law (pl-B), with polysinthetic twinning on the albite law (pl-B), with
quartz (qtz). Sample LF-10, crossed polars. quartz (qtz). Sample RG-632, crossed polars.
pl-C
qtz
pl-C
qtz
Figure 5.3.2.78. C-type plagioclase showing Figure 5.3.2.79. C-type plagioclase showing
polysinthetic twinning on the albite law (pl-C), with polysinthetic twinning on the albite law (pl-C), with
quartz (qtz). Crossed polars, sample RG-632. quartz (qtz). Crossed polars, sample LF-16.
pl-C
<ser
pl
qtz
Figure 5.3.2.80. C-type plagioclase showing Figure 5.3.2.81. Plagioclase crystals (pl) partly
polysinthetic twinning on the albite law (pl-C), with replaced by fine-grained sericite (ser). Crossed
quartz (qtz). Crossed polars. Sample LF-10. polars. Sample LF-10.
B-type plagioclase is not well zoned, and
the crystals show polysynthetic twinning on the
abite law (figs. 5.3.2.76, 5.3.2.77). or
C-type plagioclase has complex twinning, <myr
showing combinations of the albite and
pericline laws and, in some cases, Karlsbad pl
pl
type is also present; in addition, concentric
zoning is quite frequent(fig. 5.3.2.78- pl
<myr
5.3.2.80). The degree of hydrothermal or
alteration can be very low, but sericitization is
common, in particular, in the vicinity of the <myr
mineralized areas (fig. 5.3.2.78). pl
K-feldspar Figure 5.3.2.82. Rim myrmekites (myr) at the grain

border between plagioclase crystals (pl) and
K-Feldspar has been classified optically orthoclase (or). Sample RG-632, crossed polars.
as orthoclase, based on the absence of tartan
twinning and the small size of perthites.
Orthoclase constitutes around 25% of the or
granodiorite samples. Anhedral in shape, it
usually surrounds early euhedral plagioclase myr
crystals and anhedral quartz crystals. The <myr
crystal size is bigger than those of the above pl
mentioned minerals, and is in the range 1-2 cm.
The cloudy aspect of orthoclase can be related pl
to microinclusions of fluids. Microperthites are
scarce and fine-grained; they are of the patchy
type. Simple twinning and zoning are also
absent.
Orthoclase replaces not only plagioclase Figure 5.3.2.83. Rim myrmekites (myr) at the grain
crytals, producing the development of border between plagioclase crystals (pl) and
myrmekitic textures (figs. 5.3.2.82, 5.3.2.83), orthoclase (or). Note perthites in the orthoclase
but also biotite (fig. 5.3.2.84). grains. Crossed polars, sample LF-10.
Biotite
or
Biotite is present in minor quantity, near bt bt
to 5%. It develops small (1-3 mm) subhedral
tabular crystals with brownish pleochroism. pl
Partial alteration following grain borders and bt
exfoliation to greenish clinochlore is quite bt
common. Symplectitic biotite-quartz
intergrowths are scarce, as well as apatite and amp
zircon inclusions. qtz
A late biotite generation, with smaller bt
euhedral platy crystals, and having a stronger
pleochroism, may be present in places, as in Figure 5.3.2.84. Large orthoclase grains (or)
the vicinity of mineralized areas. These cystals replacing biotite crystals (bt) and plagioclase
correspond to a metasomatic biotite generation (pl); quartz (qtz) and amphibole (amp) also
(probbly potassic alteration), because these present. Crossed polars. Sample LF-10.
amp
amp
bt <bt
Figure 5.3.2.85. Amphibole crystal (amp) replaced Figure 5.3.2.86. Amphibole crystal (amp) with
at the borders by late metasomatic biotite (bt). PPL, inclusions of biotite crystals of early generation (bt).
sample LF-10. PPPL, sample LF-10.
amp
amp
Figure 5.3.2.87. Amphibole grains (amp) showing Figure 5.3.2.88. The above image in crossed polars.
simple twinning, as revealed by changes in Note the high interference colors in the amphibole,
pleochroism. The amphibole has inclusions of and the twinning. Most of plagioclase crystals are
opaque magnetite. PPL. Sample RG-632. of the A-type.
amp amp>
cpx
pl-A
Figure 5.3.2.89. Amphibole grain (amp) with a core Figure 5.3.2.90. Detail, in crossed nicols, of a
with clearer green color, that can be related to cliniopyroxene crystal replaced by amphibole
alteration processes. Some slight color zoning is (amp). All the blue grains corresponds to a grain
also present. PPL. Sample LF-16. of the early clinopyroxene (cpx). Sample RG-632.
crystals replace other minerals, as earlier
biotite or amphiboles (fig. 5.3.2.85).
ap>
Amphibole
ap> bt
Amphibole is present in a higher quantity
ap> <ap
than biotite in granodiorites, up to 10%. It
develops subhedral to anhedral crystals, and ap>
it is intergrowth with plagioclase. It is
characterized by a highly pleochroic green
color. It may have inclusions of biotite of the pl
earlier generation (fig. 5.3.2.86), thus
indicating a late formation for the amphibole.
Polysynthetic twining is frequent, as is simple Figure 5.3.2.91. Apatite euhedral crystals (ap) as
twinning (fig. 5.3.2.87, 5.3.2.88). inclusions in biotite (bt) and plagioclase (pl). PPL.
Concentrical zoning is not evident, but in Sample LF-16.
some grains areas of slightly lighter green color
are observed. However, these could be altered
areas (fig. 5.3.2.89). In fact, zoning is generally
present but is only revealed by chemical
analysis. qtz
pl
Clinopyroxene zr>
<ap
pl mt
Clinopyroxene is extremely rare, and has amp bt
been found only in a sample in the La Floresta pl
intrusion (sample LF-10). It is strongly
corroded and replaced by amphibole (fig.
5.3.2.90).
. Figure 5.3.2.92. Zircon crystal (zr) at the border of
Apatite grains of amphibole (amp) and quartz (qtz).
Magnetite crystals (mt) have inclusions of apatite
Apatite is not so common as in tonalites. (ap). PPL. Sample LF-16.
They are less than 60 microns in length,
colorless both in hand sample and under the
microscope. They are found as inclusions in
quartz, biotite, plagioclase and amphibole (fig.
5.3.2.91). qtz
pl
Zircon zr>
<ap
Zircon crystals are less frequent in pl mt
amp bt
granodiorites than in tonalites of the Antioquia
batholith. They are euhedral,and crystals have pl
a short prismatic habit and less than 50
microns in lenght. Optical zoning is not present,
and they do not have metamictic aureolas.
Figure 5.3.2.93. The above image in crossed polars.
Zircon crystals occur as inclusions in other
Note the higher interference colors in the
minerals, mainly in quartz, biotite, plagioclase
clinopyroxene restitic crystals.
and amphibole (fig. 5.3.2.92-5.3.2.93).
444 SECTION 5.3 - THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
Magnetite
pl
mineral in granodiorites as occurs in tonalites, pl pl
qtz
although quantity is less than 1%. It develops
euhedral to subhedral crystals, with sizes
between 70 and 100 microns. No exolutions pl
or zoning is observed, and it is partially
replaced by hematite. or
pl
5.3.2.7. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE qtz

TONALITES OF THE CERRO
GRAMALOTE FACIES Figure 5.3.2.93. Cerro Gramalote tonalite facies,
in crossed polars, with plagioclase (pl),
Tonalites of this type were found in the orthoclase (or), quartz (qtz). Sample G-15.
locality of Cerro de Gramalote.(Gramalote hill;
samples G-7, G-10 and G-15 (Figure
5.3.1.1). These tonalites are very important
amp
because they are the host rock of an important
gold mineralization in Colombia: the Gramalote
<bt
Project.
Tonalites have a massive appearance typical
of this kind of granitic bodies. In outcrop, they
present a grayish white color with characteristic pl qtz
“salt and pepper” texture. Pegmatite and aplite pl
dikes are observed occasionally, as well as
porphyrytic mafic dikes. Mafic enclaves are not
uncommon. Weathered rocks (saprolite) develop
an orange to reddish color associated with mafic Figure 5.3.2.94. Other general aspect of another
minerals oxidation. Quartz±pyrite veins and sample (G-7), showing amphibole (amp) with
veinlets can be observed occasionally, as well as opaque magnetite inclusions, biotite (bt), quartz
carbonate, epidote and chlorite veinlets as an (qtz), plagioclase (pl). PPL.
alteration product of Ca-rich plagioclases and Fe-
rich mafic minerals. They are non-magnetic to
weakly magnetic when a hand magnet is
approached, and mafic content is almost equal amp
between biotite and amphibole, with a slight
predominance of biotite. <bt
Tonalites present a fine to medium grained
phaneritic holocrystalline texture. Mineral
composition is very variable, with quartz, pl qtz
plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, amphibole, pl
titanite, allanite, apatite, zircon and magnetite
(figures 5.3.2.93-5.3.2.96).
Quartz Figure 5.3.2.95. The above image, in crossed

polars. Note zoning in the plagioclase
It is observed in a proportion close to crystals and absence of twinning in many
30%. Quartz crystals tend to be anhedral in of them.
pl
pl-B
myr>
or
qtz pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.96. General aspect of the sample Figure 5.3.2.97. B-type plagioclase (pl-B),
G-10, showing quartz (qtz), and plagioclase surrounded by orthose (or) and with myrmekitic
(pl).Crossed polars. textures (myr). Crossed polars, sample G-10.
pl-C
pl-B
Figure 5.3.2.98. Strongly corroded crystals F i g u re 5 . 3 . 2 . 9 9 . Z o n i n g a n d c o m p l e x

of B-type plagioclase (pl-B). Crossed polars, polysynthetic twinning in C-type plagioclase
sample G-7. (pl-C). Crossed polars, sample G-7.
pl-C pl-D
pl-D
pl-D
Figure 5.3.2.100. Complex twinning (albite, Figure 5.3.2.101. Zoning in D-type

pericline and Karlsbad) in C-type plagioclase. Note absence of polysynthetic
plagioclase (pl-C). Crossed polars, sample twinning and strong alteration at the center.
G-10. Crossed polars, sample G-10.
shape, filling interstitial spaces between

plagioclase euhedral crystals. Grain size is highly
variable, ranging from few micron hundredths up
to few millimeters. Wavy extinction is common,
indicating a certain grade of deformation for the
rock. Quartz crystals present fluid inclusions’
tracks inside them observable under microscope.
Frequent intergrowths of vermicular-shaped pl-D
quartz in plagioclase crystals borders, are
responsible for the development of symplectite
textures (myrmekites).
Plagioclase
Figure 5.3.2.102. Concentrically zoned D-type
Plagioclase crystals are abundant (up to plagioclase (pl-D) partly sericitized. Note absence
60%). They tend to be euhedral to subhedral in of twinning. Crossed polars, sample G-7.
shape and present a short prismatic habit. Grain
size is highly variable, and, in the same way as
quartz, they range between few micron
hundredths up to few millimeters. Up to four
plagioclase types have been differentiated. Many
pl-D
of these crystals correspond with the above
described B- and C-types (A-type is lacking up
to the present moment), but a new D-type can
be defined.
B-type crystals are not zoned or have only a
slight zoning at the border grains, and have distinct
polysinthetic twinning on the albite law (fig.
5.3.2.97-5.3.2.98).
C-type may be zoned and have distinct Figure 5.3.2.103. Concentrically zoned D-
polysinthetic twinning on the albite and pericline type plagioclase (pl-D) partly sericitized.
laws. Simple twinning on Karlsbad law can also Note absence of polysynthetic twinning.
be present (fig. 5.3.2.99-5.3.2.100). Crossed polars, sample G-15.
D-type have ondulatory zoning and do not have
polysynthetic twinning of any type (although they may
have simple Karlsbad twinning; figs. 5.3.2.101-
5.3.2.103).
Another E-type is also distinguished. These
crystals are distinguished ondulatory zoning and pl-D pl-D
polysynthetic twinning on the albite law (fig. pl-D
5.3.2.104). pl-D pl-E
Na-richer borders in plagioclase crystals may
develop myrmekitic-type textures with vermicular
quartz intergrowths (fig. 5.3.2.97). Alteration of
plagioclase crystals is selective, limited to certain
bands and specially to the core (figs. 5.3.2.102-
5.3.2.104) Fine grained muscovite (sericite) is the
Figure 5.3.2.104. Concentrically zoned D-type
main mineral in the altered parts, although it may be
plagioclase (pl-D) partly sericitized. Note absence
accompanied in some cases by fine-grained epidote
of twinning. E-type plagioclase (pl-E) has some
and calcite. This alteration is higher in the vicinity
additional twinning. Crossed polars, sample G-15.
of the mineralized areas, and close to small veins
(fig. 5.3.2.105, 5.3.2.106).
K-feldspar
K-feldspar is anhedral and occupies spaces

among plagioclase crystals. It is present in small
quantities (less than 5%), and its crystal size is less
than 1 mm. These crystals show a cloudy aspect,
which is probably related to micro fluid inclusions.
A partial alteration to sericite can be present in some
cases. Neither microperthites nor twinning is
appreciated. Slightly wavy extinction is frequent, but
less evident than in quartz. Figure 5.3.2.105. Sericitized plagioclase crystals in
the vicinity of a mineralizaed quart-calcite-chlorite-
Biotite pyrite vein. Crossed polars, sample G-15.
Biotite is present in minor quantity, around 5%,

less than 5 mm in size. Usually it presents subhedral
tabular crystals with brownish pleochroism,
suggesting a high Fe content. Partial alteration to clc>
pl
secondary associations of clinochlore+ magnetite+
epidote (fig. 4.6.107) is quite common, and it follows
grain borders and cleavages.
Symplectitic biotite-quartz intergrowths are
common, represented by round-shaped quartz
inclusions in biotite crystals. Slight wavy extinction
and deformation evidences, such as cleavage
bending, are observed in some biotite crystals.
Inclusions of euhedral crystals of magnetite, apatite Figure 5.3.2.106. Strongly sericitized plagioclase
and zircon are quite common. crystal in the vicinity of a chlorite vein (clc).Crossed
polars, sample G-10.
Amphibole
Amphibole is present generally in less quantity

than biotite, up to 5%. It develops subhedral to
anhedral crystals, less than 4 mm in size. It is slightly
pleochroic in green color (fig. 5.3.2.108). Crystals bt
are not zoned, and may be partially replaced by
chlorite. Polysynthetic twining can be observed
occasionally in certain grains. It may have inclusions
of biotite, zircon and magnetite.
Apatite
Apatite is a common trace mineral (<1%),

developing euhedral crystals of long prismatic habit Figure 5.3.2.107. Platy crystals of biotite (bt),
with less than 60 microns length. They are frequently showing a little replacement to clinochlore and
as inclusions in other minerals, in particular, in biotite magnetite (opaque) along cleavages. PPL, sample
and amphibole. G-15.
Zircon
Zircon crystals are common in the tonalites of pl

Gramalote. It develops euhedral short prismatic
crystals, less than 70 microns in length. These amp
crystals are not zoned, and do not have metamictic
aureolas (fig. 5.3.2.109). Zircon crystals are
common as inclusions in biotite and amphibole, and,
bt
occasionally, in quartz crystals.
Titanite
Titanite is a common accesory mineral, which

average quantity is less than 1%, developing euhedral Figure 5.3.2.108. Amphibole crystals (amp)
to subhedral crystals, up to 300 microns in diameter. associated with biotite (bt). The accompanying
It is colorless without twining or zoning. Despite mineral is plagioclase (pl). PPL, sample G-7.
some euhedral titanite grains may be primary, most
of titanite is a product of alteration of Ti-rich biotite,
along cleavages, or may replace Ti-rich magnetite
around borders.
qtz
Epidote
Epidote is observed as anhedral to subhedral <zr

crystals produced by alteration of calcic bt
amphiboles, biotite and plagioclases. As in the
case of titanite, it does not surpass 1% of the pl-A
rock. It is observed as well as open-spaces filling
in cracks.
Figure 5.3.2.109. Zircon crystals (zr) as inclusions
Magnetite in biotite (bt). Quartz (qtz) and A-type plagioclase
(pl-A) are also present in the association. Crossed
Magnetite is the more frequent opaque polars, sample G-7.
mineral, but it is usually less than 1%. It
develops euhedral octahedrical crystals, with
sizes between 50 and 100 microns. No clc
exsolutions or zoning is observed, ans it is
partially replaced by hematite and titanite over bi
the grain borders, indicating high Ti contents ttn
in magnetite crystals (fig. 5.3.2.110).
Pyrite <mt
Pyrite is very scarce, and it develops

euhedral crystals with a complex morphology,
with {100} and {111} shapes. Grain sizes are pl-D
fine, about 100 microns. Concentrical zoning Figure 5.3.2.110. Ti-rich magnetite (mt) replaced
can be recognized, and supergene alteration by titanite (ttn). The association also comprises D-
to Fe oxides is common favoured by type plagioclase (pl-D), chlorite (clc) and biotite
discontinuities. (bt). PPL, sample G-15.
Hematite
Hematite was observed replacing both,

borders of magnetite crystals and along qtz
cleavage planes in biotite crystals.
fk
5.3.2.8. APLITES AND PEGMATITES OF
THE CERRO GRAMALOTE FACIES
Dikes of aplites and pegmatites are quite

common in the Cerro Gramalote intrusive. They
occur as thin veins of sharp contacts (sample G-
8). In some cases, aplites occur in the border of Figure 5.3.2.111. Graphic intergrowth, in PPL,
the dikes, and they grade to pegmatites of similar of quartz (qtz) and K-feldspar (fk) at the
mineralogy but larger grain size in the innermost pegmatites of the Cerro de Gramalote. Sample
part of the dikes. Aplites have a granular, fine-
grained (1-4 mm) equidimensional texture typical
of this kind of granitic rocks; pegmatites have
larger grain size, but only in the order of 2-4 cm.
All of these rocks occur in dikesof some
centimeters to some decimeters width, with fk
sharp contacts and randomly oriented. pl
Aplites and pegmatites have phaneritic

holocrystalline texture, and graphic intergrowths
are common (fig. 4.2.111-5.3.2.113). Mineral qtz
composition comprises quartz, plagioclase and
orthoclase. Apatite, titanite and magnetite are the
main accessory minerals.
Figure 5.3.2.112. The above image in
Quartz crossed polars. Note the development of
subgrains in the original quartz crystal,
It is anhedral and its grain size is between evidencing brittle deformation.
1-6 mm in aplites; in pegmatites the crystal size
may achieve 3 cm. The modal content is close
to 35% of the rock. It is colorless and does
not contain inclusions. Slight wavy extinction
and the development of subgrains (fig. fk qtz
5.3.2.111, 5.3.2.112) can indicate a low
degree deformation of the rock.
K-feldspar
Orthoclase is anhedral and its size is similar to

that of quartz. Graphic intergrowths with quartz have
been observed in the pegmatites, but not in aplites.
It is present in high quantity in these rocks, and the
modal content can achieve up to 55%. Orthoclase Figure 5.3.2.113. Detail, in crossed nicols,
is pale rose in hand sample, and therefore it is the of the graphic intergrowth, showing vein-
responsible of the rose color of the dikes. The rose type perthites in K-feldspar (fk). Crossed
color is allochromatic, and could be produced by polars, sample G-8.
the presence of submicroscopic inclusions of

hematite. It is neither zoned nor twinned, and vein-
type microperthites are easily distinguishable under
the optical microscope (fig. 5.3.2.113). pl
Plagioclase
Plagioclase crystals are scarce in all these

rocks (less than 10%). They tend to be anhedral
to subhedral; in this case, they present a short or
prismatic habit. The grain size is similar to the qtz
above described for quartz and K-feldspar.
Zoning is not very well developed or lacking, and
twinning is polysinthetic on the albite law (fig. Figure 5.3.2.114. Anhedral grains of plagioclase
5.3.2.114). It is unaltered, and optical properties (pl), quartz (qtz) and orthoclase (or). Crossed
point to an Ab-rich plagioclase. polars, sample G-8.
Biotite
Biotite is a very rare accessory mineral, and its or

contents are lower than 2%. Biotite crystals tend to
be subhedral, with tabular habit, in some cases
elongated, particularly in the pegmatites. Crystal size
is close to 1-2 mm in the aplites and around 2-4 cm <clc
in the pegmatites. Biotite is usually highly altered to
clinochlore along grain borders and cleavages (fig. qtz
5.3.2.115). Biotite crystals may include small grains
of apatite and zircon, and in the last case metamictic
aureolas are frequent.
Muscovite
Figure 5.3.2.115. Biotite crystals (brownish)
Small primary muscovite platelets are found strongly replaced by greenish clinochlore
in some pegmatites. They are white in hand (clc). Biotite is associated with quartz (qtz) and
sample and colorless in thin section. The orthoclase (or). PPL. Sample G-8.
proportion of muscovite is very low, less than 1%
modal. The grain size is small, in the order of some
millimeters.
Apatite qtz
pl
Apatite occurs only as trace mineral. The
crystals are euhedral and have long prismatic habit. <mu
It is colorless and is found generally as inclusions in
other minerals.
Zircon
Zircon is also a trace mineral, and it occurs

as small euhedral crystals (less than 50 microns
in length), generally included in other minerals. It Figure 5.3.2.116. Muscovite platelets (mu)
may produce metamictic aureolas when is at the border of some crystals of plagioclase
included in biotite. (pl) and quartz (qtz). Crossed polars, sample
G-8.
Titanite
Titanite is other trace mineral, but in some dikes

it may be more common than the above minerals. It
is euhedral, forming tabular crystals, and the grain pl
size can achieve 1 mm. It has a strong pleochroism
in brownish hues, thus suggesting the occurrence of
complex substitutions in the structure. However, it pl
<qtz
does not produce metamictic haloes and, therefore,
it does not contain radioactive elements.
Magnetite
Magnetite is also a trace mineral in these rocks,

and appear as subhedral grains, with sizes between Figure 5.3.2.117. General view of El Rayo granodiorite
50 and 100 microns. It is partly altered to secondary porphyry. Crystals of quartz (qtz) and plagioclase (pl)
minerals of iron. in a cryptocrystalline matrix. PPL. Sample ER-1.
5.3.2.9. GRANODIORITE PORPHYRY OF EL

RAYO FACIES
Intrusives of this type are rare in the Antioquia

Batholit. Up to the present moment only a small
stock as been recognized close to El Rayo. The El pl
<qtz
Rayo intrusion has a circular section with 1 km in
diameter, and is homogeneous. Field reconnaissance
reveals the porphyry has plug-like characteristics
with irregular intrusive contacts, and is exposed over
an area of up to 500 squarred metres. It intrudes
holocrystalline biotite granodiorite of the Antioquia Figure 5.3.2.118. The above image in crossed
Batholith and is accompanied by an additional small polars. Note the small grain size in the crystalline
stock of finer grained k-feldspar granite lacking mafic matrix. Sample ER-1.
minerals. The surface exposure of the porphyry is
saprolitised to depths of at least 10 metres,
however along road cuts approaching and
within the El Rayo mine area, realtively fresh
materials were encountered for petrographic
analysis and radiometric dating. Upon
qtz
petrographic analysis, it was revealed that
mafic phases including biotite and hornblende
were too weatherd for Ar-based dating
techniquies, however contained zircon was in
a relatively pristine state for U-Pb dating.
These felsic porphyries are massive,

presents a creamy white color in outcrop,
where larger phenocrysts are identifiable in a Figure 5.3.2.119. Euhedral hexagonal
finer brownish matrix. Phenocrysts are bipyramidal crystal of -quartz, in a
bimodal, with medium size (1–5 mm) criptocrystalline matrix. Crossed polars,
plagioclase, quartz and K-feldspar sample ER-1.
phenocrysts, and very fine to fine (0.1–1 mm)

plagioclase, quartz and biotite phenocrysts, in pl
a microcrystalline matrix composed by the
same mineralogy. Accessory and secondary
minerals include zircon, apatite, allanite, pl
magnetite, epidote and chlorite.
qtz
The texture of these rocks consists of an
ensemble of phenocrysts (30% of the total of
rock in volume) scattered in a cryptocrystalline
matrix (figs. 5.3.2.118, 5.3.2.119).
Quartz
Quartz phenocrysts tend to be euhedral, Figure 5.3.2.120. Embayed crystals of quartz (qtz),
and the crystals have a hexagonal bipyramidal and euhedral plagioclase phenocrysts (pl). Crossed
habit typical of beta-quartz (fig. 5.3.2.119), polars, sample ER-1.
although many of them have been partly
corroded and show typical embayments (fig. bt
5.3.2.120). The grain size is between 2-7 mm.
About 40% modal of the phenocrysts pl
correspond to quartz. It is colorless and free
of inclusions of other minerals. These quartz
crystals do not exhibit wavy extinction.
K-feldspar
Orthoclase is subhedral and its size is

smaller than that of quartz. It is very rare in
the phenocrysts of these porphyries, and their
modal content does not overpass 3%, and may
be more abundant at the matrix. It does not Figure 5.3.2.121. Concentrically zoned plagioclase
has zoning or twinning, and a few patchy crystals (pl) scattered in the criptocrystalline matrix.
microperthites are hardly distinguishable with Biotite phenocrystals (bt) are also present. Crossed
the optical microscope. polars, sample ER-1.
Plagioclase
Plagioclase crystals are euhedral, and tend to

be prismatic in habit. They are very abundant (more
than 55% modal). Crystals have up to 1 cm in length
and are concentrically zoned (D-type, fig.
5.3.2.121); all these zones are unaltered.
Polysynthetic twinning on the albite law {010} is
present in some crystals, but many of them are
untwinned or show simple Karlsbad twinning.
Plagioclase is a dominant mineral in the

matrix, accompanied also by fine-grained
quartz. The plagioclase crystals in the matrix F i g u re 5 . 3 . 2 . 1 2 2 . D e t a i l o f t h e
use to be zoned, with calcic core and albitic criptocrystalline matrix. Note concentric
rim, and do not have polysynthetic twinning (fig. zoning in the plagioclase crystals. Crossed
5.3.2.122). polars, sample ER-1.
Biotite The texture of these rocks consists of an
ensemble of microphenocrysts (25% of the total
Biotite is the most common accessory of rock in volume) spread in a microcrystalline
mineral, and it can achieve up to 4% modal. Biotite matrix (figs. 5.3.2.123-5.3.2.124). Plagioclase
has euhedral crystals with tabular habit (fig. and amphibole are the components of the
5.3.2.121). Crystal size has two populations; one phenocrysts, and the matrix also consists of
is 500 microns to 1 mm in diameter and the other plagioclase and amphibole, with minor quartz and
is close to 3 mm. The strong dark brown biotite; apatite, titanite and magnetite occur only
pleochroism suggests a high content in the annite as trace minerals, and chlorite and sericite can be
component. Biotite is altered to pale green found as secondary minerals.
clinochlore and magnetite along grain borders and
cleavages, in a very variable grade. Small Plagioclase
inclusions of zircon produce metamictic aureolas
in biotite and chlorite. Plagioclase phenocrysts are euhedral, shortly
prismatic in habit. They can be up to 15% of the
Allanite total phenocrysts. Crystals have up to 500 microns
in length. B-type plagioclase, with polysinthetic
Allanite occurs as euhedral crystals of short twinning {010} is present (fig. 5.3.2.125), as is C-
prismatic habit. It is only a trace mineral, although type plagioclase (fig. 5.3.2.125, 5.3.2.126).
it may achieve up to 1% in the rock. Crystals However, the most abundant phenocrysts have
having 1 cm in length have been observed, ondulatory zoning (D-type), with Ca-rich cores,
although in most of the cases the grain size is close often strongly altered to sericite, and thin Na-rich
to 5 mm. Crystals are dark brownish in color and borders, fresh (fig. 5.3.2.127, 5.3.2.128).
are concentrically zoned. The external part is
overgrown or replaced by late anhedral epidote. Plagioclase is the dominant mineral in the
matrix, and can reach up to 60% modal. These
Zircon crystals tend to be euhedral to subhedral, shortly
Zircon is only a trace mineral, and has been prismatic in habit, and have some tens of microns
found only as small euhedral crystals (less than in length. Normal zoning is distinguished, with thin
50 microns in length) included in biotite. It has uncaltered Ca-rich cores and thick Na-rich
short prismatic habit. borders (D-type crystals, fig. 5.3.2.129). Simple
twinning may be also present, but polysynthetic
Apatite twins are absent.
Apatite is very scarce, and has been Hornblende

observed only as euhedral prismatic crystals
included in biotite. Hornblende phenocrysts are also euhedral
and shortly prismatic. They are the most common
Magnetite phenocrysts, up to the 85% modal. Crystals have
up to 2 mm in length and have a distinct zoning
Magnetite is rare (less than 1% modal) in (figs. 5.3.2.130-5.3.2.133). Most of the volume
these rocks, and is anhedral. Grain sizes averages of the crystal is pale green in color, but the borders
100 microns in diameter. are dark green and have a strong pleochroism.
Alteration to secondary chlorite may be present
along cleavages and grain borders. Polysynthetic
5.3.2.10. TONALITE PORPHYRY DIKES twinning {010} may be present.
OF LA MARIA TYPE
Hornblende microcrysts are also euhedral
and elongated. They are the most common
Dikes of this type have been recognized
mafic mineral also in the matrix, up to the 30%
in the vicinity of the Gramalote hill (samples
modal. Crystals have only few tens of microns
WR-11 and HL120503).
in length and are not optically zoned. They have
pl pl
pl pl
<qtz <qtz
amp> amp>
Figure 5.3.2.123. General view of La Maria tonalite Figure 5.3.2.124. The above image in crossed
porphyry dikes. Note amphibole phenocrysts (amp) in polars. Note the fineness of the matrix..
a fine-grained matrix.. PPL. Sample HL120503. Sample HL120503.
pl-C
pl-B pl-C
Figure 5.3.2.125. B-type (polysynthetic albite Figure 5.3.2.126. C-type plagioclase

law; pl-B) and C-type (albite+pericline; pl-C) phenocrystal with combination of pericline
plagioclase phenocrysts. Crossed nicols. Sample and albite laws. Crossed polars, sample WR-
HL120503. 11.
pl-D pl-D
<qtz
Figure 5.3.2.127. Oscillatory zoning in Figure 5.3.2.128. Oscillatory zoning in

untwinned D-type plagioclase (pl-D). untwinned D-type plagioclase (pl-D).
Crossed polars, sample HL120503. Crossed polars, sample WR-11.
pl
<pl-D
pl
<qtz
amp
Figure 5.3.2.129. Oscyllatory zoning D-type Figure 5.3.2.130. Zoned phenocrystal of an

(pl-D) in plagioclase from the matrix. Crossed amphibole (amp). PPL. Sample HL120503.
nicols. Sample HL120503.
amp amp
pl pl
<qtz <qtz
Figure 5.3.2.131. Detail of the pleochroism Figure 5.3.2.132. The above image in crossed
of the amphibole crystals. PPL. Sample WR- polars. Note the small grain size in the crystalline
11. matrix. Sample WR-11.
bt
<qtz
Figure 5.3.2.133. Anhedral microphenocrysts F i g u re 5 . 3 . 2 . 1 3 4 . B i o t i t e p h e n o c r y s t .

of quartz (qtz) scattered in a fine-grained Crossed polars, sample WR-11.
matrix of quartz and plagioclase. Crossed
nicols, sample HL120503.
a dark green color and exhibit a strong

pleochroism.
pl
Quartz
Quartz is found almost exclusively in the

matrix of these rocks, and their very scarce
phenocrysts (less tan 5% modal) are anhedral and
rounded (fig. 5.3.2.134).
Crystal size in the matrix is less than 30

microns in diameter, and the grains are also <amp qtz
anhedral.
Biotite Figure 5.3.2.135. Porphyrytic texture of the

Yolombó dike. Note abundant amphibole
Biotite may be present only in the matrix or microphenocrysts (amp). PPL. Sample RG-301.
as scarce phenocrysts (fig. 5.3.2.134), and it can
achieve up to 4% modal, although some dikes do
not contain this mineral.
Biotite crystals of the matrix are euhedral with pl

tabular habit. They are very small, only some tens
of microns in diameter, and the pleochroism is not
very strong. Many os the crystals are altered to
chlorite.
Apatite
Apatite is very scarce, and has been <amp qtz

observed only as euhedral prismatic crystals
in the matrix.
Figure 5.3.2.136. The above image in crossed
Magnetite polars. It is possible to distinguish plagioclase
(pl) and quartz (qtz) phenocrysts. Note a fine-
Magnetite is rare (less than 1% modal) in grained matrix.
these rocks, and is anhedral. Grain sizes
averages 10 microns in diameter.
5.3.2.11. TONALITE PORPHYRY DIKES

OF YOLOMBÓ FACIES
pl-C
Dikes of this type have been recognized in the
vicinity of the Yolombó town (sample RG-301). The amp amp>
rock as a typical porphyritic texture (figs. 5.3.2.135-
5.3.2.136). Plagioclase and hornblende are the
main components of the dikes, and they appear
both forming phenochrysts and forming part of
the matrix. Quartz may appear in variable Figure 5.3.2.137. Detail, in crossed nicols, of a C-
amounts, but is rare. The other minerals (apatite, type plagioclase phenocryst (pl-C), with pericline
zircon, magnetite) are found only in trace and albite laws; other phenocrysts are amphibole
amounts. (amp). Sample RG-301.
Plagioclase
Plagioclase phenocrysts are euhedral,

shortly prismatic in habit, and do not exhibit pl-D
evidences of corrosion. Up to 55% of the
phenocrysts are made up of plagioclase.
Crystals have up to 5 mm in length. Different
families of plagioclase phenocrystals can be
recognized, and many of them have similarities
with those described in the Gramalote tonalites:
A) unzoned, twinned on the albite law (B-type);
B) zoned, with albite, pericline and Karlsbad laws
(C-type, fig. 5.3.2.137); C) zoned, with Karlsbad
law (D-type, fig. 5.3.2.138). Figure 5.3.2.138. Zoned D-type plagioclase
crystals (pl-D) in crossed polars. Sample RG-
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral in the 301.
matrix, and can arrive up to 60% modal. These
crystals tend to be euhedral to subhedral,
shortly prismatic in habit, and have some tens
of microns in length. Normal zoning is amp
distinguished, with thin unaltered Ca-rich cores
and thick Na-rich borders. Only simple clc
twinning is present.
Amphibole
Amphibole phenocrysts are also euhedral amp

and prismatic. They are the most common
mafic phenocrysts, up to the 30 % modal.
Length of crystals may arrive up to 1 cm,
although generally they are in the order 2-5 Figure 5.3.2.139. Two types of amphiboles (amp),
mm. There are two types of amphibole (fig. showing differences in pleochroism. They are partly
5.3.2.139). One has green color and stronger altered to clinochlore (clc). PPL, sample RG-301.
pleochroism. The other is brownish in color.
Distinct zoning can be seen in both types of
crystals. Alteration to chlorite is not common,
but can occur along cleavages and grain
borders. Polysynthetic twinning {010} may be
present.
Amphibole microcrysts from the matrix

are also euhedral and elongated. They are the qtz
most common mafic mineral also in the matrix,
up to the 30% modal. Crystals have only few
tens of microns in length and are not optically pl-D
zoned. They have a dark green color and
exhibit a strong pleochroism.
Quartz F i g u re 5 . 3 . 2 . 1 4 0 . R o u n d e d q u a r t z
phenocrystal (qtz) showing embayments.
Quartz is found in phenocrysts (less to Note also D-type plagioclase (pl-D). Crossed
10% modal) and, in higher proportions (up to polars, sample RG-301.
10%), in the matrix. Phenochrysts are

anhedral, rounded, and embayment textures
would indicate a subvolcanic emplacement
under disequilibria conditions with the matrix
(fig. 5.3.2.140). Their crystals never overpass
1 cm in diameter, and have only a slight wavy
extinction. ttn
Quartz from the matrix is fine-grained and

anhedral. It occupies interstitial positions clc
among amphiboles and plagioclase.
Biotite
Biotite is a very scarce component of Figure 5.3.2.141. Secondary titanite crystal

phenocrysts, and it does not achieve 1% (ttn) in association with chlorite (clc). PPL.
modal. Biotite crystals are subhedral with Sample RG-301 from La Maria dike.
tabular habit, and have less than 2 mm in lenght.
All the crystals observed were
pseudomorphosed to chlorite.
Apatite amp
Apatite is very scarce, and has been pl

observed only as euhedral prismatic crystals cpx
in the matrix.
Magnetite
Magnetite is rare (less than 1% modal) in

these rocks, and is anhedral. Grain sizes
averages 10 microns in diameter. Figure 5.3.2.142. The above image in
Titanite crossed polars. Note the higher interference
colors in the clinopyroxene restitic crystals.
Titanite has been found in some porosity Sample RG-612.
infilling, as subhedral crystals, some hundreds
of microns in length, associated with anhedral
quartz (fig. 5.3.2.141).
amp>
cpx
5.3.2.11. QUARTZ-DIORITE PORPHYRY
DIKES OF GRANADA FACIES
Dikes of this type have been recognized

in the vicinity of the Granada town (sample
RG-612). The rock has a typical porphyritic
texture. Plagioclase and hornblende are the pl-A
main components of the dikes, and they appear
both forming phenocrysts and forming part of Figure 5.3.2.143. Detail, in crossed nicols, of a
the matrix (fig. 5.3.2.142, 5.3.2.143). The cliniopyroxene crystal replaced by amphibole
other minerals (apatite, zircon, magnetite) are (amp). All the blue grains corresponds to a grain
found only in trace amounts. of the early clinopyroxene (cpx). Sample RG-612.
Plagioclase
Plagioclase phenocrysts are euhedral,

shortly prismatic in habit, and do not exhibit
evidences of corrosion. Up to 10% of the
phenocrysts are made of plagioclase. Crystals
have up to 1 mm in length and tend to be of pl-D pl-B
the D-type, with undulatory zoning well
developed in normal type, with Ca-rich cores
often strongly altered to sericite (fig.
5.3.2.144). However, B-type plagioclase is
also present, although these crystals are
strongly altered to sericite (fig. 5.3.2.16).
Figure 5.3.2.144. Phenocrysts of D-type
Contrastingly, plagioclase is the dominant plagioclasse (pl-D) and B-type plagioclase (pl-B)
mineral in the matrix, and can arrive up to 60% PPL. Sample RG-612.
modal. These crystals tend to be euhedral to
subhedral, shortly prismatic in habit, and have
some tens of microns in length. Normal zoning is
distinguished, with altered Ca-rich cores and thin
unaltered Na-rich borders. Simple twinning is also
present and, hence, these crystals may
correspond to D-type plagioclase (fig. 5.3.2.17).
Amphibole
pl
Amphibole phenocrysts are also euhedral
and prismatic. They are the most common
phenocrysts, up to the 90 % modal. Length of
crystals may arrive up to 1 cm, although generally
they are in the order 2-5 mm. Color is brownish, Figure 5.3.2.145. Detail of the zoning in the
and oscillatory changes in color reveals a strong plagioclase crystals of the matrix. Crossed
concentrical zoning (5.3.2.146, 5.3.2.147). Many polars, sample RG-612.
crystals may have small irregular inclusions of
glass, particularly in the cores of the crystals(fig.
5.3.2.147).Alteration to chlorite is not common,
but can occur along cleavages and grain borders.
Polysynthetic twinning {010} may be present.
Amphibole microcrysts are also euhedral

and elongated. They are the most common
mafic mineral also in the matrix, up to the 30%
modal. Crystals have only few tens of microns amp
in length and are not optically zoned. They have
a dark green color and exhibit a strong
pleochroism (fig. 5.3.2.147).
Apatite
F i g u re 5 . 3 . 2 . 1 4 6 . A z o n e d a m p h i b o l e
Apatite is very scarce in these rocks, and phenocryst, in crossed polars. Sample RG-
has been observed only as euhedral prismatic 612.
crystals in the matrix.
Magnetite
Magnetite is rare (less than 1% modal) in

these rocks, and is anhedral. Grain sizes amp
averages 10 microns in diameter.
<amp
Quartz <glass
Quartz is found exclusively filling small
vacuoles, and as criptocrystalline anhedral amp
grains in the matrix.
The quartz in vacuole is very scarce, less

than 1% modal, and their crystals never
overpass 100 microns in diameter. Figure 5.3.2.147. Zoned amphibole crystals (amp)
showing glasss inclusions in the core. Note also fine-
Phillipsite grained amphibole in the matrix. PPL.
This zeolite has been found as euhedral

prismatic crystals, up to 500 microns in length,
filling vacuole in association with quartz. These
crystals display polysynthetic or simple
twinning (fig. 5.3.2.148).
Clinochlore
ph
Chlorites can be found as a replacement
product of the mafic minerals, or as an early
product of vacuole infilling, in association with
zeolites. In all of these cases they occur as
fine-grained platelets, up to 10 microns in
length, often grouped in radial aggregates. Figure 5.3.2.148. Phillipsite crystals (ph) as a
vacuole infilling. Crossed polars. Sample RG-612.
5.3.3-Mineral chemistry of the Antioquia Batholith 461
5.3.3. MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF

THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
Electron Microprobe (EMP) analyses

were performed on amphiboles, pyroxenes,
micas and feldspars of the Antioquia Batholith
on granodiorites and tonalities, gabbros and
acid/basic porphyry dikes, in order to
characterize their mineral chemistry and to
establish if there are differences in their
composition (zonation patterns, etc.). Polished
thin sections used for petrographic analyses
were also used for this purpose.
5.3.3.1. PYROXENES
Ortho and clynoyroxene crystals were

analyzed for La Quiebra microgabbro sample
(EG-1), and were plotted on the pyroxene Figure 5.3.3.1. Preliminary diagram for the
classification diagrams proposed by Morimoto classification of pyroxenes after Morimoto
(1989). All of the analyses plot on the (1989). Q=Ca+Fe2+Mg; J=2Na. Note all
quadrilateral field (Ca-Mg-Fe 2+ pyroxenes) of samples plot in the quadrilateral fields.
the Q-J diagram (fig. 5.3.3.1). On the other
hand, the contents of alkalies are very low, as
is the content of Fe3+ and Al. The Ti content is
also low. Hence, these pyroxenes can be
represented on the quadrilateral diagram.
Clinopyroxenes plot close to the limit between
diopside and augite fields, while
orthopyroxenes plot in the enstatite field (fig.
5.3.3.2). The crystals do not display apparent
zoning.
5.3.3.2 AMPHIBOLES
Amphiboles from previously described

different facies of the Antioquia Batholith were
classified following the amphibole classification F i g u re 5 . 3 . 3 . 2 . R e p re s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
proposed by Leake et al. (1997). chemical composition of the ortho- and
Broadly, all the amphibole crystals c l i n o p y ro x e n e s f ro m t h e L a Q u i e b r a
analysed from the Antioquia Batholith samples microgabbro on the quadrilateral diagram
are included in the calcic-amphibole class. of Morimoto (1989). Note chemical
Non-zoned amphiboles of the different facies equilibria among these pyroxenes.
plot mostly in the magnesiohornblende field.
Figure 5.3.3.3. Representation on the calcic amphibole diagram of Leake et al. (1997) of
the compositions of the amphibole crystals from the analyzed gabbros and tonalites from
the Antioquia batholith. Arrow indicates trend of zoning in the crystals, from the center
to the borders. Note significative compositional differences among the different tonalite
facies.
Figure 5.3.3.4. Chemical compositions of amphiboles from the analyzed granodiorites

from the Antioquia batholith, represented on the calcic amphiboles diagram of Leake et
al. (1997).
the compositions of the amphibole crystals from the analyzed tonalite and diorite
porphyrytic dikes from the Antioquia batholith. Arrow indicates trend of zoning in the
crystals, from the center to the borders. Note significative compositional differences among
the different tonalite porphyrytic dikes.
However, some noticeable differences are 576 and RG-578) plot in the
observed between the different facies of m a g n e s i o h o r n b l e n d e f i e l d . H o w e v e r,
tonalites and granodiorites. amphiboles from the Cerro Gramalote facies
The most tschermakitic compositions from tend to be richer in Mg than those from San
all the rocks in Antioquia are found in Rafael facies (Fig. 5.3.3.3). The crystals from
amphibole crystals of La Quiebra microgabbro the San Rafael and Gramalote facies are
(sample EG-1). These Si-poor compositions chemically zoned, and the trend of zoning is
can be explained because these are most basic defined from the core to the borders by 2
rocks found up to the moment in al the series vectors: a) a strong Si enrichment, toward the
of rocks. Hence, most of these analyses plot actinolite domain, b) a slight depletion in the
into the tschermakite domain, although the r a t i o F e / ( F e + M n ) . C o n t r a s t i n g l y, t h e
borders of the crystals tend to be slightly amphiboles from the San Andres de Cuerquia
enriched in Si, towards the facies are chemically more homogeneous.
magnesiohornblende domain (Fig. 5.3.3.3). The composition of the amphiboles from
Chemical composition of amphiboles is La Maria tonalite porphyry dike (sample WR-
different for each tonalite facies. Amphibole 11) also plot on the magnesio-hornblende field,
crystals from tonalite samples of the San and some analyzed borders in these
Andres de Cuerquia facies (samples RG-527, phenocrysts evolve into the actinolite field (Fig.
RG-543 and RG-563) plot on the 5.3.3.3).
ferrohornblende field. On the other hand, Amphiboles from granodiorite samples
amphibole crystals from the Cerro Gramalote from both, La Floresta (samples LF-10 and
facies (sample G-7) and those from the San LF-16) and Alejandria (sample RG-632)
Rafael facies (samples RG-291, RG-609, RG- facies plot on the magnesiohornblende field and
the compositions of the amphibole crystals from the analyzed porphyrytic dikes from the
Granada dikes.
cluster in a more restricted area than tonalite 5.3.3.3 BIOTITE

samples, close to the limit with the
ferrohornblende field (Fig. 5.3.3.4). Dark brown mica crystals (biotite series)
Yolombó and Granada porphyry dikes analyzed from the aforementioned different
exhibit more complex amphibole composition. facies of tonalite and granodiorite samples of
Tonalite porphyry dike of Yolombó amphibole the Antioquia batholith returned intermediate
non-zoned phenocrystals (sample RG-301) composition between the extreme members
returns magnesiohornblende composition, while siderophyllite (KFe 2+2AlAl 2Si 2O 10(OH)2) and
zoned phenocrysts with pale green center of eastonite (KMg2AlAl2Si2O 10(OH) 2) and were
magnesiohornblende composition and brown classified using the trioctahedral mica
borders of tschermakite composition were also nomenclature proposed by Rieder et al.
analyzed. Some brownish concentrically zoned (1998). In addition, biotite mineral chemistry
basal sections analyzed returns variable results were plotted on diverse diagrams using
composition from dark magnesio-hastingsite values of Fe/(Fe+Mg) vs. TiO2, F and Cl plots
borders through magnesiohornblende down to in order to highlight possible chemical
lighter tschermakite centers (Fig. 5.3.3.5). variations between the trioctahedral mica
Granada diorite porphyry dike (sample RG- crystalss from different facies.
612) has concentrically oscillatory zoned Trioctahedral micas from tonalite samples
amphibole phenocrysts with variable exhibit slight differences between the different
compositional zones of lighter tschermakite and facies previously described. Micas from San
darker magnesiohastingsite (Fig. 5.3.3.6). Andrés de Cuerquia (samples RG-527, RG-
A remarkable point is that amphiboles of 543 and RG-563) are Fe-rich and plot well
both tonalite porphyry dikes at La Maria and inside on the siderophyllite field (fig. 5.3.3.7).
Yolombo mimics the trend observed in amphiboles However, analysis of micas from the San Rafael
of the Cerro Gramalote facies tonalite samples facies tonalite (samples RG-291, RG-609,
(Fig. 5.3.3.3). RG-576 and RG-578), are represented in a
Figure 5.3.3.7. Representation on the composition of the biotite crystals of the analyzed
tonalites from the Antioquia batholith on the trioctahedral mica classification diagram
of Rieder et al. (1998. Note significative compositional differences among the different
tonalite facies.
Figure 5.3.3.8. Representation on the composition of the biotite crystals of the analyzed
granodiorites from the Antioquia batholith on the trioctahedral mica classification diagram
of Rieder et al. (1998.
Figure 5.3.3.9. Representation of the chemical compositions of the biotite micas from the
tonalite rocks of the Antoquia batholith in terms of the TiO2 content vs the #Fe. Note
that secondary biotite (Bi2) has different contents to those of the corresponding primary
biotite (Bi1).
Figure 5.3.3.10. Representation of the chemical compositions of the biotite micas from
the granodiorite rocks of the Antoquia batholith in terms of the TiO2 content vs the #Fe.
Note that secondary biotite (Bi2) has different contents to those of the corresponding
primary biotite (Bi1).
the tonalite rocks of the Antoquia batholith in terms of the F content vs the #Fe. Note
biotite (Bi1).
Figure 4.412. Representation of the chemical compositions of the biotite micas from the
tonalite rocks of the Antoquia batholith in terms of the F content vs the #Fe. Note that
secondary biotite (Bi2) has different contents to those of the corresponding primary biotite
(Bi1).
the tonalite rocks of the Antoquia batholith in terms of the TiO2 content vs the #Fe. Note
biotite (Bi1).facies.
the tonalite rocks of the Antoquia batholith in terms of the TiO2 content vs the #Fe. Note
biotite (Bi1).
narrow range close to the limit between On the other hand, fine-grained secondary
the siderophyllite and eastonite fields (fig. micas of the second generation are the poorest
5.3.3.7). Finally, biotite from the Cerro in TiO 2 . The differences betweeen both
Gramalote facies (sample G-7) are Mg-rich generations are not very distinct in the tonalites
and can be classified on the eastonitefield. (fig. 5.3.3.9), but are more defined in the
Hence, despite all of the trioctahedral micas granodiorites, in particular, in the La Floresta
correspond to biotite in the classic nomenclature, intrusion (fig. 5.3.3.10). This depletion is
there are important differences in composition of congruent with a secondary origin for these
the main elements in the octahedral positions. biotites, which tends to occur as a replacement
These compositional changes are not so of earlier crystals in mineralized areas.
distinct when comparing the chemistry of biotite Aditional information can be obtained
from grranodiorites and similar rocks. from the halogene content in the position of
Trioctahedral micas from all of the granodiorite additional anions, as substitution of OH, in
samples plot in a narrow range close to the particular, F and Cl.
limit between eastonite and siderophyllite F contents in trioctahedral micas are very
fields. Moreover, biotite composition from the low within the most of the tonalite analyses,
El Rayo granodiorite porphyry (sample ER-1) ranging between 0 and 0.1 apfu, although
has chemical compositions on the same range micas from the Gramalote facies returned a
as those of massive holocrystalline wider range in the analyses, reaching up to 0.4
granodiorites of the Alejandria (sample RG- apfu in the second generation of biotite crystals
632) and La Floresta (samples LF-10 and LF- (fig. 5.3.3.11).
16) facies (fig. 5.3.3.8). F content in biotites from granodiorites is
When comparing the compositions of slightly higher, and varies between 0 and 0.5
biotites between granodiorites and tonalites, apfu. The higher values are obtained in the
it is noticeable that biotite compositions from second generation of biotite from La Floresta
the Cerro Gramalote tonalites defines a well (fig. 5.3.3.12).
differentiated area by rapport with the other Cl values are close to zero in all the
biotites compositions of all the batholith tonalite facies (fig. 5.3.3.13), but San Rafael
(compare figures 5.3.3.7-5.3.3.8). facies shows slightly higher values than Cerro
Some additional diagrams have been used de Gramalote and San Andres de Cuerquia
trying to establish differences in the facies. Cl values are close to zero in the micas
composition of biotites from different granitic from granodiorite facies and granodiorite
facies. In the case of titanium, the contents of porphyry of El Rayo (fig. 5.3.3.14).
this element are only moderate, as can be On the other hand, the representation of
expected in calcalkaline intrusions. Hence, only the compositions of trioctahedral micas from
slight ddifferences can be traced using the Ti the Antioquia batholith on the diagram of
contents in trioctahedral micas. Trioctahedral Chevremont (1988) allows to discriminate
micas from the Cerro Gramalote and San different populations , either in the tonalites (fig.
Rafael tonalite facies constain moderate 5.3.3.15) and granodiorites (fig. 5.3.3.16).
proportions of TiO 2, ranging between 3 and 4 Despite some compositions of biotites from
wt%, while biotite from the San Andres de tonalites would be represented in the
Cuerquia facies plot in a wider range with subalkaline domain, and not properly in the
lower values down to 2.5 wt% TiO 2 (fig. calc-alkaline, these data suggest at the least
5.3.3.9). that the textural families established for the
Biotite samples from granodiorites have granitoids have a correspondance with the
similar compositions (fig 5.3.3.10), and TiO 2 chemical composition of the biotites. In
contents plot also mostly in the range between particular, as in many other minerals, the
3 and 4 wt%, but La Floresta granodiorite composition of biotie in the Cerro de
facies micas plot in a wider range, between 2 Gramalote facies is strongly distinct from the
and 4 wt%. other ones.
Figure 5.3.3.15. Biotite compositions from tonalites in the diagram of Chevremont et al. (1988).
Figure 5.3.3.16. Biotite compositions from granodiorites in the diagram of Chevremont et al. (1988).
Fig. 5.3.3.17. Compositions of plagioclase crystals in the triangular diagram of the

feldspars. Note that plagioclase from the El Rayo and Cerro Gramalote tend to be enriched
in the oligoclase component by rapport to other granodioritic or tonalitic equivalents.
5.3.3.4. PLAGIOCLASE establiished if the compositions of each type

of plagioclase are represented separately for
Chemical analyses of plagioclase from the each type of rocks. A study of this type is not
different facies of the Antioquia batholith possible at the present moment, but we have
samples return compositions between selected some generations of plagioclase in
labradorite and oligoclase (fig. 5.3.3.17), some facies to point out these differences. In
although some tendences are pointed out. The these crystals, variations in chemical
wide spectrum of the plagioclase compositions compositions in single crystals have been
in the some rock type is a result of the broad studied on the base of microprobe profiles.
diversity of plagioclase textures found in each This allows to establish the trends in the zonal
rock type. Hence, some particularities can be variations.
As could be expected because of the basic

character of the rock, plagioclase crystals
analyzed from the La Quiebra Microgabbro
(sample EG-1) are the richest in Ca, and can
be represented in the bytownite and
labradorite fields. Type A plagioclase crystals,
with convolute zoning, have a broader range <B-type
of compositions inside the labradorite domain.
Type B unzoned crystals have compositions
more basic, and cluster close to the limit
bytownite-labradorite domains.
Plagioclase crystals of the San Andres de
Cuerquia facies tonalite (samples RG-527,
RG-543 and RG-563) plot on a wider range
between labradorite and oligoclase fields, with Fig. 5.3.3.18. Profile in a B-type plagioclase with
most of analyses plotting in a narrower range an inherited crystal. San Andrés de Cuerquia facies.
in the andesine field. Microprobe analyses Sample RG-527. Crossed nicols.
were made on some B-type plagioclase
crystals and the corroded cores of them, which
in many cases may be inherited crystals. These
inherited crystals may have compositions in the
range labradorite-andesine (fig. 5.3.3.18). The <B-type
external part of the crystals, which replaces
the above cores, or single crystals without
cores, are slightly zoned between andesine and
oligoclase (fig. 5.3.3.18, 5.3.3.19). Hence, the
early-formed or inherited plagioclases may
have a composition more basic than the
younger.
Plagioclase crystals from San Rafael facies
tonalites (samples RG-291, RG-609, RG-576
and RG-578) plot mainly into the andesine Fig. 5.3.3.19. Profiles in a B-type plagioclase from San
field, but many values can be very basic, in Andrés de Cuerquia facies. Sample RG-563. Crossed
t h e l a b r a d o r i t e f i e l d . H o w e v e r, t h e s e nicols.
labradoritic compositions corresponds to the
corroded cores of some B-type plagioclase
crystals (fig. 5.3.3.20); profiles along the
properly slighly zoned type-B crystals provides crystals, which are typical of the Gramalote
compositions mainly in the andesine domain facies, are strongly zoned, but zoning is inside
(figs. 5.3.3.20-5.3.3.21). Type C plagioclase the oligoclase domain (fig.5.3.3.23-5.3.3.25),
crystals are zoned with a trend ofranging from except in the cases that type D crystals enclose
An55 in the cores to An20 in the borders of some older plagioclase crystals (fig. 5.3.3.25).
the crystals (fig. 5.3.3.21). La Maria tonalite porphyry (sample WR-
The plagioclases of the Cerro Gramalote 11) strongly zoned D-type plagioclases returns
tonalite facies (sample G-7) have important normal compositional variations, with Ca-rich
compositional differences with the (labradorite) cores and Na-rich (andesine)
aforementioned plagioclases. Type B and type borders.
C plagioclases have compositions similar to the Strongly zoned D-type plagioclase
above mentioned, mainly in the andesine phenocrystals of the Yolombo tonalite porphyry
domain (fig. 5.3.3.22). Contrastingly, type D (sample RG-301) return normal compositional
<B-type
B-type>
<C-type
Fig. 5.3.3.20. Profile in a B-type plagioclase with Fig. 5.3.3.21. Profile in a B-type plagioclase and
an inherited crystal. San Rafael facies. Sample RG- C-type plagioclase. San Rafael facies. Sample RG-
609a. Crossed nicols. 576a. Crossed nicols.
C-type>
D-type>
<C-type D-type>
Fig. 5.3.3.22. Profiles in a C-type plagioclasefrom the Fig. 5.3.3.23. Profiles in a D-type plagioclase in
Gramalote facies. Sample HL120507. Crossed nicols. Gramalote facies. Sample G-7. Crossed nicols.
B-type> <B-type
B-type>
D-type>
D-type>
Fig. 5.3.3.24. Analyses in a D-type plagioclase Fig. 5.3.3.25. Analyses in a D-type plagioclase from
from Gramalote facies. Sample 120507. Crossed Gramalote facies, and into inherited crystals (light
nicols. blue arrow). Sample 120507. Crossed nicols.
variations from Ca-richer core to Na-richer

borders into the andesine field.
Plagioclase crystals from La Floresta
<B-type facies granodiorite (samples LF-10 and LF-
16) plot on a wide range between labradorite
and oligoclase, with most of the analyses
plotting on the andesine field as observed on
San Rafael and San Andres de Cuerquia
tonalite facies samples. Zoned D- and E-type
plagioclase crystals have central andesine
composition with Na-richer oligoclase
borders. Profiles across non-zoned B-type
plagioclase crystals show variable composition
from labradorite in the middle of the crystal to
Fig. 5.3.3.26. Profile in a B-type plagioclase. El Na-richer andesine or oligoclase close to the
Rayo facies. Sample ER-1. Crossed nicols. borders.
Alejandria granodiorite facies (sample
RG-632) show plagioclase compositions
mostly in the andesine field. B-type crystals
with variable composition from labradorite in
central areas to andesine in the borders were
also analyzed.
Plagioclase phenocrystals of El Rayo
granodiorite porphyry (sample ER-1) have a
complex composition. Type B crystals may
<D-type have an intermediate composition, generally in
the andesine domain (fig. 5.3.3.26). However,
as in the Cerro Gramalote facies, strongly
zoned D-type plagioclase phenocrystals show
normal compositional variation mainly into the
oligoclase field, with some enrichment towards
Fig. 5.3.3.27. Profile in a D-type plagioclase from the the borders of the crystal (fig. 5.3.3.27-
El Rayo facies. Sample ER-1. Crossed nicols. 5.3.3.28).
D-type>
Fig. 5.3.3.28. Profile in a D-type plagioclase

from El Rayo facies. Sample ER-1. Crossed
nicols.
5.3.4.-Whole-rock geochemistry of the Antioquia Batholith 475

ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
The eighteen samples which were analyzed joined to complete the sample population. These
petrographically to define different facies of the results were compared and integrated with the
Antioquia Batholith (Section 5.3.2), were also results of the eighteen petrographically-
analyzed for whole-rock geochemistry (major, minor petrochemically characterized samples.
and trace elements including the Rare Earth Elements Based upon visual inspection of hand samples
(REE)), in order to characterize their chemical and thin sections, all analyses were completed on
composition and signature, and permit petrochemical samples with no apparent hydrothermal alteration
definition of the different batholith facies. or surface weathering and oxidation effects.
Fourteen additional whole-rock analyses on Regardless, all whole-rock geochemical results were
holocrystalline granitoid samples of the batholiths, plotted on the alteration filters proposed by Wilt
including acid and basic porphyry dikes, were also (1995), to confirm their altered/unaltered character.
Figure 5.3.3.1. Antioquia Batholith samples plotted on the alteration filters proposed by Wilt (1995).
In addition to these filters, Loss on ignition townsite (WR-89) in the west-central portion
(LOI) values over 2.5 were also used as of the batholith (see Section 5.3, Fig. 5.3.1).
alteration/weathering criteria (Wilt, 1995). The Na-rich tonalite facies of the
None of the eighteen samples with Antioquia Batholith described above, also
petrographic analyses exhibit whole-rock exhibits SiO2 enrichment and subtle variations
geochemical features indicating strong on some major oxides when compared with the
hydrothermal alteration or weathering (Fig. general trend of the gabbro-diorite-tonalite-
5.3.3.1). Of the additional fourteen samples granodiorite series of the batholiths.
analyzed for whole-rock geochemistry, two Thesefeatures include higher Al 2O 3 and P2O5
samples (WR-141 and WR-305) plot in the contents and lower K 2O and FeO t contents
altered fields of Wilt (1995). Notably, these (Fig. 5.3.3.3).
samples have LOI values over 2.5. They are All of the samples are of the I-type (A/
nontheless included in other major, minor and CNK<1.1) and plot in the metaluminous field
trace element geochemical plots, but their of the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot of Shand (1943)
altered character is highlighted. peraluminous field (Alvarez, 1983; Saenz,
2003). It is noted however that the altered/
5.3.1 MAJOR ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY weathered samples from the present study
(WR-141 and WR-305) also plot in the
The analyzed Antioquia Batholith suite peraluminous field, suggesting that weathering
demonstrates a wide silica (SiO2) range, from or hydrothermal alteration is a potential cause
48 and 71.6%. Thus a clear medium to high- of the apparently peraluminous behavior of
K calc-alkaline trend from basic to acid rocks some samples in previously published studies.
can be traced (Figs. 5.3.3.2). In particular, high When plotted on the CIPW norm-
aluminity (Al 2O 3 15%) and Na 2O contents calculated feldspar triangle proposed by
exceeding 3% characterizes the complete O’connor (1965), most of the Antioquia
magmatic suite (Fig. 5.3.3.3). Batholith samples plot in the tonalite and
Most major and minor oxides for granodiorite fields, but it is evident how the
Antioquia Batholith suite are negatively Na-rich tonalite facies mentioned above
correlated with SiO2 (TiO2, Al2O 3, CaO, MgO, diverges from the general trend of the
P2O5 and FeOt). However, positive correlation batholiths, to form a separate a more
of K2O with respect to SiO 2 is observed (Fig. trondhjemitic trend (Fig. 5.3.3.2e).
5.3.3.3). All of the samples of the Antioquia
Na 2O contents for most of the batholith Batholith plot on the Pre-Plate (subduction
samples show a relatively flat trend in the range related) field of the geotectonic diagram
of values between 3 and 4% with no positive proposed by Batchelor and Bowden (1985)
or negative correlation associated with (Fig. 5.3.3.2f).
increasing SiO2. A set of samples including the
Cerro Gramalote tonalite facies (samples G-
7, G-10 and G-15), the La Maria tonalite 5.3.2 TRACE ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY
porphyry (sample WR-11) and the El Rayo
granodiorite porphyry (sample ER-1), returns Trace element variations between
h i g h e r N a 2 O c o n t e n t s ( > 4 % ) . Va r i o u s different identified facies across the Antioquia
additional samples of the Antioquia Batholith Batholith are illustrated on variation “spider-
share this Na-rich signature, including acid and grams” normalized to both Bulk Continental
basic porphyry dikes from Cerro Gramalote Earth (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) and
diamond drill core (samples WR-136, WR- Primordial Mantle (Wood et al., 1979) values
137, WR-138 and WR-139), an acid (Fig. 5.3.3.4).
porphyry dike collected near Cristales townsite The Antioquia Batholith samples show
(sample WR-38), and a tonalite sample subduction-related geochemical features such
collected 6Km to the SE of Don Matias as Large Ion Lithophile (LIL, K, Ba and Sr)
a) b)
c) d)
e) f)
Figure 5.3.3.2. Major element geochemical plots for Antioquia Batholith rock samples: a) AFM Plot
(Irvine and Baragar, 1971); b) TAS (Cox et al., 1979); c) K2O vs. SiO2 plot (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976);
d) A/NK vs. A/CNK plot (Shand, 1943), e) Feldspar triangle (O’connor, 1965); f) R1 vs. R2 geotectonic
plot (Batchelor and Bowen, 1985). Symbol legend as indicated in Figure 5.3.3.1.
Figure 5.3.3.3. Harker diagrams for the Antioquia Batholith rock samples. Grey arrow indicate magmatic
series evolution trend from basic to acid rocks. Symbol legend as indicated in Figure 5.3.3.1.
element enrichment and High Field Strength T h e Tr a c e e l e m e n t w h o l e - r o c k

(HFS, Nb, Ta and Ti) element depletion geochemistry for different facies of the
(Pearce et al., 1984; Pearce and Peate, 1995). batholith shows similar patterns, with
Bulk continental earth-normalized patterns moderately positive Ba and Sr anomalies and
show relatively flat trends while Primordial notably negative Nb-Ta and Ti anomalies (Fig.
Mantle-normalized trace-element trends 5.3.3.4).
exhibit fractionated decreasing trends (Fig. As evidenced by major element
5.3.3.4). geochemistry, the Na-rich facies (e.g. Cerro
Fig. 5.3.3.4. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the Antioquia Batholith. Bulk continental earth-
and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data of Taylor and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
Gramalote tonalite) shows important trace

element geochemistry variations with respect
to other tonalite, granodiorite, diorite and
gabbroid facies of the batholith.
Both the positive and negative anomalies
observed for the batholith rocks are more
conspicuous, with the exception of a negative
Ti anomaly, which is reduced in response to a
clear depletion in Tb, Y, Tm and Yb (Fig.
5.3.3.4).
This important feature is evident when
plotting all of the Antioquia Batholith rocks on
the Sr/Y vs. Y adakite discriminant plot
(Castillo, 2006). On this plot, Na-rich facies
fall in the adakite field indicating enrichment
of Sr and depletion of Y with respect to other Figure 5.3.3.5. Sr/Y vs. Y adakite discriminant plot
facies of the batholith (Fig. 5.3.3.5.). (Castillo, 2006) for rock samples the Antioquia
Following the adakite discrimination Batholith. Symbol legend as in Figure 5.3.3.1.
criteria proposed by Martin et al. (2005), the
Na-rich facies can be classified as High-Silica
Adakites (HSA) (Fig. 5.3.3.6).
Another difference in trace element
contents is observed with respect to Sc. The
Na-rich facies shows a lower Sc content (4-9
ppm) when compared to other facies of the
batholith (10-34 ppm).
5 . 3 . 3 R A R E E A RT H E L E M E N T
GEOCHEMISTRY
The Rare Earth Element (REE) contents

of the different facies of the Antioquia Batholith
were compared by plotting REE diagrams using
the condrite-normalized values of Boynton
(1984).
Again, the differences between REE
patterns of the Na-rich facies when compared
to the other facies of the batholith are evident.
The Gabbroid facies returns relatively low
REE contents (REE=48.51-57.98). and
outline gentle decreasing REE patterns ((La/
Lu)N=3.12-4.15) with a positive Eu anomaly
(Eu/Eu*=1.16-1.50) (Fig. 5.3.3.7).
The Diorite and Granodiorite facies, as
well as tonalite from San Andres de Cuerquia
and San Rafael show REE patterns with
decreasing slopes ((La/Lu) N =2.46-7.14) and
Figure 5.3.3.6. (K/Rb) vs. (SiO2/MgO) and Sr–(K/Rb)-
a variably strong negative to absent Eu (SiO2/MgO)*100 diagrams for Na-rich facies of the
anomaly (Eu/Eu*=0.52-1.04). A notably flat Antioquia Batholith. Legend as in Fig. 5.3.3.1.
Figure 5.3.3.7. Chondrite-normalized REE plot
for rock samples of different facies of the
Antioquia Batholith. Chondrite normalizing
values after Boynton (1984).
pattern for LREE (Ho-Lu) close to 10x

normalized chondrite values is observed for all
of these facies.
Regarding the Na-rich Cerro Gramalote
facies (samples G-7, G-10 and G-15), a
greater degree of fractionation is observed
((La/Lu) N=9.84-13.69) with no or a slight
positive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*=1.00-1.18). The
Cerro Gramalote samples exhibit a similar flat
pattern for the LREE, however a clear
depletion of the LREE with respect to the other
facies of the batholith is also observed.
The Cerro Gramalote samples return
chondrite-normalized values closer to 3x
chondrite (Fig. 5.3.3.7).
Such a depleted behavior with respect to
the LREE is also observed for the tonalite and
acid porphyry dikes collected from Cerro
Gramalote diamond drill core (samples WR-
136 and WR-138), the La Maria tonalite
p o r p h y r y ( W R - 11 ) , t h e C r i s t a l e s a c i d
porphyry dike (sample WR-38), the El Rayo
granodiorite porphyry (ER-1), and the Santa
Rosa de Osos tonalite sample (WR-89).
5.3.5.-Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Antioquia batholith 483

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE ANTIOQUIA BATHOLITH
The age of the Antioquia Batholith has been associated to mixing between depleted mantle- and
constrained through several radiometric biotite K- crustal-derived components.
Ar and Rb-Sr ages in the range between 58 and 96 Recent zircon ID-TIMS, SHRIMP and LA-
Ma (Feininger and Botero, 1982; Maya, 1992). MC-ICP-MS U-Pb analyses on rocks of the
Such a database, in addition to some geological Antioquia Batholith and satellite plutons supply
considerations, allowed Gonzalez (2001) to assign fifteen crystallization ages on the range of 96.5Ma
a late Cretaceous age to the batholith and its satellite to 70.5Ma (Correa et al., 2006; Ordoñez-
plutons. Carmona et al., 2007; Ibañez-Mejía et al., 2007;
Ordoñez and Pimentel (2001), based on the Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2007 and Villagómez
assumption of homogeneous lithological character et al., 2008).
of the intrusion, published a seven-sample whole- In order to determine the crystallization ages
rock Rb-Sr isochron age of 98±27Ma as the best of the different identified facies of the Antioquia
estimation for the crystallization age of the magma. Batholith and some of its satellite intrusive bodies
They also concluded, on the basis of Sr and Nd (La Unión, Caracoli and La Culebra Stock), a set
isotope geochemistry results, that early basic of twelve new zircon SHRIMP and LA-MC-ICP-
magmatic facies represented by some satellite MS U-Pb ages were determined in this work (Table
intrusions of the batholith (i.e. San Diego and 5.3.5.1 and Figure 5.3.5.1). In addition, Rb-Sr, Sm-
Altavista stocks and La Tolda Gabbro) have mantle- Nd and Pb-Pb isotope geochemical analyses were
derived isotope characteristics, while the batholith made on samples of some of the facies of the
itself shows Sr and Nd isotopic characteristics Antioquia Batholith and La Culebra Stock.
Table 5.3.5.1. Zircon SHRIMP and LA-MC-ICP-MS U-Pb results on rocks from the Antioquia Batholith.
Figure 5.3.5.1. Location of zircon U-Pb ages obtained for the Antioquia Batholith and satellite bodies
during this work. Additional zircon U-Pb ages from other authors are also shown.
5.3.5.1 ZIRCON U-Pb GEOCHRONOLOGY
Ten zircon concentrates were extracted

during the present work using samples of the
phaneritic holocrystalline felsic facies of the
batholith and three satellite intrusions (La
Culebra, La Unión and Caracoli stocks). These
concentrates were analyzed in order to
establish the ages of the magmatic intruions of
the area.
Additionally, zircon concentrates from
two distinct porphyritic facies cutting the
batholiths were also analysed by us: the El
Rayo granodiorite porphyry (sample ER-1)
and a fine-grained phaneritic biotite-hornblende
tonalite porphyry (sample CRI-1) collected
close to Cristales townsite. On the other hand,
geochemical characterization of the Cristales
porphyry suite was made on the basis of a
whole-rock sample (WR-38) of the dike
collected close to the dated sample (see section
5.3.3).
The geochronological results obtained
after the analyses of zircon define a wide age
interval between 89 and 58 Ma, extending into
to the late Paleocene the range of zircon U-Pb
crystallization ages published for the batholith
(Figure 5.2.3.2).
Regarding the published and the new
zircon U-Pb ages, it is possible to identify at
least four different magmatic events
contributing to the formation of the Antioquia
Batholith (Figure 5.3.5.2).
It is important to remark that sampling has
not been performed after a detailed geological
mapping of the different facies for all the
different intrusives, and therefore some
additional pulses could be found in future.
On the other hand, it is interesting to note
that the ensemble of these ages has a good
correspondance with the K/Ar and Rb/Sr ages
obtained for different authors in the past (see
fig. 5.3.5.2 and Maya, 1992).
First magmatic pulse
The oldest event was not identified in the Figure 5.3.5.2. Zircon U-Pb ages obtained from
zircon analyses performed by us, but it can be samples of the Antioquia Batholith and the
established taking into account the ages satellite intrusives. Other published zircon U-Pb
published by Correa et al. (2006) and ages are also included.
Villagómez et al. (2008) in different samples

from the Antioquia Batholith, the Altavista
Stock and the San Diego gabbro (Figure
5.3.5.2). However, the most of the refered
authors do not provide detailed information
about the petrography of the analysed samples,
and this creates a problem for the interpretation
of the petrogenesis of these rocks.
Second magmatic pulse
The oldest U-Pb ages obtained in our

work could correspond to the second
magmatic pulse and are located in the northern
and western sectors of the Antioquia Batholith.
They correspond to the quartz-diorite of La
Maria facies (sample WR-221) and to the
diorite sample collected at El Salto sector,
close to the Guadalupe town on the northern
margin (sample WR-202). The tonalitic La
Culebra stock also returns a late Cretaceous
age (87.5+1.3/-1.6 Ma, sample WR-200)
(Fig. 5.3.5.3). Therefore, these rocks could
probably define part of a calcalkaline suite.
These ages fit well into the ages published
by Villagómez et al. (2008), Ibáñez-Mejía et
al. (2007), Ordóñez-Carmona et al. (2007)
and Correa et al. (2006) for other rocks of
the Antioquia batholith and for the Altavista
stock (fig. 5.3.5.2). Unfortunately, again these
authors do not provide petrographic
information on the dated rocks. Despite this
problem, the ensemble of our data and those
of the aforementioned authors allow tho define
a magmatic pulse during the late Cretaceous,
between 89-82Ma.
On the other hand, the La Culebra Stock
sample returns some inheritance ages dated at
ca. 94 Ma that could be related to the oldest
magmatic pulse of ca. 92-96 Ma.
Additional inheritance ages at ca. 230 Ma
and ca. 280 Ma could be related to the Permo-
Triassic magmatic events reported on both
sides of the Central Cordillera (Vinasco et al., Figure 5.3.5.3. Plots of Zircon U-Pb ages (89-
2006). 82Ma) obtained from samples of the Antioquia
Other evidences of these inheritances can Batholith (diorite of El Salto, sample WR-202,
be provided by the petrographic study, because and quartz-diorite of La Maria facies, sample
the rocks of this cicle contains different WR-221) and La Culebra Stock (tonalite of La
generations of plagioclase. As indicated above, Culebra, sample WR-200) in the conventional
in many cases older generations of plagioclase concordia diagram after Wetherill (1956).
have evidences of complex processes of
resorption and reequilibria with younger
generations of plagioclase (see section 5.3.2
for a more detailed description).
Third magmatic pulse
Another group of ages in the range of 81-

72Ma was obtained for granodiorite and
tonalite samples of the Antioquia Batholith
(samples LF-10, WR-201 and WR-305), and
from the La Unión Stock (sample 12038453)
(Figure 5.3.5.4).
Figure 5.3.5.4. Concordia plots of Zircon U-Pb ages (81-72Ma) obtained in samples of
the Antioquia Batholith (La Floresta granodiorite facies, sample LF-10; biotite tonalite,
sample WR-305; a granodiorite from 6 km south of the Angostura town, sample WR-201)
and from the La Unión stock (quartzdiorites, sample 12038453). For the samples WR305
and 12038453 the concordia diagram used is after Tera-Wasserburg (1972). The
conventional concordia diagram after Wetherill (1956) has been used for the rest of the
samples.
The oldest age for samples of this pulse GR-DD-23@522m), which in its deepest
was obtained for the La Floresta granodiorite intervals intersects unaltered hornblende biotite
facies (sample LF-10), located in the tonalite previously described in thin section
northeastern portion of the Antioquia batholith, (section 5.3.1.7) and characterized by whole-
which returned an age of 79.5 ± 1.3 Ma. rock geochemical analyses of surface samples
A biotite tonalite sample of the (section 5.3.3). Both samples returned
northwestern corner of the batholith (sample Paleocene ages: 59.2 ± 1.2 Ma (tunnel) and
WR-305) returned an age of 73.9±1.3Ma. No 60.7 ± 1.0 Ma (drill-hole).
petrographic analysis is available for this Inheritance ages from older magmatic
sample. However, whole-rock geochemistry pulses of the batholith (ca. 70-73Ma; ca. 80
indicates a strong degree of alteration, such Ma) and Permo-Triassic magmatism (ca. 238
that the zircon U-Pb crystallization age can be Ma; Vinasco et al., 2006) were obtained in
considered reliable, as zircon internal structure some zircon crystals of drill-hole sample G-
is generally not affected by hydrothermal 29. These inheritances are also registered in
alteration or strong weathering processes the different generations of plagioclase crystals
(Wilson et al., 2008). Tonalite samples of this found in the petrographic study, e.g., that of
sector analyzed microscopically (RG-506, the Gramalote facies (see section 5.3.2).
RG-527, RG-543 and RG-563) were grouped In addition, a tonalite porphyry dike near
into the San Andres de Cuerquia tonalite facies Cristales town (sample CRI-1), located 3km
(section 5.3.1.5). It is suspected that the age to the SW of Gramalote Hill, with a whole-
obtained for the altered tonalite sample WR- rock geochemical signature (sample WR-38)
305 can be extrapolated to the San Andrés de is similar to the La Maria tonalite porphyry
Cuerquia facies of the batholith (section facies (sample WR-11; section 5.3.1.10),
5.3.1.5). returned two well-defined age populations:
The quartz-diorite sample of La Unión 74.4±1.2 Ma and 61.8±1.3 Ma. The younger
Stock (12038453) returned an age of age correlates well with the Paleocene
73.5±1.3 Ma, and it is concluded that this magmatic pulse of Cerro Gramalote and is
satellite body is coeval with this intermediate interpreted as the crystallization age of the dike,
magmatic pulse of the Antioquia Batholith. while the older late Cretaceous age is
However, several zircon crystals analyzed interpreted as inheritance of the intermediate
returned an older age of 82.8±1.5Ma, which magmatic pulse described above.
is interpreted as inheritance from the 89-82Ma The El Rayo granodiorite porphyry
magmatic event. As indicated in the section of (sample ER-1) also returned a Paleocene
petrography (see section 5.3.2), evidences of crystallization age quite similar to those
different generations of plagioclase in many indicated above (59.9±0.9 Ma).
rocks from these facies can be interpreted as The sample of the Caracoli Stock (R-
produced by inheritance. 6834), an apophysis on the eastern border of
the batholith, also indicates a crystallization age
Fourth magmatic event of 60.1±1.2 Ma, with inheritance ages of
earlier magmatic pulses at ca. 75-78 Ma and
An additional group of samples define a ca. 80-84 Ma.
Paleocene magmatic pulse (ca. 63-58 Ma), Moreover, one of the zircon crystals
not previously identified in zircon U-Pb analyzed in Caracolí returned an age of ca. 900
crystallization ages of the Antioquia Batholith Ma. Therefore, some grade of assimilation of
(figures 5.3.5.2 and 5.3.5.5). the Proterozoic basement along the eastern
This magmatic pulse includes the Cerro border of the Central Cordillera by the eastern
Gramalote Na-rich tonalite facies collected in margin of the batholiths can be suggested based
an exploratory tunnel beneath Gramalote hill on these zircon ages.
(sample GR-II-1), and a Gramalote Project Regarding all the zircon U-Pb ages
(B2Gold) diamond drill-hole sample (G-29; published for the Antioquia Batholith and its
Figure 5.3.5.5. Concordia plots of Zircon U-Pb ages (63-58Ma) obtained in samples of
the Cerro Gramalote tonalite facies of the Antioquia Batholith, the porphyrytic tonalite
dike of Cristales (sample CRI-1), the El Rayo porphyry (sample ER-1), and from the
Caracoli Stock (sample R-6834). For the sample R-6834 the concordia diagram used is
after Tera-Wasserburg (1972). The conventional concordia diagram after Wetherill (1956)
has been used for the rest of the samples.
satellital magmatic bodies (Correa et al., 2006; 5.3.5.2 Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE
Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2007; Ibáñez-Mejía GEOCHEMISTRY
et al., 2007; Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2007
and Villagómez et al., 2008), and the new ages Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope analyses were
reported in this publication, it is evident how made for some of the identified facies (gabbro,
they all span an ca. 40 my age spectrum (96- granodiorite and tonalite) of the Antioquia
58 Ma), which is similar to that reported in Batholith, and the tonalite samples of the
the past from biotite K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages Angostura (sample WR-201) and the La
(Figure 5.3.5.2). Culebra Stock (sample WR-200) (tables
Late Cretaceous magmatic zircon U-Pb 5.3.5.2 and 5.3.5.3; figure 5.3.5.6).
crystallization ages (96-70 Ma) do not show The Gabbro facies (La Quiebra
systematic geographical variability in their microgabbro; sample EG-1), returned lower
distribution. Older ages, however, seem to be concentrations of Rb (2.92 ppm) and average
more common on the eastern side of the concentrations of Sr (219.41 ppm) when
batholiths, while younger ages are more compared to the tonalite and granodiorite facies
common in the western and northwestern of the batholith.
sectors (Fig. 5.3.5.1). Some important differences are observed
Paleocene Na-rich magmatism (63-58 between the tonalite samples. Cerro Gramalote
Ma) clearly define a belt trending E-W with a facies (samples G-7 and G-15) have higher
lenght of 40 km at the least, restricted to the concentrations of Sr (540.91 and 928.82 ppm)
eastern central portion of the batholith, from and lower concentrations of Rb (19.95 and
the Caracolí Stock (sample R-6834) to the El 21.71 ppm) when compared with samples
Rayo granodiorite porphyry (sample ER-1). from the San Rafael and Guadalupe tonalite
On the basis of the distinct Na-rich adakite- facies and the La Culebra tonalite stock (Table
like chemical signature found in the vicinity of 5.3.5.2).
the Don Matías townsite (sample WR-89; The granodiorite samples of the La
section 5.3.3) this Paleocene belt could be Floresta facies returned higher concentrations
extended 30 km to the west. of Rb than the gabbro and tonalite samples
Table 5.3.5.2. Rb-Sr isotopic data for some of the Antioquia Batholith gabbro, granodiorite and
tonalite facies and the La Culebra Stock tonalite. 87Sr/86Sr(i) calculated for U-Pb ages when
available or estimated by comparison with similar dated samples (*).
(111.15 and 130.98 ppm). Sr contents are interaction with continental crustal material. An
similar to tonalite samples and are also lower increasing vertical trend is observed from the
than the high-Sr Cerro Gramalote facies. older late Cretaceous samples (i.e. the La
Initial Sr ratios calculated on the basis of Floresta granodiorite facies; ca. 80 Ma) to the
obtained U-Pb ages, when available or younger Na-rich Paleocene Cerro Gramalote
estimated by comparison with similar dated adakitic tonalite facies, ca. 60 Ma (Figure
samples, range between 0.70307 and 0.70455. 5.3.5.6).
A higher value was obtained for the La Culebra Similar low-Sr and high (positive)  Nd
tonalite stock (0.70484). values have been reported for magmatic rocks
Sm and Nd contents are variable in during late Cretaceous - early Oligocene (e.g.
narrow ranges with no significant variations 100-30Ma) in the central Andes (Miller and
between the different intrusive facies Harris, 1989). Similar values have also been
(Sm=1.59-4.13 ppm and Nd=7.57 and 18.18 reported for magmatic facies from large
ppm). composite batholiths of western North and
 Nd values were calculated for the same South America, such as the late Triassic to late
ages used for initial Sr ratio calculations. All Cretaceous Sierra Nevada Batholith
of the gabbro, granodiorite and tonalite (DePaolo, 1981), and the middle Jurassic to
samples returned remarkably positive values Cretaceous Papudo Quintero and Illapel
spanning a wide range from 1.74 to 5.91. Complex of the Carboniferous to Cretaceous
Again, the La Culebra Stock sample returned Coastal Batholith of central Chile (Parada et
a higher  Nd value of 8.30. The younger Na- al., 1999).
rich Cerro Gramalote tonalite facies returned Moreover, the middle Jurassic (Papudo-
the highest values amongst all of the Antioquia Quintero Complex) and Cretaceous (Illapel
Batholith facies. Complex) granitoids and the xenolithic samples
Results obtained for Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd studied by Parada et al. (1999), define a
isotope geochemistry for the different analyzed similar vertical increasing Nd trend within the
facies of the Antioquia Batholith indicate a mantle array for older to younger rocks. They
strong mantle-derived source with little or no also mark a transition from a typical calc-
Table 5.3.5.3. Sm-Nd isotopic data for some of the Antioquia Batholith gabbro, granodiorite
and tonalite facies and the La Culebra Stock tonalite. Nd(T) calculated for U-Pb ages when
available or estimated by comparison with similar dated samples (*).
Figure 5.3.5.6.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for some of the Antioquia batholith granodiorite and
tonalite facies and from the La Culebra tonalite stock.
alkaline subduction-related suite with minor or An analogous situation is observed in the

negligible crustal contamination during the Antioquia Batholith, in which typical calc-
middle Jurassic, to Na-rich adakite-like melts alkaline subduction-related facies (e.g. La
in the Cretaceous. Floresta granodiorite facies and San Rafael
Table 5.3.5.4. Whole-rock Pb isotope composition of rocks from some of the facies of the
Antioquia Batholith and the La Culebra Stock
tonalite facies) emplaced during the late
Cretaceous evolve to the Na-rich adakite-like
melts in the Paleocene Cerro Gramalote
tonalite facies (Figure 5.3.5.6).
5.3.5.2 Pb ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Pb isotope data obtained for samples of

the various facies of the Antioquia Batholith,
and the La Culebra stock tonalite, are
radiogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb>15.5), relatively
homogeneous, and cluster in narrow ranges of
values: 206Pb/ 204Pb = 18.74-19.21, 207Pb/ 204Pb
= 15.58-15.67 and 208Pb/ 204Pb = 38.48-39.05
(Table 5.3.5.4).
Despite such a narrow Pb isotope range,
there is a clear separation between late
Cretaceous and Paleocene magmatism. Pb
isotopes for the late Cretaceous rocks are
more radiogenic than the Paleocene rocks. An
oblique trend can be traced from the more
radiogenic late Cretaceous granodiorite/
tonalite facies to the younger Paleocene Na-
rich adakite-like tonalite facies (Figure 5.3.5.6)
When plotted on the Plumbotectonics
diagrams proposed by Zartman and Doe Figure 5.3.5.6. Thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
(1981), the Antioquia Batholith samples plot Pb/ 204 Pb) and uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
in distinct groups between the Upper Crust and Pb/ 204 Pb) plots for rocks of the Antioquia
mixed Orogene reservoir lead evolution curves. Batholith and the La Culebra Stock. Pb
This arrangement is contrary to the clear isotope evolution curves f rom
mantle-derived isotopic signature observed in Plumbotectonics model after Zartman and
the Sr-Nd diagram (Figure 5.3.5.5). Doe (1981)
SECTION 5.4.
Gold Deposits Associated with the

Antioquia-Sonsón Au Province
5.4.1.-Gold deposits associated with the Antioquia-Sonsón Au Province 497
5.4.1. GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE

ANTIOQUIA-SONSÓN Au PROVINCE
The Antioquia Au Province is one of the Broadly speaking, two main types of
most important in Colombia, and purports a deposits and showings can be established
long gold mining tradition, extending from Pre- according with the spatial position of the
Columbine times until the present days deposits in relation with the intrusives (fig.
(Campuzano Cuartas, 1994). During the 5.4.1.1): a) deposits hosted within the
second part of the XIX century, this province Antioquia and Sonson Batholiths and b)
provided about the 70% of the total production deposits hosted peripheral to the Antioquia-
of Colombia (Gómez-Gómez, 2009). Sonsón Batholiths.
The province is located in the northern
Central Cordillera, in broad spatial association
with the Antioquia Batholith, which represents 5.4.1.1. DEPOSITS HOSTED WITHIN THE
the largest expression of late Cretaceous calc- ANTIOQUIA AND SONSON BATHOLITHS
alkaline magmatism in the Colombian Andes
(Alvarez, 1983, Aspden et al., 1987; this This cathegory comprises some of the
work). Similar gold occurrences are found in most important occurrences, and many of them
association with the smaller Sonsón Batholith, have been mined and the past and are important
which is found in the vicinity of the Antioquia mining areas in the present. The most important
Batholith. are the next:
Hundreds of gold deposits and showing
are recorded within and along the margins of *Rio Nus Trend. The Rio Nus trend
the batholith (Pernet, 1980; Rodríguez and Pernett, comprises several gold ocurrences widely
1982; INGEOMINAS, 1987). Current artisanal distributed over the Nus river pathway like
gold mining operations, by means of tunnels (La Quiebra, El Limón, Guadualejos
and pits, are widespread today along tens of and Providencia deposits). This is one
gold-vearing veins in the area; moreover, of the most important disctricts, both
extensive panning of the rivers provides also for the small mining developed on
an important source of alluvial gold. veins, and for more important deposits
Moreover, the area is at the present related with intrusions, as is the case
moment an important target for international of Gramalote-Providencia. Many of
mining companies, including Anglo-Gold these deposits consists of vein systems
Ashanti. In the past years, intensive exploration trending NW-SE or NE-SW. The first
has been developed by this company in order system can be related with fault
to find deposits of relevance. Some interesting systems with a similar direction, that
deposits, able for open pit mining, have been cut across the Antioquia Batholith.
discovered during the recent years, and some Most of these deposits consist of
junior companies are ready to develop these quartz veins with high gold tenors.
deposits in the immediate future. Hydrothermal alteration is restricted to
Thus, this Au province was selected as an mineralized structures and usually
important example of the clear spatial implies potassic (K-feldspar)
relationship between late Cretaceous plutonism alteration overimposed by quartz-
and various styles of gold mineralization, sericite alteration few centimeters from
including important gold occurences. veins. Au-Ag-Bi-Te-Mo characterizes
498 SECTION 5.5.- GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ANTIOQUIA-SONSÓN AU PROVINCE
the chemical signature in the Rio Nus
Trend gold mineralization. Based on their
geological features (e.g. association with
major structural break, quartz-carbonate
vein association, low-sulphide (pyrite)
assemblage, and chloritic and sericitic
wall-rock alteration), La Quiebra (El
Guayabito) vein systems are classified as
orogenic vein gold deposit (Antioquia
Gold Inc.-http://www.antioquiagoldinc.com/
s/Cisneros.asp). The most important gold
occurrence in the Nus trend is the Cerro
Gramalote gold project which would be
treated in detail below. Mineralization in
the project area is strongly controlled by
structure. The mineralization consists of
quartz veins with pyrite, chalcopyrite,
copper oxides, molybdenum, silver and
gold. The alteration is dominated by
plagioclase to sericite and mafic minerals
to chlorite. Silicification and secondary
biotite was also observed, as well as
minor potassic alteration locally. Some
of the deposits will be described with
more detail in the next sections: Gramalote
(section 5.4.1.2); Guayabito (section
5.4.3); Cascada El Límón (section 5.4.4)
and Guadalejo (section 5.4.5).
*La Floresta de Yalí. It is a group of

deposits, mined in the present times,
consisting of singular quartz veins with
ESE-WSE and NE-SW direction, in
association with regional faults
t r e n d i n g E N E - W S W. I t w i l l b e
described with more detail in the
section 5.4.6.
*Santa Rosa de Osos. This field could

be considered as a continuation of the
Figure 5.4.1.1. (In the above page, and legend Nus trend, and is found following this
at the top). Distribution of the main gold districts river in direction west. It will be
and occurrences in association with the Antioquia described with more detail (section
and Sonsón Batholiths. The direction of the 5.4.7)
symbol indicates the main direction of the vein.
Note the spatial relation of the mineralized areas *Gómez Plata. The distrite comprise
with major regional faults.The marked areas some subvertical veins with dominant
inside blue circles correspond to the main d i r e c t i o n s E - W a n d N W- S E ,
mining districts. associated with regional faults cutting
across the Antioquia baholith. Gold
500 SECTION 5.5.- GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ANTIOQUIA-SONSÓN AU PROVINCE
mineral deposits close to the Gómez microdiorite dikes cut the batholith
Plata municipality area are hosted in rocks, which, in turn, are cut by
rocks of the Antioquia Batholith. quartz+sulfide veins, defining a ca.
Mineralized structures are variable in 1000m long NNE corridor, about
width. and are composed by quartz 500m wide. A secondary (subsidiary)
and sometimes K-feldspar with NW set of structures have also been
disseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite identified (Anglogold Ashanti
and minor quantities of galena and Colombia, unpublished report). Vein
sphalerite. Sometimes high free gold mineralization is constituted by
content is observed in massive sulfide quartz+sulfide veins from few up to
aggregates (INGEOMINAS, 1999; several tens of centimeters wide.
Gonzalez, 2001). Important mines at Massive quartz is accompanied by
Gomez Plata area include: Santa Rosa, coarse grained well crystallized
La Estrella, San Francisco, sulfides. No banded textures are
Guacamayas, Santa Maria, Gomez observed. Sulfides aggregates are
Pinta, Gomez Plata, La Verde, Veta composed mainly by pyrite
Vieja and El Azafral (INGEOMINAS, accompanied by sphalerite, galena,
1999). A typical example is the Veta arsenopyrite and minor amounts of
Vieja mine, where there are old chalcopyrite. Arsenopyrite-dominated
explotations, working on veins and veins with minor quantities of other
veinlets, sometimes lenses and breccias. sulfides are common in some localities.
Mineralization comprises massive quartz Sericitic hydrothermal alteration haloes
and pyrite, with minor amounts of are characteristic of vein selvages,
chalcopyrite, molybdenite, cubamite, from few centimeters up to few meters
sphalerite and gold (Achury, 1992). wide. Sericite alteration of wall-rock
fragments inside veins has also been
*San Roque – Santo Domingo. These observed.Veins are affected by post-
are vein deposits trending mainly NE- mineral fault displacement, giving rise
SW and, in minor grade, NW-Se. The to slickensiding and gouge
last system of veins could be development along their margins.
associated with the regional NW-SE Despite no information on the age of
trending faults cutting across the mineralization/hydrothermal alteration
Antioquia Batholith, and named as is available, mineralization is suspected
Nare, Balseadero, Biscocho, Caldera to be pluton related, associated to the
and Miraflores. These deposits are quite Sonsón Batholith, but a genetic
similar to those from the Rio Nus trend. relationship with the nearby Plio-
Pleistocene diatrema-hosted gold
*Argelia (Sonson). This area is less mineralization at Arboledas cannot be
important than the aforementioned, and ruled out.
comprises many minor NE-SW
trending veins, many of them exploited
with low results by small mining 5.4.1.2. DEPOSITS HOSTED
operations. Argelia (Sonsón) is an PERIPHERAL TO THE ANTIOQUIA-
historical mining district located in the SONSÓN BATHOLITHS
northeastern sector of the Sonsón
Batholith close to Argelia townsite. Some important gold districts are found
Massive medium- to coarse-grained in the metamorphic aureola of the batholith, and
hornblende biotite granodiorite to some of them have mining activity at the
tonalite rocks of the Sonsón Batholith present time. The most significative areas
host mineralization. Aplite and comprise the next districts and mines.
*Segovia-Remedios, comprising *El Pino. This is a vein deposit and a
NNW-SSE and WNW-ESE trending breccia established well far of the
veins hosted in the Jurassic Segovia intrusions, hosted by Jurassic black
granodiorite Batholith, and associated metapelites, and is enriched in silver
with regional faults trending sulphosalts and base metal sulfides.
approximately N-S (Nus and Oti This deposit will be described with
faults).This area comprises some of more detail (see section 5.4.10).
the most historically important deposits
in Colombia, active since the colonial *El Vapor. This district comprises
times. small mining operations developed on
vein systems associated with the
* La Bramadora-Amalfi-Anorí. La Palestina fault system. All of these
Bramadora will be described veins are hosted by low-grade
separately. This is other important metamorphosed black schists of
mining center hosted in Jurassic black Jurassic age. Most of the veins are
shales. These mining towns were trending NNE-SSW, which is the
created during the first part of the XIX direction of the Palestina fault. This
century to suport the mining activities deposit will be described with more
in the area, and had an important detail in the section 5.4.11.
development during the second half of
the century (Gómez-Gómez, 2009). *El Machete-El Oso. It is a minor
The main directions of the veins are district, comprising some veins
broadly NE-SW and E-W, and the trending NW-SE, probably associated
most important veins were found close with major regional faults. In the El
to Rumazón area, although other Machete deposit the dominant ore
important mines were found in the minerals are stibnite and pyrite,
Chamuscados area, with the Violín, scattered in a quartz vein. The El Oso
Cristales and El Roble mines. deposit was exploited in the 1980’s.
Important alluvial working were also This vein has potassic alteration
developed on the rio Porce. The (biotitization) of the hosting
Bramadora mine will be described granodiorites, and mainly consists of
with more detail (see section 5.4.9). quartz and stibnite.
5.4.2.-Cerro Gramalote 503
5.4.2. CERRO GRAMALOTE
The Gramalote Au Deposit is located in

the Department of Antioquia, in the northern
Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes,
230 Km NW of Bogotá and 80 Km NE of
Medellín (Fig. 5.4.2.1).
The Gramalote deposit has been exploited
discontinuously in shallow artisanal workings
since pre-Colombian times and well along the
spanish colonial times, mainly by pits and
tunnels.
During the XIX century, a complex
engyneering operation was developed to
exploit the deposit at a bigger scale (fig.
5.4.2.2). These mining operations included the
deviation of a river in order to remove the
altered parts of the Cerro Gramalote, and
concentrate the mineral by density (fig.
5.4.2.3).
Along the XX century, small artisanal Figure 5.4.2.1. Situation of the Gramalote
mining operations were carried out again, using deposit in the context of the Central Cordillera.
Figure 5.4.2.2. Aerial view of the Cerro Gramalote deposit, showing old mining operations.
504 SECTION 5.4.- GOLD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ANTIOQUIA-SONSON Au PROVINCE
Figure 5.4.2.3. Water fall produced after the

deviation of the river during the XIX
century as a system for removing the
saprolitic units.
Figure 5.4.2.4. Small artisanal tunnel

produced in the years 2000 to exploit a
mineralized quartz vein with high Au tenors
in the Gramalote deposit.
Figure 5.4.2.5. A detail of an artisanal mill Figure 5.4.2.6. Other detail of the artisanal
plant, operative in the early 2000’s, to process plant shown in the above image.
the gold ores obtained from the artisanal
explotations of the Gramalote veins.
rudimentary systems and following the major During the period 2006-2007, two
quartz veins that contain higher gold tenors successive systematic drilling were carried out
(fig. 5.4.2.4). Also well entered the first by Anglogold Ashanti, allowing the discovery
decennal of the present century, the artisanal of a deposit of middle category, with 57.8 Mt
mining continued. Ores were processsed also at 1.14g/t, with a total of 2.12 milions of gold
in artisanal mills (figs. 5.4.2.5-5.4.2.6). oz. Along 2008 B2 Gold Corporation becames
the managing company, and continued the of veinlet systems. Some of the are subparallel
drilling ssurvey, estimating the total of gold and are penetrative at a regional scale, and
content on 2387 Mo. separed among a few distance, between that
also host part of the gold mineralisation.
5.4.2.2. GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSIT Hence, the deposits has a strong structural
control, and it is important to discriminate the
Gramalote is hosted by medium to coarse distribution of gold-bearing veins from other
grained tonalites of the Gramalote facies, and barren.
t h e L a M a ria diorites (see chapte r of The Gramalote deposit is found in an area
petrology). affected by important regional tectonic
These plutonic rocks are crosscut by alignements, deducted from satellital image,
dykes of aplite-pegmatite and porphyritic whose form part of a regional horse-tail system
rocks. All of them were emplaced during an of faults cutting across over all the Antioquia
important event of metaluminous (I-type), calc- batholith (Rodríguez Novoa, 2009). Many of
alkaline magmatism which extended these alignements are related with vein gold
approximately from the Albian to the Paleocene deposits, and most of them are comprised
(Cediel et al., 2003). between two main subvertical transform faults
The gold mineralization occurs in several trending roughly NW-SE: the Rio Nus and the
vein systems. For a long time, as has been Quebrada Socorro faults (fig. 5.4.2.7).
indicated, the explotation focussed on major At the mesoscopic scale, the Gramalote
quartz veins, in many cases strongly enriched veins follows two main trends: NNW-SSE and
in gold. However, there are several complexes roughly NE-SW (fig. 5.4.2.8).
Gramalote area
Figure 5.4.2.7. Satellital image showing the main regional faults in the area of Gramalote,
and distribution of some gold districts in the area (from an unpublished repport from
Anglogold Ashanti, Colombia).
Figure 5.4.2.8. Structural map showing the main systems of veins in the Gramalote area,
along with the distribution of the different alteration types (from an unpublished repport
from Anglogold Ashanti, Colombia).
5.4.2.3. HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION tonalites produces different mineral

associations of fine-grained clay minerals with
The rocks of the Gramalote area are hematite, of reddish colors, and having
altered by a succession of hydrothermal hematite veins. These secondary associations
processes (fig. 5.4.2.8), producing an altered masks in some cases the hydrothermal
area of some squarred kilometers. The host associations (fig. 5.4.2.9).
rock of the mineralization are the tonalites of Hydrothermal alteration is structurally
the Gramalote facies, and the nineral changes controlled and restricted to veins and veinlets
produced during these hydrothermal pulses are selvages. There are two main types of
easily distinguishable at the field scale. hydrothermal alteration at the Gramalote
However, first of all, it must be taken into deposit: potassic and sericitic.
acount that supergenic saprolitic alteration is Potassic alteration was produced during
also well developed in the upper meters of the an early stage (stage I) during the hydrothermal
weathering profile of the Gramalote tonalites, alterationprocess, and is associated mainly with
and therefore thse secondary paragensis may those veins trending approximately NNNW-
overprint the hydrothermal paragenesis in these SSE (fig. 5.4.2.8). This type of alteration is
domains. This saprolitic alteration of the hosting found generally at a short distance of the vein
Figure 5.4.2.9. Saprolitic alteration developed on the tonalite of Gramalote.
Figure 5.4.2.10. Potassic alteration (rose color) on the selvages of tonalite-hosted white quartz veins.
Figure 5.4.2.11. Well developed potassic alteration (rose color) around quartz veins cutting across tonalites of
the Gramalote facies (grey colour). Image from a tunnel in Cerro Gramalote, courtesy of Mauricio Valencia.
Figure 5.4.2.12. Potassic alteration (rose color) around quartz veins cutting across tonalites of the Gramalote
facies (grey colour). Image from a tunnel in Cerro Gramalote, courtesy of Mauricio Valencia).
<FK
FK>
<py
<py
FK>
Figure 5.4.2.13. Potassic alteration (rose color) around Figure 5.4.2.14. Potassic alteration (rose color) around
quartz veins cutting across tonalites of the Gramalote quartz veins cutting across tonalites of the Gramalote
facies. Note sulphide mineralization (greenish) in the facies. Note sulphide mineralization (greenish) in the
quartz vein. Cerro Gramalote. quartz vein. Cerro Gramalote.
<py
<qtz
<FK
<FK
Pl
<FK
ser
<qtz
Figure 5.4.2.15. Potassic alteration (rose color, FK) Figure 5.4.2.16. K-feldspar (KF) replacing
around quartz veins (qtz) cutting across tonalites of plagioclase (pl) close to a quartz vein (qtz)
the Gramalote facies. Note pyrite mineralization (py) cutting across tonalites of the Gramalote facies.
in the quartz vein. Cerro Gramalote. Late sericitization (ser) is also present.
(in the order of some millimeters or some the minerals of the primary magmatic
centimeters and it is easily identified at the field paregenesis, particularly plagioclase, and these
because of the rose color which corresponds minerals are partly corroded at the contact of
to the color of the secondary orthoclase these veinlets.
crystals (figs. 5.4.2.10-5.4.2.15). Sericitization occurs mainly in the
Under the optical microscope in outermost part of the alterated area, but it is
transmitted light, the K-feldspar that growth found also in the areas affected potassic
in the vicinity of the veins develops alteration. Sericitization is associated with a
poiquiloblastic crystals of centimetric size, that new generation of quartz veins, also well
may replace the preexisting minerals of the rock mineralized (stage II). These veins tend to be
(fig. 5.4.2.16). in the direction NE-SW, as it can be observed
At higher distances from the mineralized on the figure 5.4.2.8.
veins, the K-feldspar is found as veinlets of The new generation of veins may crosscut
some tens of microns in width cutting across the above generations of veinlets. These late
Fig. 5.4.2.17. Polished core sowhing potassic Fig.5.4.2.18. Polished core sowhing a vein
alteration (rose) along tiny quartz veins with potassic alteration (rose) crosscut and
partially overprinted by sericitic alteration slightly displaced by other vein with sericitic
(greenish). alteration (greenish).
<py
<ser
<qtz
Fig. 5.4.2.19. Sericite (ser) pseudomorphosing Fig. 5.4.2.20. Detail of the above association in
a biotite crystal, in association with quartz (qtz) crossed nicols.Note the big size of the muscovite
and pyrite (py). PPL. crystals replacing the biotite.
F i g . 5.4.2.21. S e r i c i t e c r y s t a l s ( s e r ) Fig. 5.4.2.22 Sericitization associated with the

replacing a plagioclase crystal (pl), with the crystallisation of calcite in a quartz veinlet.
core partly replaced by K-feldspar (KF). Crossed nicols.
Crossed nicols.
fractured produces some lateral displacement spar-quartz-pyrite) is oftenoverprinted by
on the early fractures (fig.5.4.2.18). phyllic alteration (coarse-grained sericite-
The sericitic alteration consists on the muscovite-quartz-pyrite). Surface and drill
development of muscovite, in most of the cases core samples from the vein network are
fine-grained, although some coarse platelets correlated with high geochemical gold values
have been found in some places. Sericitized in both alteration assemblages.
areas are found in the vicinity of the veins, and
the width of the altered areas depends of the
width of the vein; in most of the cases is only 5.4.2.4. ORE MINERALS
of some millimeters. The sericitized areas have
a pale greenish-grey color. Under the The type of vein infilling depends of the
petrographic microscope it is easy to chemistry of the veins, which is also reflected
distinguish sericite platelets replacing all the in the type of alteration.
previously existing feldspars, including the K-
feldspar produced during the early Veins with potassic alteration
hydrothermal stage. Sericite may also replace
biotite (fig. 5.4.2.19, 5.4.2.20). Plagioclase is The veins do not have drusic porosity. The
more affected than K-feldspar, despite the low- sequence of vein infilling in these veins is quite
Ca content in these plagioclases (fig. 5.4.2.21, simple, and comprises quartz as the dominant
5.4.2.22). mineral, in anhedral grains, with disseminations
In areas of high-density fracturing (>25 of pyrite (second mineral in abundance), rare
veinlets/m), alteration haloes coalesce, forming chalcopyrite blebs and scarce molybdenite
pervasive zones in which early potassic (K- platelets. Pyrite tends to be subhedral, in
Fig. 5.4.2.23. Gold of type I in bleebs scattered into pyrite (py). Chalcopyrite (cpy) is also present in
the association. Quartz (qtz) hosts the ensemble. PP reflected light.
crystals of several sundreds of microns; the find relicts of minerals of the first stages in the
grain size of the other minerals does not ores associated with sericitic alterations. A
overpass 50 microns. common texture consists of fragments of the
In addition, some gold may also exist. first generation of ore brecciated and cemented
Gold from these veins (Type I Au) is found as or veined by minerals of the second.
rounded inclusions in pyrite crystals and is Ag-
poor (Au78-89Ag11-22). Therefore, this type Pyrite
of gold has intense yellow color. Its grain size
is small, measuring 2-20 microns in size (Fig. Pyrite is again the principal ore mineral,
5.4.2.23). and may constitute all the vein. It is difficult to
Abundant fine-grained blue-grey «sooty» distinguish clearly pyrite from both stages. It
molybdenite, (Mo (E)) hosted in early, locally generally occurs as massive aggregates of
sheared quartz veins (pre coarse-pyrite veins), euhedral to subhedral cubic crystals, ranging
with pyrite and chalcopyrite. These early Mo- in size from few hundredths of microns to some
bearing veins exhibit strong pink K-spar mm. Crystals are optically homogeneous and
alteration halos and are commonly low-grade isotropic.
with respect to Au.
Chalcopyrite
Veins with sericitic alteration Chalcopyrite is the second ore mineral in

abundance in these veins. It is texturally
The sequence of vein infilling in veins with different from the chalcopyrite blebs found in
sericitic alteration is more complex. It the potassic veins (Cpy I), and occurs as vein
comprises quartz, calcite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, infilling. Hence, it has been labelled as
gold, tellurides, molybdenite, galena, sphalerite chalcopyrite II (Cpy II). Cpy II is widely
and sulphosalts. As in the above case, these distributed, and was introduced later than
veins do not have drusical porosity, and quartz pyrite. It is found filling primary porosity in
is anhedral, of the milky variety. open veins, filling small irregular cracks in
As indicated above, sericite veins appear pyrite (fig. 5.4.2.24), or replacing pyrite along
in fractures younger than those hosting the grain borders. When sericitic alteration
potassic alteration, and in many cases both overprints the potassic alteration, both types
types of fractures coalesce or the first stage of chalcopyrite may be also present (fig.
has been reactivated. Hence, it is not rare to 5.4.2.25).
Fig. 5.4.2.24. Chalcopyrite of the second Fig. 5.4.2.25. Chalcopyrite of two generations
generation veining pyrite (py). Plane-polarized (I , blebs into pyrite; II, veins) veining pyrite (py)
reflected light (PPL). and quartz (qtz). PPL.
Fig. 5.4.2.26. Replacement of pyrite (py) by Fig. 5.4.2.27. Pavonite (pv) associated with
veinlets of chalcopyrite (cpy) and matildite (mt). chalcopyrite II (cpy II). Dark material is quartz
Dark material is quartz (qtz). PPL. PPL.
Fig. 5.4.2.28. Detail from the figure 5.4.2.24, Fig. 5.4.2.29. Detail from the figure 5.4.2.25,
showing vein infilling with chalcopyrite II (Cpy), showing vein infilling with chalcopyrite II (Cpy),
matildite (mt) and galena (ga). BSE image. sphalerite (sp) and mummeite (Mum). BSE image.
Bi-sulphides and sulphosalts Sphalerite
Anhedral grains of Bi-sulphosalts are ubiquitous Sphalerite crystals are rare and occur in
in the deposit, although they are very small (less than association with chalcopyrite II, filling porosity (fig.
10 microns) and scarce. Bi-sulphosalts analyzed 5.4.2.25, 5.4.2.29). They are Fe-poor (less than 1
include the next: matildite (AgBiS2), pavonite wt%) and Cd-rich (up to 4.8 wt%).
((Ag,Cu)(Bi,Pb)3S5), mummeite (Ag3CuPbBi6S13)
aikinite (PbCuBiS3). In addition to these bismuth Galena
sulphosalts, bismuthinite (Bi2S3) may be also present.
All of these minerals are found in association Galena is found in minor quantity,
with chalcopyrite II, replacing pyrite, although they accompanying Cpy II, and it is associated with
may be slightly younger than chalcopyrite (figs. matildite (AgBiS). Galena inclusions are
5.4.2.26-5.4.2.29, 5.4.2.30, 5.4.2.31). anhedral, (fig. 5.4.2.28) measuring up to 10
microns in size. Silver content in galena is up

to 2.39 wt %.
Tellurides
Tellurides are very rare and occurs as fine-

grained anhedral grains, generally less than 100
microns in size. They are found in direct
association with chalcopyrite II and Bi-
sulphosalts.
Hessite (Ag2Te) is scarce; it was observed
with Cpy II, aikinite, galena and gold. Contacts
with these minerals suggest equilibria (fig.
5.4.2.30, 5.4.2.31). Fig. 5.4.2.30. Fracture-filling association with
Tetradymite (Bi 2Te 2S) is also rare in tis chalcopyrite II (cpy II) and aikinite (aik) with hessite.
deposit and occurs occasionally accompanying PPL, reflected light.
gold.
Molybdenite
A second generation of molybdenite may

be present, since it occurs as small
(<10microns) tabular crystals, in many cases
closely related to Cpy II (fig. 5.4.2.32).
Gold
Au grains occur in 2 morphologic types,

that correspond to two gold generations.
Type I Au occurs as small rounded
inclusions pyrite crystals and has low silver
contents (Au78-89Ag11-22). It has a distinct Fig. 5.4.2.31. Detail of the above image, BSE
intense yellow color. These inclusions measure image. Aik, aikinite; hss, hessite; cpy (II),
2-20 microns in diameter (Fig. 5.4.2.33, chalcopyrite II; py, pyrite; qtz, quartz.
5.4.2.34).
Type II Au is the more abundant and is
produced in a late stage. It is observed filling
small cracks in association with a complex
paragenesis that comprises the second
chalcopyrite generation, the associated Bi-
sulphides and sulphosalts, galena, sphalerite
and the tellurides; in addition, it may occur in
proximity of gold type I (fig. 5.4.2.33-
5.4..1.36). It is richer in Ag (Au48-74Ag26-
52) than the type I gold, and the grain size is
very variable, depending of the size of the
veins. Hence, grains up to 250 microns are not
rare, although many of them are more fine than Fig. 5.4.2.32. Molybdenite (Mo) in quartz (qtz,
20 microns. The grains of this late generation along with pyriite (py) and chalcopyrite (cpy).
of gold has curvilinear contacts with Cpy II PPL, reflected light.
Fig. 5.4.2.33. Diifferent gold populations. Type I Fig. 5.4.2.34. Diifferent gold populations. Type I
as blebs in pyrite (py); type II filling veins with as blebs in pyrite (py); type II filling veins with
chalcopyrite (cpy II). Matildite (mat) also present. chalcopyrite (cpy II). Matildite (mat) also present.
Fig. 5.4.2.35. Diifferent gold populations. Type I Fig. 5.4.2.36. Diifferent gold populations. Type I
as blebs in pyrite (py); type II filling veins with as blebs in pyrite (py); type II filling veins with
chalcopyrite (cpy II). Aikinite (aik) also present. chalcopyrite (cpy II). Matildite (mat) also present.
100
Au
10
90



and its paragenetic mineral species (Bi- 
 20
80 

sulphosalts, tellurides, galena, sphalerire), thus  30
70 


suggesting equilibria with these phases. 


 40

Another important difference with type I gold 60 


 50

is the color, which tends to be lighter than in 50

60
Type I gold (Fig. 5.4.2.36). 40
70
The representation of the chemical 30
80
compositions of both types of gold in an apfu 20 + Au Type I (Au78‐89Ag11‐22)
triangular diagram reflects nule contents in Cu + Au Type II (Au48‐74Ag26‐52) 90
10
for both types. However, type I is quite 100
homogeneous and has only a slight variation, 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
ehereas type II has different grades of silver Cu Ag

enrichment (fig. 5.4.2.37). This situation Fig. 5.4.2.37. Representation of the chemical
suggests a different origin for both generations composition of the two gold generations in an atom
of gold. per formula diagram.
Fig. 5.4.2.38. General mineral sequence in the Gramalote deposit. For description of the
stages see the text.
5.4.2.5. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCE * Stage II is associated with the stage of

quartz-sericitic alteration, and is produced
Based upon textural observations and after a fracturation at micro-scale of the
chemical characterization of the studied mineralization, that produces a cataclastic
samples, it is possible to establish a paragenetic texture. These deformations can be observed
sequence which includes at two main stages also in the small displacements of the early
of ore mineral deposition (Fig. 5.4.2.38): veins by the late veins. The vein infilling of these
* Stage I should be associated with the fractures is produced with abundant
potassic alteration. In this stage the most chalcopyrite, accompanied by galena,
significative minerals are pyrite and sphalerite, molybdenite, bismuthinite, tellurides,
molybdenite; in late episodes gold I (Au-rich, bismuth sulphosalts and type II Au (Ag-rich).
in blebs into pyrite) and chalcopyrite can be All of these minerals seem to be
produced in minor quantities. contemporaneous.
5.4.2.6. S ISOTOPES IN SULFIDES
In order to make a broad characterization

of sulfur isotopic signature of ore minerals in
the Cerro Gramalote gold deposit, different
auriferous quartz+sulfide veins were selected
and analyzed for S isotopes in sulfides (pyrite,
sphalirite and molybdenite). Samples analyzed
were collected at surface and diamond drill-
cores of Cerro Gramalote project (table
5.4.2.1)
Analyzed samples returned negative values
of  34S, in the range between -7.4 and -2.7
per mil.
Molybdenite has the most negative values
(-7.1 and -5.4 per mil). Pyrite samples cluster
in the range between -3.7 and -2.7 per mil,
and sphalerite samples gave values of -2.7 and
-2.9 per mil overlapping the less negative
values of the pyrite range (figure 5.4.2.39).
There is no significant variation between
surface and diamond drill-core pyrite samples.
Most negative values of Cerro Gramalote Fig. 5.4.2.39. Cerro Gramalote sulfur isotope
molybdenite contrast with values reported by results in sulfides from auriferous quartz and
Ishihara and Akira (2004) in granitoid-hosted sulfide veins. Py, pyrite; Mo, molybdenite and
molybdenite of Cretaceous-Paleogene granitic Sl, sphalerite.
Table 5.4.2.1. S isotope values of minerals from the different sectors of the Gramalote deposits
Table 5.4.2.2. Lead isotopes results in sulfides from mineralization of Guacas Creek at Cerro
Gramalote: py, pyrite; cpy, chalcopyrite; sl, sphalerite.
terrain of Kitakami Mountains in Japan,

averaging +0.7 per mil.
These negative values could be
compatible with a magmatic origin of sulfur, but
a contribution of sulfur from other sources
(i.e., a possible contribution from sulfurs from
pyrite from the metapelites of the hosting
Paleozoic series) cannot be ruled out.
Unfortunately, there are no data available
neither about the sulfide content in these series,
nor their isotope values.
However, pyrite and sphalerite  34 S
negative values obtained from Cerro Gramalote
compares well with the values reported for
similar intrusion-hosted quartz Au-W-Bi-Te
veins in Clear Creek and Scheelite Dome
systems of the Tombstone Gold Belt of the
Tintina Gold Province in Alaska and Yukon
ranging -3 to 0 per mil (Hart, 2007).
5.4.2.7. LEAD ISOTOPES IN SULPHIDES
Lead isotopes in sulfides (pyrite,

chalcopyrite and galena) were analyzed from Fig. 5.4.2.40. Lead isotope composition of
the Guacas Creek mineralization (sample G- mineralization in Cerro Gramalote (sample
17) (table 5.4.2.2). G-17) and tonalite host rock. Lead isotope
Lead isotope results cluster in narrow evolution curves after Plumbotectonics
ranges and returned radiogenic values (207Pb/ model of Zartman and Doe (1981) are shown
206
Pb>15.55) (Fig. 5.4.40). Ranges of values for comparison.
obtained are 206 Pb/ 204 Pb= 18.699-18.712,
207
P b / 204P b = 1 5 . 5 9 5 - 1 5 . 6 1 9 a n d 208P b /
204
Pb=38.441-38.500.
Despite the few data presented above,
these preliminary results show how in Cerro
Gramalote results obtained for ores are similar suggest a relationship between the source of
to results obtained for hosting tonalites of the both, granitic host rock and mineralization, in
Cerro Gramalote facies, in the orogene domain other words, that lead in ores may have had a
(fig. 5.4.2.40). These similarities would magmatic source.
Table 5.4.2.3. Age obtained for the Cerro Gramalote molybdenite using the Re/Os
method.
5.4.2.8. ORE DEPOSIT DATING
Mineralization age at Cerro Gramalote

was obtained through Re-Os analysis of
molybdenite from quartz+molybdenite veins
associated with the potassic alteration (sample
G-9) collected at the Guacas Creek (figure
5.4.2.41).
The results obtained allow to establish an
age of 58.0 ±2 Ma for the mineral (table
5.4,2.3) and, therefore, for at the least a part
of the mineralization of gold, according with
the mineral sequence reflected in the figure Fig. 5.4.2.41. Detail of the molybdenite
5.4.2.38. crystals used for dating the Gramalote
On the other hand, hydrothermal sericitic deposit using the method Re/Os.
alteration of Cerro Gramalote was dated by
K-Ar method in coarse white mica from the
vein selvages of an auriferous quartz+sulfide
vein (sample G-1) (Figure 5.4.2.42 and table
5.4.2.4). The resulting age of 58.7±0,3 would
correspond with the age of the sericitic
alteration, and fits very well with the age of
the potassic alteration calculated by the Re/
Os method.
5.4.2.9. DISCUSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Fig. 5.4.2.42. Strong sericite alteration halo
The characteristics of the deposit may be
associated to quartz+pyrite veinlets in Cerro
assimilated to those used to define the
Gramalote dated by K-Ar (sample G-1).
Intrusion-related gold deposits, according
Table 5.4.2.4. Age obtained for the Cerro Gramalote sericite using the K/Ar method.
with the models of Thompson & Newberry worldwide in associations of this type, in
(2000) and Lang & Baker (2001). particular, molybdenite, tellurides and
The model of the Intrusion Related Gold sulfosalts.
Deposits is relatively young, and many e) At least two stages (stages I and II) of
discussions are in activity concerning the real Au deposition are recognized at Gramalote.
assimilation of many deposits to this cathegory. Differences in composition of the Au in the two
Hoowever, some key points can favour, the stages, where later Type II Au is richer in Ag
inclusion of the Gramalote deposit in this than earlier Type I, suggests that separate
model: stages were accompanied by a decrease in
a) the deposit consists of a structurally temperature of deposition and concomitant
controlled network of quartz+Py±Mo+Cpy±Sl changes in hydrothermal fluid chemistry, as
veins and veinlets, hosted in granitic rocks, reflected in variations in ore mineral
although these are not very evolved (tonalites). assemblages and changes in wall rock
b) the deposits occur in the uppermost part alteration assemblages. The most productive
of the intrusives, as would be indicated by the Au pulse was the second (lower temperature)
abundant development of aplites and one, characterized by Au with a higher Ag
pegmatites. content and a more complex paragenetic
c) the age of the intrusives, calculated by mineral association. Differences in particle
U/Pb in zircons, is very similar to the 58 Ma size, Au fineness and associated ore
age of the mineral deposits, calculated by two mineralogy between the two types of gold
different methods (K/Ar in sericite and Re/Os should be taken into account during design of
in molybdenite). beneficiation circuits in any future development
c) the two types of hydrothermal alteration of this ore deposit
(potassic and sericitic) correspond to the typic Au mineralization at Gramalote is of the
high-temperature hydrothermal alterations intrusion-related type contained within a
associated with acid intrusions. structurally controlled network of
d) gold is the only possible economic quartz+Py±Mo+Cpy±Sl veins and veinlets,
target in Gramalote, although iit is accompanied whose are associated intimately with abundant
by many trace minerals that are found aplite and pegmatite rocks.
5.4.3.-El Guayabito 521
5.4.3. EL GUAYABITO
El Guayabito is a small vein field deposit The deposit has been mined artisanaly for
located in the La Quiebra area, along with the tens of years, because of the high tenors of
El Limón and Guadalejo deposits (fig. gold found in the veins. Labours consist of
5.4.1.1), following the Rio Nus trend. tunnels and pits.
The veins occur close to the El Guayabito At the present moment the deposit forms
high, and is found 8 km west of the Cisneros part of a larger property, managed by
town (fig. 5.4.3.1). Antioquia Gold Inc, who has developed
Fig. 5.4.3.1. Situation of the El Guayabito deposit.

systematic geological exploration, including

drilling.
5.4.3.1.GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSIT
The deposit is found in the central area of

the Antioquia batholith, and is hosted by the
gabroic and dioritic facies (fig. 5.4.3.2).
The deposit has a strong structural control.
It is related to E-W shear zones with sinistral
movement. The veins have a S- shape and are
lensoidal, and may correspond to systems “in Figure 5.4.3.2. A detail of a sawn surface
échelon”. The main veins trends N10E/72SE on the gabbro hosting the El Guayabito
and have a width ranging between 15 to 25 deposit. Sample EG-001.
cm.
In most of the areas of the deposit the
mineralization consists of brecciated facies
(hydrothermal breccias), cemented by quartz
(fig. 5.4.3.3, 5.4.3.4, 5.4.3.5); in some cases,
the brecciation also affects the sulfides (fig.
5.3.4.3.6, 5.4.3.7). Cataclastic textures are
commonly observed affecting the sulfides, in
particular, pyrite.
Veining is accompanied by a complex
sequence of hydrothermal alterations,
comprising a weak structure-controlled
potassic alteration, strong pervasive chloritic
alteration, and strong silicification, pyritization
and sericitization of the host rocks (fig. 5.4.3.8, Figure 5.4.3.3.Hydrothermal breccia with
5.4.3.9, 5.4.3.10). f r a g m e n t s o f g a b b ro s h o w i n g s h a r p
contacts, cemented by milky quartz and
pyrite.
5.4.3.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND
TEXTURES
The main mineral of the veins is milky

quartz, which can have some drusical porosity
at the center of the vein. Sulphides are
abundant in the quartz veins, and they may
constitute up to 25% in volume of the vein.
Pyrite is the most abundant ore mineral,
accompanied with minor amounts of
chalcopyrite, and trace quantities of native
gold, bismuthinite and schirmerite.
Pyrite and quartz are formed during an
early stage, followed by successive generations Figure 5.4.3.4. Tectonic breccia cemented
of fracturing and vein infilling. Each episode by quartz. The greenish colour of the rock
produces the brecciation of the ores, and is due to pervasive hydrothermal alteration
cataclastic textures are widespread. to sericite and chlorite.
Figure 5.4.3.5.General view of the polished Figure 5.4.3.6. A detail of a sawn surface on a
section prepared with the above sample. Note ore sample, showing massive pyrite
the brecciation and a strong pyritization of the mineralization brecciated and recemented by
host trock. quartz.
Figure 5.4.3.7.General view of the polished Figure 5.4.3.8. Contact of the sericitized host
section prepared with the above sample. rock (right part of the image) and the quartz vein
Note the cataclastic textures in pyrite; the (half left of the image). Crossed polars,
interstitial material is quartz. transmitted light.
<qtz
py>
<py
clc
<ser
Figure 5.4.3.9. Contact of the quartz-pyrite vein Figure 5.4.3.10. The above image in cossed
with the host rock (center). Note chloritization polars, transmitted light. Sericite outstands by
in the border (grren) , and sericitization. PPL. its higher interference colors (right part of the
Quartz, qtz, pyrite, py, chlorite, clc. image)
Pyrite
Pyrite is the principal sulfide specie in the

mineralization at El Guayabito. Two textural
types of pyrite can be distinguished. The first
is present as massive aggregates of euhedral
to subhedral rounded crystals, with sizes
ranging from few microns up to few
millimeters. The second textural type of pyrite
corresponds to aggregates affected, along with
quartz, by some stages of brecciation, where
cataclastic textures are common. In
appearence it is not chemically zoned, but the
arrangement of some small inclusions suggest Figure 5.4.3.11. Bismuthinite (bism) and type I
that the pyrite growth was discontinuous and gold filling porosity in pyrite (py). PPL, reflected
takes place along several pulses. light. Cpy, chalcopyrite.
Chalcopyrite
Chalcopyrite is found generally in thin

veinlets cutting across pyrite. The contact of
these veinlets with pyrite is sharp and no
evidences exist about replacement of pyrite by
chalcopyrite. On its turn, chalcopyrite may be
replaced by supergene bornite, chalcocite and
covelline.
<qtz
Bismuthinite (Bi 2S 3)
This mineral is rare in the deposit, and has Figure 5.4.3.12. Schirmerite (schirm) and type I
been found as small blebs (less than 20 gold in veinlets in pyrite (py). PPL, reflected
microns), in many cases in pyrite. It is light.
noteworthy its association with gold I (fig.
5.4.3.11).
Schirmerite (Ag 3Pb 3-6Bi 7-9S 18)
As in the case of bismuthinite, this rare

sulphosalt has been identified in small anhedral
grains filling small cavities and veinlets in
association with gold I (fig. 5.4.3.12, 5.4.3.13).
Gold
As in the Gramalote deposit, gold occurs

at the least in two types (I and II), can be
recognized in polished section owing to
changes in color and reflectivity. Figure 5.4.3.13. Schirmerite (scirm) and type I
Gold type I has a yellow hue indicative of gold into pyrite (dark). SEM image, mode BSE.
a high gold contents. It occurs as small blebs
Figure 5.4.3.14. Gold type I in cavities in Figure 5.4.3.15. Detail of type I gold in a
pyrite (py). Cpy, chalcopyrite; qtz, quartz. quartz vein (dark) in pyrite (py). PPL,
PPL, reflected light. reflected light.
cpy>
py Au>
Figure 5.4.3.16. Type I gold and schirmerite Figure 5.4.3.17. Gold type II (Au) and
(schirm) filling cracks and zoning discontinuities chalcopyrite (cpy) in veinlets into pyrite (py).
in pyrite. PPL, reflected light. PPL, reflected light.
Au>
py
cpy>
Au>
Figure 5.4.3.18. Gold type II accompanying Figure 5.4.3.19. Gold type II accompanying
chalcopyrite in veinlets into pyrite. PPL, chalcopyrite lining veinlets into pyrite. PPL,
reflected light. Py, pyrite; cpy, chalcopyrite, reflected light. Py, pyrite; cpy, chalcopyrite.
Au, silver-rich electrum.
in pyrite, although it may be also arranged

following some small cracks and grain borders
(fig. 5.4.3.14-5.4.3.16).
Gold type II has a pale yellow color and
higher reflectivity, which are indicative of a
higher content in Ag. It is found in association
with chalcopyrite, filling veinlets across pyrite
crystals (fig. 5.4.3.17-5.4.3.19).
Electron Micro-Probe (EMP) analyses of
gold particles from both samples EG-2 and
EG-3 confirm the existence of these two
populations of electrum particles: type I is Ag-
poor (Au 64-81Ag 19-36) and type II is Ag-rich
(Au 50-58Ag 42-50).
Figure 5.4.3.20. Representation, in atoms per

5.4.3.3. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCE formula unit, of the compositions of the two
generations of gold in Guayabito.
The most remarquable fact in the sequence
is the ocurrence of native gold along two
separate late episodes of mineralization,
connected both with the activity of the shear
zones were the mineralization is emplaced.
A first stage produced the deposition of
mst of quartz and pyrite. The samples can be considered
After a period of reactivation of the fault, representatives of the two different textural
gold type I was deposited, in association with populations of pyrite. The isotopic values,
minor amounts of bismuthinite and sulfosalts however, seem to be quite similar. On the other
as schirmerite. hand, these results could fit in the domain of
Gold type II, along with chalcopyrite, was the magmatic S, although other possibilities
formed after a secon period of reactivation of cannot be ruled out.
the fractures.
5.4.3.5. DISCUSION
5.4.3.4. SULFUR ISOTOPES
The Guayabito deposit has a complex
There is only two analyses of S isotopes history, and the mineral associations are the
on pyrite samples (table 5.4.3.1). These result of the removilization of a primary mineral
analyses were made mainly with the aim to association.
compare the results at the regional scale, and This deposit has been explained following
therefore they cannot give clear results at the the model of orogenic gold deposits (Antioquia
scale of the deposit, in particular, lacking fluid Gold Inc. 2010). The distribution of the
inclusions data. mineralization in shear bands or sheared veins
Table 5.4.3.1.Isotopic compositions of pyrite samples from the El Guayabito vein deposit.
can favour this model, as well as the textures an origin of the deposit in connection with the
of the ores. The types of hydrothermal Paleogene intrusives. Other point of similarity
alteration present in the Guayabito mine could is the presence og gold in close association
be also compatible with this model of ore with sulfosalts, and the occurrence of two
deposits. generations of gold.
However, the position of the deposit in the Therefore, in any case, the mineralization
vicinity of Gramalote and other well dated has suffered different stages of removilization
Paleogene deposits, as well as the mineral by fractures, robably producing the
association found in Guayabito, could suggest removilization of the gold ores..
5.4.4.-El Limón Cascade 529
5.4.4. EL LIMON CASCADE
The El Limón Cascade mine is found about The mining labours consisted of a tunnel,
6 km SW of the Cisneros town (fig. 5.4.4.1), at the present time in a bad preservation,
inside the groupof deposits that are described located at the left bank of the Nus river, in the
here as the River Nus trend (fig. 5.4.1.1). vicinity of the water fall of this river (fig.
The mine was an artisanal exploitation and 5.4.4.2). Some additional outcrops exists
is not active since long time ago. There is no along the river banks, and mine dumps are
road to have access to the mine. found near the mine entrance.
Fig. 5.4.4.1. Location of the El Limón Cascade deposit.

The deposit is found in the central part of

the Antioquia Batholith, and is hosted by the
granodiorite facies (fig. 5.4.4.1).
Several families of quartz veins are found
in the deposit. A first family trends
approximately 168/87 W. These veins have a
decimetric thickness (20-30 cm) and consist
of milky quartz. The outcrop of one of these
veins in the cascade seems to be devoid of
mineralization. However, the vein which was
exploited in the tunnel is trending 155/54 W
and therefore can correspond to this family,
has a thickness about 70 cm, and contains
quartz mineralized with sulphides.
The second family cuts the above
descrived system and can correspond to low-
angle inverse shear faults (fig. 5.4.4.4). The
direction of these structures is 090/40 S, and
they have associated a thick vein of milky
quartz, up to 50 cm in thickness. Some Figure 5.4.4.2. General view of the Nus
sulphide-rich veins cut across the main quartz waterfall from the Cisneros road.
veins, and these veinlets can be interpreted as
sigmoidal structures produced lately during the
movement of these shear zones (fig. 5.4.4.5).
These mineralized veins have a comb internal
texture, with euhedral cristals of milky quartz
in the borders of the veins and a complex
sulphide mineralization in the center (fig.
5.4.4.6).
The hydrothermal alteration of the host
rock is complex and polyphasic. An early stage
comprises potassic alteration, with
development of secondary feldspar over
plagioclase crystals, accompanied with a strong
silicification of the host rock (figs. 5.4.4.7,
5.4.4.8, 5.4.4.9).
A second stage of hydrothermal alteration
produced the development of sericitization,
accompanied also with silicification and with
the precipitation of the most of the sulphides,
in particular, molybdenite, which is very
common in this deposit (figs. 5.4.4.7, 5.4.4.8,
5.4.4.9).
Chloritization may be also present, with
the development of clinochlore crystals, in many Figure 5.4.4.3. Detail of the entrance of the
cases, replacing ferromagnesian minerals in the abandoned tunnel of the El Limón mine.
host rocks, but clinochlore can also form a part Note the altered granodiorites on the left
of the quartz veins, and seem to be associated of the trench.
<Q-1
Q-2
Q-2 S
Figure 5.4.4.4.A vertical barren quartz vein (Q- Figure 5.4.4.5. Detail of the Q-2 vein, with a
1) cut by a shear zone containing a second sulfide vein (S) cutting the quartz vein (qtz). Note
gneration of quartz, mineralized (Q-2) a millimetric quartz rim on the borders of the
sulfide vein.
qtz
qtz Mo>
py
Mo>
qtz
Figure 5.4.4.6. Basal sections of euhedral Figure 5.4.4.7. Detail of a central part of a
quart crystals (qtz) from the borders of the mineralized vein with molybdenite (mo). This
veins, covered with pyrite crystals (py). veins cuts silicified rock (qtz). PPL, in reflected
PPL, reflected light. light.
Ser>
Mo>
FK
<ser
qtz
Figure 5.4.4.8. The above image in transmited Figure 5.4.4.9. The above image in crossed
light. PPL, transmitted light. The opaque mineral polars. Note some K-feldspar (FK) replacing the
is molybdenite (mo). plagioclase from the host rock. Sericite (ser) is
in veinlets and associated with molybdenite.
Figure 5.4.4.10. Clinochlore aggregates Figure 5.4.4.11. The above image in PPL,
associated with quartz and chalcopyrite. reflected light. Noote the chalcopyrite grains
Clinochlore has radial aggregates with outstanding among the quartz-chlorite
anomalous interference color. Crossed nicols. aggregates.
with a late generation of chalcopyrite (fig. Arsenopyrite

5.4.4.10, 5.4.4.11).
Arsenopyriote is very scarce in this
deposit, and is formed early in the sequence
5.4.4.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND as subhedral grains included in pyrite (fig.
TEXTURES 5.4.4.15), although some arsenopyrite veinlets
have been found in pyrite crystals.
The main mineral of the veins is milky
quartz, which can have some drusical porosity Pyrite
at the center of the vein. On the other hand,
the first generation of quartz, developed on the Pyrite is very common in El Limón
wall of the veins tends to be euhedral, and to deposit. Pyrite tend to be euhedral, and forms
develop comb textures. Other younger cube facies which are typically scattered
generations of quartz, as those forming quartz+ among the quartz grains. Pyrite is replaced by
sericite or quartz+chlorite associations tend to all of the other minerals. Crystal size is in the
have anhedral shapes due to the complexity of millimeter order (fig. 5.4.4.15). In the
the intergrowths (fig. 5.4.4.12-5.4.4.14). weathering zone, pyrite can be replaced totally
Sulphides are abundant in some of the or in part by fine-grained aggregates of
veins, and they may constitute up to 40% in goethite or jarosite.
volume of the vein infilling. Pyrite and
molybdenite are the most abundant ore mineral, Molybdenite
accompanied with minor amounts of
chalcopyrite, and trace quantities of native Is one of the most common minerals in El
gold, arsenopyrite, cubanite, matildite, galena, Limón deposit, and in some parts it can arrive
hessite, cervelleite and bismut sulfosalts to be the dominant ore. Its deposition is clearly
(tetradymite). late as pyrite, who becomes replaceed in the
Pyrite and quartz are formed during an process (fig. 5.4.4.16) and is clearly associated
early stage, followed by successive generations with the sericite alteration (fig. 5.4.4.7-
of fracturing and vein infilling. Each episode 5.4.4.9). Molybdenite forms subhedral
produces the brecciation of the ores, and crystals, as platelets grouped in micaceous
cataclastic textures are widespread. aggregates. Individual crystals can be
qtz 2+ clc
qtz 2+ clc
qtz1
qtz1
cpy
cpy
Figure 5.4.4.12. Gold type II (Au) and Figure 5.4.4.13. Type I gold and schirmerite
chalcopyrite (cpy) in veinlets into pyrite (py). (schirm) filling cracks and zoning discontinuities
PPL, reflected light. in pyrite. PPL, reflected light.
Figure 5.4.4.14. Detail of type I gold in a Figure 5.4.4.15. Type I gold and schirmerite
quartz vein (dark) in pyrite (py). PPL, (schirm) filling cracks and zoning discontinuities
reflected light. in pyrite. PPL, reflected light.
Figure 5.4.4.16. Gold type I in cavities in Figure 5.4.4.17. Detail of type I gold in a
pyrite (py). Cpy, chalcopyrite; qtz, quartz. quartz vein (dark) in pyrite (py). PPL,
PPL, reflected light. reflected light.
qtz
mo
qtz
mo
cpy> cpy>
mo>
Figure 5.4.4.18. Molybdenite subhedral Figure 5.4.4.19. Molybdenite subhedral

platelets (mo), scattered in anhedral quartz platelets (mo), scattered in anhedral quartz
(qtz), paartly replaced along cleavages by (qtz), paartly replaced along cleavages by
chalcopyrite (cpy). PPL reflected light. chalcopyrite (cpy). PPL reflected light.
mo
mo
qtz
Figure 5.4.4.20. Molybdenite subhedral Figure 5.4.4.21. B recciated quartz (qtz

platelets (mo), scattered in anhedral quartz cemented by pyrite (py); pyrite is replaced
(qtz), paartly replaced along cleavages by by cubanite, chalcopyrite (cpy) and
sphalerite (sl). PPL reflected light. tetradymite. PPL reflected light.
Figure 5.4.4.22. Replacement of pyrite by Figure 5.4.4.23. Replacement of pyrite (py)

chalcopyrite with cervelleite and silver- by chalcopyrite (cpy) with matildite, hessite,
bearing galena.PPL reflected light. quartz and electrum.PPL reflected light.
deformed in the limit ductile-fragile, in many Galena PbS
cases producing kink band structures (fig.
5.4.4.17). Galena is also a rare mineral in this
The grain size of the molybdenite crystals deposit, and occurs as anhedral grains
is variable. Crystals tend to be in the order of associated with chalcopyrite and silver
200-300 microns, although smaller crystals sulphosalts replacing pyrite (fig. 5.4.4.22).
may be also present. No supergene alterations Galena from the El Limón deposit is
have been observed enriched in silver, and the silver content can
achieve up to 2,1 wt %.
Chalcopyrite Crystal size of galena is very small, usually
less than 20 microns in diameter.
Chalcopyrite is found generally as grains
scattered in quartz and chlorite, or in thin Matldite (AgBiS2)
veinlets cutting across pyrite or replacing
molybdenite (figs. 5.4.4.18,5.4.4.19). This rare Bi sulphosalt, which uses to
Grain size of chalcopyrite is fine, and in account for the tenors of Ag in galena in many
all the cases the grains have less than 250 deposits worldwide, has been identified in the
microns in diameter. El Limón deposit as small anhedral grains filling
No exsolutions of other minrals havee small cavities and veinlets in pyrite, in
been observed. However, chalcopyrite may be association with chalcopyrite, quartz, hessite
partially or totally replaced by supergene and silver-rich gold (fig. 5.4.4.23).
copper minerals, as bornite, chalcocite and The grain size is less than 20 microns in
covelline. diameter, and it is only a trace mineral in this
deposit.
Sphalerite
Cervelleite Ag 4TeS
This mineral is very rare in this deposit,
and has been found only as scarce anhedral This rare sulfotelluride is very rare
grains (less than 150 microns in diameter), worldwide, and has been found only as a trace
replacing molybdenite along the cleavages of mineral in the deposit. It occurs as anhedral
this mineral(fig. 5.4.3.11). grains associated with chalcopyrite replacing
Sphalerite is Fe-poor, with brownish pyrite (fig. 5.4.4.22). The grain size is less than
internal reflections, and does not exhibit 50 microns in diameter.
chalcopyrite disease.
Twinning or zoning have not been Tetradymite Bi 2Te 2S
observed on these crystals.
Tetradymite is very rare in the deposit, and
Cubanite CuFe 2S 3 occurs as anhdral grains associated with
chalcopyrite replacing pyrite (fig. 5.4.4.21).
Cubanite is a trace mineral in the El Limón The grain size is less than 50 microns.
deposit, and occurs as anhedral grains of less
than 100 microns in diameter. These grains are Hessite Ag2Te
found as a product of replacement of pyrite,
either in veinlets or in form of blebs, in every Hessite is suspected to be not so rare in
case associated with chalcopyrite (fig. the deposit. It has been found as anhdral grains
5.4.4.21). associated as a product of hydrothermal late
No evidence of sixling twinning has been replacement of pyrite, along with chalcopyrite,
observed, despite this type of twinning is quite quartz, tetradymite, Ag-rich galena, cervelleite
common in this mineral in other deposits and electrum (fig. 5.4.4.23). Grain size is less
worldwide. than 20 microns.
Gold
As in the Gramalote deposit, gold occurs

at the least in two types (I and II), defined on
the basis of the paragenetic position and its
chemical composition. Moreover, as indicated
in the other deposits already described in the py
River Nus trend, both generations can be Au>
recognized in polished section owing to
changes in color and reflectivity.
Gold type I has a intense yellow hue,
indicative of higher gold contents, accompanied
by lesser amounts of silver. It tends to occur
as small blebs in pyrite, less than 20 microns Figure 5.4.4.24. Gold type I as small blebs
in diameter, although it may be also arranged between pyrite grains. PPL, reflected light.
following some thin cracks and grain borders Py, pyrite; Au, gold.
(fig. 5.4.4.24). Therefore, the occurrence of
this gold generation as blebs into pyrite could
be explained by a co-crystallization with
pyrite. However, its occurrence in veinlets
suggests that at least some part of this Au-rich
electrum could be formed in a late stage, well
after the crystallisation of pyrite, and after
development of a cataclastic texture in pyrite
because an episode of fracturing.
Gold type II has a pale yellow color and
higher reflectivity, and these aspects are
indicative of a slightly higher content in Ag. As
in the case of Gramalote and other deposits of
the River Nus trend, gold type II is found in Figure 5.4.4.25. Gold type II accompanying
association with chalcopyrite, filling veinlets chalcopyrite lining veinlets into pyrite. PPL,
across pyrite crystals (fig. 5.4.3.17-5.4.3.19). reflected light. Py, pyrite; cpy, chalcopyrite.
This type of gold is also associated with
different sulfosalts and tellurides (matildite,
cervelleite, hessite, tetradymite), silver-rich
galena, sphalerite and cubanite. The grain size
is variable, depending of the fracture.
However, it tends to occur in crystals of bigger
size than in the case of gold type I, and the
crystals of gold type II may achieve up to 50
microns in diameter.
2 gold particles could also suggest the
existence of two populations, but additional
analysis on more samples are necessary to
define the compositional fields of both types
oof gold (fig. 5.4.4.27). On the other hand, Figure 5.4.4.26. Gold type II accompanying
other elements as iron, copper and mercury chalcopyrite in thin veinlets into pyrite.
seem to be absent in these analyses, as occurs P P L , re f l e c t e d l i g h t . P y, p y r i t e ; c p y,
in the other deposis of the area. chalcopyrite.
5.4.4.3. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCE
The El Limón deposit, in spite of an

apparently simple structure as observed at the
field scale, has a complex paragenetic
sequence.
Some hydrothermal stages can be
established according with the types of
hydrothermal alteration present in them (see
fig. 5.4.4.28).
The first stage if veins infilling request the
occurrence of a fracturing stage previous to
the development of the veins, which we named
as F0. During this stage a potassic alteration
and silicification were developed on the host
Figure 5.4.4.27. Representation, in atoms per rock, accompanied with the crystallization of
formula unit, of the compositions of the two arsenopyrite and pyrite. Perhaps some gold
generations of gold in El Limón deposit. type I could be precipitated during this
episode.
Figure 5.4.4.28. Paragenetic sequence of the El Lim´ñon deposit. The hydrothermal stages
corresponds with the stages of hydrothermal alteration, and are separed among them by episodes
of fracturing (F0, F1, F2).
Table 5.4.4.1. Sulfur isotope composition of sulphide samples from the El Limón vein deposit.
During a second hydrothermal stage, 5.4.4.5. Re/Os ISOTOPES

sericitic alteration was developed on the
aboove mineral associations. The circulation An analysis of Re/Os was produced using
of these hydrothermal fluids was favored by a molybdenite from the El Limón deposit.
reactivation of the faults, producing a diverse Molybdenite was easily separed by hand-
grade of cataclastic textures. During this picking from the sample EL-1, which is
stagemolybdenite was the main ore depoited, strongly enriched in molybdenite of medium
replacing the above sulphides, and was grain size (fig.5.4.4.29).
accompanied by small quantites of gold of the The age obtained by the Re/Os method is
type I. 60±0.3 Ma, which corresponds to a Paleocene
A new episode of reactivation of these age, well in agreement with the age obtained
faultsproduced a renewed cataclastization of for other mineralizations of the River Nus trend,
the associations, and kinf-banding of as Gramalote (see section 5.4.2).
molybdenite. The cracks were infilled with
quartz, chlorite and small amounts of
chalcopyrite, accompanied with gold type II, 5.4.4.6. DISCUSION
as well as several silver sulfosalts and
tellurides, galena and sphalerite. The El Limón deposit has the same age
than the Gramalote deposit, and can
correspond to the same metallogenetic
There is only three analyses of S isotopes

on pyrite, chalcopyrite and molybdenite
samples (table 5.4.4.1).
As indicated in other deposits, these
analyses were made mainly with the aim to
compare the results at the regional scale, and
therefore they cannot give clear results at the
scale of the deposit, in particular, lacking other
important parameters as temperature, that
could be obtained by using fluid inclusions
data.
In spite these results could fit in the
domain of the magmatic S, other possibilities
as a diverse grade of contamination of S from Figure 5.4.4.29. Sample of ore from El Limón
the hosting schists cannot be ruled out, in deposit used for the separation of molybdenite
particular, because of the existance of some for Re/Os dating of the mineralization. Note the
moderately negative values. Unfortunately, we areas enriched in pure molybdenite of medium
have no data from pyrite of the hosting schists, grain size. The accompanying gangue mineral is
and the age of these rocks is not well known. quartz.
Table 5.4.4.2.Re/Os isotopic compositions and age of molybdenite from the El Limón vein
process. However, it is not hosted in the same An important aspect to take into account
adakitic rock as in the case of the Gramalote is the occurrence of several stages of
deposit, but in older granodioritic rocks. mineralization, in many cases related with
Therefore, if we assume the same fracturing, as evidenced by repetitive
metallogenetic process for these development of cataclastic textures. This
mineralizations, in association with the continuous fracturing of the ores found alonf
Paleocene adakitic intrusions, the El Limon these fractures suggests that the emplacement
should have a distal character. However, other of the Antioquia Batholith, and the
element of similarity between these deposits mineralizations associated with this intrusion,
are the hydrothermal alterations. High-T takes place contemporaneously with the
hydrothermal alterations as potassic and development and polycyclic reactivation of
sericitic are well developed in Gramalote and these faults.
El Limón. The circulation in different stages of these
Moreover, the paragenetic sequence has hydrothermal fluids could be responsible of the
many similarities, with molybdenite in earlier remoovilization of gold in different stages,
stages followed by chacopyrite and sulfosalts, producing Ag-rich gold in the late stages, when
in spite each deposit has different thi silver-rich gold is accompanied generally
particularities. by silver sulfosalts.
5.4.5. Guadualejo 541
5.4.5. GUADUALEJO
The Guadualejo gold deposits are located in ppm Au has been estimated (Anglogold Ashanti
the Guadualejo creek, about 3.2km to the SW of Colombia, unpublished report).
Cisneros townsite and 800m to the SE of El Limon Mining works are developed in tunnels,
Cascade deposit (figure 5.4.5.1). active in present times, exploited by local
Some active mines are being exploited in this miners following NE trending mineralized
area where a gold resource of 200x250m@3.5 structures.
Figure 5.4.5.1. Location of Guadualejo gold deposits.

Located in the central sector of the

Antioquia Batholith, Guadualejo gold deposits
are hosted in a biotite hornblende tonalite
sharing some common features with the Cerro
Gramalote biotite hornblende tonalite (section
5.3.2.7).
Abundant subvertical to subhorizontal
dikes of aplite/pegmatite evidence late
magmatic segregation activity which sometimes
seems to be overprinted by hydrothermal
alteration. Figure 5.4.5.2. Pyrite/chalcopyrite aggregates
Vein-type mineralization shows a strong in vein with potassic alteration weakly
structural control along extensional structures overprinted by sericite alteration selvage
mineralized with quartz and medium- to coarse- (sample Guadualejo-1).
grained sulfide aggregates including magnetite,
pyrite and chalcopyrite. High gold contents in
these sulfide-rich veins and veinlets suggest a
possible relationship of gold and sulfide
crystals. Pyrite
Hydrothermal alteration is restricted to
mineralized structures forming haloes of Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide in the
potassic alteration (k-feldspar+magnetite) Guadualejo mineralization. Pyrite crystals
overprinted by late shear-associated sericitic/ appear as idiomorphic to hypidiomorphic
muscovite alteration with pyrite and crystals with sizes ranging from few microns
chalcopyrite. up to several millimeters. They appear as
Magnetite and sulfide-rich veins with high homogeneous not zoned crystals strongly
gold contents are common following a affected by late fracturation (figures 5.4.5.3 to
preferred NE with subordinated E-W 5.4.5.10).
directions (figure 5.4.5.2).
Chalcopyrite
5.4.5.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND Chalcopyrite is present in minor amounts

TEXTURES than pyrite. It is spatially associated as
inclusions and fractures infilling into pyrite
In order to observe mineral associations crystals. Contacts of chalcopyrite with hosting
and textures, as well as gold distribution at pyrite crystals are sharp with no evidence of
Guadualejo, a sample of massive sulfide replacement (figures 5.4.5.5 to 5.4.5.8 and
aggregates (sample Guadualejo-1) was studied 5.4.5.10).
under microscope.
Vein is composed mainly by pyrite Bismuthinite
medium- to coarse grained crystals in
aggregates with minor amounts of chalcopyrite Bismuthinite crystals are present in the
(figure 5.4.5.2). Quartz is the main gangue mineralization. Crystal size may be large, and
mineral, but it is a minor component (up to s may achieve up to few cents of microns.
25%) in this sulfide-rich veins. Open-space These crystals are mainly present in quartz infill
filling textures are evidenced by the growth of between pyrite crystals. They are and
idiomorphic pyrite crystals from the altered hypidiomorphic and moderately anisotropic
vein selvages to the center. (figure 5.4.5.3).
Figure 5.4.5.3. Bismuthinite crystal (Bism) in Figure 5.4.5.4. Type-I gold particles as blebs
quartz-sericite infilling between pyrite in pyrite (py) crystal. Quartz and sericite are
fragments. present as gangue minerals
Figure 5.4.5.5. Chalcopyrite (cpy) and Ag-Bi- Figure 5.4.5.6. Gold (type-II) particle in
sulfosalts are present as small blebs and filling frac- quartz infill between pyrite fragments. Small
tures in pyrite. Type-I and type-II gold is observed. chalcopyrite bleb (cpy) is also observed.
Figure 5.4.5.7. Type-I and type-II gold Figure 5.4.5.8. Type-II gold particles following
particles in pyrite fragment. Quartz-sericite small fractures inside a pyrite fragment. Small
infill between pyrite fragments is observed. chalcopyrite (cpy) blebs are also observed.
Figure 5.4.5.9. Type-II gold filling open spaces Figure 5.4.5.10. Type-II gold particles following
between pyrite (py) crystals. Diversee Bi- small fractures close to the border of pyrite
Ag-sulfosalts are also observed in the fragments. Small chalcopyrite (cpy) blebs are
image. also observed following small fractures.
Gold Guayabito and El Limon Cascade gold

deposits).
Despite quantitative electron microprobe
analyses are not available yet, based on criteria
of particle distribution and their textural 5.4.5.3. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCE
features, two main types of gold particles have
been distinguished in the Guadualejo deposit: Despite only one sample does not allow
gold type I and gold type II. establishing a complete paragenetic sequence,
Gold type I is present as small blebs into based on petrography observations a
pyrite crystals, with size between few microns preliminary discussion on preliminary sequence
up to few cents of microns. These grains are can be made. Guadualejo shares some of the
anhedral and subrounded. previous features observed at other deposits
Gold of the second type (type II) is present in the Nus River Trend (e.g. Cerro Gramalote,
as vein and fractures filling between pyrite El Limon Cascade, El Guayabito), and at least
crystals, and it occurs as anhedral to subhedral two mineralization stages can be observed.
particles. Early stage of mineralization is
Gold type I show more intense yellow characterized by massive medium to coarse
color than type II gold, thus indicating a higher pyrite crystals aggregates accompanied by
Au/Ag ratio than gold type II (figures 5.4.5.4 small chalcopyrite blebs and a first generation
to 5.4.5.10). of gold (Type-I gold). Potassic alteration
would be associated to this early stage.
Bi-Ag-sulfosalts Pyrite crystals are fractured, possibly by
later movements along faults and fractures and
Despite no mineral chemistry analyses are a subsequent mineralizing event composed by
available, small greenish-grey particles and quartz, a second generation of gold (type-II
blebs included into pyrite crystals are gold), bismuthite and Ag-Bi sulfosalts fill small
observed. Those particles are similar in fractures and open spaces between fractured
appearance to the diverse types of Bi-Ag- pyrite crystals. Quartz-sericite alteration
sulfosalts reported in other gold deposits along overimposed on potassic alteration would be
the Nus river trend (e.g. Cerro Gramalote, El related to this late mineralization stage.
5.4.5.4. DISCUSSION biotite tonalite host rock similar in aspect to
Paleocene Cerro Gramalote tonalite facies, 2)
The deposits of the Guadualejo area potassic hydrothermal alteration restricted to
share mineralogical, hydrothermal alteration, mineralized structures overimpossed by quartz-
and geochemical features with other deposits sericite pervasive alteration, 3) two stages of
along the Nus River trend, like Cerro mineralization with respective two generations
Gramalote, El Guayabito and El Limon of gold, 4) presence of Bi-bearing minerals
Cascade deposits. (bismuthinite and Ag-Bi sulfosalts), allow to
Its geographical location along the Nus suspect an intrusion-related model for
River trend, close to the El Limon Cascade mineralization at Guadualejo similar to that of
mineralization, dated by Re-Os in molybdenite Cerro Gramalote and that would be related to
in 60±0.3Ma (section 5.4.4.5) and its common the adakite-like Paleocene facies (ca. 60Ma)
features with the Cerro Gramalote, like 1) of the Antioquia Batholith.
5.4.6. Santo Domingo-San Roque 547
5.4.6. SANTO DOMINGO-SAN ROQUE
Santo Domingo – San Roque district comprise Ore comprises mainly pyrite with scarce
gold mineralizations located about 80km to the chalcopyrite and ocasional galena, commonly
northeast of Medellín city, around Santo Domingo associated wih gold enriched areas
and San Roque municipalities (INGEOMINAS, (INGEOMINAS, 1999).
1999). Subparallel arrays of thin (<20cms) quartz veins
These deposits are located inside the Nus River (stringers) has been exploited in the region, where
Trend (section 5.4.1.1), and exhibit certain the main mineral gangue is quartx accompanied by
similitudes with other deposits in the same trend (e.g. free gold particles.
Cerro Gramalote, El Guayabito, El Limon, In order to date the age of mineralization in the
Guadualejo). Santo Domingo-San Roque district, a quartz and
Mineralization comprise Au-Ag-Bi-Te-Mo- sulfide vein following a N60E/70SE, with 2m width
bearing quartz+sulfide veins following a preferred was sampled at the western margin of the El Rosario
NE direction with subordinated NW mineralized creek, 4km to the SE of Santo Domingo townsite
structures. (sample Santo Domingo-1; figure 5.4.6.1).
Figure 5.4.6.1. Location of sample Santo Domingo-1 within the Antioquia Batholih rocks.
The vein mineralization comprises

quartz+molybdine with minor amounts of
pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcosine.
Molybdenite separate was analyzed by
Re-Os method (Figure 5.4.6.2 and Table
5.4.6.1), obtaining a Paleocene age of
51.9±0.3Ma, similar to the Re-Os ages
obtained for both, El Limon Cascade and
Cerro Gramalote molybdenite samples and the
sericite K-Ar age obtained in sericite from vein
selvages of the gold mineralization in Gramalote
(section 5.4.2.8).
Those results allow defining an important
metallogenic event at the Paleocene (58-
61Ma) along the Nus River trend which would
be temporally and spatially associated with the
latest identified adakite-like Paleocene pulse
in the magmatic evolution of the Antioquia
Batholith (section 5.3.5; figure 5.4.6.3).
Paleocene El Rayo granodiorite porphyry
(Section 5.3.2.9) is located about 5.5km to
the NE of the mineralized vein sampled.
Figure 5.4.6.3. Summary of ages obtained for

the Antioquia Batholith and hydrothermal
alteration/mineralization ages for the Nus River
trend.
Figure 5.4.6.2. Fragments of the

quartz+molybdenite vein dated by Re-Os method
in the Santo Domingo-San Roque district
(sample Santo Domingo-1).
Table 5.4.6.1. Age obtained in molybdenite separate from Santo Domingo-San Roque
district gold mineralization by Re-Os method.
Total 187 187
Weight Re Os Age
Locality Sample Coordinates Re-Os
(g) (ppm) (ppb) (Ma)
(ppm)
Santo 75° 8’ 1.01” W

Santo Domingo-1 0.111 66.7 41.76 41.1 59.1±0.3
Domingo 6° 26’ 56.95” N
5.4.7.-La Floresta de Yalí 549
5.4.7. LA FLORESTA DE YALI
Gold mineralizations at La Floresta de Yalí are following some cents of meters. Extensive dump
located in the Quebraditas and La Reina creeks, both materials product of underground exploitations are
of them affluent of the San Bartolome river, about 4km found in the creek banks.
to the south of Yalí townsite (Figure 5.4.7.1). Representative samples of gold mineralized veins
In the area, several underground exploitations at El Bosque (LF-1 to LF-3) and Quebraditas-2 (LF-
(e.g. El Bosque, La Floresta, Quebraditas 1 and 4 to LF-15) mines were collected in order to
Quebraditas 2 mines) are found, exploited in tunnels characterize ore mineralization (figure 5.4.7.1).
Fig. 5.4.7.1. Location of La Floresta de Yalí gold deposits.

5.4.7.1 GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSITS Hydrothermal alteration associated with

vein gold mineralization consists of thin haloes
La Floresta gold mineralizations are of potassic alteration with overprinted strongly
hosted in the late Cretaceous La Floresta pervasive quartz-sericite alteration (figure
hornblende granodiorite facies of the Antioquia 5.4.7.2).
Batholith (section 5.3.2.6). In weathered granitoid rocks (saprolite)
Gold mineralizations are exploited from mineralized veins preserve some of their
several subparallel subvertical NNE to NE unaltered features and exhibit dark brownish
trend quartz+sulfide veins and veinlets with haloes corresponding to original potassic
variable thickness from few millimeters to alteration (figure 5.4.7.3 and 5.4.7.4).
several centimeters width. Main sulfide Mafic minerals (e.g. hornblende and
components are pyrite, chalcopyrite and galena biotite) in the granitic host rock are partly
with variable amounts of sphalerite. chloritized.
At both, El Bosque and Quebraditas Mineralized structures present high sulfide
mines, the exploited veins and veinlets follow content, comprising pyrite+ galena±sphalerite
a N20E direction with subvertical steep (70- with quartz as the main gangue mineral (figure
90°) dips. 5.4.7.5).
Figure 5.4.7.2. Potassic alteration haloes Figure 5.4.7.3. Preserved hydrothermal

overprinted by pervasive sericite alteration alteration haloes in weathered mineralized
at La Floresta de Yalí gold mineralizations. vein at La Floresta de Yalí.
Figure 5.4.7.4. Weathered subver tical Figure 5.4.7.5. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena
subparallel mineralized structures. Potassic and sphalerite aggregates in sulfide vein
alteration haloes are observed in brownish mineralization at El Bosque mine (sample
color. La Floresta de Yalí. LF-1) La Floresta de Yalí.
5.4.7.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND overimpossed by quartz-sericite alteration
TEXTURES (figures 5.4.7.8 to 5.4.7.21).
Potassic alteration is characterized by k-
Quartz is the principal gangue mineral, and feldspar replacement of plagioclase crystals of
two types are observed in mineralized veins. the granitic host rock, close to vein selvages,
Type-I quartz comprises medium-grained forming thin hydrothermal alteration haloes
euhedral crystals sometimes developing comb (figures 5.4.7.8 and 5.4.7.9)..
textures along the vein borders with wavy Quartz sericite alteration is accompanied
extinction. A later second type (type-II) is fine- by sulfides (e.g. py, cpy, sl), and minerals such
grained, with evidences of recrystallization and as apatite, rutile and brookite (figures
accompanied by sericite (figures 5.4.7.6 and 5.4.7.16-17 and 5.4.7.20-21).
5.4.7.7). Ore mineralization is sulfide-rich
Veins hosting gold mineralization at La accompanied by minor amounts of quartz.
Floresta de Yalí gold deposits is characterized Pyrite and sphalerite are the most abundant
by structure-controlled potassic alteration sulfides with variable amounts of galena.
<type-II qtz <type-II qtz
type-I qtz
ser
type-I qtz
<ser
Figure 5.4.7.6. Quartz-sericite alteration. Figure 5.4.7.7. Quartz-sericite alteration.

Type-I and type-II quartz are observed. Type-I and type-II quartz are observed.
Sample LFY-1, El Bosque mine, La Floresta Sample LFY-3, El Bosque mine, La Floresta
de Yalí. de Yalí.
qtz
ser
ser qtz
k-spar k-spar
qtz qtz
qtz qtz
Figure 5.4.7.8. Potassic alteration (K-spar) Figure 5.4.7.9. The above picture under
with overimpossed quartz-sericite (ser) crossed polars. Sample LFY-2, El Bosque
alteration. Sample LFY-2, El Bosque mine, mine, la Floresta de Yalí.
la Floresta de Yalí.
qtz
qtz
ser ser
k-spar
k-spar
qtz qtz
qtz qtz
Figure 5.4.7.10. Potassic alteration (K- Figure 5.4.7.11. The above picture under
spar) with overimpossed quartz-sericite crossed polars. Sample LFY-2, El Bosque
(ser) alteration. Sample LFY-2, El Bosque mine, la Floresta de Yalí.
mine, la Floresta de Yalí.
qtz qtz
k-spar k-spar
qtz
qtz
ser > ser >
Figure 5.4.7.12. K-spar partially replaced Figure 5.4.7.13. The above picture under
by overimpossed quartz-sericite alteration. crossed polars. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque
Sample LFY-3, El Bosque mine, la Floresta mine, la Floresta de Yalí.
de Yalí.
qtz qtz
k-spar k-spar
ser ser
qtz qtz
Figure 5.4.7.14. Quartz-sericite alteration F i g u re 5 . 4 . 7 . 1 5 . A b o v e p i c t u re u n d e r

cutting k-feldspar (potassic alteration). crossed polars. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque
de Yalí.
ser ser
qtz qtz
<py <py
sl> sl>
k-spar k-spar
ser ser
k-spar k-spar
qtz qtz
Figure 5.4.7.16. Quartz-sericite alteration F i g u re 5 . 4 . 7 . 1 7 . A b o v e p i c t u re u n d e r

cutting k-feldspar (potassic alteration). crossed polars. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque
de Yalí.
py
py
ser ser
qtz
qtz
Figure 5.4.7.18. Quartz-pyrite vein and F i g u re 5 . 4 . 7 . 1 9 . A b o v e p i c t u re u n d e r

associated quartz-sericite alteration. crossed polars. Sample LFY-1, El Bosque
de Yalí.
<apa
<bro
<rut
Figure 5.4.7.20. Apatite (apa) and rutile Figure 5.4.7.21. Brookite (bro) crystals
(rut) associated with quartz-sericite associated with quartz-sericite alteration.
alteration. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque mine, Sample LFY-3, El Bosque mine, la Floresta
la Floresta de Yalí. de Yalí.
Beside quartz and sulfide veins and

veinlets, in some mineralyzed structures (El
Bosque mine) development of subparallel
qtz
sulfide-rich veinlets with cataclasis evidences py
gn>
was observed.
Massive sulfide aggregates of pyrite,
sphalerite, galena, and sometimes chalcopyrite <cpy
are observed filling open spaces between sl
quartz type-I euhedral crystals and are usually
accompanied by tipe-II quartz.
Pyrite
Pyrite is the most abundant and common Figure 5.4.7.5. Pyrite (py) crystals replaced
sulfide in the vein-type mineralization at both, by sphalerite (sl), chalcopyrite (cpy), galena
El Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines. (gn) and quartz (qtz). Sample LFY-1, El
It is one of the early mineral species in Bosque mine.
the paragenetic sequence. It forms massive
aggregates of homogeneous non zoned
py
subhedral crystals of few millimeters in size,
and is partly replaced by later mineral species sl
such as sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite, as
evidenced by corroded contacts and pyrite
relicts close to some of those contacts (figures
5.4.7.5 and 5.4.7.6). Au> <gn
There are clear evidences of shearing at
the veins, like breaking of coarse pyrite cristals qtz
into small fragments surraounded by later
mineral species that fill open spaces between
them (figure 5.4.7.7).
Fractures produced by shearing are filled Figure 5.4.7.6. Pyrite (py) crystals partly
by sulfide minerals (e.g. galena, chalcopyrite, replaced by sphalerite (sl)and galena (gn)
electrum, etc.) (figures 5.4.7.8 and 5.4.7.9). with gold (Au). Sample LFY-1. El Bosque
mine.
Sphalerite
Sphalerite crystals are anhedral with size

up to few milimeters, clearly filling open spaces <ser
and partly replacing early pyrite crystals (figure
py qtz
5.4.7.11).
Both, sphalerite and galena are replaced,
by galena (Figure 5.4.7.13).
Most sphalerite crystals are pale yellow
in color and sometimes present zoning with
Fe-richer areas with a redish brown color
(figures 5.4.7.10 to 5.4.7.15).
Under reflected light zoning in sphalerite
crystals is also evident by differential Figure 5.4.7.7. Shearing affecting coarse
chalcopyrite replacement (“chalcopyrite pyrite crystals. Transmitted light. Sample
disease”), with low-Fe sphalerite being more LFY-3, El Bosque mine.
sh vlts> qtz
qtz
py
<sh vlts
py
<cpy Au>
Au>
<gn sh vlts>
Figure 5.4.7.8. Shearing veinlets (sh vlts) Figure 5.4.7.9. Shearing veinlets (sh vlts)
in pyrite crystals. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque in pyrite crystals. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque
mine. mine.
py py
Au>
qtz qtz
sl cpy> sl
Figure 5.4.7.10. Pyrite (py) crystals borders Figure 5.4.7.11. The above picture under
re p l a c e d b y l o w - F e s p h a l e r i t e ( s l ) . reflected light. Note the «chalcopyrite
Transmitted light. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque illness» in the sphalerite and gold particles.
mine. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque mine.
py py
gn gn
high-Fe sl high-Fe sl
low-Fe sl low-Fe sl
qtz
Figure 5.4.7.12. Sphalerite zoning: high-Fe Figure 5.4.7.13. The above picture under
(re d i s h b ro w n ) t o l o w F e ( y e l l o w ) . reflected light. Note pyrite (py) replacement
Transmitted light. Sample LFY-1, El Bosque by sphalerite (sl) and galena (gn).Sample
Mine. LFY-1, El Bosque Mine.
affected than high-Fe sphalerite (figures

high-Fe low-Fe sl
5.4.7.12 and 5.4.7.13).
Sphalerite is observed to be accompanied sl
in direct relationship with quartz-sericite qtz
alteration (figures 5.4.7.14 and 5.4.7.15).
Galena and galena solid-solutions
Galena appears in fewer amounts than

pyrite and sphalerite in both, El Bosque and ser
Quebraditas-2 mines.
It appears as non zoned homogeneous
bright grey crystals as open-space filling
between pyrite crystals, usually accompanied Figure 5.4.7.14. Sphalerite (sl) zoning: high-
by chalcopyrite and electrum particles (figures Fe (redish brown) to low Fe (yellow).
5.4.7.16 to 5.4.7.20). Transmitted light. Sample LFY-2, El Bosque
Contacts with pyrite crystals exhibit a Mine.
replacement relationship (figure 5.4.7.17).
sl
Ag-Bi-rich galena (galena solid-solutions
« P b S ss » ; F o o r d a n d S h a w e , 1 9 8 9 ) a r e <ser
observed in close relationship with common qtz
galena, chalcopyrite and electrum particles
(figures 5.4.7.21 and 5.4.7.23).
Chalcopyrite
Chalcopyrite is observed in anhedral

sl
crystals of variable size. It is associated with
ser>
galena and electrum particles, replacing
preexisting mineral species like pyrite and
sphalerite (“chalcopyrite disease”) (figures Figure 5.4.7.15. The above picture under
5.4.7.6, 5.4.7.11 and 5.4.7.13). crossed polars. Note pyrite (py) replacement
Chalcopyrite is bright yellow in color, by sphalerite (sl) and galena (gn). Sample
sometimes exhibit a pinkish tone. Supergene LFY-2, El Bosque Mine.
covellite and chalcocite are commonly
associated (figure 5.4.7.24 and 5.4.7.25).
gn <cpy
Cubanite (CuFe 2S 3) py
Cubanite is less common than <Au
chalcopyrite, showing a remarkable
characteristic pink tone (figures 5.4.7.26 and
5.4.7.27). qtz
It is observed at samples of both, El
Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines, appearing
as anhedral homogeneous massive aggregates 100um
between early pyrite grains.
Evidences for replacement of pyrite are Figure 5.4.7.16. Open-spaces filling in pyrite
clearly observed, as well as association with (py) aggregates. Note galena (gn) replacement
galena, electrum particles and polybasite by chalcopyrite (cpy) and electrum (Au)
(Figure 5.4.7.28 and 5.4.7.29). particle. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
py
qtz
gn
<Au
<Au
cpy
py gn cpy
200um 50um
Figure 5.4.7.17. Pyrite (py) early crystals Figure 5.4.7.18. Detail of electrum (Au)
partly replaced by galena and chalcopyrite. particle associated to chalcopyrite (cpy)
Note euhedral electrum (Au) particle. Sample replacing both galena (gn) and pyrite (py).
LFY-3, El Bosque Mine. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
cpy
cpy
Au
<gn
<Au
py cv>
<gn
50um 50um
Figure 5.4.7.19. Electrum (Au) particle F i g u re 5 . 4 . 7 . 2 0 . Chalcopyrite (cpy)

associated to chalcopyrite (cpy) and galena replacement by galena (gn) along fractures.
(gn). Late supergene covellite (cv) is also Electrum particles are also observed. Sample
observed. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine. LFY-8, Quebraditas-2 Mine.
py
cpy>
<Au
py <Au
<PbSss
50um <PbSss 50um
Figure 5.4.7.21. Galena solid-solutions Figure 5.4.7.22. Galena solid-solutions
(PbSss ) and electrum (Au) particles filling (PbS ss) and electrum (Au) particles filling
fractures and open spaces between pyrite fractures and open spaces between pyrite
(py) grains. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine. (py) grains. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
py
cpy>
py
<PbSss
Au>
Au>
cpy <cc
50um
Figure 5.4.7.23. Galena solid-solutions Figure 5.4.7.24. Chalcopyrite (cpy) with associated
(PbSss),galena (gn) and electrum (Au) filling electrum (Au) particle filling open spaces between
fractures and open spaces between pyrite (py) pyrite (py) grains. Supergene chalcocite (cc) is also
grains. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine. observed. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
cpy>
py qtz
<cv cu
<cc <Au
<Au py
Figure 5.4.7.25. Chalcopyrite (cpy) filling open Figure 5.4.7.26. Cubanite (cu) filling open
spaces between pyrite (py) grains. Supergene spaces between early pyrite (py) grains.
covellite (cv) and chalcocite (cc) are also observed. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
qtz py
Au>
Au>
py cu cu
<pb
gn> gn <pb
100um
Figure 5.4.7.28. Cubanite (cu) associated to Figure 5.4.7.29. Detailed SEM image of the
galena (gn), polybasite (pb) and electrum (Au) above picture. Sample LFY-8, Quebraditas-
particles, filling open spaces between pyrite (py) 2 Mine.
grains. Sample LFY-8, Quebraditas-2 Mine.
Au
py
<gn
py
qtz ser
Au>
<cpy
cu Au
50um qtz
Figure 5.4.7.27. Cubanite (cu) and electrum (Au) Figure 5.4.7.28. Electrum (Au) particles associated
particles filling open spaces between early pyrite with quartz filling open spaces between pyrite (py)
(py) grains. Galena (gn) replacements of pyrite are crystals. Small chalcopyrite blebs are also observed.
also observed. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine. Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
py py
<cpy
gn>
Au
<cv
Au
cpy>
50um 50um
Figure 5.4.7.29. Electrum (Au) particles Figure 5.4.7.30. Electrum (Au) particles
associated with chalcopyrite (cpy). associated with galena (gn) and chalcopyrite
Supergene covellite (cv) is also observed. (cpy). Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
Sample LFY-3, El Bosque Mine.
py
py
cv <Au
Au>
cpy
<gn
qtz qtz
sl
50um
Figure 5.4.7.31. Electrum (Au) particles Figure 5.4.7.32. Electrum (Au) particle associated
associated with chalcopyrite (cpy). Supergene with sphalerite (sl) and galena (gn). Partial replacement
covellite (cv) is also observed. Sample LFY-3, El of pyrite (py) crystals by sphalerite (sl) is also observed.
Bosque Mine. Sample LFY-1, El Bosque Mine.
<Au but most particles are associated with later

py sulfide species (e.g. sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite, cubanite) filling open spaces and
<sl
fractures in the pyrite crystals. Particle sizes
vary from few up to tens of microns.
gn> No marked optical differences are
<Au observed in electrum at blebs inside pyrite
py crystals and the one associated with sulfides
<Au between pyrite crystals, and in some cases
qtz electrum associated with galena, chalcopyrite
and sphalerite appears as small inclusions in
bigger pyrite crystals (figure 5.4.7.33),
suggesting similar origin for both electrum
Figure 5.4.7.33. Electrum (Au) particle types.
associated with galena (gn) hosted in pyrite (py)
crystals. Sample LFY-1, El Bosque Mine. Polybasite ((Ag,Cu)16(As,Sb)2S11)
At Quebraditas-2 mine (sample LF-8),

polybasite was found associated to galena and
cubanite with electrum particles (figures
5.4.7.28 and 5.4.7.29).
py
<Au Bismuth
cv>
gn> <bism A small bleb of native bismuth was
<cpy observed in a sample from El Bosque Mine
(LFY-3), exhibiting a bright white color (figure
qtz 5.4.7.34).
Its close relationship with other electrum
blebs would suggest a common or coeval
Figure 5.4.7.34. Electrum (Au) and native
origin.
bismuth (bism) particles in pyrite (py). Supergene
covellite (cv) is also observed. Sample LFY-3, El
Bosque Mine.
Electron Micro-Probe (EMP) analyses

Cubanite show optical properties similar were performed sphalerite, galena and gold
to chalcopyrite but with a remarkable pink from samples of El Bosque and Quebraditas-
tone allow distinguishing both species (figures 2 mines at La Floresta de Yalí, in order to
5.4.7.26 to 5.4.7.29). characterize their chemical composition and
possible chemical variations.
Electrum
Sphalerite
Electrum anhedral rounded particles are
widely distributed in samples from both, El As mentioned above, a remarkable
Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines. It exhibits feature of the sphalerite at El Bosque and
a bright yellow color (figures 5.4.7.30 to Quebraditas-2 mines samples is the light color
5.4.7.34). (pale yellow) with local zoning in specific areas
A minor amount of electrum particles are towards Fe-richer dark colored crystals
observed as small blebs inside pyrite crystals, (figures 5.4.7.12 to 5.4.7.15).
Figure 5.4.7.35. Cd vs. Fe (At%) plot for EMP

results on sphalerite samples from El Bosque
Mine.
Figure 5.4.7.36. Triangular plot (atomic)
showing a portion of the system Pb-Bi(Sb)-
Ag and compositions of galena and PbS ss
Electron Micro-Probe (EMP) analyses of of El Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines.
zoned phalerite crystals from El Bosque mine
gold mineralization show high Cadmium
contents (2.72-3.95 wt% or 1.19-1.74 at%)
(figure 5.4.7.35). structure of some galena crystals (figure
Two well-defined populations confirm 5.4.7.36).
optical observations regarding a dark reddish Such a chemical variation is described as
brown (high-Fe) and a light pale yellow (low- galena solid-solution (PbS ss), and along with
Fe) sphalerite. the presence of complex Pb-Bi-Ag-Cu
Fe-rich sphalerite show iron contents sulfosalt assemblages (e.g. polybasite) is
above 1.0At% and Fe-poor sphalerite show attributed to complex multi-stage mineralization
values below that. processes (Foord and Shawe, 1989).
High Cd contents of El Bosque Mine No particular differences in optical properties
samples are comparatively high respect to is observed between common galena and galena
typical sphalerite cadmium contents (0.2-1.0 solid-solutions and both of them are associated
wt%; Cook et al., 2009), and are equally high with electrum particles, so would be ralated to
for Fe-rich and Fe-poor sphalerite (figure the gold mineralization stage.
5.4.7.35).
There seem to be a negative correlation Electrum
between Cd and Fe in Fe-poor light colored
sphalerite (figure 5.4.7.35). Electrum particles analyzed by Electron
Micro-Probe (EMP), indicate very low cooper
Galena and high silver contents (Au30-45Ag55-70) (figure
5.4.7.37).
Despite homogeneous uniform There are no compositional differences
appearance of galena, EMP anlyses of samples between electrum particles of El Bosque and
from both, El Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines Quebraditas-2 mines, and no chemical
show important contents of Ag and Bi (0.72- populations can be identified from electrum
1.84 wt% Ag and 1.16-3.38 wt% Bi) in the particles analyzed, as the results define a
hosted gold blebs and gold particles associated

to base metal sulfides.
Samples from El Bosque and

Quebraditas-2 mines at La Floresta de Yalí
gold deposits, allow to define a general
common paragenetic sequence.
Tw o h y d r o t h e r m a l s t a g e s c a n b e
established according to hydrothemal alteration
assemblages recognized (i.e. potassic and
quartz sericitice) (figure 5.4.7.37).
A first hydrothermal stage requires
previous fracturing in the host rock (La
Floresta hornblende granodiorite facies of the
Antioquia Batholith; section 5.3.2.6) allowing
the subsequent vein formation (f 0). This
Figure 5.4.7.36. Chemical composition of hydrothermal stage is characterized by
electrum particles analyzed by EMP in atoms per development of potassic alteration in the host
formula unit (apfu). rock, restricted to thin haloes in vein selvages
accompanied by early coarse pyrite
crystallization and type-I quartz.
A second hydrothermal stage involve the
continuum in the compositional range. It is in development of strongly pervasive quartz-
accordance with optical observations, where sericite alteration which overprints the potassic
no significant differences in optical properties alteration haloes and extend beyond them.
(e.g. color) were observed between pyrite Hydrothermal fluid circulation was favored by
Figure 5.4.7.37. Paragenetic sequence of La floresta de Yalí gold deposits. The hydrothermal
stages are associated to the hydrothermal alteration episodes, and are separed among them by
fracturing events (f0, f1).
a tectonic reactivation along mineralized
structures resulting in breaking of coarse pyrite
grains and development of new fractures and
open spaces favoring depositation of sulfide
species such as sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite, cubanite, Ag-Cu sulfosalts, gold
(electrum) and bismuth.
A late supergene stage is clearly evidenced
by cooper sulfides (eg. chalcocite, covellite)
partly replacing chalcopyrite.
In order to characterize ore mineralizations

at La Floresta de Yalí gold deposits, sulfide Figure 5.4.7.38. Sulfur isotopes results in
separates from mineralized veins and veinlets sulfides from auriferous veins at El Bosque and
at El Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines were Quebraditas-2 mines. Pyrite: py, galena: gn.
analyzed for sulfur isotopes (table 5.4.7.1 and
figure 5.4.7.38).
Analyzed samples returned negative values Such a sulfur isotope results are similar
for 34 S, in the range from -5.4 to -1.7 per and are consistent with sulfur isotope results
mil. At El Bosque Mine, galena samples obtained at Cerro Gramalote, which also
returned more negative values (-5.4 and -5.3 returned negative values in the range between -
per mil) than pyrite (-2.2 to -2.9 per mil). On 7.4 and -2.7 per mil. In particular, pyrite samples
the other hand, at Quebraditas-2 Mine, pyrite returned similar values to those of pyrite and
samples are quite consistent and cluster in a sphalerite at Cerro Gramalote between -3.7 and
narrow range between -1.7 and -2.9, which -2.7 per mil (section 5.4.2.6).
compares well with pyrite values at El Bosque Again, a magmatic origin for sulfur can
Mine. explained the values for 34S close to zero, but
Table 5.4.7.1. Sulfur isotope composition of sulfide samples from the La Floresta de
Yalí gold deposit.
a contribution from meta-sedimentary

basement could be also responsible for the
broad negative tendency observed in them.
5.4.7.6. LEAD ISOTOPES
Lead isotopes in pyrite and galena were

also analyzed in mineral separates from El
Bosque Mine (table 5.4.7.2 and figure
5.4.7.39).
Lead isotope values for El Bosque mine
m i n e r a l i z a t i o n a r e r a d i o g e n i c ( 207P b /
204
Pb>15.55), clustering in narrow ranges:
206
Pb/ 204 Pb=18.637-18.789, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb =
15.564-15.701 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb=38.336-
38.795 (Figure 5.4.7.39).
Comparison with results obtained for
Cerro Gramalote lead isotopes in sulfides
(section 5.4.2.7) show a clear similitude
between them, they all cluster in a subvertical
pattern with narrow 206Pb/204Pb ratio, implying
contributions from more radiogenic source (i.e.
meta-sedimentary rocks of the Cajamarca and Figure 5.4.7.39. Lead isotope composition of
Valdivia groups) and less radiogenic source mineralization at El Bosque Mine (samples LFY-
(i.e. subduction-related mantle-derived melts). 1, LFY-2 and LFY-3) and granodiorite host rock.
Lead isotope evolution curves after
Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe
5.4.7.7. DISCUSSION (1981) are shown for comparison.
Gold mineralization at La Floresta de Yalí

show relatively more simple mineralogy when
compared with Nus River trend deposits (e.g.
Cerro Gramalote, El Guayabito, El Limon and chalcopyrite, substantially differ from those
Cascade, Guadualejo, Santo Domingo). in the Nus River trend where gold mineralization
Mineralized veins composed by quartz, is associated with veins of quartz and pyrite and
pyrite and important contents of sphalerite, galena minor amounts of base metal sulfide.
Table 5.4.7.2. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the La Floresta de Yalí
gold deposit.
Molybdenite along with Bi-Te-bearing is a possibility of La Floresta de Yalí gold
mineral species common in several deposits deposits being a more distal Ag-Pb-Zn
along the Nus River trend are absent in samples mineralization style related to the Paleocene
from El Bosque and Quebraditas-2 mines at metallogenic event as indicated for the
La Floresta de Yalí gold deposits. intrusion-related gold systems models (Lang
On the other hand, host rock at La and Baker, 2001; Hart, 2007). In this scenario,
Floresta de Yalí gold deposits is the ca. 80Ma a Paleocene age ca. 60Ma for the hydrothermal
La Floresta hornblende granodiorite facies of alteration/mineralization at La Floresta de Yalí gold
the Antioquia Batholith, about 20My older than deposits would be expected.
the adakite-like Cerro Gramalote biotite Another plausible possibility is that La
hornblende tonalite facies which may extend Floresta de Yalí gold mineralizations would be
for about 70km in a E-W direction related to a pre-Paleocene mineralizing event
approximating the Nus River trend direction, within the complex evolution of the Antioquia
and would be related to the Paleocene Batholith as a magmatic entity comprising
metallogenic event responsible for the gold several pulses in a span of ca. 35My, as
mineralization along the Nus River trend as petrography, geochemistry and geochronology
confirmed by geochronology results. evidence have demonstrated. This possibility
Lack of mineralization age data at La would be supported by other pre-Paleocene
Floresta de Yalí gold deposits do not permit metallogenic expressions of the Antioquia
to make any definitive conclusion regarding the Batholith magmatism like the ca. 85Ma
possible relationship between this metallogenic event to which Segovia-Remedios
mineralization and the well-recognized Nus mining district mineralizations are related
River trend Paleocene metallogenic event. (section 5.4.7.9).
Regarding Cerro Gramalote as an Any definitve conclusion on the
intrusion-hosted mineralization style associated metallogenesis of La Floresta de Yalí gold
to the Paleocene adakite-like magmatic event deposits should involve hydrothemal alteration/
within an intrusion-related gold system, there mineralization age dating.
5.4.8 - Santa Rosa de Osos 567
5.4.8. SANTA ROSA DE OSOS
Santa Rosa de Osos gold mineralization de Osos townsite (sample SRO-1) was
is located surrounding the municipality of the collected for mineral characterization to
same name, in the Guadalupe river drainage compare with other gold deposits associated
basin, where historical mining activity has been to the Antioquia Batholith.
developed, as evidenced by abandoned Tha sampled vein is 25cms width and has
tunnels. Important alluvial explotations are an orientation of N65W/75NE consists mainly
developed along Grande, Chico and Guadalupe of quartz with up to 50% of sulfides, including
rivers and its affluent streams (Gonzalez, 2001). pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena
Important mines in the area include San (figures 5.4.8.2 and 5.4.8.3).
Ramón, Santa Rosa, Las Troyas, San Miguel, Vein selvages are characterized by strong
San Antonio, Santa Maria and Santa Isabel, pervasive quartz-sericite hydrothermal
el Limon (INGEOMINAS, 1999). alteration in haloes of few tens of cms width.
5.4.8.1.GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSITS 5.4.8.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND

TEXTURES
Santa Rosa de Osos gold deposits are
hosted in the central portion of the Antioquia Mineralized vein sampled at San Ramón
Batholith (figure 5.4.8.1). Mine (SRO-1) is sulfide-rich with pyrite as the
Mineralization is distributed in auriferous main component accompanied by galena and
quartz+pyrite veins with minor sphalerite and sphalerite, and minor amounts of chalcopyrite.
galena following a ENE to E-W trend with Quartz is the main gangue mineral and, at
subordinated NW mineralized structures. least, two different types are identified: early
A vein sample from the San Ramon Mine, quartz (type-I) is observed in close association
located about 8km to the ENE of Santa Rosa with coarse pyrite aggreagtes, while later
Figure 5.4.8.1. Location of Santa Rosa de Osos gold deposit sampled (San Ramón Mine).
Figure 5.4.8.2. Macroscopic aspect of Figure 5.4.8.3. Microscopic aspect of

mineralization at San Ramon Mine (sample mineralization at San Ramon Mine (sample
SRO-1), Santa Rosa de Osos. SRO-1), Santa Rosa de Osos.
quartz (type-II) is observed filling fractures and Galena is usually present as homogeneous
open spaces between pyrite fragments, usually crystals and replaces early pyrite (figure
accompanied by later sulfide species (e.g. 5.4.8.4)
galena and sphalerite).
Mineralization is quite complex with strong Sphalerite
shearing and fracturing affecting veins as
evidenced by ore mineral textures. Sphalerite is not as abundant as pyrite or
galena. It is homogeneous in aspect and
Pyrite sometimes is found in close association with
chalcopyrite, partly replacing pyrite crystals along
Pyrite is the most abundant ore mineral in small fractures, being observed as irregular-
the sample. It is homogeneous with no shaped small inclusions (figure 5.4.8.5).
evidence of zoning (figures 5.4.8.3 to 5.4.8.7). Chalcopyrite late replacements
Pyrite is usually present as massive («chalcopyrite disease») are scarce.
aggregates of medium to coarse crystals. These
crystals are strongly sheared and fractured, Chalcopyrite
with complex textures involving breaking and
open spaces filling with quartz and later sulfide Chlacopyrite is present in minor amounts,
species, including galena and sphalerite (figure usually accompanying sphalerite as small
5.4.8.3). replacement inclusions in coarser pyrite
Replacement of pyrite by sphalerite and crystals (figure 5.4.8.6).
galena is evidenced in crystal borders and in
small inclusions inside the crystals commonly Electrum
associated with small fractures (figure 5.4.8.5
and 5.4.8.6). Anhedral sub-rounded small electrum
particles are found filling open spaces in earlier
Galena pyrite crystals. They are bright yellow in color
and appear to be related to small inclusions
Galena is common but it is present in minor (replacements) of sphalerite whithin pyrite
amounts when compared with pyrite. It is crystals (figures 5.4.8.7 to 5.4.8.9).
accompanied by quartz (type-II) (figure No remarkable optical differences (e.g.
5.4.8.4). color) in electrum particles are observed.
py
qtz
(type-II)
py
gn
<cpy
qtz <sl
(type-II)
Figure 5.4.8.4. Fracturing and shearing in coarse Figure 5.4.8.5. Sphalerite (sl) and chalcopyrite
pyrite (py) crystal. Galena (gn) replacement is also (cpy) replacements in coarse pyrite (py) crystals.
observed in pyrite, and quartz (qtz) open-spaces filling. Quartz (qtz) type-II is also observed.
py <sl
<cpy sl
py
<Ag-sulf
<qtz (type II) Au (Au52Ag48)>
qtz
100um
Figure 5.4.8.6. Chalcopyrite (cpy) replacement Figure 5.4.8.9. Electrum particle (Au) filling open
of pyrite (py) crystal in a strongly fractured and spaces within pyrite (py) crystals. Associated
sheared massive aggregate. sphalerite (sl) replacements are also observed.
py
py
Au (Au67Ag33)> Au (Au46Ag54)>
<sl
<sl
50um 50um
Figure 5.4.8.8. Electrum particle (Au) filling open Figure 5.4.8.9. Electrum particle (Au) filling open
spaces within pyrite (py) crystals. Associated spaces within pyrite (py) crystals. Associated
sphalerite (sl) replacements are also observed. sphalerite (sl) replacements are also observed.
Up to the present moment only a sample

has been available for petrographic studies.
Therefore, only some preliminary
considerations can be made regarding the
minerals associations observed:
1) The early mineralization stages

comprise abundant medium- to coarse-grained
pyrite crystals.
2) At least one (probably more) shearing

and fracturing events are responsible for an
early pyrite fracturing producing a cataclastic
fabric, and, generating open spaces suitable for
later ore mineralization.
Figure 5.4.8.10. Compositional (atoms per
3) Later mineralization includes quartz formula unit) triangle plot for electrum
accompanied by sphalerite, galena, particle at the San Ramon Mine (sample
chalcopyrite and electrum particles. This SRO-1), Santa Rosa de Osos.
mineral association is found filling small cracks
and open spaces between THE early pyrite
grains.
4) No ocurrence of Bi-Te-bearing mineral 5.4.8.5 SULFUR ISOTOPES

species are observed as occur in other areas
of the central Antioquia Batholith (e.g. Nus Two samples of mineral separates (pyrite
River trend gold deposits). and galena) from San Ramón Mine were
separated for sulfur isotope analyses (table
5.4.9.1).
5.4.8.4. MINERAL CHEMISTRY As indicated in other deposits, sulfur
isotope analyses were performed for regional
Electrum scale comparisons with other gold deposits
hosted whitin or peripheral to the Antioquia
Electron Micro-Probe (EMP) analyses of Batholith, and therefore they cannot provide
electrum particles on the San Ramon Mine robust results at the scale of the deposit.
sample (SRO-1) indicate relatively high silver Sulfur isotope results indicate slight
contents (Au 46-77 -Ag 33-54 ), which are in negative 34S value for galena (-1.9) and zero
accordance with the light bright color observed 34S value for pyrite.
under microscope suggesting important silver These results fit the of the magmatic sulfur
contents (figure 5.4.8.10). domain, being less negative than sulfur isotopes
Table 5.4.8.1. Sulfur isotope results for ore minerals at San Ramón Mine, Santa Rosa de Osos.
Location Coordinates Sample Material 34S
75° 21’ 52” W pyrite 0.0

San Ramón Mine SRO-1
6° 36’ 49.3” N galena -1.9
Table 5.4.8.2. Lead isotope results for ore minerals at San Ramón Mine, Santa Rosa de Osos.
Location Coordinates Sample Material 206Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 208Pb/204Pb
75° 21’ 52” W Galena 18.764 15.711 38.778

San Ramón Mine SRO-1
6° 36’ 49.3” N Pyrite 18.701 15.617 38.489
analyzed in other gold deposits in the Antioquia

Batholith.
As mentioned before for other gold
deposits spatially related to the Antioquia
Batholith, slight negative values could be
related to variable grade of sulfur
contamination from the Paleozoic meta-
sedimentary basement hosting the Antioquia
Batholith. Unfortunately, there are no sulfur
isotope data for pyrite of the metasedimentary
sequence to compare these results.
Lead isotope analyses in sulfide separates

(pyrite and galena) from San Ramón Mine
r e t u r n e d r a d i o g e n i c r e s u l t s ( 207P b /
204
Pb>15.55) (Table 5.4.8.2).
Galena shows higher 207 Pb/ 204 Pb and
208
Pb/204Pb ratios than pyrite, but show similar
206
Pb/ 204Pb ratios (Figure 5.4.8.11).
Lead isotope ratios for the San Ramon
Mine mineralization fit in the narrow range for Figure 5.4.8.11. Lead isotope composition of
207
Pb/ 204Pb ratio observed for other gold sulfides from San Ramón Mine (sample SRO-
deposits hosted within or peripheral to the 1). Lead isotope evolution curves after
Antioquia Batholith. plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe
(1981) are shown for comparison.
5.4.8.7. DISCUSSION
Despite only one sample was studied for Lack of mineral deposition timing impide
the San Ramon Mine gold mineralization, some to establish the relationship with well-
interesting points can be addressed only for constrained Paleocene metallogenic event
regional comparison purposes within the along the relatively close Nus River trend.
Antioquia Batholith region context. Pb-Zn association in the San Ramon Mine
Ore mineralogy in the sample seem to be at the Santa Rosa de Osos region could be
relatively simple, being composed mainly by interpreted as a distal style of mineralization in
pyrite and galena with minor amounts of the context of an Intrusion-Related Gold
sphalerite and chalcopyrite accompanying System associated with the Paleocene adakite-
electrum, but, as only one sample was studied, like magmatic facies of the Antioquia Batholith,
presence of Bi-Ag-bearing mineral species widely distributed along the Nus River Trend
cannot be discarded. (Hart, 2007; Robert, 2007).
Other plausible possibility is that gold and different magmatic pulses identified in the
mineralizaition at this region, could be related Antioquia Batholith.
with a previous magmatic pulse that have On the other hand, despite the scarce
contributed to the Antioquia Batholith formation isotope data obtained for this gold
during ca. 35Ma in the late Cretaceous - mineralization, it is important to mention how
Paleocene age interval. reults on both, sulfur and lead isotopes,
Future geochronological studies focused compare well with other isotope results
in hydrothermal alteration/mineralization dating obtained for different gold deposits within and
at the Santa Rosa de Osos gold deposits must peripheral to the Antioquia Batholith, indicating
be carried out in order to establish the precise a close relationship between them at a regional
time relationship between gold mineralization scale.
5.4.9.- Segovia-Remedios 573
5.4.9. SEGOVIA-REMEDIOS
The Segovia-Remedios Mining District is Veins usually have tabular shape with
one of the most important historical gold variable thickness from few centimeters upto
districts of Colombia, exploited since pre- few meters, with a remarkable along-strike and
Columbian times up to present. down-dip continuity (Shaw, 2000).
It is located in the northern Central Four well-defined structurally-controlled
Cordillera, close to the junction between the vein systems have been distinguished (Rusell,
main cordillera range and the Serranía de San 1959; Echeverri, 2006; Echeverry et al., 2009):
Lucas.
The district comprises several gold vein- 1) El Silencio (El Silencio, Sandra K, San
type mineralizations around the Segovia and Nicolás mines): N0-30ºE/30-40ºE.
Remedios townsites (figure 5.4.9.1), which are Characterized by the presence of aphanitic
believed to be the primary source region for dikes associated to the mineralized vein
much of the placer gold deposits exploited in selvages.
the lower Cauca and Nechí river basins.
Historically, three main major mines, El 2) Vertical (Pomarrosa, Cecilia and Tres y
Silencio, Providencia and Sandra K, are set Media mines): N0-30ºW/80ºW-80ºE. No
apart from many small exploitations in the area, dikes associated to mineralized veins and
and El Silencio-Providencia system is strong fracturing.
recognized as the most productive, with
estimated historical production of 4Moz Au 3) Cogote (Cogote and Marmajito mines):
(Shaw, 2000). N20-40ºW/35-45ºNE. Aphanitic dike
Important contributions on geological, locally observed in some mineralized
structural, mineralogical and metallogenic structures.
aspects of the district are presented by Rusell
(1959), Ramírez (1985), Sierra (1992), Casas 4) Providencia (Providencia mine): N60-
(2005), Contreras (2005), Ordóñez-Carmona 90ºW/30-50ºN. Characteristic porphyritic
et al. (2005), Echeverri (2006, 2008), Álvarez dikesrelated to mineralized veins.
et al. (2007), Sánchez, et al. (2007) and
Echeverry et al. (2009). Second-order reverse subvertical faults
following the regional trend of the Otú-Pericos
Fault (N20ºW to N20ºE) cut all of the four fault
5.4.9.1 GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSITS types with displacements up to few meters
(Echeverri, 2006).
Gold-silver mineralizations at the Segovia-
Remedios mining district are mainly hosted in
the middle to late Jurassic hornblende biotite 5.4.9.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS AND
granodiorite of the Segovia Batholith (Feininger TEXTURES
et al., 1972; González, 2001; section 4.4.2).
Mineralization styles recognized in the Detailed study of the mineral associations
district are dominated by veins, but and textures in the Segovia-Remedios Mining
hydrothermal breccias, stockworks and druses District is presented by Echeverri (2006), and it
are also reported (Echeverri, 2006). is briefly summarized in the following paragraphs.
Figure 5.4.9.1. Location of Segovia-Remedios Mining District and selected sampled mines.
Quartz Au-Ag vein-type mineralizations are Hydrothermal alteration affected both, the
accompanied by pyrite, galena and sphalerite, and granitic host rocks and the dikes associated to
variable amounts of and chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, vein mineralization.
arsenopyrite, rutile, tetrahedrite, argentite and Granitic host-rocks of the Segovia
electrum (Figure 5.4.9.2). Batholith are reported to develop extensive
Figure 5.4.9.2. Detail of vein mineralization Figure 5.4.9.3. Hydrothermal alteration

(«oreshoot») at level 9, Providencia Mine. haloes at La Chumeca vein, Providencia
Picture provided by O.I. Sepulveda. Mine. Picture provided by O.I. Sepulveda.
Figure 5.4.9.4. Strong sericite (fuchsite) Figure 5.4.9.5. Subvertical dike associated to
alteration in a andesite porphyry dike related mineralization at Providencia Mine. Picture
to mineralized vein at Providencia Mine. provided by O.I. Sepulveda.
Picture provided by O.I. Sepulveda.
pervasive alteration zones up to 70m away Proximal alteration, adjacent to veins,

from veins. includes quartz-sericite assemblage
Five types of alteration were recognized by accompanied by disseminated sulfides like
Echeverri (2006) including: phyllic, propylitic, pyrite and sphalerite, and sometimes fragments
sulfidation, calcification and silicification. of strongly sericite altered host rock are found
inside mineralized quartz veins (figure 5.4.9.3 Stage III: It is characterized by late open
and 5.4.9.4). spaces filling with calcite accompanied by
On the other hand, dike rocks closely galena, tetrahedrite, argentite and chalcopyrite
related to mineralized veins are characterized
by proximal strong greenish sericite (fuchsite) Evidences of these three stages of
hydrothermal alteration (figure 5.4.9.4). mineralization can be found in all of the four
More distal hydrothermal alteration is vein types (e.g. El Silencio, Providencia, El
mostly propylitic, with calcite-epidote-chlorite Cogote and Tres y Media), but not always the
assemblage. sequence is complete.
5.4.9.3. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCE 5.4.9.4. MINERAL CHEMISTRY AND

GEOBAROMETRY
The paragenetic sequence porposed by
Echeverri (2006) for the Segovia-Remedios Electron Micro-Probe analyses performed
Mining District is quite complex, involving three in ore minerals of the Segovia-Remedios
stages of mineralization: Mining District by Echeverri (2006), allowed
him to determine pressure formation conditions
Stage I: It is characterized by abundant for the Segovia-Remedios Mining District gold
mineralization of pyrite and sphalerite. Pyrite deposits.
exhibit small inclusions of of electrum, Chemical composition of sphalerite
sphalerite, galena and pyrrhotite. Fracturing associated with pyrrhotite and pyrite in the
and brecciation of the larger minerals species Segovia-Remedios Mining District (sphalerite-
of the Stage I create open spaces for later fluid pyrite-pyrrhotite geobarometer) indicate a
circulation and subsequent mineralization very low formation pressure (0-1.4kbars)
during Stage II. (Echeverri, 2006).
Stage II: It is characterized by deposition

of subhedral to euhedral pyrite accompanied 5.4.9.5. FLUID INCLUSIONS
by sphalerite and galena, which replace early
pyrite and sphalerite. Late euhedral pyrite Fluid inclusions in quartz studied by
product of recrystallization of previous mineral Echeverri (2006), returned homogenization
species. Later fracturing is responsible for open temperatures (T h) between 150°C and 375°C
spaces generation for the mineral precipitation and salinities between 0.35 and 9.73 wt%
during Stage III. NaCl eq.
Table 5.4.9.1. K-Ar ages obtained for vein-related dikes and hydrothermal alteration/
mineralization samples at the Segovia-Remedios Mining District.
Table 5.4.9.2. Sulfur isotope results for ore minerals at El Silencio Mine, Segovia-
Remedios Mining District.
In addition the depth of formation was vein mineralization at Providencia Mine

estimated by the same author in 940m. (sample P-7) returned also a Late Cretaceous
age of 88 ±3Ma, which compares well with
sericite/illite K-Ar age obtained in a host-rock
5.4.9.6. AGE OF HYDROTHERMAL fragment with strong sericite hydrothermal
ALTERATION/MINERALIZATION alteration (sample MP-N10) assimilated in a
mineralized vein at Providencia Mine.
Fission track dating performed by Based on K-Ar geochronology results for
Echeverri (2006) in rocks of the Segovia hydrothermal alteration/mineralization at
Batholith at the Segovia-Remedios Mining Providencia and Sandra K mines at the
district returned late Cretaceous to Paleocene Segovia-Remedios Mining District, a late
(84.1±5.5Ma to 62.1±4.4Ma) cooling ages in Cretaceous (ca. 81-91Ma) metallogenic event
zircon and Paleocene to Eocene (64.7±6.3Ma is regarded as the responsible for gold
to 47.7±2.9Ma) cooling ages in apatite. These mineralization and associated hydrothermal
results allowed the author to interpret the younger alteration at this important gold mining district.
age of 47.7±2.9Ma in apatite from a sample close
to mineralized veins as a maximum age for
hydrothermal activity in the district. 5.4.9.7. SULFUR ISOTOPES
mineralization at the Segovia-Remedios Mining Sulfur isotope analysis on sulfide mineral
District, sericite K-Ar analyses of samples with separates from a El Silencio Mine, returned
proximal quartz-sericite hydrothermal 34S negative values (Table 5.4.9.2).
alteration associated to gold mineralization Galena sample returned more negative
were performed at Providencia and Sandra K  S values than pyrite sample.
34
mines samples (figure 5.4.9.1; table 5.4.9.1). Despite the scarce sulfur isotope analyses
Whole-rock K-Ar age obtained from a available at the Segovia-Remedios Mining
sample of hydrotermally altered dolerite dike District, the negative values suggest certain
associated to vein mineralization at Sandra K relationship with mineralizations within or
mine (sample WR-212) returned a late peripheral to the Antioquia Batholith with
Cretaceous age of 84 ±3Ma. similar negative sulfur isotope signature (e.g.
In addition, whole-rock K-Ar age Nus River Trend deposits including Cerro
obtained from a sample of hydrothermally Gramalote, La Bramadora, Santa Rosa de
altered diorite porphyry dike associated to Osos, etc.).
Table 5.4.9.3. Lead isotope results for ore minerals at El Silencio Mine, Segovia-
Remedios Mining District.
These results contrast with other gold

mineralizations hosted in Jurassic batholiths to
the east of the Palestina Fault System, like the
San Martín de Loba-Norosí Batholith, where
a marked positive sulfur isotope signature is
observed (Sections 4.3.2.5, 4.3.3.5 and
4.3.4.7).
Lead isotope analyses on sulfide mineral

separates from El Silencio Mine are presented
in Table 5.4.9.3.
Lead isotope results from El Silencio Mine
mineralization returned radiogenic values
( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb>15.55), clustered in narrow
ranges ( 206Pb/ 204Pb = 18.687-18.710, 207 Pb/
204
Pb = 15.638-15.655 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb =
38.578-38.609) (Figure 5.4.9.6).
These results compares well with lead
isotope results obtained for sulfides from gold
mineralizations within or peripheral to the
Antioquia Batholith (e.g. Cerro Gramalote, La
Figure 5.4.9.4. Lead isotope composition of
Floresta de Yalí, La Bramadora, Santa Rosa
sulfides from El Silencio mine (sample
de Osos).
ElSilencio-10). Lead isotope evolution curves
after plumbotectonics model of Zartman and
Doe (1981) are shown for comparison.
5.4.10 - La Bramadora 579
5.4.10. LA BRAMADORA
La Bramadora gold mineralization is 5.4.10.1.GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSITS

located over the western margin of the
Guadalupe-Porce river, about 100km to the Vein mineralization at La Bramadora is
north of Medellin in the Guadalupe, Amalfi and mainly hosted in the Paleozoic metamorphic
Anorí municipalties (figure 5.4.10.1). basement of the Antioquia Batholith
This deposit is one of the oldest gold- (Cajamarca and Valdivia groups).
silver exploitations in Colombia, included Dacite dikes following a NNW trend are
within the Amalfi-Anorí gold district. In reported at La Bramadora. They are few
addition to the vein mineralization exploited at centimeters to few tens of meters wide, and
La Bramadora, alluvial gold deposits have also are observed cutting the metamorphic rocks but
been exploited along the Porce river. cut by the mineralization. One of this dikes host a
Important contributions to the geology, set of subparallel veins and veinlets at the
structural features and mineralogy of La Churumbelos Mine (Ortiz and Lopez, 1992).
Bramadora gold deposit are presented by Two main structure directions have been
Oquendo (1979), Lopez (1989) and Ortiz and identified: E-W (pre-mineralization) and N-S
Lopez (1992). (post-mineralization).
Figure 5.4.10.1. Location of La Bramadora gold deposit sampled (Churumbelos).

The general trend of the mineralized zone

is E-W, being perpendicular to the general N-
S direction observed for the foliation of the
metamorphic rocks (Ortiz and Lopez, 1992).
The main exploited structure is composed
by milky quartz accompanied by calcite,
sulfides and scheelite, and usually have small
fragments of the host rock (figure 5.4.10.2).
Inside the mineralized veins, sulfides are
distributed along thin bands parallel to vein
selvages (figures 5.4.10.3 and 5.4.10.4).
Figure 5.4.10.2. Mineralized vein hosted in

5.4.10.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS
Paleozoic metamorphic rocks. Churumbelos, La
AND TEXTURES
Bramadora.
Vein mineralization at La Bramadora
comprises pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
galena and pyrrhotite, with minor amounts of
chalcopyrite and Pb-bearing sulfosalts (e.g.
jamesonite), all of them sum up to 5% in
volume. Local occurrence of stibnite are
reported (Ortiz and López, 1992).
Quartz is the main gangue mineral
accompanied by late calcite filling open spaces
between quartz crystals. Scheelite has been
also reported (Ortiz and López, 1992).
For comparative purposes with other gold
mineralizations within or peripheral to the
Antioquia Batholith, two samples (LB-1 and
Figure 5.4.10.3. Macroscopic aspect of
LB-2) were collected at Churumbelos area of
mineralization sampled at Churumbelos, La
La Bramadora (Figures 5.4.10.1 to 5.4.10.3).
Bramadora (sample LB-1).
In the following paragraphs, mineral
associations and textures observed in these
two samples are described.
Mineralization observed at churumbelos
(samples LB-1 and LB-2) include pyrite,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, boulangerite
and electrum, accompanied by quartz and
bladed calcite as gangue minerals.
Quartz
Quartz is the main gangue mineral

comprising about 80% of the mineralized vein
(figures 5.4.10.5 to 5.4.10.10).
At least two types of quartz are observed:
F i g u re 5 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . Ve i n m i n e r a l i z a t i o n
aarly quartz (qtz type-I) is fine, and it is
sampled at Churumbelos, La Bramadora
observed with fine euhedral pyrite and
(sample LB-2).
sphalerite in aggregates; late quartz (qtz type-
qtz
type I qtz
type I
qtz
qtz
type II
type II
sl> <gn sl> <gn
<boul <boul
Figure 5.4.10.5. Fine quartz (qtz type I) Figure 5.4.10.6. The above picture under
accompanied by sphalerite (sl) cemented by crossed polars. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos,
idiomorphic coarse quartz (qtz type-II) with La Bramadora.
galena and boulangerite. Sample LB-2.
qtz qtz
type-II gn type-II
<sl <sl
<qtz type-I gn <qtz type-I
ca ca
Figure 5.4.10.7. Fine quartz (qtz type-I) and Figure 5.4.10.8. The above picture under
sphalerite (sl) cemented by late coarse crossed polars. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos,
quartz (qtz type-II) and bladed calcite (ca). La Bramadora.
Sample LB-2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
<py
<py
sl sl
qtz <qtz qtz <qtz

type-II type-II
qtz qtz
ca type-I ca type-I
Figure 5.4.10.9. Quartz veinlets (qtz) cutting Figure 5.4.10.10. The above picture under
sphalerite (sl) and fine pyrite (py) crossed polars. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos,
aggregates. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos, La La Bramadora.
Bramadora.
II) is coarse-grained and accompanied by to quartz and bladed calcite as gangue minerals
bladed calcite, galena and boulangerite. (figure 5.4.10.17).
Quartz aspect is usually homogeneous with In the analyzed samples it is observed in
local overgrowths and evidences of close association with electrum particles filling
recrystallization. open spaces inside fine pyrite cristals (figures
5.4.10.23 to 5.4.10.26).
Pyrite
Boulangerite
Pyrite is the mos abundant sulfide along
with sphalerite. It is observed in two types as Boulangerite is characterized by a fibrous
occurs with quartz. Early pyrite crystals are appearance with a remarkable bright grey color
coarse-grained and homogeneous with no (figure 5.4.10. 17).
evidence of zoning. Fine subhedral to euhedral It is associated to late stages in the
pyrite crystals are also observed partly mineralization, usually along with galena and
replaced by sphalerite (figure 5.4.10.11 to coarse quartz with bladed calcite.
5.4.10.13). This Ag-bearing sulfosalt replaces earlier
mineral species such as sphalerite and pyrite.
Sphalerite
Calcite
Sphalerite crystals appear associated to
fine pyrite crystals. They are homogeneous and Bladed calcite is common as gangue
show no evidences of disseases associated to mineral associated with coarse quartz, galena
them. Along with fine euhedral pyrite crystals, and boulangerite crystals, it is characterized by
sphalerite tend to form aggregates which are tabular fine- to medium-grained cristals (figures
later cemented by late coarse quartz with 5.4.10.18 and 5.4.10.19).
bladed calcite, galena and boulangerite. Within the vein texture, it appears with
Sphalerite is later partly replaced by coarse quartz filling spaces within earlier
galena and boulangerite (figures 5.4.10.12 and aggregates of sphalerite and pyrite.
5.4.10.13).
Under transmitted light, sphalerite show Electrum
a light yellowish color indicating moderated
iron contents (figures 5.4.10.15 and Electrum is observed as small subrounded
5.4.10.16). particles closely associated with galena, filling
open spaces whitin fine pyrite crystals (figures
Chalcopyrite 5.4.10.23 to 5.4.10.26).
They are light yellow in color indicating
Chalcopyrite is very scarce in the analyzed relatively high silver contents.
samples. Only minor amounts of chalcopyrite
are observed associated to sphalerite replacing
fine euhedral pyrite crystals (Figure 5.4.10.3. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCE
5.4.10.16).
Paragenetic sequence for the analyzed
Galena samples is summarized in figure 5.4.10.27.
Early stage of mineralization includes fine
Galena crystals are homogeneous and quartz accompanied by coarse subhedral to
appear partly replacing earlier species, like euhedral pyrite.
pyrite and sphalerite (Figures 5.4.10.12 to Following this early stage, crystallization of
5.4.10.15). fine euhedral pyrite cristals later replaced by
It commonly occurs in close association sphalerite and scarce chalcopyrite, form sulfide
with boulangerite, and is observed associated aggregates, accompanied by fine quartz.
<gn qtz
sl boul>
py-I gn>
<py-II
qtz
<py-II sl
Figure 5.4.10.11. Early coarse pyrite (py-1) and Figure 5.4.10.12. Late fine pyrite crystals (py) partly
late fine pyrite (py-II). Replacing galena (gn) and replaced by sphalerite (sl). Replacing late galena (gn)
sphalerite (sl) are also observed. Sample LB-2. and boulangerite (boul) are also observed. Sample LB-
Churumbelos, La Bramadora. 2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
qtz
<boul qtz
sl
sl <cpy
<gn py
<py-II
Figure 5.4.10.13. Sphalerite (sl) replacing fine F i g u re 5 . 4 . 1 0 . 1 4 . Sphalerite (sl) and

pyrite crystals (py-II). Replacing late galena (gn) chalcopyrite (cpy) replacing pyrite (py) crystals.
and boulangerite (boul) are also observed. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
gn gn
qtz type-I> qtz type-I>
<sl
sl
<py <py
sl> gn sl gn qtz
qtz
type-II type-II
<boul <boul
Figure 5.4.10.15. Fine quartz (qtz type-I) and sphalerite Figure 5.4.10.16. The above picture under
(sl) cemented by late coarse quartz (qtz type-II), crossed polars. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos,
accompanied by galena (gn) and boulangerite (boul). La Bramadora.
qtz type-I>
ca
ca qtz
boul>
qtz type-II>
cv>
Figure 5.4.10.17. Boulangerite (boul) Figure 5.4.10.18. Late coarse quartz (qtz type-
acompannied by bladed calcite (ca). Quartz (qtz) II) accompanied by bladed calcite (ca). Early fine
and supergene covellite (cv) is also observed. quartz (qtz type-I) is also observed. Sample LB-
Sample LB-2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora. 2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
qtz
type-II
ca
ca <boul
qtz
type-II py
gn
Figure 5.4.10.19. Late bladed calcite (ca) Figure 5.4.10.20. Galena (gn) partly replacing pyrite
accompanied by coarse quartz (qtz type II) in crystals (py) accompanied by bladed calcite (ca) and
mineralized vein. Early fine quartz (qtz type-I) is also
observed. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
qtz
type-II
ca <boul
py
gn
Figure 5.4.10.21. Calcita (ca) accompanied by Figure 5.4.10.22. The above picture under
boulangerite (boul) cutting coarse quartz (qtz type-II). crossed polars. Sample LB-2. Churumbelos,
Transmitted light without analyzer. Sample LB-2. La Bramadora.
Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
qtz
Au (Au54Ag46)>
qtz
<gn gn> py
py sl
50um 50um
associated to galena (gn) filling open spaces associated to galena (gn) filling open spaces
beetwen fine pyrite (py) cristals. Sample LB- beetwen fine pyrite (py) cristals. Sample LB-
2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora. 2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
sl
<gn
gn>
<Au (Au51Ag49)
<sl py
py qtz
<sl
50um qtz 50um
associated to galena (gn) filling open spaces associated to galena (gn) filling open spaces
beetwen fine pyrite (py) cristals. Sample LB- beetwen fine pyrite (py) cristals. Sample LB-
2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora. 2. Churumbelos, La Bramadora.
Figure 5.4.10.27. Mineral paragenesis for studied samples at Churumbelos, La Bramadora.

Samples LB-1 and LB-2.
The final stage of mineralization involves

cristallization of coarse quartz accompanied by
bladed calcite, galena and boulangerite. this
associations fill open spaces between earlier
fine pyrite-sphalerite-quartz aggregates.
Sphalerite
As mentioned above, sphalerite at Figure 5.4.10.28. Cd vs. Fe (At%) plot for EMP
Churumbelos vein sampled is yellow in color results on sphalerite samples from Churumbelos
indicating moderate iron contents (figure mineralization, La Bramadora.
5.4.10.28).
sphalerite crystals from Churumbelos gold
mineralization show relatively high Cadmium
contents (>1 wt% or 0.44 At%) (figure
5.4.7.35).
Iron contents are relatively high varying
in the range of 1.5 to 4.0 At%, with constant
Cd contents around 0.5At%. Therefore, there
seem not to be any positive or negative
correlation between Fe and Cd.
Electrum

electrum particles on the Churumbelos vein at
La Bramadora samples (LB-1 and LB-2)
indicate relatively high silver contents (Au51-
55 -Ag 45-49 ), which are in accordance with the
Figure 5.4.10.29. Chemical composition of
light bright color observed under microscope
electrum particles analyzed by EMP in atoms per
suggesting important silver contents (figure
formula unit (apfu).
5.4.10.29).
5.4.10.5. SULFUR ISOTOPES Sulfur isotope results indicate slight

negative 34S values.
Five samples of sulfides including pyrite Most negative 34S values were obtained
sphalerite and galena, from Churumbelos vein for the galena sample (-5.1); pyrite samples
mineralization (samples LB-1 and LB-2) were returned values of -4.1 and -4.3, and sphalerite
separated for sulfur isotope analyses (table samples returned -2.6 and -3.0 values.
5.4.10.1). These results are more negative than sulfur
Sulfur isotope analyses were performed isotopes analyzed in other gold deposits
for regional scale comparisons with other gold whithin the Antioquia Batholith, and this could
deposits hosted whitin or peripheral to the be related to the fact of being hosted in the
Antioquia Batholith, and therefore they cannot Paleozoic metamorphic rocks (Cajamarca and
provide robust results at the scale of the deposit. Valdivia groups), implying higher sulfur
Table 5.4.10.1. Sulfur isotope composition of sulfide samples from Churumbelos vein
mineralization at La Bramadora.

pyrite -4.1
LB-1 sphalerite -3.0
75° 10’ 46.1” W
Churumbelos, La Bramadora galena -5.1
6° 54’ 14.3” N
pyrite -4.3
LB-2
sphalerite -2.6
contamination form these rocks than what has interesting points can be addressed only for
been observed for other deposits hosted within regional comparison purposes within the
the Antioquia Batholith. Unfortunately, there Antioquia Batholith region context.
are no sulfur isotope data for pyrite of the Ore mineralogy in the studied samples
metasedimentary sequence to compare these seem to be relatively simple, being composed
results. mainly by quartz, pyrite and sphalerite in the
early stage, followed by mineralization of
quartz, bladed calcite, galena and Ag-bearing
5.4.10.6. LEAD ISOTOPES sulfosalts (e.g. boulangerite) accompanying
electrum.
Only one lead isotope analysis from a Lack of mineral deposition timing impide
galena separate sample of the Churumbelos to establish the relationship with well-
gold mineralization was carried out, returning constrained metallogenic events associated to
radiogenic values ( 207Pb/ 204Pb>15.55) (Table the Antioquia Batholith (e.g. the Paleocene
5.4.10.2). metallogenic event along the relatively close
These isolated result do not mean so much Nus River trend).
by itself, but it fits the narrow range of 206Pb/ The occurence of arsenopyrite and stibnite
204
Pb ratio observed for other gold deposits reported by Ortiz and Lopez (1992) along with
hosted within or peripheral to the Antioquia Sb-bearing sulfosalts (boulangerite) and high
Batholith ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb=18.637-18.789), silver contents in electrum particles in the
suggesting certain relationship between them. analyzed samples for this research would
indicate a Sb-Ag-Au-Ag signature that could
be interpreted as a distal style of mineralization
5.4.8.7. DISCUSSION in the context of an Intrusion-Related Gold
System associated with the Paleocene adakite-
Only two samples have been studied from like magmatic facies of the Antioquia Batholith,
the Churumbelos gold mineralization. Despite widely distributed along the Nus River Trend
this limited sampling, some preliminary (Hart, 2007; Robert, 2007).
Table 5.4.10.2. Lead isotope composition of galena from Churumbelos vein

mineralziation at La Bramadora gold deposit
Location Coordinates Sample Material 206Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 208Pb/204Pb
Churumbelos, 75° 10’ 46.1” W

LB-2 Galena 18.712 15.665 38.716
La Bramadora 6° 54’ 14.3” N
Other plausible possibility is that gold different magmatic pulses identified in the
mineralization at this region could be related Antioquia Batholith.
with a previous magmatic pulse that have On the other hand, despite the number of
contributed to the Antioquia Batholith formation isotope data obtained for this gold
during ca. 35Ma in the late Cretaceous to mineralization is scarce yet, it is important to
Paleocene age interval. mention how results on both, sulfur and lead
Future geochronological studies focused isotopes, compare well with other isotope
in hydrothermal alteration/mineralization dating results obtained for different gold deposits
at La Bramadora gold deposit must be carried within the Antioquia Batholith, thus suggesting
out in order to establish the precise time a close relationship between them at a regional
relationship between gold mineralization and scale.
5.4.11.-El Pino 589
5.4.11. EL PINO
El Pino Mine is located about four kilometers a 10 drill-hole exploration program in different
to the north of Maceo townsite, in the NE portion points of the breccia returned variable low gold
of the Antioquia Department (Figure 5.4.11.1). values with no significant economic potential.
There are not much information published Despite the low values for gold obtained
on this mineralization, apart for internal reports after the mentioned exploration program, the
presented during the development of present research reports an important content on
exploration activities by the Join Venture Ag-bearing sulfosalts, justifying a mention as an
Avasca Ventures Ltda - Anglogold Ashanti important mineralization peripheral to the
Colombia over the 2005-2006 period, where Antioquia Batholith.
Figure 5.4.11.1. Location map of the El Pino Mine breccia mineralization.

5.4.11.1. GEOLOGY OF THE DEPOSIT
The El Pino Mine is hosted in the pre-

Mezosoic metamorphic basement of the central
cordillera. It is found over the trace of a
regional fault following a NNW-SSE trend,
about 1.5km to the east of the intrusive contact
of the metamorphic basement with the
Antioquia Batholith (Figure 5.4.11.1).
The complete structure has 3200 m in
lenght, and it is a breccia zone which, in the
surface, form a gossan up to three meters thick.
In the area of the El Pino Mine, the structure F i g u re 5 . 4 . 11 . 2 . O x i d i z e d b re c c i a
is a fault zone with a wide development of mineralized body at El Pino Mine, Maceo,
breccias, achieving to form a 20m thick Antioquia.
m i n e r a l i z e d b o d y. T h e h o s t r o c k s a r e
quartzites of the pre-Mezosoic basement. Thin
subvertical mineralized veins following a NE
direction observed in the area indicate a
subordinated set of mineralized structures
associated to the main breccia zone.
Hydrothermal alteration associated to the
El Pino mineralized structure is mainly strong
silicification of the metamorphic rocks and
breccia zone, with development of colloform
textures and abundant highly oxidized quartz
drusiform cavities. Breccia clasts present
disseminated sulfides (e.g. pyrite and
sphalerite) partly replacing the host rock
(figure 5.4.11.3 and 5.4.11.4). Figure 5.4.11.3. El Pino Mine breccia
For comparative purposes at a regional scale, s h o w i n g s t ro n g s i l i c i f i c a t i o n a n d
a sample from El Pino Mine breccia (sample EP- development of druses in cavities. Sample
1) was collected for analysis in the present EP-1, El Pino Mine.
research (Figures 5.4.11.3 and 5.4.11.4).

AND TEXTURES
Mineralized breecia comprise strongly

silicified fragments of pre-Mesozoic metamorphic
rocks with sulfide mineralization disseminated
both, in the clasts and quartz cement. Cavities
with development of quartz druses are common,
and idiomorphic beudantite group minerals were
observed in the sample (Figure 5.4.11.5).
Tabular pyrite aggregates as replacement Figure 5.4.11.4. Detail of El Pino Mine
of previous bladed calcite are also identified, mineralized breccia with strong silicification
suggesting multiple mineralizing events inside and disseminated sulfides. Sample EP-1, El
this complex structure (Figure 5.4.11.6). Pino Mine.
5.4.11.-El Pino 591
Disseminated sulfides include mostly
pyrite accompanied by arsenopyrite and
sphalerita with minor amounts of galena and a
complex association of Ag-Cu-Sb-As-bearing
sulfosalts, including: freibergite, pyrargyrite
Quartz
Quartz is the most abundant mineral in El

Pino Mine breccia sample. It is present as
strong silicification in the breccia clasts and as
open spaces filling cement between silicified
clasts. Typical textures of open spaces filling Figure 5.4.11.5. Beudantite group minerals in
are observed such as euhedral quartz cristals cavities, growing up over idiomorphic quartz
as druses in cavities («cockade textures»; crystals. Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo,
Figures 5.4.11.3 to 5.4.11.5). Antioquia.
Pyrite
Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide in the

disseminated mineralization at El Pino Mine
breccia. It is present as disseminated subhedral
to euhedral crystals both, in the silica cement
and in the silicified clasts (Figure 5.4.11.4).
A remarkable feature of pyrite
mineralization at the el Pino Mine breccia is
the tabular habit observed at the macroscopic
scale (Figure 5.4.11.6). Ore petrography
analyses of this pyrite mineralization show how
Figure 5.4.11.6. Tabular aggregates of pyrite as
these tabular forms are developed as a result
a result of pseudomorphic replacement of earlier
of pseudomorphic replacement of previous
bladed calcite or anhidrite. Sample EP-1, El Pino
tabular minerals such as bladed clacite or
Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
anhidrite by subhedral to euhedral pyrite
crystals (Figures 5.4.11.7 and 5.4.11.8).
In addition, zoning is a frequent
characteristic observed at pyrite cristals from
El Pino Mine breccia, indicating disequilibria
conditions during their crystallization (Figures
5.4.11.9 to 5.4.11.11).
Pyrite mineralization is accompanied by
arsenopyrite and later replaced by sphalerite,
and all of them are partly replaced and cut by car> py
later galena and Ag-Cu-Sb-As-bearing
sulfosalts and sulfides (Figure 5.4.1..10).
Arsenopyrite
Figure 5.4.11.7. Pseudomorphic replacement of
Arsenopyrite is not as abundant as pyrite tabular minerals by pyrite (py) aggregates.
but it is common at El Pino Mine breccia Carminite (car) is also observed. Sample EP-1,
mineralization. El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
It is present as idiomorphic rhombohedral

crystals or aggregates of hypidiomorphic
crystals (Figures 5.4.11.12 and 5.4.11.13).
It is partly replaced by Ag-Cu-bearing
sulfosalts (e.g. tennantite and
argentotennantite) as well as by supergene
covellite (Figures 5.4.11.14).
Sphalerite
Sphalerite is less abundant than pyrite and

chalcopyrite in the sample. It occurs as
subhedral to anhedral crystals usually with
Figure 5.4.11.8. Pseudomorphic replacement of
chalcopyrite disease (Figures 5.4.11.15 and
tabular minerals by pyrite (py) aggregates.
5.4.11.16).
Carminite (car) is also observed. Sample EP-1,
Sphalerite is observed partly replacing
El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
pyrite and arsenopyrite, and being replaced by
Ag-Sb-bearing sulfosalts (e.g. pyrargirite) and
supergene acantite (Figures 5.4.11.15 and
5.4.11.16).
Chalcopyrite
sl>
<aspy
Chalcopyrite is present only in minor
amounts partly replacing sphalerite crystals
(«chalcopyrite disease») (Figures 5.4.11.15 <py
and 5.4.11.16).
qtz
Galena
Figure 5.4.11.9. Zoned pyrite (py) crystal
Galena is present in minor amounts, usually
accompanied by arsenopyrite (aspy) and
accompanied by different Ag-Cu-Sb-As-bearing
sphalerite (sl). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine,
sulfosalt species and replacing earlier mineral
Maceo, Antioquia.
species such as pyrite and arsenopyrite.
Pyrargyrite (Ag 3SbS 3)
Pyrargyrite is present in minor amounts,

but is common in the El Pino Mine breccia
sl>
mineralization, as a late open spaces filling
accompanied by other sulfosalts (Figures
5.4.11.17 to 5.4.11.22). py
It can be distinguised from other sulfosalts
by its characteristic blue hue with strong red pyrar>
internal reflections (Figure 5.4.11.17 to aspy>
qtz
5.4.11.19).
It is usually accompanied by freibergite
Figure 5.4.11.10. Zoned pyrite (py) crystals with
and other Ag-bearing sulfosalts, and replaces
arsenopyrite (aspy) and sphalerite (sl).
both, pyrite and arsenopyrite (Figure
Pyrargyrite (pyrar) partly replacing pyrite (py).
5.4.11.17).
Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
5.4.11.-El Pino 593
pyrar>
<sl
aspy>
py
Figure 5.4.11.11. Zoned pyrite (py) crystal partly Figure 5.4.11.12. Arsenopyrite (aspy) subhedral
replaced by pyrargyrite (Pyrar) and sphalerite crystals. Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo,
(sl). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
aspy
<at ten> <cv

aspy
Figure 5.4.11.13. Arsenopyrite (aspy) euhedral Figure 5.4.11.14. Arsenopyrite crystals partly
crystal partly replaced by argentotennantite (at). replaced by tennantite. Supergene covellite is also
Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. observed. Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo,
Antioquia.
acan aspy>
sl
sl pyrar>
<aspy
Figure 5.4.11.15. Pyrite (py), arsenopyrite (aspy) Figure 5.4.11.16. Sphalerite (sl) with chalcopyrite
and sphalerite (sl) partly replaced by acantite disease partly replaced by pyrargyrite (pyrar).
(acan). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
Antioquia.
Freibergite ((Ag,Cu,Fe) 12 (Sb,As) 4S 13 )
Freibergite is relatively common on the

sample of El Pino Mine breccia. It is usually
associated with galena, pyrargyrite and other fr
sulfosalts (Figures 5.4.11.21 to 5.4.11.23).
It replaces pyrite,arsenopyrite and
sphalerite crystals and is later replaced by pyrar aspy
supergene mineral species (e.g. acantite and
covellite) (Figure 5.4.11.24).
Other Ag-Cu-Sb-Ag-bearing sulfosalts

Figure 5.4.11.17. Pyrargyrite (pyrar) and freibergite
Pyrargyrite and freibergite are
(fr) partly replacing arsenopyrite (aspy). Internal
accompanied by other ag-Cu-Sb-As-bearing
reflections of pyrargyrite can be distinguished.
sulfosalts including pearceite [Ag 9 CuS 4]
Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
[ ( A g , C u ) 6 ( A s , S b ) 2S 7 ] , tennantite
( ( C u , F e ) 12 A s 4 S 13 ) , a r g e n t o t e n n a n t i t e
((Ag,Cu)10(Zn,Fe)2(As,Sb)4S13) and famatinite
Cu 3SbS 4 (Figures 5.4.11.25 to 5.4.11.28).
Supergene mineral species fr
Supergene mineral species found in the El

Pino Mine breccia include: mckinstryite pyrar aspy
(Ag,Cu) 2S, acantite (Ag 2S), covellite (CuS)
and geffroyite ((Ag,Cu,Fe)9(Se,S) 8).
They are usually observed as late
replacements in earlier sulfosalts such as
pyrargyrite, freibergite, pearceite and
Figure 5.4.11.18. The above picture under
famatinite (Figures 5.4.11.29 to 5.4.11.37).
crossed polars. Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine,
Maceo, Antioquia.
At El Pino Mine breccia, preliminary pyrar

paragenetic sequence involves at least two
well-defined mineralization stages (Figure
5.4.11.38). <ac
Continuous circulation of silica-rich
hydrothermal fluids in a shallow environment
(epithermal?) through the fractured <cv
metamorphic rocks caused strong silicification
of the breccia clasts and deposition of silica
cement between them probably accompanied
by bladed calcite or anhydrite in the early
stages. Figure 5.4.11.19. Pyrargyrite (pyrar) partly
Sulfide deposition caused the complete replaced by supergene acantite(ac) and covellite
replacement of bladed calcite or anhydrite by (cv). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo,
pyrite aggregates and subsequent deposition Antioquia.
5.4.11.-El Pino 595
py
<ac
<ac
pyrar
aspy
<pyrar
fr
py>
aspy
Figure 5.4.11.20. Pyrargyrite (pyrar) and Figure 5.4.11.21. Pyrargyrite (pyrar) and mixed
acantite (ac) cutting and partly replacing pyrite sulfosalts cutting and partly replacing pyrite (py)
(py) and arsenopyrite (aspy). Sample EP-1, El and arsenopyrite (aspy). Sample EP-1, El Pino
Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
pyrar
gn>
<ac fr
fr
sl
aspy
Figure 5.4.11.22. Detail of the above picture Figure 5.4.11.23. Sphalerite (sl) partly replaced
replacements by sulfosalts. Sample EP-1, El Pino by freibergite (fr). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine,
Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. Maceo, Antioquia.
<fr <ac qtz

cv>
<cv
aspy
<pear
qtz
aspy>
Figure 5.4.11.24. Arsenopyrite (aspy) partly Figure 5.4.11.25. Arsenopyrite (aspy) partly
replaced by freibergite (fr) and supergene replaced by pearcite (pear) and supergene
acantite (ac) and covellite (cv). Sample EP- covellite (cv). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine,
1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. Maceo, Antioquia.
<ac
qtz
qtz
<fam fam
<ac
<cv
pyrar cv>
Figure 5.4.11.26. Pyrargyrite (pyrar) replaced by Figure 5.4.11.27. Detail of the above picture
famatinite (fam) and later replaced by acantite showing famatinite (fam) replacement by
(ac). Idiomorphic quartz is also observed. supergene acantite (ac) and covellite (cv). Sample
Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
<cv
fam>
cv> <mc
graf> aspy> ac>
qtz
fr
qtz
Figure 5.4.11.28. Arsenopyrite (aspy) partly Figure 5.4.11.29. Freibergite (fr) partly replaced
replaced by famatinite (fam). Supergene covellite by mckinstryite (mc), acantite (ac) and covellite
(cv) and graphite (graph) are also observed. (cv). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo,
Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. Antioquia.
qtz
qtz
tn
gf gf> fr
car ac
Figure 5.4.11.30. Tennantite (tn) partly replaced Figure 5.4.11.31. Freibergite (fr) partly replaced
by supergene geffroyite (gf). Sample EP-1, El by carminite (car), geffroyite (gf) and acantite
Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. (ac). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo,
Antioquia.
5.4.11.-El Pino 597
qtz
<mc
cv>
cv>
<mc
qtz
Figure 5.4.11.32. Supergene mckinstryite (mc) Figure 5.4.11.33. Detail of supergene

and covellite (cv). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, mckinstryite (mc) and covellite (cv). Sample EP-
Maceo, Antioquia. 1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
sl
gf>
cv
car
Figure 5.4.11.34. Supergene sphalerite (sl) and Figure 5.4.11.35. Geffroyite (gf) partly replacing
covellite (cv) intergrowths. Sample EP-1, El Pino carminite (car). Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine,
Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. Maceo, Antioquia.
sl
ac>
sl
ac> cv>
cv>
Figure 5.4.11.36. Sphalerite (sl) partly replaced Figure 5.4.11.37. Sphalerite (sl) partly replaced
by supergene acantite (ac) and covellite (cv). by supergene covellite (cv) and acantite (ac).
Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia. Sample EP-1, El Pino Mine, Maceo, Antioquia.
of arsenopyrite and sphalerite with later A possible explanation for such a negative
replacement by chalcopyrite («chlacopyrite results is the fact of being hosted in the pre-
disease»). Mesozoic metamorphic rocks hosting the
Fracturing of the early sulfide mineral Antioquia Batholith (e.g. Cajamarca and
species (f1) generate fractures and open spaces Valdivia groups), which would imply a direct
for deposition of a second generation of sulfide interaction of the mineralizing fluids with meta-
and sulfosalts including galena, pyrargyrite, sedimentary rocks and contamination with
freibergite, pearceite, tennantite, organic biogenic sulfur.
argentotennantite, famatinite.
Finally, a supergene enrichment stage
includes total or partly replacement of sulfide 5.4.11.5. DISCUSION
and sulfosalts mineral species by minerals such
as mckinstryite, acantite, geffroyite and As-bearing sulfosalts, observed over
covellite. quartz crystals in druses and cavities, could
suggest an epithermal evironment, of the low-
sulfidation type, for the formation of this
5.4.11.4. SULFUR ISOTOPES structure (AGAC, unpublished internal report).
According with the above report,
For regional comparative purposes with mineralization is assumed to be related to the
other mineralizations in the Antioquia Batholith intrusion of the late Cretaceous - Paleocene
region, three analyses of sulfur isotopes in Antioquia Batholith. Late fluid circulation
pyrite were made (table 5.4.11.1). associated to the regional fault (El Cenizo fault)
Sulfur isotope analyses returned marked would be responsible for the formation of the
negative 34S values in the range between -7.3 El Pino mineralized structure (AGAC, internal
and -15.8. These results are clearly more report).
negative than slight negative values close to El Pino Mine breccia is an unusual
zero obtained for other sulfide mineralizations mineralization style in the Antioquia Batholith
in the Antioquia Batholith area (e.g. Cerro region. It constitutes an Ag-rich breccia
Gramalote, La Floresta de Yalí, Santa Rosa deposit with variable and relatively low gold
de Osos, La Bramadora). contents.
Figure 5.4.11.38. Preliminary paragenetic sequence of the El Pino Mine breccia mineralization.
Mineralization stages are separed among them by episodes of fracturing (F0, F1).
5.4.11.-El Pino 599
Table 5.4.11.1. Sulfur isotope composition of sulphide samples from the El Pino Mine breccia
mineralization.

pyrite -7.3
74° 47’ 40” W
El Pino Mine breccia EP-1 pyrite -13.5
6° 35’ 24.3” N
pyrite -15.8
Lack of age dating for the hydrothermal Sb-As-Ag-Cu geochemical signature could
alteration or the mineralization do not permit relate this mineralization to a more distal
us to confirm its relationship to the Antioquia mineralization style within an Intrusion-Related
Batholith intrusion. In any case, this relationship Gold System (Lang and Baker, 2001; Hart,
cannot be discarded, and geochronological 2007). This distal position could also explain
analyses must be made in order to precise the the light sulfur isotope values when compared
role of the late Cretaceous to Paleocene with those odf other proximal mineralizations
Antioquia Batholith polyphase intrusion in the in the Antioquia intrusion. In this context an
development of the El Pino mineralization. unconfirmed relationship with the well
In case that the age of the deposit would constrained Paleocene metallogenic event of
correspond with the age of the intrusion, the the Nus River trend would be expected.
5.4.12. - El Vapor 601
5.4.12. EL VAPOR
El Vapor gold deposits constitute mining N-S corridor associated to the Nus Fault, a
district located about 21km to the SE of the regional structure situated to the east of the
Maceo townsite, and are found and about major Palestina Fault System (Figure
15km to the ENE from the Caracolí townsite 5.4.12.1).
(Figure 5.4.12.1). Some mines of the district There is not much metallogenetic
are operative at the present day, in spite the information published on these important gold
fact that many mines are closed. deposits, although mention of gold exploitations
Several underground exploitations and in the area are found in some important
tunnels are well recognized in this area, where geological literature (e.g. Feininger et al.,
gold mineralization is restricted to a 12 km long 1972).
Figure 5.4.12.1. Location map and sampling at El Vapor gold deposits.

El Vapor gold mineralizations are

associated to the N-S trace of the Nus Fault
which separates Jurassic intrusives (i.e.
Segovia Batholith) to the west and early
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks including
carbonaceous mudstones and black shales
with arenite intercalations known as
«sedimentitas al este de Segovia» (Gonzalez,
2001).
Gold vein mineralization is hosted in both,
the Jurassic intrusive and the early Cretaceous
Figure 5.4.12.2. Quartz-pyrite veinlets cut
sedimentary rocks.
early Cretaceous sedimentites. El Infierno-
Mineralized veins are composed by
4 tunnel, abscissa 82, El Vapor.
quartz, pyrite, sphalerite and galena, following
N15ºW to N25ºE directions, with steep dips
(70-90º), and are associated to the Nus Fault
(AGAC, internal reports).
These mineralized structures are few tens of
centimeters up to 2 meters width and several small
associated veinlets are observed (Figure 5.4.12.2).
In addition, mineralized dacite porphyry
dikes upt o 8m width with strong quartz-
sericite pervasive alteration and disseminated
pyrite are observed in several underground
exploitations. At El Infierno-1 tunnel the
direction of the dikes is N42ºE/75ºNW and at
El Conejo area to the south of the district they
are vertical following E-W direction (Hector Figure 5.4.12.3. Strongly altered (quartz-
Vargas, personal communication) (Figures sericite) dacite porphyry dike cut early
5.4.12.3 and 5.4.12.4). Cretaceous sedimentites. El Infierno-4
For regional comparisson purposes, two tunnel, abscissa 82, El Vapor.
areas in El Vapor were visited close to the road
from Medellin to Puerto Berrio: El Infierno-4
tunnel and La Banca, where representative
samples of carbonaceous mudstones and black
shales along with quartz-pyrite vein/veinlets
mineralization and mineralized/altered dacite
porphyry dikes were collected.

AND TEXTURES
Early cretaceous sedimentites at El Vapor

show disseminated biogenic mineralization Figure 5.4.12.4. Strongly altered (quartz-
(«framboidal pyrite»), which is usually sericite) dacite porphyry dike with quartz-
distributed following stratification planes. sphalerite mineralization. Sample EV-6, El
(Figures 5.4.12.5 to 5.4.12.7). infierno-4 tunnel, abscissa 82, El Vapor.
5.4.12. - El Vapor 603
sh
sh
<py <py
Figure 5.4.12.5. Biogenic framboidal pyrite (py) Figure 5.4.12.6. The above picture with crossed
in carbonaceous mudstones and black shales polars. Sample EV-3, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El
(sh). Sample EV-3, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor. Vapor.
sh sh
<cpy
<py
Figure 5.4.12.7. The above picture under Figure 5.4.12.8. Disseminated chalcopyrite in the
reflected light. Sample EV-3, El Infierno-4 tunnel, carbonaceous mudstones and black shales (sh).
El Vapor. Sample EV-3, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
sh sh
<py <py
qtz qtz
Figure 5.4.12.9. Quartz (qtz) and pyrite (py) Figure 5.4.12.10. The above picture in crossed
veinlets in carbonaceous mudstones and black polars. Sample EV-2, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El
shales (sh). Sample EV-2, El Infierno-4 tunnel, Vapor.
El Vapor.
In addition, small particles of chalcopyrite

were also observed disseminated in the
sedimentary host rock, indicating later
mineralization possibly associated to
hydrothermal activity (Figure 5.4.12.8).
On the other hand, auriferous quartz- qtz py
sulfide vein mineralization at El Vapor
comprises a relatively simple mineralogy with
quartz as the main component accompanied by sh
euhedral pyrite crystals (Figures 5.4.12.9 and
5.4.12.10).
Quartz crystals in the veins show typical
open spaces filling textures («comb textures»)
from vein selvages, with later deposition of Figure 5.4.4.11. Euhedral pyrite crystals (py) in
euhedral cubic crystals in the center of the veins quartz vein. Black shales: sh. Sample EV-2, El
(Figures 5.4.12.11 to 5.4.12.13). Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
Quartz veins development is quite
complex with several vein generations as
evidenced by spatial distribution observed and
crosscut relationships between them.
Minor amounts of chalcopyrite, galena and
sphalerite were also observed in quartz veins
(Figures 5.4.12.14). qtz py
In addition, dacite porphyry dikes are
also mineralized with disseminated pyrite and
veinlets of quartz with sphalerite and pyrite sh
(Figure 5.4.12.4)
Sphalerite crystal in quartz veins and
veinlets in the mineralized porphyry dikes are
homogeneous, non zoned and present no later
replacements following cleavage planes (i.e. Figure 5.4.4.12. The above picture in crossed
«chalcopyrite disease») . Pyrite replacements polars. Sample EV-2, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El
of sphalerite are observed following fractures Vapor.
and usuaaly associated with quartz euhedral
crystals (Figures 5.4.12.15 to 5.4.12.17).
Disseminated pyrite crystals in the altered
dikes are fine- to medium-grained euhedral to
subhedral in shape, and tend to form forming
aggregates (Figures 5.4.12.17 to 5.4.12.23).
Hydrothermal alteration in the dikes is qtz py
strongly pervasive, of the quartz-sericite type,
and is accompanied by minor amounts of
carbonates and disseminated pyrite as sh
mentioned above (i.e. calcite) (Figure
5.4.12.18 and 5.4.12.19).
Original texture of the dikes has almost
dissapear, and only «gosths» of original
phenocrystals completely replaced by Figure 5.4.4.13. The above picture under
alteration minerals can be distinguished reflected light without analyzer. Sample EV-2, El
(Figures5.4.12.20 and 5.4.12.21). Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
5.4.12. - El Vapor 605
sl
qtz
py
py>
qtz
cpy>
Figure 5.4.12.14. Chalcopyrite inclusion in Figure 5.4.12.15. Pyrite (py) veinlets partly
euhedral pyrite crystal in quartz-sulfide veins. replacing earlier sphalerite (sl) mineralization.
Sample EV-2, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor. Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
sl qtz sl
qtz
py py
ser ser
Figure 5.4.12.16. Pyrite (py) partly replacing earlier Figure 5.4.12.17. The above picture under
sphalerite (sl) mineralization. Sericite: ser, quartz reflected light. Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4
(qtz). Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor. tunnel, El Vapor.
ser
ser
ca ca
qtz
qtz
Figure 5.4.12.18. Quartz (qtz) - sericite Figure 5.4.12.19. The above picture in
(ser) alteration accompanied by calcite (ca) crossed polars. Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4
in dacite porphyry dike. Sample EV-6, El tunnel, El Vapor.
Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
qtz qtz
<sl ser ser
<sl
<py <py
Figure 5.4.12.20. Disseminated pyrite (py) Figure 5.4.12.21. The above picture in
mineralization in altered dacite dike. Veins of crossed polars. Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4
quartz (qtz) with sphalerite (sl) are also observed. tunnel, El Vapor.
Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
<py <py
ser
qtz
qtz ser
<sl <sl
Figure 5.4.12.22. Veins of quartz (qtz) with Figure 5.4.12.23. The above picture in
sphalerite (sl) in mineralized dacite crossed polars. Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4
porphyry dike. Sample EV-6, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
tunnel, El Vapor.
5.4.12.3. HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION/ dacite porphyry dikes. This age fits well with
MINERALIZATION AGE the Paleocene metallogenic event of the Nus
River trend well recognized in the Antioquia
In order to constrain the hydrothermal Batholith.
alteration/mineralization age of the On the other hand, the apophyses of the
mineralization at El Vapor mining district, Antioquia Batholith located only 4 km to the
sericite K-Ar age determination for a NW of the El Vapor mining district (sample
mineralized dacite porphyry dike sample was R-6834; section 5.3.5), returned a Paleocene
carried out (Table 5.4.12.1). age of 61.8±1.3Ma. Therefore, an important
Sericite K-Ar age dating indicate a role of this Paleocene magmatic and
P a l e o g e n e a g e ( 5 5 . 9± 2 . 0 M a ) f o r t h e metallogenic event may be suspected also in
hydrothermal alteration and, therefore, this is the case of the mineralization at El Vapor mining
probably the age of the mineralization of the district.
5.4.12. - El Vapor 607
Table 5.4.12.1. Sericite K-Ar age dating for El Vapor mineralized and hydrothermally altered
dacite/andesite dike. Sample EV-3, El Infierno-4 tunnel, El Vapor.
5.4.12.4. SULFUR ISOTOPES 5.4.12.5. DISCUSION
For regional comparative purposes, two Hydrothermal alteration/mineralization age

analyses of sulfur isotopes on pyrite samples obtained for the dacite porphyry dike at El
from El Infierno-4 tunnel and La Banca sector Vapor gold deposits compares well with the
in El Vapor mining district were carried out Paleocene adakite-like Nus River trend pulse
(table 5.4.12.2). within the magmatic evolution of the Antioquia
The sulfur isotope results returned from Batholith and its associated metallogenic event.
pyrite samples in quartz vein mineralization The geographic location just in front of the
hosted in the early Cretaceous sedimentites are paleocene apophyses of the Antioquia
slighlty positive ( 34 S=+0.6 and +1.6), Batholith also favored the idea of a relationship
contrasting with the remarkable slight negative between this magmatic event and the gold
 34 S values obtained for sulfide samples in mineralization at El Vapor, as occur with the
deposits located within and peripheral to the Segovia-Remedios mining district gold
Antioquia Batholith. deposits (Section 5.4.9).
In any case, the  34 S values are close to Future detailed petrography, isotope
zero, indicating a magmatic source for sulfur, geochemistry, and geochronology research in
and interaction of mineraliziing fluids with the this important gold deposit is necessary in
underlying continental crust basement (e.g. order to establish the precise relationship of
grenville metamorphic rocks) to the east of the the gold mineralization with the Paleocene
Palestine Fault System would be responsible magamatism in the area and the nature of the
for this particular tendency. mineralizing fluids associated to it.
Table 5.4.12.2. Sulfur isotope composition of pyrite samples from quartz vein mineralization at
El Vapor mining district.
SECTION 5.5.
Other Intrusives of Cretaceous-

Paleogene Age with Spatially
Associated Au Occurrences
5.5.1. INTRODUCTION AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
As mentioned above in section 5.1.1, component in the Miraflores Lithic Breccia

besides the Antioquia and Sonsón batholiths, (Rodriguez et al., 2001a,b; Casta eda and
some other late Cretaceous-Paleogene plutons Ceballos, 2008). Petrography, whole-rock
have been reported with important spatially geochemistry and geochronology of this
associated mineral occurrences in Colombia: porphyry fragment is also presented and
Mariquita, Manizales, El Hatillo and Santa compared with results obtained for samples of
Isabel stocks intruding low-grade metamorphic the Irra Stock.
rocks of the Cajamarca and Valdivia groups
to the east of the Romeral Fault System; and
Irra Stock, Buga Batholith and Jejenes Pluton
intruding the Romeral assemblage to the west
of the Romeral Fault System) (Aspden et al.,
1987; Buenaventura, 1975; Lopez, 1971;
INGEOMINAS, 2001a,b) (Fig. 5.5.1.1).
In the following sections, complementary
analyses for the late Cretaceous-Paleogene
magmatism in Colombia are presented. Those
analyses include: petrography (Mariquita
Batholith, Irra Stock and Jejenes Pluton),
whole-rock geochemistry (Mariquita,
Manizales and Irra stocks, Buga Batholith and
Jejenes Pluton), and U-Pb zircon LA-MC-
ICP-MS geochronology and isotope
geochemistry (Mariquita and Irra stocks and
Jejenes Pluton).
Some other intrusives with no apparent
spatial-related gold occurrences were selected
in this work for comparative purposes and a
better geochemical characterization of the I-
type calc-alkaline late Cretaceous-Paleogene
magmatism in Colombian Northern Andes: El
Bosque and Mistrató batholiths, to the east and
to the west of Romeral Fault System
respectively (Fig. 5.5.1.1).
In addition, a block of rhyodacite
plagioclase porphyry collected in the
Miraflores Lithic Breccia, at La Cruzada Mine
(75º41’34.06”W, 5º17’34.70”N), located Figure 5.5.1.1. Distribution of selected Late
about 2km to the north of the Irra Stock, was Cretaceous - Paleogene magmatism over
also included in this work as possibly related the central and western cordilleras of the
to the Irra Stock, besides being a common Colombian Northern Andes.
5.5.2.-Petrography of other intrusives of Cretaceous to Paleogene age 613
5.5.2. PETROGRAPHY OF OTHER INTRUSIVES OF

CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE AGE
5.5.2.1. PYROXENE AMPHIBOLE

MONZONITE OF THE IRRA FACIES
The Irra intrusion is a small stock of 30

km2. It is a homogeneous intrusion composed
of coarse grained monzonites. This type of
rocks is very rare in Colombia. On the other
hand, these rocks are affected locally by a
potassic alteration. Samples come from or or
outcrops along a road close to Quinchia, in the cpx
Middle Cauca valley (sample 181, Figure
5.5.1.1).
Mineralogy and texture Figure 5.5.2.1. Magmatic foliation defined

by the elongation of the crystals of
The Irra monzonites are holocrystalline, orthoclase (or) and clinopyroxene (cpx).
faneritic and coarse-grained, and the crystals Crossed polars.
are arranged along a well-defined magmatic
foliation (fig. 5.5.2.1).
They mainly consist of K-feldspar, or
plagioclase, clinopyroxene and amphibole, or <pl
with lesser amounts of biotite, quartz, <pl
magnetite, apatite, titanite and zircon.
Orthoclase or <pl
or
Orthoclase is the dominant mineral in the
rock, and its content is close to 50 % modal.
The crystals of K-feldspar are subhedral and <pl or
the habit is prismatic; the maximum length of
the crystals is about 2 cm. Many crystals Figure 5.5.2.2. General aspect of the Irra
exhibit simple twinning on the Karlsbad, monzonite in crossed polars; note the
Manebach or Baveno laws, but the tarttan foliation in twinned orthoclase (or), and the
twinning is absent. inclusions of plagioclase (pl).
Microperthites are well developped, have
some tens of microns in diameter, and are of
the patchy type. They are very abundant, thus strongly corroded inclusions of early
indicating a high proportion of the albite generations of K-feldspar crystals; on the other
component in the original crystal. hand, they contain subhedral to euhedral
Orthoclase crystals are rich in inclusions inclusions of plagioclase crystals (fig. 5.5.2.1.,
of many minerals. First of all, they contain 5.5.2.2).
614 SECTION 5.5.- OTHER INTRUSIVES OF CRETACEOUS-PALEOGEN AGE WITH ASSOCIATED AU OCCURRENCES
Plagioclase
or
Plagioclase occurs in a lesser proportion
than orthoclase, around 40% modal.
Plagioclase is subhedral and the habit is bladed;
the maximum length of the crystals is about 1,5
cm. or
However, an early generation of crystals, <amp
which may be found as inclusions into K-
feldspar, has a small grain size, in the order of <mag
cpx
2-5 mm (see figures 5.5.2.1 and
5.5.2.2).Twinning on the albite law is the rule.
Zoning is poorly developped and is of the
normal type, generally with more sericitized Figure 5.5.2.3. Prismatic clinopyroxene
core. crystal (cpy) associated with orthoclase (or)
Plagioclase crystals may also contain and opaque magnetite (mag). Note some
euhedral inclusions of apatite, amphibole and secondary amphibole (amp). PPL.
epidote, and may be altered in different degree
to sericite and to secondary K-feldspar.
Secondary K-feldspar is found filling small or
irregular veinlets cross-cutting plagioclase in
all the possible directions.
Quartz
<amp
Quartz is very scarce in these rocks, and <per
cpx
its content does not overpass the 1 % modal.
It is anhedral and the habit is equidimiensional;
the maximum length of the crystals is about 1
mm, and tends to be found as inclusions in
feldspar crystals. Wavy extinction is not
polars. Note the different interference
present.
colors in the secondary amphibole, and
perthites in orthoclase (per).
Clinopyroxene
Pyroxene crystals are very abundant in

these rocks, and may constitute up to 5%
modal of the rock. Despite chemical analyses
have not been obtained yet, they are pale-
green and, hence, they may correspond to Fe-
rich diopside or augite. cpx
Pyroxene crystals are euhedral, with a long
prismatic habit (figs. 5.5.2.3 and 5.5.2.4), and amp1
they have the c axis oriented in the same way
as in the case of the feldspars. Concentric <amp2
zoning is suspected to be present, although
optically is hardly distinguishable. The size of
Figure 5.5.2.5. Clinopyroxene crystal (Cpy)
the crystals is in the centimeter order.
strongly corroded by a late amphibole
In some cases, the clinopyroxenes are
crystal (amp1). Note late amphibole (amp2).
partly replaced by green amphibole (figure
PPL.
5.4.2.5 and 5.4.2.6). This type of replacement
can be considered as primary magmatic, and
provides evidence for a degree of chemical
desequilibria during the crystallisation of the
rock.
In other cases, the clinopyroxene may be
cpx replaced by a mixture of fine-grained biotite
and uralitic pale green amphibole. This type of
amp1
alteration could correspond to the potassic
alteration.
<amp2
Amphibole
Figure 5.5.2.6. The above image in crossed An olive-green amphibole is the second
p o l a r s . N o t e t h e s l i g h t d i f f e re n c e i n component by order of abbundance within
interference colors between amphibole 1 these rocks, and it occurs in proportions
and 2. around 5 % modal. The amphibole crystals are
hemihedral to anhedral, and have a short to
ttn long prismatic habit, with a length in the order
of 0,3 cm- 1 cm (fig. 5.45.2.7-5.5.2.8).
or Zoning may be present and is revealed by
or
roughly concentric changes in the color, from
or amp1 greenish brown to green.
The alteration degree is highly variable,
and some crystals have been replaced
amp2> completely by hydrothermal biotite during
potassic alteration; in other cases, the crystal
is completely fresh, and in other cases, the
replacement is to clinochlore and other
secondary minerals.
Figure 5.5.2.7. Patches of secondary uralitic
Some parts of the crystal consists of pale-
amphibole 2 (amp2) into primary amphibole
green uralite. These parts occur as irregular
(amp 1). See also the crystals of orthoclase
patches in the crystal, and can be interpretated
(or) and titanite (ttn). PPL.
as a hydrothermal product of clinopyroxene
replacement (figs.5.45.2.9-5.5.2.10).The
composition of these uralitic amphiboles is
probably within the tremoliteactinolite series,
well close to tremolite, as has been found in
other intrusives.
or amp1
amp2> Epidote
Epidote is very rare in this intrusive, and

has been found only in a few crystals in the
rock. Epidote may occur as euhedral to
Figure 5.5.2.8. The above image in crossed subhedral rounded inclusions in unaltered
p o l a r s . N o t e t h e s l i g h t d i f f e re n c e i n feldspars, thus suggesting a possible magmatic
interference colors between amphibole 1 origin for these epidote crystals. It is not
and 2. zoned, and has a dark yellow colour, thus
amp2> amp2>
amp1 amp1
<mag <mag
Figure 5.5.2.9. Patches of the second Figure 5.5.2.10. The above image in crossed
uralitic amphibole (amp2) produced by p o l a r s . N o t e t h e d i f f e re n c e i n t h e
a l t e r a t i o n o f p y ro x e n e , i n t o p r i m a r y interference colors among both amphibole
amphibole crystals (amp 1). PPL. generations.
or or
or
<epi <epi
<epi
<epi
<per
cpx
Figure 5.5.2.11. Epidote subhedral grains Figure 5.5.2.12. The above image in crossed
(epi) included into fresh orthoclase crystals polars. Note the high interference colors of
(or). The dirty appearence of orthoclase is epidote (epi) compared with those of the
due to fluid microinclusions. PPL. perthitic orthoclase (or).
cpx cpx
amp1 amp1
<amp2 <amp2
Figure 5.5.2.13. Water fall produced after Figure 5.5.2.14. Water fall produced after
the deviation of the river during the XIX the deviation of the river during the XIX
century as a system for removing the century as a system for removing the
saprolitic units. saprolitic units.
suggesting that these crystals correspond to
<ap the “pistacite”(fig. 5.5.2.11-5.5.2.12).
The crystals are short prismatic and the
length is in the order of 0,5-1 mm, and the form
and crystal size are similar to those found in
other primary epidote crystals found in the
ap>
<ap Cauca Valley.
ap> Biotite
amp2 Biotite crystals are not so common in

these granitoids, and they probably represent
less than 3% modal. They tend to be euhedral,
Figure 5.5.2.15. Apatite crystals (ap) with a short prismatic habit. The color is
scattered into a pyroxene crystal totally brownish, with a strong pleochroism (fig.
replaced by amphibole 1 (amp 1)and 2 (amp 5.5.2.13-5.5.2.14).
2). PPL. In many cases biotite is found as inclusions
in other minerals, indicating a early formation
in the crystallization sequence.
Biotite may be partly altered to
clinochlore, in association with minor quantities
of titanite.
Apatite
<sp
ttn or
Apatite euhedral crystals are not rare in
or these rocks, although it is only a trace mineral.
They are made up of the hexagonal prism and
the hexagonal pinacoid; the habit is short
prismatic. The size of the crystals tends to be
Figure 5.5.2.16. Titanite crystals (ttn)
in the order of 5 mm, and they are found
replacing a titanomagnetite crystal (sp).
generally as inclusions in mafic minerals (e.g.
Note the orthoclase perthitic crystals (or).
fig. 5.5.2.15).
Crossed polars.
Titanite
Titanite is not very abbundant (less than

1% modal), but the crystals are very big in size
(up to 2 cm). They tend to be euhedral,
developping the typical diamond sections.
These crystals are not twinned or zoned.
mag>
ttn
Magnetite
Magnetite is quite common, although in a

proportion lower than 3%. The crystals are
F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 1 7 . T h e a b o v e i m a g e i n subhedral, and they consist of more or less
re f l e c t e d . Ti t a n o m a g n e t i t e ( M a g ) i s rounded octahedrons of 500 microns in size.
replaced by a late development of titanite Some magnetite crstals are partly replaced by
(ttn). sulfides, as pyrite and chalcopyrite.
5.5.2.2. PORPHYRYTIC RHYODACITE

OF THE MIRAFLORES FACIES
<pl
The breccia of Miraflores contains
fragments of a porphyrytic rock, affected by
or
hydrothermal alteration. A gold-bearing
deposit is hosted into this rock.
The breccia consists on fragments of
volcanic rocks (either acidic or basic)
cemented by a hydrotermal quartz and calcite. <bt
Fragments are irregular, angulous, and their
dimensions range between some centimeters
to several decimeters. Description
corresponds to the sample CC-Q-017 (Fig. Figure 5.5.2.18. Orthoclase phenocrysts
5.5.1.1). (or) containing inclusions of altered biotite
The Miraflores porphyrytic rhyodacite has (bt) and plagioclase (pl). Cross-polarized
phenocrysts of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase light.
and biotite, embedded in an aphanitic matrix
made up by quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase,
with minor biotite. The occurrence of primary
epidote minerals is discussed.
Orthoclase <per
Orthoclase is rare as phenocrysts (less

or
than 3% modal). These crystals are anhedral,
rounded and may be embayed; they contain
inclusions of euhedral plagioclase
(fig.5.5.2.18). They do not exhibit twinning,
and microperthites are found only at the
Figure 5.5.2.19. Detail of the above image,
borders of the crystals (fig. 5.5.2.19),
showing the microperthite (per) development
probably in association with a higher activity
only close to the borders of the crystal; compare
of hydrothermal fluids. Crystal size is in the
with the above image. Crossed polars.
centimeter domain.
Contrastingly, orthoclase is very abundant
in the matrix, where it may constitute over the
30% modal. It is not twinned and it is very
cloudy.
Alteration is not well developped on pl
orthoclase, and only a few sericitization can
be produced along cracks and grain borders
ep>
(fig. 5.5.2.18).
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral in the

phenocrysts, and may achieve up to around Figure 5.5.2.20. Phenocrysts of plagioclase
40% modal. Plagioclase phenocrysts are (pl) mostly sericitized. Note an unaltered
euhedral to subhedral and their habit is core with euhedral epidote inclusions (ep).
prismatic; the maximum length of these crystals Crossed nicols.
or>
<pl or> qtz>
<pl
Figure 5.5.2.21. Aspect of the matrix in Figure 5.5.2.22.The above image in crossed
PPL. Note the clean aspect of quartz (qtz); polars. Note some twinning and zoning in
the rest corresponds to feldspar grains plagioclase (pl), and abundant orthoclase
(orthoclase and plagioclase). grains (or). Qtz is quartz.
pl pl
qtz
<bt qtz
or <bt
Figure 5.5.2.23. Embayed quartz phenocrysts Figure 5.5.2.24. The above image in crossed
in a matrix largely composed with quartz and polars. Note absence of wavy extinction in
feldspars, and biotite microphenocrysts (bt). quartz (qtz) and the sericitization of
Pl is a plagioclase phenocryst. PPL. plagioclase (pl). Biotite (bt) is chloritized.
is about 1 cm. Twinning is on the albite law, Quartz

and zoning is of the normal type, with fresh
albitic borders and a sericitized core. Quartz occurs in low amounts in the
Plagioclase crystals may contain euhedral phenocrysts, less than 10% modal. It is
inclusions of apatite and epidote, and may be anhedral and rounded, and embayements are
altered in different degree to sericite (fig. not rare (fig. 5.5.2.23, 5.5.2.24).. The crystal
5.5.2.20). size of the phenocrysts is around 5 mm. Wavy
Plagioclase crystals in the matrix are fine- extinction is not present.
grained, in the order of few tens of microns, Quartz is more common in the matrix,
hemihedral and zoned, and also have where it can achieve up to 40% modal (fig.
polysynthetic twinning on the albite law (fig. 5.5.2.21, 5.5.2.22). It is anhedral and the
5.5.2.21, 5.5.2.22). Plagioclase can represent crystal size in the matrix does not overpass 50
up to thee 30% modal in the matrix, but it is microns, and does not show undulouse
difficult to differentiate from orthoclase. extinction.
bt> bt>
<clc <clc
<clc <clc
<clc bt> bt>
<clc
amp2
F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 2 5 . B ro w n i s h b i o t i t e Figure 5.5.2.26. The above image in cross-

microphenocrysts (bt) strongly replaced by polarized light. Note the strong replacement
secondary pale greenish clinochlore (clc). of biotite.
PPL.
<clc
<amp <cc
Figure 5.5.2.27. A basal section of an Figure 5.5.2.28. A longitudinal section of an

a m p h i b o l e ( a m p ) , t o t a l l y re p l a c e d b y amphibole crystal, totally replaced by
s e c o n d a ry c l i n o c h l o re , c a l c i t e a n d secondary clinochlore (clc), calcite (cc) and
magnetite (opaque). PPL. magnetite (opaque). Crossed polars.
<ep <ep
all all
ep> ep>
Figure 5.5.2.29. An euhedral allanite Figure 5.5.2.30. The above image in crossed
microphenocryst (all) in the matrix. Note the polars. Note the simple twinning in allanite
twinning. It is overgrown by an epidote rim (all) and the higher interference colors in
(ep). PPL the epidote rim (ep).
Biotite
Biotite platelets are common in these

rocks, where they may constitute up to 10% <ep
modal of the rock. However, they are almost pl2
completely altered to clinochlore, in
association with other fine-grained secondary
minerals as magnetite and titanite (figure
5.5.2.25 and 5.5.2.26).. The crystal size is fine, pl1
less than 3 mm. <ep
Amphibole
Amphibole crystals have been completely Figure 5.5.2.31. Epidote crystals (ep) at the
altered and replaced by pseudomorphic contact between two plagioclase
clinochlore. They were euhedral, and hence it generations with different alteration degree
is possible to recognize the primary basal (pl1 and pl 2). PPL.
sections and other longitudinal typic sections
that allows discrimination with the altered
biotite crystals (figure 5.5.2.27 and 5.5.2.28).
<ep
Allanite
Allanite crystals are only a trace mineral,

but they are easily distinguised because of their pl1 pl2
euhedral form, in short prismatic crystals, and
<ep
the strong pleochroism in dark brownish hues.
Crystals are strongly zoned concentrically, and
the borders correspond to epidote (figure
5.5.2.29 and 5.5.2.30). Some of them are also
Figure 5.5.2.32. The above image in cross-
twinned. Size of the crystals does not exceed
polarized light. Note the difference in
the 250 microns.
alteration between the two plagioclase
generations.
Epidote
Epidote is very rare in these rocks, where

may occur as euhedral inclusions that are found
at the limit between two plagioclase
generations (figure 5.5.2.31 and 5.5.2.32), or
in unaltered parts of the plagioclase crystals
(figure 5.5.2.33),thus suggesting a possible
magmatic origin for epidote. It is zoned, and <ep
has a dark yellow colour, indicating a high Fe
pl
content.
The epidote crystals are short prismatic,
roughly rounded, and the length is in the order
of 100-200 microns. The habit of the crystals Figure 5.5.2.33. Detail of some epidote
and the crystal size are similar to those found inclusions (ep) in the unaltered part of a
in other primary epidote crystals that occcur plagioclase crystal (pl). Cross-polarized
in the Cauca Valley. light.
Apatite
Apatite crystals are not rare in these

rocks, although are only a trace mineral. They
are sharp euhedral and are made up of the
hexagonal prism and the hexagonal pinacoid,
with only a slight development of the hexagonal <ap
bypyramid; the habit is long prismatic (Figure
5.5.2.34).
The size of the crystals tends to be in the
order of 100-300 microns, and they can be
found either as inclusions in other minerals
(mainly the mafic phenocrysts) or as small
microphenocrysts in the matrix. Figure 5.5.2.34. Euhedral prismatic apatite
crystal (ap) found in the matrix of the
Zircon Miraflores breccia. PPL.
Zircon crystals are quite rare in the

breccia, and must be considered a trace
mineral. They are euhedral to subhedral and
are made up of the tetragonal prism and the
tetragonal bypyramid; the habit is short
prismatic (Figure 5.5.2.35).
The size of the crystals tends to be in the zr>
order of 100-200 microns, although some
larger crystals may be also found (fig.
5.5.2.35). It occurs both as inclusions in other
minerals or scattered in the matrix. Zircon
crystals are not zoned, and do not have older
cores.
Zircon is not metamictized, and has high Figure 5.5.2.35. Euhedral shortly prismatic
interference colours fig. 5.5.2.35). However, zircon crystal (zr) found in the matrix of the
metamictic aureolas around the small zircon Miraflores breccia. Cross-polarized light..
crystals are hardly distinguishable when zircon
occurs as inclusions in biotite, hornblende or
clinochlore.
Magnetite
<mag
Magnetite is quite common in these rocks,
although in a proportion lower than 3%. The
crystals are subhedral to euhedral, and they
consist of more or less rounded octahedrons
of 500 microns in size. Hematite replacements
following the {111}cleavage are not rare(fig.
5.5.2.36).
In the vicinity of the mineralized areas, Figure 5.5.2.36. Euhedral magnetite crystal
most of the magnetite crstals are partly or (mag) in the matrix, showing some hematite
completely pseudomorphosed by late sulfides, re p l a c m e e n t s a l o n g t h e o c t a h e d r a l
as pyrite and chalcopyrite. cleavages.
LEUCOGRANODIORITE OF THE qtz
MARIQUITA FACIES
bt mic
The Mariquita facies has been studied only
in a sample (sample WR-222, see figure 5.5.1.1).
The Mariquita granodiorites are
holocrystalline, faneritic and medium-grained.
They mainly consist of K-feldspar, plagioclase pl
and quartz (Figure 5.5.2.37). mic
A key characteristic of these rocks is that
they are poor in mafic components, with only very
low proportions of biotite, amphibole and trace
minerals. Figure 5.5.2.37. General view of the Mari-
quita leucogranodiorite, with quartz (qtz),
Plagioclase perthite microcline (mic), zoned plagioclase
(pl).and biotite. Crossed polars.
rock, with a proportion around 35 % modal.
Plagioclase is subhedral and the habit is short
prismatic, with a maximum length of 1 cm. At the
least two generations of plagioclase can be
distinguished according to textural patterns.
A generation has cores with convolute
zoning, and borders hvae concentric zoning (fig. pl1
5.5.2.38).
Other generations have complex twinning.
and do not have convoluted cores. Twinning may
be on the albite and pericline polysynthetic laws,
simple, or combinations (fig. 5.5.2.39).
Figure 5.5.2.38. Zoned plagioclase crystals
On the other hand, plagioclase crystals
(pl), showing convolute zoned cores. Note
contain corroded crystals of older plagioclase
a s e r i c i t i z a t i o n a l o n g z o n i n g . C ro s s -
generations with different textural patterns (fig.
polarized light.
5.5.2.40).as well as inclusions of apatite,
amphibole and biotite. Plagioclase crystals can
be partly altered to sericite.
Microcline
K-feldspar is also abundant in these rocks,

around 30 % modal. The crystals of K-feldspar
are anhedral to subhedral, and are intergrown with
quartz. The maximum length of the crystals is
pl
about 1 cm.
Simple twinning may be present, and tartan
twinning helps to identificate the K-feldspar as
microcline. F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 3 9 . P l a g i o c l a s e c r y s t a l s
Vein microperthites are very abundant, showing zoning and complex twining on
representing about the 50% in volume of the albite and pericline laws. Cross-polarized
crystal, thus indicating a high proportion of the light.
albite component in the original crystal (Fig.

5.5.2.41). pl2
Myrmekitic intergrowts are found at the
contacts between plagioclase crystals and late
crystals of microcline, although these myrmekites <pl1
are poorly developed (fig. 5.5.2.42).
<pl1
Quartz
pl
Anhedral quartz is also abundant, in the order
of the 30% modal, and shows wavy extinction.
Biotite
Figure 5.5.2.40. Different generations of
It is a rare accessory in these rocks, where plagioclase crystals. The first (Pl1) is zoned
do not overpass 3 % modal of the rock. Present and twinned, and late plagioclase (pl2) has
as tabular reddish-brown crystals, the size of these a convolute core. Crossed polars.
crystals is in the range 2-3 mm. It may show kink
bands (fig. 5.5.2.43-5.5.2.44) Biotite can be
partly replaced by chlorite and epidote following
grain borders and cleavages. <pl
or
Amphibole
<pl
As is the case of biotite, hornblende is a rare bt>
accessory, less than 2% modal. It occurs as
euhedral, prismatic, pale olive-green crystals that
do not exceed 3 mm in length. cm. Zoning may
be present. Amphibole crystals are replaced by
late euhedral biotite (fig. 5.5.2.45-5.5.2.46).
Figure 5.5.2.41. K-feldspar (or) showing
vein perthites, hosting both anhedral or
Apatite
euhedral zoned plagioclase crystals (pl) and
biotite (bt). Crossed polars.
Apatite crystals are very rare in this rock,
but some euhedral prismatic grains, less than 100
microns in length, can be seen as inclusions in
other minerals, mainly biotite. or
Zircon
mym>
Euhedral zircon crystals are distinct, witha
grain size in the order of 100 microns, and produce pl
metamoctic aureolas on biotite (fig. 5.5.2.47).
Ilmenite
Ilmenite occurs as very rare fine-grained F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 4 2 . P o o r l y d e v e e l o p e d

anhedral grains (less than 100 microns in size; myrmekites (myr) at the contact between K-
Figure 5.5.2.48). In many cases, they are feldspar (or) and plagioclase (pl). Crossed
found as inclusionsin mafic minerals. polars.
bt
bt
Figure 5.5.2.43. Biotite crystals (bt) showing Figure 5.5.2.44. The above image in crossed
m i c ro k i n k - b a n d t e x t u re s ( n o t e s l i g h t polars.
changes in pleochroism). PPL.
amp amp
bt
bt
F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 4 5 . G re e n i s h a m p h i b o l e Figure 5.5.2.46. The above crystal in

crystals slightly zoned and replaced by crossed polars. Note the corrosion of the
biotite. amphibole crystal by biotite.
<zr
<ilm
Figure 5.5.2.47. Euhedral zircon (zr) Figure 5.5.2.48. Ilmenite grains (ilm)
producing metamooctic aureolas on biotite scattered in feldspar crysals. (ttn).
bt). PPL.

LEUCOTONALITES OF THE JEJENES
FACIES pl
Tonalites of this type were found in the qqtz

Agua Clara creek (sample KD-223; Figure
5.5.2.1). These tonalites are strongly affected
by saussuritization.
pl
Mineralogy and texture pl
These tonalites are medium grained, with

a phaneritic holocrystalline texture. The mineral
composition consists of quartz and plagioclase F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 4 3 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e
as essential minerals, with very scarce tonalites from Jejenes; note the abundance
amounts of biotite and amphibole of plagioclase and quartz and the scarcity
(fig.5.5.2.43, 5.5.2.44). . of mafic minerals. PPL.
A dense network of veinlets is
accompanied by a pervasive hydrothermal
alteration, and many of the primary minerals pl
are altered. Alterations comprise silicification,
sericitization, saussuritization and
qqtz
chloritization, and are accompanied with the
precipitation of some sulfides and small
quantities of fluorite.
pl
Quartz pl
It occurs in a modal proportion near to

35%. Quartz crystals are anhedral, rounded
Figure 5.5.2.44.The above image in crossed
and occupy interstitial spaces between the
polars.Some altered biotite is seen close to
plagioclase crystals. Grain size is 3-5 mm in
the left side.
average. Undulatory extinction is conspicuous.
Plagioclase

65%). They tend to be euhedral and exhibit a
short prismatic habit; borders of the grains can
be partly corroded by late quartz. Grain size
pl
is in the range between 5-8 mm. Zoning is not
well developed. Polysynthetic twinning is
complex, on the albite and pericline laws, and
other types of twinning can be also present.
Zoning is not prominent. Crystals are strongly
deformed, and the twinning planes are bent or
affected by kink bands (fig. 5.5.2.45). Figure 5.5.2.45. Albite-twinned plagioclase
Hydrotermal alteration is strong, and produces crystal. Note that kink bands deformated the
replacement of plagioclase by mixtures of crystal, and thelate development of veining
sericite and calcite. along these planes. Crossed polars
Biotite
Biotite is completely altered to greenish

clinochlore aggregates, associated with minor
titanite and clinozoisite. The original shape is
in many cases distorted, but it is possible to
extrapolate the original form as subhedral
<al1
tabular crystals. Biotite should be scarce, up
pl to 5% modal, and the cristal size in the range
4-6 mm.
Amphibole
Figure 5.5.2.46. Anhedral allanite crystal As in the case of biotite, amphibole has
(al) found as an inclusion in a plagioclase been completely replaced by clinochlore and
grain (pl).PPL other secondary minerals, as mixtures of fine-
grained titanite, calcite and epidote. Amphibole
should be present in lesser modal proportions
to those of biotite. The grain size is in the range
5-10 mm, and the crystals were euhedral, with
<pl long primatic habit.
or
Allanite
<pl
bt> Allanite is very rare in these rocks, and
has been found only as small inclusions in
plagioclase, or as interstitial grains. It is not
clear the origin of this mineral in these rocks,
and could be subsolidus. Allanite is not
metamict, but the interference colours are
Figure 5.5.2.47. Hydrothermal veins with
masked by the strong absprtion of the mineral
c c a l c i t e ( c c ) , c l i n o c h l o re ( c l c ) a n d
(fig. 5.5.2.46)
clinozoisite (clz) cutting the rock. Crossed
Some epidote rims may be found around
polars.
the crystal.
Clinozoisite
or
Biaxial positive members of the epidote
group ooccur as a product of lace hydrotermal
veining, in association twith calcite and
mym>
clinochlore (fig. 5.5.2.47). The crystal size is
pl fine, and the crystals tend to be in the order of
100 microns.
Zircon
F i g u re 5 . 5 . 2 . 4 8 . Z i rc o n g r a i n ( z r ) a s Subhedral crystal grains of zircon are

inclusions in highly altered biotite crystal found as scarce inclusions in biotite. Zircon is
(clc). PPL. not metamict, and metamictic aureolas are not
seen in biotite (fig-5.5.2.48).
5.5.3.-Whole-rock geochemistry of other intrusives of Cretaceous to Paleogene age 629
5.5.3. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY OF OTHER

INTRUSIVES OF CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE AGE
Whole-rock geochemical analyses of types: calc-alkaline plutons intruded in

other late Cretaceous-Paleocene-Eocene metamorphic Cajamarca and Valdivia groups
intrusives were performed in order to located to the east of the Romeral Fault
characterize and compare them against System and calc-alkalive/alkaline plutons
Antioquia and Sonsón Batholiths (sections hosted in the Romeral assemblage located to
5.2.3 and 5.3.4). The intrusives selected for the west of the Romeral Fault System (Fig.
geochemical analyses can be grouped in two 5.5.1.1).
Figure 5.5.3.1. Alteration filters proposed by Wilt (1995) for selected late-Cretaceous to
Paleogene pluton samples.
630 SECTION 5.5.- OTHER CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE INTRUSIVES WITH ASSOCIATED GOLD OCCURRENCES
In the first group of plutons, located in the unaltered field, but close to the contact
Central Cordillera, to the south of the unaltered/sodic altered fields and show high
Antioquia and Sonsón batholiths are included: values for the sodium index (between 8.9 and
the Mariquita Stock (sample WR-222; section 25).
5.5.2.3), Manizales Stock (sample WR-78)
and El Bosque Batholith (sample WR-39).
The second group, including magmatic 5.5.3.1. MAJOR ELEMENT
bodies located in the western flank of the GEOCHEMISTRY
Central Cordillera and the Cauca and Patia
river basins, to the west of the Romeral Fault Samples from the Manizales stocks and the
System comprises: mafic and felsic facies of El Bosque Batholith show similar contents of
the the Buga Batholith (samples WR-114 to SiO 2 (65-67%). Mariquita Stock
WR-119) and Mistrató Batholith (samples leucogranodiorite show a more acidic character
WR-82, WR-83 and WR-289), Irra Stock with slightly higher silica content (Figure 5.5.3.2).
(sample WR-236; section 5.5.2.1) and the Some of the major element geochemical
porphyry block of the Miraflores Lithic features observed in adakite-like rocks
Breccia (sample WR-23; section 5.5.2.2) and (Richards and Kerrich, 2007) are shown by
Jejenes Pluton (sample WR-223; section samples from El Bosque Batholith and
5.5.2.4). Manizales Stock, and more felsic porphyry
In addition, five samples from the Eocene facies of the Mandé Batholith (e.g. SiO 2>56
Mandé Batholith were analyzed: three from the wt%; Al2O3>15 wt%; MgO<3 wt%; Na 2O>3.5
northern sector at Pantanos (samples WR-237, wt% and K2O<3 wt%) (Figure 5.5.3.2).
WR-238 and WR-239) and two samples from In both of the cases, in the Mistrató and
the southern sector (WR-286 and WR-287). the Buga batholith, samples show variable silica
The complete set of samples plot in the contents from more mafic (diorites?) to more
unaltered fields of alteration filters proposed felsic (granodiorites/tonalites?) facies. Mafic
by Wilt (1995), with the exception of the facies on both Mistrató and Buga batholiths
tonalite of the Jejenes Pluton (WR-223) which returned silica contents between 47.7 and
hydrothermally altered patterns 54.1%. Felsic facies of the Buga Batholith
(saussuritization) were previously recognized show higher silica contents than felsic facies
on the petrographycal description (section of the Mistrató Batholith.
5.5.2.4), the high-silica felsic tonalite facies of The Jejenes Pluton sample returned similar
the Buga Batholith (samples WR-116 and WR- silica contents to the more felsic facies sample
119), and the more felsic samples from the of the Buga Batholith.
Mandé Batholith (WR-237, WR-238 and WR- Samples from the Irra Stock and samples
286). Those six samples show low values from the porphyry clasts of the Miraflores
(<20) for the alteration index and, therefore, Breccia returned silica contents between 60
plot in the altered field of the alteration index and 64%.
filter plot. They also show high values of Mandé Batholith samples also show
sodium index (>4.8, up to 73), and hence they variable silica contents (48-70 wt%).
plot into the sodic altered field (Fig. 5.5.3.1). Despite different pluton samples do not
Despite no thin section petrography allow to define magmatic evolution trend
description is available to confirm an altered between them, some comments can be made
character, sodic alteration is suspected in other regarding the behavior of the major oxides.
four samples, including two of the mafic Samples from the Mariquita and the
(diorite?) samples of the Buga Batholith (WR- Manizales stocks and from the El Bosque
114 and WR-115), one of the mafic (diorite?) Batholith show similar major oxide contents
sample of the Mistrató Batholith (WR-82) and (Fig. 5.2.3.2). The porphyry clast of the
one diorite sample from the Mandé Batholith Miraflores Breccia also behaves in the same
(WR-287) (Fig. 5.5.3.1). They plot in the manner.
The Irra Stock is characterized by high to other intrusions, which is coherent with the
K 2O, Al 2O 3 and Na 2O contents with respect more alkaline character and overprinted local
Figure 5.5.3.2. Harker major-element diagrams for samples of selected late Cretaceous
to Paleogene intrusives.
potassic alteration observed under microscope the Providencia Mine at the Segovia-Remedios
(section 5.5.2.1). Mining District; Manizales Stock and
Despite the small number of samples, for the rhyodacite porphyry clast of the Miraflores
Buga, Mistrató and Mandé batholiths it is possible Lithic Breccia plot in the high-K calc-alkaline
to define magmatic evolution trends from more field.
mafic samples to more felsic ones. For those Not surprisingly, most of Mistrató, Buga
intrusives, positive correlation of Na2O and and Mandé batholiths samples along with
negative correlation of TiO2, Al2O3, MgO, CaO Jejenes Pluton plot in the tholeiite field on the
and FeOt with respect to SiO2 is observed. Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) K 2O vs. SiO 2
A remarkable low-K character for the diagram due to its low-K character mentioned
Mistrató, Buga and Mandé batholiths along with above, while higher-K diorite samples plot on
the Jejenes Pluton samples is observed. This the shoshonite field as do alkaline monzonite
feature is coherent with major element Irra Stock sample (Figure 5.5.3.3).
geochemical data published for other plutons Most of the samples plot in the
intruding the Romeral assemblage (e.g. metaluminous field of the Shand (1943)
Sabanalarga Batholith and El tambor Stock and diagram, with exception of the Jejenes Pluton
Vijes Felsite) with same low K2O content (<1%) sample that plot in the peraluminous field,
(Aspden and McCourt, 1986; Calle and Correa, where clear hydrothermal alteration
1988). Exception to the rule are two of the diorite (saussiritization) could be responsible for such
samples of the Buga Batholith (WR-117 and WR- a displacement to the right. In addition, two of
188) which returned higher K2O contents (>2%). the tonalite porphyry samples of the Mandé
On the other hand, as it could be expected, Batholith also plot in the peraluminous field.
diorite samples from Mistrató and Buga batholiths Regardless these exceptions, all of the
show high CaO, MgO and FeOt contents and low other samples are characterized as I-type
Na2O contents (Figure 5.5.3.2). granites (A/CNK<1.1). Both, samples of the
Most of the samples of selected intrusives Irra Stock and the porphyry clast of the
plot in the calc-alkaline field of the AFM Miraflores Lithic Breccia show peralkaline
triangle plot of Irvine and Barragar (1971), tendency but still plotting in the metaluminous
except diorite samples of Mistrató, Buga and field (Figure 5.5.3.3).
Mandé batholiths which plot in the tholeiite On the O’Connor (1965) feldspar
field, while more felsic samples of these triangle, samples from Mariquita and
intrusives tend to plot in the calc-alkaline field Manizales Stock and El Bosque Batholith,
close to the boundary with the tholeiite field. along with the tonalite porphyry dike of the
All other samples plot in the calc-alkaline field Providencia Mine at the Segovia-Remedios
(Figure 5.5.3.3). Mining District plot in the granodiorite field;
When plotting samples in the total alkalis Irra Stock and porphyry clast of the Miraflores
diagram (TAS) proposed by Cox et al. (1979),
all of the samples plot in then subalkaline/
tholeiite field with compositional variations
between diorite and granite, but some of the Figure 5.5.3.3. (Next page). Major element
samples from Mistrató and Buga batholiths and geochemical plots for selected late
Jejenes Pluton plot out of any field. Alteration Cretaceous to Paleogene samples: a) On the
evidence or low-K contents mentioned above AFM Plot (Irvine and Baragar, 1971); b) On
could be responsible for such behavior. Only the TAS (Cox et al., 1979); c) On the K2O
Irra Stock sample plot in the alkaline field, as vs. SiO 2 plot (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976);
was expected after microscope examination. d) On the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot (Shand,
Samples from the Mariquita Stock and El 1943), e) On the feldspar triangle
Bosque Batholith exhibit clearly a calc-alkaline (O’connor, 1965); f) On the R1 vs. R2
medium-K character, as do the tonalite geotectonic plot (Batchelor and Bowen,
porphyry dike related to mineralized veins in 1985).
Figure 5.5.3.4. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the Mariquita and Manizales
stocks and from the El Bosque Batholith. Bulk continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-
normalization have been done using data published by Taylor and McLennan (1995) and
Wood et al. (1979).
Breccia with higher K 2O content plot in the patterns (Figure 5.5.3.4). In general terms they
quartz-monzonite field. Again, due to depletion show negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies.
on K 2O contents, most of the Buga, Mistrató Mariquita Stock (WR-222) shows
and Mandé batholiths samples plot close to the depletion on Ba and Th with respect to
Ab-An vertice in the tonalite-trondjemite Manizales Stock (WR-78) and El Bosque
series, as do Jejenes Pluton. Both Jejenes Batholith (WR-39) samples. It also shows
Pluton and more felsic sample of the Buga moderate to strong Sr negative anomaly, and
Batholith plot in the Trondjemite field (Figure slight enrichment on Tb, Y, Tm and Yb
5.5.3.3). elements when compared with the other two
Batchelor and Bowden (1985) intrusives (Figure 5.5.3.4).
geotectonic plot show most of the samples Manizales Stock exhibit moderate positive
plotting in the pre-plate collision (subduction Ba anomaly, stronger negative Nd and Ta
related) field, with exception of low-K Mistrató anomalies, no Sr anomaly and strong depletion
and Buga batholiths and Jejenes Pluton that plot on Tb, Y, Tm and Yb. On the other hand, El
in the mantle fractionates field, along with one Bosque Batholith show positive Sr anomaly as
of the diorite samples of the Mandé Batholith. remarkable feature (Figure 5.5.3.4).
Irra Stock sample plot in the late-orogenic field Tonalite porphyry dike related with
(Figure 5.5.3.3). mineralized veins at the Providencia Mine in
the Segovia-Remedios Mining District (sample
WR-129; Section 5.5.2.5) show conspicuous
5.5.3.2. TRACE ELEMENT negative Nb and Ta anomalies and strong
GEOCHEMISTRY positive Sr anomaly (Figure 5.5.3.5).
When compared with early porphyry dikes
Samples from selected late Cretaceous to of the Antioquia Batholith (e.g. sample RG-
Paleogene intrusions were plotted in Bulk 612, quartz-diorite porphyry of Granada,
Continental Earth- and Primordial Mantle- section 5.3.2.11), both samples exhibit almost
normalized “spider-diagrams” after Taylor and identical trace element ‘spidergrams’ and
McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979). geochemical signatures (Figure 5.5.3.5).
Mariquita and Manizales stocks and El Buga and Mistrató batholith samples and
Bosque Batholith show similar trace element Jejenes pluton are more complicated in terms
Figure 5.5.3.5. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the tonalite porphyry dike
associated to mineralized veins at Providencia Mine in the Segovia-Remedios Mining
District. Bulk continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published
by Taylor and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979). Sample RG-612 from the Granada
Porphyry suite of the Antioquia Batholith is also shown for comparison.
of trace element behavior (Figures 5.5.3.6, Th and K negative anomalies. The other two
5.5.3.7 and 5.5.3.8). diorite samples (WR-117 and WR-118) show
With respect to Buga Batholith, diorite more fractionated patterns with Large Ion
samples behave in two different ways. Two Lithophile (LIL) elements enrichment (Ba and
s a m p l e s ( W R - 11 4 a n d W R - 11 5 ) s h o w Sr), and High Field Strength (HFS) elements
moderate increasing slope in bulk continental depletion (Nb, Ta, Hf, Zr and Ti) (Pearce et
earth-normalized graphic and flat mantle- al., 1984; Pearce and Peate, 1995). Positive
normalized patterns with five times the Sm anomalies are also characteristic (Figure
primordial mantle values of Wood et al. 5.5.3.6).
(1979). In particular, sample WR-115 show More felsic samples also behave in
positive Ba, K and Sr anomalies and negative different manner: sample WR-116 exhibit a flat
P and Ti anomalies not shown for sample WR- mantle-normalized pattern with ten times the
114, which is plainer and only show negative primordial mantle values with conspicuous Rb,
Figure 5.5.3.6. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the Buga Batholith. Bulk
continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published by Taylor
and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
Figure 5.5.3.7. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the Mistrató Batholith. Bulk continental
earth- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published by Taylor and McLennan
(1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
K and Ti negative anomalies. Sample WR-119 Jejenes Pluton sample (WR-223) show
show slight decreasing slope with negative Nb, relative flat pattern with positive Ba, Sr and
Ta, Sr, P and Ti and positive Ba anomaly. Zr anomalies and negative Rb, Ta, Nb, P and
Mistrató Batholith felsic sample (WR-83) Ti anomalies (Figure 5.5.3.8).
show moderate mantle-normalized pattern with The Mandé Batholith samples analyzed
Large Ion Lithophile (LIL) elements enrichment include samples from the northern Pantanos
(Ba, K and Sr), and High Field Strength (HFS) area (samples WR-237, WR-238 and WR-
elements depletion (U, Nb, Ta and Ti) (Pearce 239) and the southern close to Bagadó area
et al., 1984; Pearce and Peate, 1995) (Figure of the intrusive (samples WR-286 and WR-
5.5.3.7). Diorite samples of the Mistrató 287).
Batholith exhibit more “zig-zag”pattern and a In general, samples from the Mandé
general low trace element contents are evident Batholith show similar trace elements patterns
as several obtained values are under detection as the more felsic samples of the Buga and
limit. Mistrató batholiths, with Large Ion Lithophile
Figure 5.5.3.8. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the Jejenes Pluton (WR-223). Bulk
continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published by Taylor and
McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
Figure 5.5.3.9. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the north and south sectors of the Mandé
Batholith. Bulk continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published by
Taylor and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
(LIL) elements enrichment (Ba, K, Sr) and support the idea previously suggested
High Field Strength (HFS) elements depletion indicating these intrusions would be the
(Nb, Ta and Ti) (Figure 5.5.3.9). plutonic levels of this plateau volcanic sequence
Relative flat patterns observed in the low- (Nivia, 2001).
K intrusives of Buga and Mistrató batholiths Irra Stock (WR-236) and the rhyodacite
and Jejenes pluton, clearly different from porphyry clast of the Miraflores Breccia (WR-
Central Cordillera plutons (e.g. Mariquita and 23) show almost identical trace element
Manizales stocks and El Bosque Batholith), patterns. They exhibit moderate decreasing
show certain similitude with trace element slope patterns in the mantle-normalized
normalized patterns presented by Kerr (2004) diagram with positive Ba and Sr anomalies and
for volcanic rocks of the Caribe-Colombian negative Nb, Ta, P and Ti anomalies (Figure
Oceanic Plateau (CCOP) to the west of the 5.5.3.10). In particular, the rhyodacite
Romeral Fault System where some of these porphyry clast show higher U and P contents
intrusives are intruded. This characteristic and a clear depletion in Tb, Y, Tm and Yb.
Figure 5.5.3.10. Trace element ‘spider-grams’ for rocks of the Irra Stock (WR-236) and rhyodacite
porphyry clast in the Miraflores Breccia (WR-23). Bulk continental earth- and Primordial Mantle-
normalization using data published by Taylor and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
a) b)
Figure 5.5.3.11. Chondrite-normalized REE plot for rock samples of a) Mariquita (WR-222) and
Manizales (WR-78) stocks and El Bosque Batholith (WR-39); and b) Providencia mine tonalite
porphyry dike (sample WR-129). Chondrite normalizing values after Boynton (1984).
5.5.3.3. RARE EARTH ELEMENT Tonalite porphyry dike sample show

GEOCHEMISTRY relatively high rare earth elements contents
(REE=105.9ppm) with decreasing slope
Rare Earth Elements (REE) of selected pattern indicating moderate fractionation ((La/
late Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives were Lu)N=8.6) with slight positive Eu anomaly (Eu/
plotted in Chondrite-normalized REE diagram Eu*=1.12). As occur with the trace element
using chondrite values proposed by Boynton pattern, REE pattern of the Providencia Mine
(1984). dike exhibit similar behaviour as early porphyry
Samples from the Mariquita Stock dike facies of the Antioquia Batholith (e.g.
returned lower rare earth element contents quartz-diorite porphyry of the Granada facies)
(REE=80.8ppm) when compared with the (Figure 5.5.3.11b).
samples from the Manizales Stock and with Buga Batholith samples show a behavior
the El Bosque Batholith (REE=107-133ppm). similar to previous observations in
Mariquita Stock show slight decreasing multielemental trace element diagrams (section
slope pattern implying weak fractionation ((La/ 5.3.3.2). Two diorite samples (WR-114 and
Lu) N =3.4) with a moderate negative Eu WR-115) and one of the more felsic samples
anomaly (Eu/Eu*=0.56). Manizales Stock (WR-116) returned low REE contents
show moderate fractionated pattern ((La/ (REE=24-41ppm) and show flat chondrite-
Lu)N=9.2) with no Eu anomaly. normalized patterns with ten times the chondrite
El Bosque Batholith shows similar slope value ((La/Lu) N=0.8-1.8). The other two
for Light Rare Earth element (La-Eu) as the diorite samples (WR-117 and WR-118)
Manizales Stock ((La/Eu) N =0.4-0.6), no Eu returned higher REE contents (REE=229-
anomaly, and strong depletion on Heavy Rare 241ppm) and exhibit more fractionated
Earth elements (Gd-Lu) with respect to patterns ((La/Lu) N =22-33.2), with no Eu
samples from the Mariquita and the Manizales anomaly (Eu/Eu*=1.00-1.04). The other felsic
stocks . sample (WR-116) show intermediate REE
Mariquita and Manizales stocks exhibit c o n t e n t s (R E E = 1 0 4 . 5 p p m ) m o d e r a t e
relatively flat Heavy Rare Earth Elements fractionation ((La/Lu)N=2.5) and negative Eu
patterns ((Gd/Lu) N =0.9 and 1.2), while El anomaly (Eu/Eu*=0.53) (Figure 5.5.3.12a).
Bosque Batholith show concave upward Mistrató Batholith samples show relative
pattern ((Gd/Lu) N=4.4) (Figure 5.5.3.11a). lower REE contents (REE=2.6-42.5ppm)
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 5.5.3.12. Chondrite-normalized REE plot for rock samples of selected late
Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives: a) Buga Batholith, b) Mistrató Batholith, c) Mandé
Batholith and d) Jejenes Pluton. Chondrite normalizing values after (Boynton, 1984).
when compared to Buga Batholith samples. WR-238) show almost identical REE patterns
The felsic sample (WR-83) exhibits moderate with similar low REE contents (REE=23-
decreasing slope fractionated chondrite- 26ppm), moderate negative fractionated slopes
normalized pattern ((La/Lu) N=10) and no Eu ((La/Lu) N=4.9) and no Eu anomaly. It is
anomaly (Eu/Eu*=1.02). Diorite samples observed in these samples a moderate negative
(WR-82 and WR-289) show relatively flat REE Tb anomaly (Figure 5.5.3.12).
patterns ((La/Lu)N=0.7-1.4). Sample WR-82 On the other hand, diorite sample from the
returned REE values similar to Boynton (1984) ‘Pantanos’ area (WR-239) indicates higher
chondrite values with strong positive Eu rare earth elements contents
anomaly (Eu/Eu*=2.62). Sample WR-289 (REE=42.8ppm), with slight decreaing slope
returned REE contents close to five times the pattern ((La/Lu) N =3.0) and no negative Eu
chondrite values, with negative Eu and Tb anomaly (Eu/Eu*=1.04) (Figure 5.5.3.12c).
anomalies (Figure 5.5.3.12b). In the southern sector of the Mandé
With respect to the Mandé Batholith, the Batholith close to Bagadó, felsic tonalite
felsic porphyry samples from the northern porphyry sample (WR-286) also returned low
sector in the ‘Pantanos’ area (WR-237 and rere earth elements contents (REE=27.1)
slight decreasing slope pattern ((La/Lu)N=2.1)

and slight negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu*=0.95).
It shows similar light rare earth elements
pattern (La-Sm) than felsic tonalite porphyry
samples from the ‘Pantanos’ sector in the
north, but clearly differs in the heavy rare earth
elements pattern (Eu-Lu).
Diorite sample of the southern sector
(WR-287) exhibit similar pattern to the diorite
sample of the northern sector with an overall
higher contents in rare earth elements
(REE=88.9; (La/Lu)N=5.4 and Eu/Eu*=1.0).
Samples from the Jejenes pluton (WR- Figure 5.5.3.13. Chondrite-normalized REE plot
223) returned relative low concentrations of for rock samples of the Irra Stock and porphyry
REE (REE=34.8ppm) and show slight clast in the Miraflores Lithic Breccia. Chondrite
fractionated pattern ((La/Lu) N =3.7). A normalizing values after (Boynton, 1984).
moderate positive Eu anomaly is observed (Eu/
Eu*=1.46; Figure 5.5.3.12d).
Similar moderate fractionated chondrite-
normalized patterns are observed for the Irra
Stock (WR-236) and in the rhyodacite anomaly is observed in these rocks, and
porphyry clast of the Miraflores Lithic Breccia samples from the Irra Stock returned higher
(WR-23), with moderated fractionated pattern REE contents (REE=216.5ppm) than those
((La/Lu) N =18-22) (Figure 5.5.3.13). No Eu from the porphyry clast (REE=99.2ppm).
5.5.4.-Geochronology and isotope geology of other intrusives of Cretaceous to Paleogene age 641
5.5.4. GEOCHRONOLOGY AND ISOTOPE GEOLOGY OF

OTHER INTRUSIVES OF CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE AGE
As described above (section 5.5.1), along The selected batholits and intrusions
with the major Antioquia and Sonsón studied here are the Mariquita Stock, the
batholiths, there are several minor calc-alkaline Jejenes Pluton, the Irra Stock and the
plutons of late Cretaceous to Paleogene age rhyodacite porphyry clast of the Miraflores
mainly cropping out in the Colombian Central Lithic Breccia. A late Cretaceous tonalite
Cordillera and western region of Colombia porphyre dike associated to vein mineralization
(Aspden et al., 1987; Maya, 1992, and the at the Providencia Mine in the Segovia-
present study). Remedios Mining district is also included and
In most of the aforementioned cases, a two tonalite porphyry samples from ‘Pantanos’
precise dating of these batholiths and minor in the northern Mandé Batholith.
intrusions was absent. Therefore, and taking In addition, in order to obtain data about
into account their metallogenic importance, the the origin and possible sources of these
most significative of these late-Cretaceous to magmas, Sm-Nd-Pb isotope data were
Paleogene intrusives with spatial related obtained for representative samples from the
mineralization were dated during our research Mariquita and the Manizales stocks, the El
by using U-Pb zircon SHRIMP or LA-MC- Bosque Batholith, the Buga Batholith, the
ICP-MS methods. Mandé Batholith and the Jejenes Pluton.
Table 5.5.4.1. U-Pb Zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS and SHRIMP results on rocks from selected
late Cretaceous to Paleogene plutons.
642 SECTION 5.5.- OTHER INTRUSIVES OF CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE AGE WITH ASSOCIATED GOLD DEPOSITS
5.5.4.1. U-Pb ZIRCON GEOCHRONOLOGY

OF SELECTED LATE CRETACEOUS TO
PALEOGENE INTRUSIVES
U-Pb zircon geochronological results

carried out in the present research are
summarized in the table 5.5.4.1.
The Mariquita Stock age was previously
dated in 113±4 Ma, through biotite K-Ar
m e t h o d ( Ve s g a a n d B a r r e r o , 1 9 7 8 ) .
Unpublished U-Pb zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS
early Cretaceous ages (ca. 133-145Ma)
obtained for samples of the same small
intrusion (Agustin Cardona, personal
communication), would imply a complex Figure 5.5.4.1. Concordia plot of U-Pb
composite character for this pluton where Zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS ages obtained for
different magmatic pulses have contributed to the Mariquita Stock (sample WR-222).
the pluton formation.
New U-Pb zircon age were obtained
during this work in a sample collected 2.8km
to the west of the Mariquita townsite. The
sample came from an abandoned quarry
exploited for aggregate rocks, on the
Mariquita-Manizales road (WR-222; see
section 5.5.2.3). It returned an age of
93.5+1.5-1.3 Ma, corresponding to a late
Cretaceous age (Figure 5.5.4.1).
A sample of tonalite porphyry dike closely
related to vein mineralization in the Segovia-
Remedios Mining District (WR-211) returned
also returned a late Cretaceous age of
85.9±1.2Ma. Inheritance ages in the range of 145- Figure 5.5.4.2. Concordia plot of U-Pb zircon LA-MC-
177Ma would be associated with zircon assimilation ICP-MS age obtained for the tonalite porphyry dike
of the late Jurassic Segovia Batholith host rock of Providencia Mine (sample WR-211).
(Figure 5.5.4.2).
The importance of the age obtained for
this dike sample is to constrain the maximum
age of mineralization up to the late Cretaceous,
clearly much younger than the Jurassic age
suspected on the basis of the age of the host
Segovia Batholith in this important mining
District.
Moreover, the late Cretaceous age
obtained for the tonalite porphyry dike of the
Providencia Mine is similar to the late
Cretaceous age established for La Culebra
Stock (sample WR-200; section 5.3.5.1),
located about 3km to the SW, and considered Figure 5.5.4.3. Concordia plot of U-Pb
a satellite body of the Antioquia Batholith Zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS ages obtained for
associated with the early magmatic facies of the Jejenes Pluton (sample WR-223).
Figure 5.5.4.4. Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagrams of U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS ages obtained in

zircon crystals for samples of the monzonitic Irra Stock (WR-236 and 12005084).
the intrusive in the late Cretaceous (88.8- Buga Batholith, Sabanalarga Batholith)
82.6Ma). intruding the Romeral assemblage to the west
The geochronological evidence support of the Romeral Fault System as previously
the idea of a relationship between the discussed in the section 5.5.3.
emplacement of the porphyry dikes in the Two samples (WR-236 and 12005084) of
Providencia Mine of the Segovia-Remedios the Irra Stock monzonites (section 5.5.2.1) dated
Mining District and the early magmatic facies by U-Pb zircon LA-MC-ICP-MS returned
of the Antioquia Batholith in the Late 69.6±1.1 and 69.8±1.5Ma late Cretaceous ages
Cretaceous. (Figure 5.5.4.4).
The Jejenes pluton has been described as These results contrast with the older age of
a granodiorite intrusion located in the Cali- 97±10Ma previously published by Gonzalez and
Patia Fault corridor (Orrego et al., 1999). Londo o (1998) for the same intrusion.
Despite no age dating of the intrusion has been The rhyodacite porphyry clast of the
published, a Paleogene (Orrego et al., 1999) Miraflores Lithic Breccia collected at La Cruzada
to Neogene (Gomez et al., 2007) age has been Mine (sample WR-23; section 5.5.2.2), returned
assumed. A hornblende-biotite leucotonalite an U-Pb zircon SHRIMP age of 72.6±2.0Ma
sample (section 5.5.2.4) collected at Agua (Figure 5.5.4.5) which is very close to the ages
Clara creek, in the Fondas-Limoncito area, obtained for the Irra Stock and, along with
returned a 84.3±1.1Ma late Cretaceous age geochemical evidence previously discussed in
(Figure 5.5.4.3). section 5.5.3, allow to establish a relationship with
The age obtained for the Jejenes Pluton is this alkaline late Cretaceous magmatic intrusion
similar to the 83±2Ma hornblende K-Ar age (table 5.5.4.1).
reported by Brook (1984) for El Tambor Two tonalite porphyry facies within the
Stock, a composite leucotonalitic/gabbroic northern Mandé Batholith, in the ‘Pantanos’
intrusion cropping out 7km to the NW of Vijes a r e a r e t u r n e d a g e s o f 4 5 . 3 ±1.2 and
townsite in the Valle del Cauca department 44.6±0.9Ma (Figure 5.5.4.6).
(Aspden and McCourt, 1986). El Tambor These results slightly older than sericite K-
Stock is one of the granitoids reported by Ar age of 42.7±0.9Ma obtained by Sillitoe et al.
Aspden and McCourt (1986) as characterized (1982) for a hydrothermally altered dacite
by low-K contents in the Western Cordillera porphyry in the Pantanos-Pegadorcito
of Colombia, a common characteristic shared porphyry cooper deposit.
by the Jejenes Pluton and other late These results would imply a close
Cretaceous plutons (e.g. Mistrató Batholith?, relationship between the porphyry
crystallization and the hydrothermal alteration/

mineralization in this important porphyry
cooper district in Eocene times.
A synthesis of the ages obtained in this
work compared with those obtained by other
authors in these intrusives is shown in figure
5.5.4.7. The younger ages obtained by zircon
U-Pb method in the Irra stock is consistent with
previous ages published, but poly-phase
Figure 5.5.4.5. Concordia plot of U-Pb zircon

LA-MC-ICP-MS age obtained for the rhyodacite
porphyry clast of the Miraflores Lithic Breccia
(sample WR-23).
Figure 5.5.4.7. U-Pb Zircon ages obtained

during this study in samples of other Cretaceous
to Paleogene plutons from the South Central
Figure 5.5.4.6. Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagrams Cordillera. Early K-Ar/Rb-Sr ages compiled by
of U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS ages obtained in zircon Maya (1992) and published by Sillitoe et al.
crystals for samples of tonalite porphyry in ‘Pantanos’ (1982)are also shown for comparison purposes,
northern Mandé Batholith (samples WR-237 and as well as some other U-Pb results obtained from
WR0238). other authors.
composite character for this intrusive, similarly porphyry tonalite) and Jejenes Pluton (tables
as happens in the Antioquia Batholith and the 5.5.4.2 and 5.5.4.3; figure 5.5.4.8).
Mariquita Stock, cannot be discarded. Similar For the Mariquita Stock, Mandé Batholith
considerations can be made for the rest of the and Jejenes Pluton samples, the U-Pb ages
intrusives. Therefore, additional detailed obtained (ca. 94Ma, 84Ma and 45Ma,
mapping and petrographic studies are respectively) were used for initial isotopic
necessary to check possible intrusive pulses ratios calculation (section 5.5.4.1).
in these bodies. For the Manizales Stock and El Bosque
Batholith, approximated ages of 60 and 50Ma
respectively, were used for initial isotopic ratios
5.5.4.2 Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE calculation. As there are no published U-Pb
GEOCHEMISTRY OF ROCKS OF ages for those minor intrusives, ages were
SELECTED LATE CRETACEOUS TO approximated based on the biotite K-Ar ages
PALEOGENE INTRUSIVES published for them (Barrero and Vesga, 1976;
Brook, 1984).
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope analyses were An approximated age of ca. 90Ma was
performed on whole-rock samples of selected selected for both, mafic and felsic facies of the
minor intrusives of late Cretaceous to Buga Batholith, after U-Pb zircon ages
Paleogene age, including: the Mariquita Stock, published by Villagomez et al. (2008).
the Manizales Stock, El Bosque Batholith, and Minor intrusives located to the east of
the low-K Buga Batholith (mafic and felsic), Romeral Fault system and intruding early
northern Mandé Batholith (diorite and Paleozoic metamorphic rocks of the
Table 5.5.4.2. Rb-Sr isotopic data for whole-rock samples of selected late Cretaceous to
Paleogene intrusives. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr (i) calculated for obtained U-Pb ages or estimated from
published data(*).
Table 5.5.4.3. Sm-Nd isotopic data for for whole-rock samples of selected late
Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives.  Nd(T) calculated for obtained U-Pb ages. Sm-Nd
isotopic data for selected late Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives.  d(T) calculated for
obtained U-Pb ages or estimated by published data(*).
Figure 5.5.4.8.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for samples of selected late Cretaceous to Paleogene
intrusives.
Cajamarca and Valdivia groups (e.g. Mariquita Romeral assemblage, to the west of the
and Manizales Stock and El Bosque Batholith) Romeral Fault System, Kerr et al. (1997) and
returned relatively high initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios Kerr (2003) published low initial 87 Sr/ 86Sr
(0.70527-0.70578) and slight negative Nd ratios (0.7030-0.7040) and positive Nd
values (-0.10 to -0.96), plotting close to the values (mostly between +6 and +9) for the
bulk earth value in the second quadrant (figure tholeiite volcanic lavas of the Caribbean-
5.5.4.8). Colombian Oceanic Plateau (CCOP) where
The more crustal-contaminated character those intrusives are hosted. Again, isotope
observed in the sample of the Mariquita Stock evidence indicates a strong relationship
(WR-222) with respect to Manizales Stock between these intrusives and their hosting
(WR-78) and El Bosque Batholith (WR-39) volcano-sedimentary oceanic rocks.
samples, would obey to its location more to Mande Batholith diorite and tonalite
the east, close to the Palestina Fault System porphyry samples present similar isotope
trace, where more interaction with geochemistry signature and also plot close to
Precambrian basement would have occurred the mantle array, suggesting a strong mantle-
(Figure 5.5.1.1). derived magma source (Figure 5.5.4.8).
Ordóñez et al. (2001) published Sr-Nd
isotope data for the Sonsón Batholith and
associated intrusions, including La Union, El 5.5.4.3. LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Hatillo, Norcasia and Manizales stocks, using OF SELECTED LATE CRETACEOUS TO
an average age of 60Ma for initial isotope PALEOGENE INTRUSIVES
ratios calculations. In particular, their published
values for Manizales and El Hatillo stocks are As indicated above for the Antioquia and
similar to the values reported here, with relative Sonsón batholiths (sections 5.2.4.3 and
high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70480-0.70582) 5.3.5.2), lead isotope data obtained for
and negative to slight positive Nd values (-
3.02 to 0.31).
The published Sr-Nd data indicate
Table 5.5.4.4. Whole-rock Pb isotope
common mixing between mantle-derived composition for samples of selected late
sources and crustal components in
Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives.
approximately similar proportions for these
minor intrusives. They are also similar to Sr-
Nd isotope data obtained for the Paleocene
Sonsón Batholith (section 5.2.4.2; Ordoñez et
al., 2001) but clearly differ from the more
mantelic isotope character observed in Sr-Nd
isotope data obtained for the Antioquia
Batholith (section 5.3.5.2; Ordoñez and
Pimentel, 2001).
On the other hand, samples of the Buga
Batholith mafic and felsic facies (WR-118 and
WR-119), the Mandé Batholith diorite (WR-
239) and tonalite porphyry (WR-237) and the
Jejenes Pluton (WR-223) indicate low initial
87
Sr/ 86 Sr ratios (0.70315-0.70434) and high
positive Nd values (+6.12 to +15.26),
plotting slightly over the mantle array (Figure
5.5.4.8).
Despite no Sr-Nd isotope values have
been published for the intrusives hosted in the
Figure 5.5.4.9. Thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb) and uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) plots for rock samples of selected late Cretaceous to Paleogeneintrusives. Pb
isotope evolution curves from the Plumbotectonics model after Zartman and Doe (1981).
samples of selected late Cretaceous to Central Cordillera intrusives (e.g. the Mariquita
Paleogene intrusives are also radiogenic (207Pb/ and Manizales stocks and El Bosque Batholith)
204
Pb>15.5) (Table 5.5.4.4). but they are slightly less radiogenic with respect
Values obtained for the Mariquita and to the 207Pb/204Pb ratio (Figure 5.5.4.9).
Manizales Stock and El Bosque Batholith On the other hand, lead isotopic data for
cluster in narrow ranges: 206Pb/204Pb = 18.88- the Mandé Batholith is less radiogenic than the
18.95, 207Pb/ 204Pb = 15.64-15.66 and 208 Pb/ intrusives hosted in the Romeral assemblage
204
Pb = 38.68-38.87 (figure 5.5.4.9). These (e.g. the Buga Batholith and the Jejenes
values are similar to lead isotope values Stock).
obtained for the Paleocene Sonsón Batholith Lead isotope data compiled by Kerr
(section 5.2.4.3) and the Paleocene magmatic (2003) for the Caribbean-Colombia Oceanic
facies of the Antioquia Batholith (section Plateau (CCOP) in Colombian oceanic
5.3.5.2). basaltic lavas hosting late Cretaceous to
On the other hand, lead isotope values Paleogene intrusives indicate also high
obtained for the Buga Batholith and the Jejenes radiogenic values ( 206Pb/ 204Pb = 18.80-19.70
Stock are clearly more radiogenic (206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.53-15.63).
= 19.08-19.44, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.67-15.70 As already observed with Sr-Nd isotopes
and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.77 and 38.91), with (section 5.5.4.2), again, lead isotope data
higher 206 Pb/ 204 Pb values than those of the support the relationship between late
other late Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives Cretaceous intrusives (e.g. Buga Batholith and
located in the axial portion of the Central Jejenes Pluton) and their oceanic volcano-
Cordillera. In particular, lead isotopes of the sedimentary host rocks.
felsic facies of the Buga Batholith (WR-119) Lead isotope data for the Mandé
and the leucotonalite of the Jejenes Stock Batholith samples are not enough to make any
(WR-223) are much more radiogenic than definitive conclusion and detailed studies,
mafic facies of the Buga Batholith. involving La Equia-Santa Cecilia Volcanic
Mande Batholith samples returned values Complex considered to be comagmatic with
in the same narrow 206Pb/ 204Pb range as the the Batholith must be carried out.
5.5.5.- Gold deposits spatially associated to other intrusives of Cretaceous to Paleogene age 649
5.5.5. GOLD DEPOSITS SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED TO OTHER

INTRUSIVES OF CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE AGE
Gold occurrences and deposits associated 5.5.5.2. GOLD OCCURRENCES

with late Cretaceous to Eocene intrusives other SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED TO THE EL
than the Sonsón and Antioquia batholiths are HAT I L L O A N D S A N TA I S A B E L
well-recognized (Buenaventura, 1975; Lozano, STOCKS
1985; Pulido, 1985; de Armas, 1986; Molano
et al., 2000; Nivia, 2001; Corporación Au+Ag(As) mineralizations spatially
Autónoma Regional del Cauca, 2003; Ballen, associated to the El Hatillo Stock are located
2005; Cervera and Garcés, 2005; Gordillo and in the Marquetalia and Fresno municipalities
Concha, 2005; Pulido, 2005; Cervera-Acosta of the Caldas and Tolima departments over the
et al., 2008). eastern flank of the Central Cordillera.
Important gold occurrences have been Mineralization comprises auriferous
described as associated to intrusives such as quartz+pyrite+chalcopyrite+arsenopyrite+galena
the Manizales, El Hatillo and Santa Isabel veins hosted in the low-grade metamorphic
stocks in the Central Cordillera, and the Buga rocks of the Cajamarca and Valdivia groups
Batholith and the Jejenes Stock in the Cauca- close to the western border of the El Hatillo
Patia depression and the eastern flank of the Stock (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000; Gómez et
Western Cordillera (Figure 5.5.1.1). al., 2007).
Important historical mines in the
Marquetalia-Fresno region are the El Vergel,
5.5.5.1. GOLD OCCURRENCES La María, La Venturosa, La Cabrera, El
SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED TO THE Granito, Santa Cruz, and Colombia mines
MANIZALES STOCK among others (Buenaventura, 1975).
In addition, to the south, the Santa Isabel-
Gold mineralization spatially associated to Líbano district comprise mostly vein-type
the Manizales Stock comprises auriferous Au+Ag ± W (Cu,Pb,Zn) mineralization
quartz+sulfide veins hosted within or associated to the southern contact of the Santa
peripheral to the northwestern sector of the Isabel Stock with the low-grade metamorphic
intrusive, about 7 to 10km to the Manizales rocks of the Cajamarca and Valdivia groups
city in the Caldas Department (Cediel and (Cediel and Cáceres, 2000; Gómez et al.,
Cáceres, 2000; Gómez et al., 2007). 2007).
The Maltería district comprises numerous Mineralized veins are structurally
structurally controlled subvertical Au(Ag,Cu) controlled along two principal NE and NW
quartz+sulfide vein-type mineralization directions. Veins are 0.5 to 3.0m wide.
following N-S to NE direction (Pulido, 1985). Hydrothermal alteration associated to the
Important mines in the area include the La mineralization is dominated by the quartz+
Coqueta, Palmitas, Gallinazo, El Progreso, La sericite + pyrite assemblage, accompanied by
Rios, among others. minor epidotization and kaolinitization.
Historical mines in the Santa Isabel Stock Mineralization is assumed to be associated

area include the Las Ánimas, La Vibradora, to the late phases of the Buga Batholith magmatic
La María and El Encanto among others suite, but the origin for this mineralization
(Buenaventura, 1975). remains still controversial (Lozano, 1985; de
Armas, 1986; Nivia, 2001; Gordillo, 2005).
5.5.5.3. GOLD OCCURRENCES

SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED TO THE 5.5.5.4. GOLD OCCURRENCES
BUGA BATHOLITH SPATIALLY ASSOCIATED TO THE
JEJENES STOCK
Gold mineralizations spatially associated
to the Buga Batholith are located in the western Gold mineralization spatially associated to
flank of the Central Cordillera, in the Ginebra the Jejenes Stock is found in the Fondas-
and Buga municipalities of the Valle del Cauca Limoncito area, located approximately 13 km
Department. to the northwest of the El Tambo townsite in
Au+Ag(Cu,Pb,Zn) disseminated, vein- the Cauca Department.
type and stockwork mineralization in the Buga- Mineralization comprise structurally
Ginebra district is hosted in both, the Buga controlled auriferous N60°-80°E
Batholith (e.g. Cueva Loca Mine; Ballen, quartz+sulfide veins hosted in hydrothermally
2005; Cervera and Garcés, 2005; Cervera- altered (saussuritization) hornblende biotite
Acosta et al., 2008) and the Ginebra Ophiolite leucotonalites of the Jejenes Stock (Section
Complex (e.g. El Retiro Mine; Cervera and 5.5.2.4), characterized by the development of
Garcés, 2005; Pulido, 2005; Cervera-Acosta wide alteration haloes (approximately 1m up
et al., 2008). to 7m width).
Hydrothermal alteration accompanying the Gold occurrences are limited to the east
mineralization includes silicification, sericitization by the Cali-Patia Fault and to the west by the
and propylitic alteration (Ballen, 2005). Bellavista-Rio Bravo Fault.
Mineralization hosted in the Ginebra Mineralized veins comprise quartz+pyrite+
Ophiolite Complex and in the Buga Batholith (sphalerite+galena-chalcopyrite). Quartz appears
are similar, and Au-Ag quartz+pyrite veins are recrystallized and it is accompanied by medium-
accompanied by minor chalcopyrite, galena to coarse-grained pyrite crystals and minor
and sphalerite, with quartz, carbonates, chlorite amounts of galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite in
and sericite as the principal gangue minerals. fine grained aggregates.
Supergene alteration minerals include anglesite, No petrography characterization has been
covellite, chalcocite, bornite, hematite and carried out, but field observations indicate that
goethite (Molano et al., 2000; Cervera and gold is mostly associated to pyrite and galena.
Garcés, 2005; Cervera-Acosta et al., 2008). Gold composition is estimated in 75%Au and
Electrum is found mostly as free particles, 25%Ag (electrum). Fire assay analyses indicate
but also as small inclusions in quartz and pyrite gold grades from <1g/t up to 75g/t (Corporación
(Cervera and Garcés, 2005). Autónoma Regional del Cauca, 2003).
SECTION 5.6.
Synthesis of Cretaceous-Paleogene
magmatism vs. Au Metallogeny
5.6.1. - Synthesis of Cretaceous to Paleogene magmatism vs. Au metallogeny 653
5.6.1. SYNTHESIS OF CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE

MAGMATISM Vs. Au METALLOGENY
Cretaceous to Eocene calc-alkaline Hatillo, El Bosque and Santa Marta, are

magmatism in the Colombian Andes is considered in situ with respect to the northern
contained principally within the Central Andean margin, and were placed into the early
Cordillera and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Paleozoic metamorphic rocks of the Valdivia
and to a much lessor degree, along and the and Cajamarca Groups, in modified continental
Cauca River basin and in the Western arc settings. Notable features of all of these
Cordillera (Cediel and Caceres, 2000; Gomez plutons include their generally low length-to-
et al., 2007) (Figures 5.6.1.1 and 5.6.1.2). width ratios (less than 2:1), and the lack (or
Unlike the large elongate calc-alkaline lack of preservation) of a coeval volcanic pile.
batholiths and associated volcanic sequences Of the second group, the Eocene Mandé
of the Jurassic, which were emplaced within a Batholith is the largest. It is allochthonous and
broadly similar “continental arc” tectono- was generated in an intra-oceanic setting upon
magmatic framework along the south-southwest Cretaceous oceanic crust. To the west the
to north-northeast northern Andean trend, coeval La Equis – Santa Cecilia Formation
Cretaceous to Eocene magmatism manifests as volcanic and pyroclastic rocks are preserved.
a complex distribution of plutons emplaced in The other plutons, including the Sabanalarga,
modified continental arc and allochthonous Mistrató and Buga batholiths and the Jejenes
intra-oceanic arc settings, in the broad and Irra stocks (among others), are also
accretionary context of the Northern Andean emplaced into Cretaceous oceanic sequences
Orogeny. In this respect the Cretaceous to during the Northern Andean Orogeny. To what
Eocene plutons may be considered in two degree these intrusives are allochthonous or
groups; 1) an eastern group emplaced into in (par)autochthonous with respect to the northern
situ pre-Cretaceous (Mesoproterozoic, early Andean margin has yet to be fully established.
Paleozoic and Permo-Triassic) “basement” Some may be pericratonic in nature while
typical of the northern Andes, and, 2) a western others are fully intra-oceanic. Notably, one
group, emplaced into allochthonous oceanic common characteristic of all of these plutons
basement rocks accreted during the Northern is their presently faulted contacts with respect
Andean Orogeny. In this context, the western to the country rocks.
group is hosted within or to the west of the Recent U-Pb (zircon) age determinations
Romeral fault suture zone. for calc-alkaline Cretaceous to Eocene
Of the first group, the largest pluton by intrusives from both groups have been
far, is the ca. 7200 square kilometre Antioquia conducted by various authors, including the
Batholith. This pluton and various small Antioquia Batholith (Correa et al., 2006;
Paleocene (to Eocene) batholiths and stocks, Ibañez-Mejía et al., 2007; Ordoñez-Carmona
including Mariquita, Sonsón, Manizales, El et al., 2007; Villagómez et al., 2008), the
654 SECTION 5.6. - CRETACEOUS TO PALEOGENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - SYNTHESIS
Figure 5.6.1.1. Cretaceous to Eocene magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the

Colombian Andes. Tectonic base map adapted from Cediel et al. (2003).
5.6.1. - Synthesis of Cretaceous to Paleogene magmatism vs. Au metallogeny
655
Figure 5.6.1.2. Time-space chart for Cretaceous to Eocene magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
Sonsón Batholith (Ordoñez et al., 2001), the differences between the plutons of Cretaceous
Mariquita Stock (A. Cardona, pers. comm.), to Paleogene and Eocene age.
the Manizales and El Hatillo stocks (Bayona Within the Antioquia Batholith magmatic
et al., in pres.), the Santa Marta Batholith suite, all of the magmatic pulses show similar
(Mejía et al., 2008; Cardona et al., 2011), the geochemical features such as metaluminous
Sabanalarga Batholith (Ordoñez-Carmona et subduction-related medium- to high-K calc-
al., 2007) and the Buga Batholith (Villagomez alkaline (I-type) affinity. However, there are
et al., 2008). significant geochemical differences between
In the present study, twenty-three new U- hornblende biotite granodiorites to tonalites of
Pb (zircon) ages for the principal Cretaceous- the late Cretaceous magmatic pulses at 96-
Eocene intrusive have been produced. 92Ma, 89-82Ma and 81-72Ma and the biotite
Integration of this new information with the tonalite Paleocene pulse at ca. 60-58Ma.
recent published dates permits good constraint The Paleocene magmatic pulse (i.e. the
of the magmatic crystallization ages for ‘Nus River Trend’ pulse) has been identified
different intrusions, and in some cases highlights in sparse outcrops of the central eastern
their composite, poly-phase nature. portion of the batholith, along a 70km east-
With respect to the autochthonous group west exposure following the Cisneros Fault.
of intrusions, at the regional-scale, magmatism This Paleocene pulse is characterized by Na-
mostly occurs between ca. 99.6-70 Ma, and rich ‘adakite-like’ geochemical features like
includes the main phases of the Antioquia and high SiO 2 (=56 wt%), Al 2O 3 (=15 wt%) and
Mariquita batholiths. Autochthonous Na 2O (=3.5 wt%) contents, low K 2O (=3
Paleocene-Eocene magmatism is in wt%) contents, and Sr enrichment (=400ppm),
comparison volumetrically minor. It includes accompanied by depletion of Y (=18ppm) and
the final phases of the Antioquia Batholith, the Yb (=1.9ppm) (e.g. Castillo, 2006; Richards
Sonson Batholith, Manizales and El Hatillo and Kerrich, 2007).
stocks, and the El Bosque Batholith. The Paleocene Sonsón Batholith also
The Antioquia Batholith is shown herein reveals I-type subduction-related
to be a composite poly-phase pluton whose metaluminous, medium- to high-K calc-alkaline
emplacement spans the late Cretaceous to chemistry, but does not show the Na-rich
Paleocene, taking place in at least four ‘adakite-like’ geochemical signature observed
magmatic pulses (Section 5.3.5). in the rocks of the ‘Nus River Trend’.
U-Pb magmatic zircon ages for the Sonsón The smaller Cretaceous to Paleogene
Batholith and the Manizales Stock indicate that intrusives of the Central Cordillera (e.g. the
these intrusives are coeval with the Paleocene Mariquita and Manizales stocks and the El
pulse of the Antioquia Batholith. Emplacement Bosque Batholith) also share similar
of the late- post-tectonic El Bosque Batholith geochemical features such as the I-type,
and El Hatillo Stock took place in the Eocene. subduction-related medium-K calc-alkaline
Based upon the foregoing, the “autochthonous” affinity. The youngest intrusives, including the
Cretaceous-Eocene calc-alkaline arc of the Manizanles Stock and El Bosque Batholith plot
central Colombian Andes demonstrates the marginally peraluminous, potentially due to
southward migration of magmatic centers with greater crustal interaction in a late- to post-
time. This observation, along with that involving tectonic setting.
the generally equant geometry of the With respect to the western group,
Cretacous-Eocene plutons, is attributable to emplaced within or to the west of the Romeral
the (dextral) oblique subduction-collision fault and suture system, ca. 97-70 Ma
regime dominate along the Colombian Pacific magmatism is recorded by calc-alkaline
margin during this time period (Cediel et al; pericratonic to intra-oceanic intrusives such as
2003) the Sabanalarga, Mistrató and Buga batholiths
Whole-rock petrochemical results for and the Jejenes and Irra stocks. The full
intrusives of the eastern group indicate certain tectonic or petrogenetic nature of these
intrusive and their potential relationships with Cretaceous to Paleogene intrusives. The
those of the eastern group have yet to be fully Antioquia Batholith magmatic suite samples
established. The Mandé Batholith is part of a cluster and define a vertical array with similar
separate arc system developed within the initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70398-0.70455) and
Cañas Gordas Terrane during the Paleocene- i n c r e a s i n g  Nd v a l u e s f r o m o l d e r l a t e
Eocene, and appears unrelated to the other Cretaceous facies to younger Paleocene facies
plutons of either the eastern or western belt. ( Nd =+1.74 to +4.77) (Figure 5.6.1.3).
With respect to petrochemistry, the Other intrusive of the eastern group plot
intrusives to the western group, including the also within the mantle array field indicating a
Sabanalarga Batholith (Calle and Correa, mantle-derived source. Crustal contamination
1988), Mistrató and Buga Batholiths, the becomes evident only in the Cretaceous
leucotonalitic Jejenes Pluton, and the Mandé Mariquita Stock, which, based upon regional
Batholith, demonstrate clear low-K, I-type geologic mapping, can be inferred to have
metaluminous subduction-related petrochemistry,. interacted with disrupted continental basement
The late Cretaceous Irra Stock and a of Mesoproterozoic age, and in the Paleocene-
temporally related porphyry fragment from the Eocene Manizales and El Bosque plutons,
nearby Miraflores Breccia (ca. 72-70Ma) which were introduced into the tectonically-
reveal a high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic thickened continental margin during the mid
geochemical signature, as recognized in the Northern Andean Orogeny (Figure 5.6.1.3).
enhanced k-feldspar contents observed in thin With respect to the low-K calc-alkaline
section. intrusives to the western group, all of the
Sr-Nd isotope geochemistry indicates a samples analysed for Sr-Nd, including the
mantle-derived source for most of the Jejenes Stock and the Buga Batholith, plot
Figure 5.6.1.3.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for some of the Cretaceous to Eocene intrusives of
the Colombian Andes.
Figure 5.6.1.4. Uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206 Pb/ 204 Pb) and thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204Pb) and plots for rocks of some Cretaceous to Eocene intrusives of the Colombian
Andes. Lead isotope evolution curves from Plumbotectonics model after Zartman and
Doe (1981).
within the mantle source region, reflecting their Within the eastern group, the most
ubiquitous emplacement into oceanic crust. extensive and important gold province from
Samples from the Mandé Batholith yielded the both a historical and modern-day perspective,
clearly mantelic Sr and Nd isotope values (87Sr/ is hosted within and peripheral to the Antioquia
86
Sr (i) = 0.70315 to 0.70434 and  Nd = +6.12 – Sonsón batholiths their suite of satellite
to +15.26) (Figure 5.6.1.3). plutons. With respect to the Antioquia Batholith,
Lead isotope geochemistry of the eastern dozens of historically productive gold
group Cretaceous to Eocene intrusive bodies occurrences are known. In the course of the
cluster in narrow ranges ( 206Pb/204Pb = 18.74- present study at least two well-defined gold
19.21; 207Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.58-15.67 and 208 Pb/ metallogenic events have been identified,
204
Pb = 38.48-39.05) (Figure 5.6.1.4). including at ca. 89-85Ma and ca. 60-58Ma
Conversely, lead isotope results for the (Figure 5.6.1.2).
western group of intrusive, hosted within or The first ca. 89-85Ma event, resulted in
marginal to Romeral Terrane basement, exhibit the development of multi-million ounce,
consistently more radiogenic values ( 206 Pb/ district-scale, vein-type Au±Ag±(Pb+Zn+Cu)
204
Pb = 19.08-19.44; 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.67- mineralization at Segovia-Remedios. Gold
15.70 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.77-38.91). The mineralization at Segovia-Remedios is spatially
lead isotope values of samples from the Mande and temporally related to intrusives of the
Batholith, hosted within the El Paso Terrane, herein defined second magmatic pulse (ca. 89-
however indicate similar values to those of the 82Ma) of the Antioquia Batholith suite. At
eastern group ( 206 Pb/ 204Pb = 18.92-18.96; Segovia-Remedios, felsic porphyry dikes are
207
Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.61-15.64 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = in intimate contact with the mineralized veins.
38.56-38.60) (Figure 5.6.1.4). Radiometric dating of the dikes and vein-
Regarding gold mineralization spatially- encapsulated hydrothermal sericitic alteration
temporally related to the Cretaceous to Eocene produced well-constrained, contemporaneous
batholiths and stocks of the Colombian Andes, ages. The emplacement of La Culebra Stock
gold occurrences are widespread within or ca. three kilometers to the west of the district
peripheral to both the eastern group of was also contemporaneous with dike
autochthonous plutons emplaced within the emplacement and vein and alteration
continental margin, and to the western group development. In addition, lead isotope
of pericratonic to allochthonous intrusives signatures of sulfides accompanying gold
(Figures 5.6.1.1 and 5.6.1.2). mineralization at Segovia-Remedios plot in a
narrow 206 Pb/ 204Pb range (18.687-18.710), carbonaceous low-grade meta-sedimentary
within the same subvertical array defined by rocks of the Valdivia Group on the northern
the sulfides associated with gold mineralization margin of the batholith, are arsenopyrite rich,
in other sectors of the Antioquia Batholith typical of intrusion-related deposits formed on
(Figure 5.6.1.4). the margins of plutons. Sulfur isotope analysis
The second ca. 60-58Ma metallogenic of sulfide ores from La Floresta de Yalí, Santa
event is associated with the Na-rich ‘adakite- Rosa de Osos, La Bramadora, returned
like’ biotite tonalite intrusives of the Nus River negative values close to zero (34 S= -7.4 to -
Trend (including the biotite tonalite facies at 0.6) suggesting a magmatic (mantle-derived?)
Cerro Gramalote). This event includes multi- origin for sulfur in these deposits. The only
million ounce Au-(Cu, Mo, Ag) deposit at known intrusive rocks in the vicinity of these
Cerro Gramalote, within the Providencia Au deposits pertain to the Antioquia Batholith. The
District. Cerro Gramalote mineralization is various deposits mentioned within this
characterized by an ‘intrusion-related’ paragraph are thus tentatively inferred to be
A u ± A g ± C u ± M o ± ( B i + Te ) g e o c h e m i c a l genetically related with emplacement of the 81-
assemblage, and the presence of notable Bi- 72 Ma magmatic pulse (Figure 5.6.1.2).
bearing sulfosalts and tellurides. As at A few kilometers to the east of the
Segovia-Remedios, radiometric age dating of Caracoli sector of the Antioquia Batholith, the
the host rocks and mineral and alteration El Vapor trend of mineralization cuts Aptian-
assemblages at Cerro Gramalote produced a Albian sedimentary rocks of the Segovia
well constrained and coincident age linking Formation and quartz diorite of the Jurassic
magmatism, hydrothermal alteration and Segovia Batholith. Altered and mineralized
mineralization (Figure 5.6.1.2). felsic dikes spatially associated with
Based upon a similar mineralization style mineralized Au-Ag veins in the sedimentary
and the notable presence of K-spar and rocks returned a K-Ar (sericite) age of
sericite alteration and quartz + Paleocene-aged 55.9±2.0 Ma. This is considered to be the last
molybdenite in the mineral assemblage, phase of mineralization associated with
additional occurrences within the Providencia emplacement and cooling of the Antioquia
Au District include mineralization at La Batholith and it’s satellite intrusives (Figure
Quiebra (El Guayabito)-El Limón-Guadualejo 5.6.1.2).
and Santo Domingo-San Roque Au. As a whole, the poly-phase Antioquia
The age(s) of other important clusters of Batholith can be seen as a favorable
gold occurrences hosted within or along the environment for the genesis and emplacement
margins of the Antioquia Batholith, have not of numerous phases of pluton-related gold
been precisely constrained during the present mineralization, associated with the distinct
study, primarily due to the difficulty in obtaining magmatic pulses which make up the composite
suitably unweathered/oxidized materials for the batholith and satellite plutons. Batholith
dating hydrothermal alteration. Regardless, petrochemistry and the nature and
maximum ages for some of these clusters can geochemistry of the mineralized phases can be
be inferred based upon field relationships, and observed to vary over time. Mineralization is
new U-Pb (zircon) ages and additional emplaced in structural corridors within and
geochemical information produced herein. For peripheral to the batholith, taking advantage
example, the northern sector of the Antioquian of fault and fracture systems evolving within
batholith is dominated by the 81-72 Ma the batholith over time, and the reactive nature
magmatic pulse. A maximum 81-72 Ma age can of host rocks along the batholith margins.
be assumed for various districts in this northern Elsewhere within the eastern group of
sector of the batholith, including at Santa Rosa intrusives, gold mineralization is also well
de Osos, El Machete – Guadalupe and La documented. Vein-type Au+Ag±(Pb+Zn+Cu)
Floresta de Yali. The La Bramadora – Amalfi mineralization in the Argelia-Sonsón Mining
vein districts, hosted in hornfelsed, District is hosted within the ca. 61-57 Ma
Sonsón Batholith. Similar Au-Ag vein-type Discussion of ‘Adakite-like’ Magmas vs.

mineralization is seen in the Maltería District, Cerro Gramalote Au-Ag-Cu-Mo (Bi-Te)
hosted within the ca. 60 Ma Manizales Stock. Mineralization in the Antioquia Batholith
At Santa Isabel, Au-Ag-W mineralization is
hosted in Cajamarca Group metamorphic Adakite-like’ magmas and their role in
rocks on the margin of the ca. 55 Ma El Hatillo metallogenesis have been widely debated (e.g.
Stock. The age of mineralization in these Oyarzun et al., 2001; Oyarzun et al., 2002;
districts has not been well constrained in the Mungall, 2002; Richards, 2002; Richards and
course of this study. Regardless, the spatial Kerrich, 2007). A close relationship between
relationship of mineralization with these ‘adakite-like’ magmas and important ore
Paleocene – Eocene plutons is well established deposits has been suggested (e.g. late Eocene-
(Figure 5.6.1.2). early Oligocene porphyry Cu belt in Chile;
With respect to the intrusive rocks of Thieblemont et al., 1997; Oyarzun et al.,
Western Cordillera of Colombia, hosted within 2001).
or the west of the Romeral fault and suture, Within the context of the Antioquia Batholith,
gold mineralization are observed in various the ca. 60-58 Ma metallogenic event at Cerro
areas, including within the Buga Batholith and Gramalote is associated with Na-rich biotite
within the Jejenes Stock. Mineralization age tonalite magmatism with a clear ‘adakite-like’
in either case is not well constrained, but a petrochemical signature. Given that the Cerro
maximum age for ore deposition may be Gramalote deposit is at present the largest and
extrapolated from the age of the hosting most important gold occurrence within the
intrusive (ca. 90Ma and ca. 85Ma, Antioquia Batholith, this “adakitic” magmatic
respectively) (Figure 5.6.1.2). affinity is examined in more detail herein.
In the case of the ca. 85 Ma Sabanalarga Earlier hypotheses (e.g. Kay, 1978;
Batholith, no obvious Au metallogenetic Saunders et al., 1987) suggested that Adakite-
expression is recorded. The syngenetic ca. like’ magmas were the result of slab melting
Aptian-aged, Anza Au-rich VMS deposit (i.e. melting of subducting oceanic crust).
located near the southern-most margin, Conversely, recent publication by Richards and
appears to significantly pre-date the batholith Kerrich (2007) suggested that many of the
(Figure 5.6.1.2). geochemical attributes used to identify and
The late Paleocene-Eocene Mandé- discriminate ‘adakite-like’ rocks could be
Acandí batholiths and associated hypabyssal generated by alternative magmatic processes,
porphyritic and volcanic rocks of the Choco such as slab melting of lower crustal garnet
Arc contain the most significant manifestations amphibolite, ‘melting-assimilation-storage-
of mineralization related to magmatism in the homogenization – MASH’ and ‘assimilation-
western group of intrusions. The porphyry- fractional-crystallization – AFC’.
related Cu (Au, Mo) occurrences of the In the middle Jurassic to Cretaceous
northern Western Cordillera, including at Coastal Batholith of central Chile, Parada et
Acandi, Pantanos-Pegadorcito and Murindo, al. (1999) suggested that adakitic magmatism
have been well documented (Sillitoe et al., formed the final product of a magmatic series
1982). The La Equis Au-Ag (Zn, Cu) vein and initially involving the emplacement of non-
breccias-type mineralization is located on the adakitic, mantled-derived calc-alkaline
eastern margin of the Mande Batholith in La magmas as the products of subduction-related
Equis-Santa Cecilia volcanic rocks. arc magmatism (the Papudo-Quintero
Paleocene-Eocene mineralization of the Mande Complex), followed by the generation of
Batholith is considered to be allochthonous with ‘adakite-like’ magmatism as recorded in the
respect to the northern Andean margin and to have Illapel Complex. They noted that  Nd values
been formed before the arrival and accretion of within the Coastal Batholith show a vertical
the Choco Arc tectonic assemblage beginning in increasing trend coincident with the transition
the early Miocene (Figure 5.6.1.2). to adakitic compositions.
Figure 5.6.1.5. Evolution of the Cretaceous-Paleogene magmatism in Colombia and its

relation with the main gold deposits. Metallogenetic symbols as in fig. 5.6.1.1.
These authors explain the magmatic ‘adakite-like’ magmatism when subduction

transition using a model of lithospheric resumes (Parada et al., 1999).
delamination following the collision of an Regarding the Cretaceous to Paleogene
oceanic ridge with the continental margin, intrusives of the Antioquia Batholith, the Na-rich
which led to upwelling of asthenospheric ‘adakite-like’ geochemical signature is not a common
mantle and extensional deformation in the feature. It is specific to later intrusions of Paleocene
overlying continental crust, with associated age including the ‘Nus River Trend’ facies.
As shown in Figure 5.6.1.4, when plotted with the northern Andean margin (fig. 5.6.1.5,
in the Sr-Nd diagram, the Antioquia Batholith stage 3, with the intrusion of the alkaline Irra
magmatic suite samples cluster and define a stock), followed by resumption of magmatism
vertical array with increasing Nd values from older in the Paleocene – Eocene, including
late Cretaceous mantle-derived subduction- emplacement of the Paleocene ‘adakite-like’
related facies to younger Na-rich ‘adakite-like’ Nus River Trend magmatic phase and
Paleocene facies. The Antioquia batholithNd accompanying Au-Ag-Cu-Mo mineralization
array is very similar to the vertical increasing array (fig. 5.6.1.6, stage 4). The change to adakitic
observed for the middle Jurassic to Cretaceous magmatism could be related to a delamination
magmatism of the Coastal Batholith in central of the lithosphere during an extensional period
Chile (Parada et al., 1999). produced after the stopping of the subduction,
Similarities are also observed in overall following the schema of Parada et al. (1999).
evolution of these two regions from a tectonic The general arc axial position in the
standpoint. The Antioquia batholiths is the continental Colombian Andes is observed to
product of the subduction of Farallones Plate shift southward during this time period, into the
oceanic crust during the period between ca. Sonsón, Manizales, El Hatillo and El Bosque
100 Ma and the latest Cretaceous, prior to the plutons (fig. 5.6.1.6, stage 4). Notably the El
collision and accretion of the Dagua Terrane Hatillo Stock also records ‘adakite-like’
in the late Cretaceous – Paleocene (fig. petrochemistry.
5.6.1.5, stage 1 and 2). The Dagua Terrane The temporal-spatial coincidence of
consists of N- and E- MORB basalts and ‘adakite-like’ magmas of Paleocene – Eocene
marine sediments. It is considered to represent age in the Central Cordillera of the Colombian
the remnants of an aseismic ridge or oceanic Andes, accompanied by significant Au (Ag-Cu-
plateau (Cediel et al., 2003). Thus, the late Mo) systems such as seen at Cerro Gramalote
Cretaceous magmatic phases of the Antioquia and elsewhere (e.g. El Hatilllo), suggests that
Batholith (ca. 96-72 Ma) record mantle- petrochemical analyses can be used as an
derived subduction-related magmatism. A exploration guide for the definition of plutonic
hiatus on the order of 8 Ma, between ca. 70 phases with high metallogenic potential for the
Ma and 62 Ma is recorded, representing genesis of similar intrusion-related precious
collision/accretion of the Dagua assemblage and/or base metal deposits.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 6
MIOCENE
MAGMATISM VS. Au
METALLOGENY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 6.1.
Introduction
Miocene subduction-related magmatism in trend (e.g. Quinchía-Dos Quebradas,

Colombia has been well-recognized mainly Marmato-Supía, Orofino-La Pintada, La
over the western Colombian Andes (Alvarez, Aurora, La Mina and Titiribí mining districts);
1983; Aspden et al., 1987; Toussaint and and Buritica in the northern sector.
Restrepo, 1988; López et al., 2006). The recent discovery of the La Colosa Au
It comprises phaneritic batholiths and porphyry at the Tolima Department by
minor stocks located in the Western Cordillera AngloGold Ashanti Colombia (Lodder et al.,
(e.g. the Piedrancha Batholith, El Vergel and 2010), constitutes the only well-constrained
Cumbitara stocks, the Anchicaya Batholith, the late Miocene porphyry suite with associated
Farallones Batholith, etc.), and a series of gold mineralization over the Central Cordillera
hypabyssal intrusives along the interandean of Colombia up to this date.
depression of the Cauca river, between the In addition, recent recognition of late
Central and Western cordilleras (Alvarez, Miocene magmatism in the Santander Massif
1983; Aspden et al., 1987). (Mantilla et al., 2009; this work), closely
The extensive composite late Miocene related to the Vetas-California Mining district
volcanoclastic sequence cropping out in the gold mineralization, and the recent
middle Cauca river valley (i.e. Combia announcement and discovery of gold-copper-
Formation; Marriner and Millward, 1984), is molybdenum porphyry mineralization in the
considered to be the extrusive expression of area (Vetas Gold Project; CB Gold Inc.,
the hypabyssal intrusives of the middle Cauca February 15/2011 press-release) clearly justify
river valley area. its inclusion within the Miocene magmatism
Important gold and base metal occurrences over the Colombian Andes.
mineralizations associated to the Miocene In the following sections new petrography,
magmatism include the La Llanada Mining mineralogy, geochronological and whole-rock
District in the Nariño Department; La Vega and geochemistry data is presented concerning to the
Buenos Aires mining districts in the Cauca Miocene magmatism in the Colombian Andes
Department; the middle Cauca river valley and its relationship with gold metallogeny.
Miocene magmatism occurrences in the Supia-Orofino area, La Quedradona-La

Colombian Andes are spatially distributed Aurora area, La Mina-Venecia area and the
mostly in the Western Cordillera and the Cauca Titiribi area.
river valley (Alvarez, 1983; Aspden et al., The volcanoclastic sequence of the late
1987; López et al., 2006) (Figure 6.1.2.1). Miocene Combia Formation (ca. 10-6Ma)
Early Miocene occurrences (ca. 23Ma) also crops out in the middle Cauca river valley
crop out in the southern Western Cordillera, region, and is considered to be the effusive
at the Nariño Department. It comprises the expression of the late Miocene intrusives.
Piedrancha Batholith and associated minor
stocks (e.g. El Vergel Stock and Cumbitara
Stock).
Moreover, the Farallones Batholith and the
Urrao Pluton are located in the northern
Western Cordillera, to the west of the middle
Cauca river valley region. They have been
dated by K-Ar method in hornblende in
11±2Ma (Calle et al., 1980) and 11Ma/12Ma
(Botero, 1975), respectively.
The hypabyssal intrusives along the Cauca
river valley clearly define two different
clusters.
The southern cluster (ca. 17.0-9.0Ma) is
located to the south of 3°N, where a ca.
200km long SW-NE trending magmatic belt
comprises porphyry suites of the Santander de
Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez area and of the
L a Ve g a - L a S i e r r a a r e a i n t h e C a u c a
department. The Miocene magmatism of this
belt can be followed down to the Berruecos
(Arboledas) Stock in the Nariño Department
(Figure 6.1.2.1).
The northern cluster (ca. 8.0-6.3Ma) is
located to the north of 5°N, mostly along the
middle Cauca river valley comprising different
porphyry suites in a ca. 100km long N-S
trending magmatic belt. Within this belt, the
principle porphyry suites are located in the Figure 6.1.2.1. Miocene magmatism distribution
Quinchia-Dos Quedradas area, the Marmato- over the Colombian Andes.
670 SECTION 6.1.- MIOCENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - INTRODUCTION
Moreover, this northern cluster can be (17.1±0.4Ma) porphyry occurrence in the Rio
extended about 75km more to the north to Dulce area to the north constitute the only
include the northernmost late Miocene (ca. known gold mineralization occurrences along
11.8Ma) intrusive occurrence at the Buritica the axial portion of the Central Cordillera up
Project (Continental Gold Ltd.). to this date.
The late Miocene porphyry suite at the Moreover, the recently recognized late
Cajamarca-Salento region (ca. 8.3-6.3Ma), Miocene porphyry suite at the Santander
includes La Colosa Project (Lodder et al., Department (ca. 10.2-8.4Ma; Mantilla et al.,
2010) and other hypabyssal intrusives 2009; this work), in the Vetas-California
surrounding it. Mining district area also constitutes the only
This porphyry suite of the Cajamarca- known late Miocene intrusive occurrence in the
Salento region, along with the early Miocene Eastern Cordillera up to this date.
SECTION 6.2.
Middle Cauca Region

Porphyritic Rocks
6.2.1-Petrography of the Middle Cauca region porphyritic rocks 673
6.2.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE CAUCA

REGION PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
6.2.1.1. HORNBLENDE PHORPHYRITIC the crystals is about 1cm. Twinning is

DIORITE OF THE TITIRIBI FACIES polysynthetic, generally on the albite twin law;
other types of simple and complex twinning are
These rocks were sampled on a also present.
porphyrytic dike associated with the gold Concentric zoning is very distinct and is
deposits of the Titiribí district, one of the moost revealed by changes in the interference color,
important classically in Colombia, in the in the alteration degree and in the distribution
Middle Cauca valley (sample WR-69, Figure of the mineral inclusions (figs. 6.2.1.1-
6.1.1). 6.2.1.2). In some cases, the inclusions
The porphyry diorites of the Tititibí facies corresponds to diminute glass inclusions (figs.
have a typical porphyrytic texture, with 6.2.1.1-6.2.1.2)
phenocrysts of plagioclase and hornblende Hydrothermal alteration to fine-grained
(and, probably, microphenocrysts of epidote) sericite may be total in some samples. Cores
scattered in an aphanitic matrix (figs. 6.2.1.1- tend to be more calcic and, therefore,
6.2.1.2) . The most of the rock outcrops of alteration may be concentrated on the cores;
the intrusives from this district have been rims tend to be more albitic and to be more
affected by a strong hydrothermal alteration, fresh. Plagioclase crystals contain inclusions of
masking the primary fabrics. apatite, amphibole and epidote.
Plagioclase Amphibole
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral phase Green amphibole is the other important
in the phenocrysts, and the content is close to component of the phenocrysts, around 45 %
55 % modal. Plagioclase crystals are euhedral modal. It is also found as phenocrystals, but
with a bladed habit, although some crystals may the crystal size is smaller than plagioclase, in
have a rounded shape The maximum leght of the range 0,2 cm- 0,6 cm in length. It has dark
qtz amp
or
pl bt
Figure 6.2.1.1.General overview of the Figure 6.2.1.2. The above image, in crossed
sample CC-O-025 (Titiribí mine, Middle polars. Note the zoning of the plagioclase
Cauca). Note zoning in plagioclase defined crystals.
by glass inclusions. PPL.
674 SECTION 6.2-MIDDLE CAUCA REGION PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
clc
clc
pl pl
epi> epi>
amp> amp clc>
clc> amp>
Figure 6.2.1.3. Amphibole crystals (amp, note Figure 6.2.1.4. Detail of the above image in
basal and longitudinal sections, partly replaced by crossed polars. Epi is primary epidote. Sample
chlorite, clc) and plagioclase (pl) as phenocrysts. PPL. CC-O-25.
pl
or
pl
qtz
Figure6.2.1.5. Phenocrhrystic plagioclase Figure 6.2.1.6. The above image in crossed

(pl)with inclusions of primary magmatic poalrs. Note the almost euhedral shape of
epidote (epi1); partly may be secondary epidote crystals (epi). Titiribí mine.
(epi2) associated with chlorite (clc). PPL.
green pleochroism, and zoning is not distinct. minerals (mainly plagioclase or amphibole, fig.
It is altered to pale-greenish clinochlore, in 6.2.1.5-6.2.1.6) ) or scattered in the aphanitic
association with other secondary fine-grained matrix (fig. 6.2.1.7-6.2.1.8). The crystal size
minerals, as epidote, titanite and magnetite. In is not more than 500 microns, and in the matrix
some cases, the alteration may be complete generally in the order of 250 microns.
(fig. 6.2.1.3-6.2.1.4). Epidote crystals have a short prismatic
habit. The color is dark yellow, which is
Epidote indicative of a high content in Fe, and is
concentrically zoned.
As in other volcanic rocks of the Cauca The primary epidote microphenocrysts
Valley, textural evidences suggest that epidote may be overgrown by anhedral aggregates of
is found as a possibly primary magmatic secondary epidote. This secondary epidote can
mineral. Epidote occurs as euhedral have similar optical properties to those of the
microphenocrysts, either as inclusions in other primary epidote, and hence chemical analyses
epi> epi
Figure 6.2.1.7. Epidote microphenocrysts Figure 6.2.1.8. The above image in crossed
(epi) scattered in the matrix. PPL, Titiribí polars.
mine.
<bt
ilm>
<ttn
qtz
Figure 6.2.1.9.Euhedral magnetite octahedral Figure 6.2.1.10. Skeletal ilmenite crystal, partly
cystal with quartz inclusions, partly altered on replaced by secondary titanite. PPL, reflected
the octahedral cleavages PPL, reflected light. light. Titiribí mine.
Titiribí mine.
are needed to distinguish these populations. In Magnetite

fact, secondary epidote tends to occur in direct
association with hydrothermal clorite (fig. Magnetite is common, and the crystals are
6.2.1.5-6.2.1.6). However, it is complicate to euhedral, consisting of octahedrons with 500
evaluate the proportions of both generations microns in size, partly altered to hematite or
of epidote. secondary oxides along the octahedral
cleavages (fig. 6.2.1.9).
Apatite
Ilmenite
Apatite is uncommon in these rocks, and
can be identified as euhedral crystals scattered Ilmenite is more scarce than magnetite, and
in the matrix or as diminute inclusions (less than grain size is smaller (less than 200 microns).
100 microns) in other minerals. It has a short The crystals have often a skeletal aspect, and
prismatic habit. are partly replaced by titanite (fig. 6.2.1.10).
pl
pl pl
Figure 6.2.1.10. General view of the biotit Figure 6.2.1.11. The above image, in crossed
porphyrytic monzodiorite of Titiribi. PPL, sample polars.
HL120516). Pl, plagioclase, amp, amphibole. PPL..
pl
pl
or
pl
Figure 6.2.1.12. Plagioclase crystal showing Figure 6.2.1.13. Plagioclase crystal, no

oscyllatory zoning and polysynthetic zoned and showing pericline twins.Crossed
twinning on the albite law. Crossed polars, polars, sample HL120516.
sample HL120516.
pl
bt> pl
bt>
bt>
Figure 6.2.1.14. Euhedral biotite crystals Figure 6.2.1.15. The above image in crossed
(bt) scattered in the matrix. PPL, sample polars.
HL120516.
6.2.1.2. BIOTITE PORPHYRITIC
MONZODIORITE OF THE TITIRIBI
FACIES
pl
These rocks were sampled on a
porphyrytic dike associated with the gold
deposits of the Titiribí district, one of the most
important classically in Colombia, in the or
Middle Cauca valley (sample HL-120516,
Figure 6.1.1).
qtz
These rocks have a typical porphyrytic
texture, with microphenocrysts of plagioclase
and rare hornblende and biotite in an aphanitic
m a t r i x ( f i g s . 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 - 6 . 2 . 1 . 11 ) . T h e Figure 6.2.1.16. Amphibole crystal alterd to pale-
proportion of matrix is lower than those of green clinochore (clc) and titanite (ttn). Titiribí,
phenocrysts. Sample HL120506.
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is largely dominant in the

pl
phenocrysts, and the content is close to 80 %
modal. Plagioclase crystals are euhedral with
a short prismatic habit, and the maximum
lenght of them is about 0,5 cm. Twinning is or
polysynthetic on the albite twin law and
concentric zoning is very distinct (figs. 6.2.1.12
and 6.2.1.13). qtz
Plagioclase is also found in the fine-
grained matrix and its study is more difficult,
but it tend to be subhedral, shortly prismatic Figure 6.2.1.17. The above image, in crossed
and has polysynthetic twinning and zoning (figs polars. Note the intense sericitization of the
6.2.1.14-6.2.1.15). plagioclase.
Amphibole
Pale green amphibole very rare and occur

only as a trace mineral, less than 1 % modal.
It occurs as euhedral prismatic phenocrystals,
with a length between 0,2 cm- 0,4 cm. Zoning
is not distinct. It is strongly altered to
clinochlore, in association with fine-grained
epidote, titanite, calcite and magnetite. In most pl
of the cases, the amphibole has been
completely pseudomorphosed (fig. 6.2.1.6-
6.2.1.8).
Biotite Figure 6.2.1.18. Detail of the above image in

reflected light. Titanite replacments (ttn) are
Biotite is the dominant mafic mineral in the outstanding on the chlorite alterations (clc).
phenocrysts, although it is found in lesser Titiribí biotite porphyrytic monzodiorite.
amounts than 5% modal. The crystals are

euhedral, tabular in habit, and the crystal size
is small, less than 500 microns in diameter. The
color is brownish and has a strong
pleochroism. It is altered to a fine-grained
mixture of clinochlore, epidote, magnetite and
titanite.
<mt
Apatite
Apatite is common, as euhedral crystals

of a short prismatic habit, less than 100
microns in lenght.
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 9 . S k e l e t h a l m a g n e t i t e
Magnetite crystal (mt) from the Titiribí mine.
Magnetite is common, and the crystals are

euhedral, consisting of octahedrons with up to
500 microns in size. Some of them may have
an skelethal shape (fig. 6.2.1.19).
amp>
<pl
6.2.1.3. PYROXENE HORNBLENDE
PORPHYRITIC ANDESITE-BASALT OF LA
MINA FACIES pl
<amp
These rocks are strongly affected by a

potassic alteration, and were sampled on a
porphyrytic body drilled at the gold mine of
La Mina, in the Middle Cauca valley (sample F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 0 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e
181, Figure 6.1.1). pyroxene-hornblende porphyrytic andesite-
The porphyry andesite basalts of La Mina basalt of La Mina, in PPL. Sample 181. Pl,
facies consists of phenocrysts of plagioclase, plagioclase, amp, amphibole.
pyroxene and hornblende scattered in an
aphanitic matrix (fig. 6.2.1.20-6.2.1.21).
These rocks are strongly affected by secondary
potasification.
amp>
Plagioclase <pl
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral phase

in the phenocrysts, and its content is close to <amp
65 % modal. Plagioclase is euhedral and the
habit is bladed; the maximum length of the
crystals is about 1,5 cm. Twinning on the albite
law is the rule. Zoning is concentric, normal,
generally with more sericitized core.
Plagioclase crystals contain euhedral
polars.
inclusions of apatite, amphibole and epidote,
and may be altered in different degree to
s e r i c i t e a n d t o s e c o n d a r y K - f e l d s p a r.
Secondary K-feldspar is found filling small
irregular veinlets cross-cutting plagioclase in
all the possible directions.
cpx>
cpx> Amphibole
cpx> <amp A brownish-green amphibole is the second

component by order of abbundance in the
phenocrysts, around 20 % modal (fig.
<amp 6.2.1.20-6.2.1.21).. The amphibole
phenocrysts are euhedral, and have a long
prismatic habit, with a length in the order of
Figure 6.2.1.22. Uralitized clinopyroxene 0,3 cm- 1 cm. Zoning is hard to be distinguished
(cpx) and amphibole (amp) phenocrysts in by optical procedures, and it is only
andesite. PPL, La Mina. manifested by slight concentrical changes in the
hues of brownish. The alteration degree is
variable, and in all the cases is produced to
clinochlore, in association with fine-grained
pl
epidote, titanite and magnetite.
Pyroxene
<amp Pyroxene grains are difficult to be

cpx> pl classified because of their complete
pseudomorphic replacement to uralitic
<amp amphibole, chlorite and epidote(fig. 6.2.1.22-
6.2.1.23). However, the identity of the grop
can be easily established according with the
Figure 6.2.1.23. The above image in crossed euhedral form of the crystals, which provide
polars. Note uralitiztion in the typical basal sections for these minerals (fig.
clinopyroxene (cpx), and polysynthetic twins 6.2.1.24). The crystal habit is short prismatic,
in amphibole (amp). Pl, plagioclase and noting can be ascertained about the original
color and zoning. The size of the phenocrysts
is in the millimeter order, and may constitute
up to 15% modal of the phenocrysts.
amp> Epidote
Epidote is a rare mineral in these rocks,

<bt
cpx> just is a trace mineral, and most of this mineral
has been produced by hydrothermal alteration
of plagioclases and other minerals. However,
pl>
some small crystals found as inclusions in
qtz
unaltered crystals of plagioclase may
correspond to primary epidote. Primary
epidote has been found in many volcanic rocks
Figure 6.2.1.24. Detail of a basal section of a
of the Cauca belt, although its occurrence is
clinopyroxene (cpx), mostly altered to uralite. A
at the least doubtful in this case. The grain size
basal section of amphibole (amp) is present.
is small, less than 200 microns.
Crossed nicols. La Mina.
<mt ilm
ttn>
Figure 6.2.1.25. Magnetite crystal (mt) from la Figure 6.2.1.26. Ilmenite crystals (ilm) from
Mina Intrusive. Note the octahedral la Mina Intrusive, partly replaced by titanite
cleavage. PPL, reflected light. (ttn). PPL, reflected light.
Apatite 6.2.1.4. AMPHIBOLE PORPHYRITIC

ANDESITE OF THE LA AURORA FACIES
Scarce euhedral crystals are found
scattered in the matrix or as inclusions in other These rocks are strongly affected by a
minerals. They consist of the hexagonal prism pervasive potassic alteration, in association
and the pinacoid; the habit is short prismatic. with a dense stockwork of thin quartz veinlets
and, therefore, the mineral and global chemical
Zircon composition is highly modified. This description
is based on a sample from a porphyrytic body
Zircon crystals are scarce, and consist of drilled at the gold mine of La Aurora, in the
euhedral grains of small size, less than 100 Middle Cauca valley (sample 183, Figure
microns. They are made of the tetragonal prism 6.1.1.1).
and the tetragonal bypyramid; the habit is The porphyry andesite of La Aurora facies
shortly prismatic. They may be zoned, having consists of phenocrysts of plagioclase, and
an anhedral core rimmed by an euhedral hornblende scattered in an aphanitic matrix
border. These crystals are not metamictic. (figs. 6.2.1.27-6.2.1.28. The matrix consists
of quartz interstitial among plagioclase crystals,
Magnetite accompanied by a notceable amount of K-
feldspar.
Magnetite is quite common, although in a These rocks are strongly affected by
proportion lower than 3%. The crystals are secondary potasification, silicification and
subhedral, and they consist of more or less sericitization, generally in the vicinity of small
rounded octahedrons of 500 microns in size veins (less tan 3 mm in wideness) that crosscut
(fig. 6.2.1.25). Some magnetite crstals are the rock. The vein infilling consists of comb
partly replaced by sulfides, as pyrite and quartz, accompanied with sulfides (pyrite,
chalcopyrite. chalcopyrite and sphalerite).
Ilmenite Plagioclase
Ilmenite grains are common, and tend to Plagioclase predominates in the

be anhedral (fig. 6.2.1.26) and replaced by phenocrysts, being around 55 % modal of
titanite. Grain size is about 299 microns. them. Plagioclase crystals are euhedral and
<amp <amp
pl
pl
pl <amp <amp
pl
<amp <amp
<amp <amp
Figure 6.2.1.27. General view of the amphibole Figure 6.2.1.28. The above image, in crossed
porphyrytic andesite of La Aurora. PPL, sample polars. Note the replacement of amphibole
183. Pl, plagioclase, amp, amphibole by secondary biotite.
pl
pl
or pl
pl
qtz
Figure 6.2.1.29. Plagioclase crystal, poorly Figure 6.2.1.30. Plagioclase crystal showing
zoned and showing pericline twins. Crossed oscyllatory zoning and polysynthetic
polars, sample 183, from the La Aurora twinning on the albite law. Crossed polars,
andesite. sample from the La Aurora andesite.
shortly prismatic in habit; the maximum length These replacements are better developped
of the crystals is about 2 cm, although most of on the matrix of the rock. The plagioclase in the
them are around 1 cm. matrix has small euhedral crystals (less than 50
Twinning is on the albite law, although microns). Thse crystals are not zoned and have
some crystals may display pericline twins or polysynthetic twinnig, and many of them are
multiple twinning (fig. 6.2.1.29). Zoning is replaced by K-feldspar. Plagioclase may represent
concentric, normal, very in many cases very about 50% of the matrix of these rocks.
distinct (fig. 6.2.1.30).
Randomly oriented veinlets of secondary K-feldspar
K-feldspar crosscut the plagioclase crystals,
producing irregular replacements. In the vicinity It is difficult to ascertain the structural stte
of the quartz veins, in addition, plagioclase may because of the fine-grained crystals. No twinning
be partly or completely pseudomorphosed by is distinguishable, and it seems rich in fluid
sericite. inclusions. It occurs interstitially among
pl
pl pl
Figure 6.2.1.31. Aspect of the matrix of the La Figure 6.2.1.32. The above image, in crossed
Aurora porphyry andesites. It is made up of quartz polars.
(qtz), plagioclase (pl) and K-feldspar (or). PPL.
pl
pl
pl
or
pl
qtz
Figure 6.2.1.33. Greenish amphibole crystal Figure 6.2.1.34. The above image, in crossed
( a m p ) p a rt l y re p l a c e d b y b ro w n i s h polars. Note that biotitization is made of
secondary biotite (bt). La Aurora porphyry fine-grained biotite crystals..
andesite, in PPL
pl
bt> pl
bt>
bt>
Figure 6.2.1.35. An amphibole crystal, rich Figure 6.2.1.36. The above image in crossed
in plagioclase inclusions, has suffered polars. Note that biotitization is made of
biotitization. La Aurora porphyry, PPL. fine-grained biotite crystals..
plagioclase crystals. Twinnnig and perthites are
absent.
It is doubtful if it is a primary or a
secondary material, because the rock occurs pl
in an area affected by strong hydrothermal
alteration. K-feldspar may represent about
10% of the matrix of the rock
Quartz
It may be also a primary mineral, but it is

found opnly in the matrix, in an interstitial
position among the plagioclase crystals of the
matrix. Crystals are anhedral, less than 50 Figure 6.2.1.37. Euhedral magnetite crystals
microns in diameter (fig. 6.2.1.31-6.2.1.32). from the matrix of the La Aurora porphyrytic
It may represent about the 50% of the matrix andesites. PPL, reflected light..
of the rock. It should be taken into account,
however, that at the least a part of quartz could
be of hydrothermal origin, accompanying the
potasification or the sericitization.
Amphibole QUARTZ MICROMONTZODIORITES
OF THE LA QUEBRADONA FACIES
Amphibole was the second mineral in
abbundance in the phenocrysts, around 45 % These rocks have been found along the
modal. The amphibole phenocrysts are Quebradona creek in the Middle Cauca valley
euhedral, and have a long prismatic habit, with (samples CC-LQ-002; CC-LQ-004; HL
a length in the order of 0,3 cm- 1 cm. Color is 130515, Figure 6.1.1.1.).
pale olive green, and could correspond to The La Quebradona rocks can have a
magnesiohornblende (fig. 6.2.1.33-6.2.1.34). diversity of fabrics, being some of them
Amphibole crystals are poikiloblastic, and microcrystalline, whereas others tend to be
have inclusions of plagioclase (fig. 6.2.1.35- more granular (figs. 6.2.1.38-6.2.1.43). They
6.2.1.36) have a phaneritic holocrystalline texture (figs.
However, in many samples from the 6.2.1.38-6.2.1.39), and in some cases they
mineralized areas the amphibole crystals are may be porphyrytic, with phenocrysts of
partly or completely pseudomorphoosed by plagioclase, amphibole and orthoclase, and a
secondary biotite, in some cases accompanied matrix made up mainly by fine-grained
with calcite. This biotite is fine-grained, and plagioclase and quartz, with minor amounts of
has a brownish pleochroism. On its turn, biotite K-feldspar (figs. 6.2.1.41-42).
is often replaced by secondary chlorite and, in At the least a significative part of the
some cases, sericite. amphibole crystals are clearly pseudomorphic
after pyroxene. Amphibole predominates
Magnetite largely over biotite among the mafic minerals,
being biotite rare in most of the outcrops of
Magnetite is a trace mineral in these rocks, these rocks.
being in the order of 1%. Its crystals are
subhedral rounded octahedrons of 300 microns Quartz
in size (fig. 6.2.1.37). Partial replacements of
magnetite crystals by sulfides, as pyrite and It is observed in a 10 to 20 % modal
chalcopyrite, are commonly distinguished. proportion. Quartz is found occuping an
bt> bt>
pl
pl
<cpx
<cpx
bt> bt>
pl
Figure 6.2.1.38. General view of the porphyrytic Figure 6.2.1.39. The above image, in crossed
monzodiorites from Quebradona. Pl, plagioclase, polars. Note quartz in interstitial position,
cpx. clinopyroxene. PPL, sample LQ-2. along with K-feldspar.
pl
pl
pl
or
amp>
pl
amp> qtz
Figure 6.2.1.40. Otherview of the porphyrytic Figure 6.2.1.41. The above image in crossed
monzodiorites from Quebradona. Note a slight polars.
enrichment in uralitic amphiboles. PPL,
sample 120515.
amp
amp
pl pl
Figure 6.2.1.42. A coarser-grained facies Figure 6.2.1.43. The above image in crossed
f ro m t h e p o r p h y r y t i c i n t r u s i o n o f polars.
Quebradona, showing larger crystals of
uralitic amphiboles. PPL, sample LQ-4.
or
pl
pl
or or
pl
qtz
Figure 6.2.1.44. Aspect of the tabular F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 4 5 . O r t h o c l a s e c ry s t a l

crystals of plagioclase in the matrix.Crossed interstitial between plagioclase.Crossed
polars, sample 120515, Quebradona. polars, sample HL120515, Quebradona.
or
pl or or
<amp
<amp
pl
Figure 6.2.1.46. Interstitial K-fedspar (or) Figure 6.2.1.47. The above image, in crossed
among plagioclase (pl); amphibole (amp) is polars. Note that orthoclase has inclusions
also noticeable. PPL, sample 120515. of fine-grained plagioclase.
Quebradona.
interstitial position between plagioclase Twinning may consist of combinations of the

crystals, and occurs as anhedral rounded albite, pericline and Karlsbad laws. Grain size
grains. is fine and the crystals do not overpass 1 mm,
The size of the grains is very fine, less than being slightly fine in the matrix (fig. 6.2.1.44).
200 microns. It is intergrown with K-feldspar, Plagioclase euhedral grains are surrounded by
and the textures among these minerals (triple anhedral intergrowths of quartz and K-
points, curved contacts) suggest textural feldspar.
equilibria. Wavy extinction is distinct.
K-feldspar
Plagioclase
It is probably orthoclase, taking into
Plagioclase contents ranges between 55 account that tartan twinning is absent (fig.
to 65 % modal of the rock. Plagioclase 6.2.1.45). Crystal size in most of the samples
develops euhedral prismatic crystals, whose is around 5 mm, larger than the rest of the
exhibit generally distinct concentric zoning. minerals. Therefore, it contains inclusions of
many minerals, mainly plagioclase and quartz

(figs. 6.2.1.46-6.2.1.47). Orthoclase
constitutes between 5 and 10 % modal of these
rocks, but it is present mainly in the finest part
of the matrix. It is found as anhedral grains, in
textural equilibria with quartz, as indicated by
rounded contacts and triple points.
Myrmekitic intergrowths at the contact bt
between plagioclase inclusions and the hosting
orthoclase are absent. Orthoclase is very
cloudy and do not have microperthites. Simple
twinning may be present in some crystals, but
is rare.
Figure 6.2.1.48. Biotite crystals (bt) intergrown
Biotite with plagioclase. PPL, sample LQ-2, La
Quebradona porphyrytic quartz-monzodiorite).
Biotite is a very scarce accesssory mineral
in these rocks, and its modal quantity is less
than 2%; in fact, in many samples it is simply
absent. <cpx
It is found as subhedral tabular to anhedral
crystals with reddish brown pleochroism (fig. pl
6.2.1.48), suggesting a high Ti content. It may <cpx
develop complex intergrowths with plagioclase
crystals. <cpx
Partial alteration to mixtures of
clinochlore, prehnite, titanite, magnetite and
ilmenite following grain borders and cleavages
is quite common.
Figure 6.2.1.49. Colorless crystals of
Clinopyroxene c l i n o p y ro x e n e ( h i g h re l i e f , o p a q u e
inclusions) in the La Quebradona
Clinopyroxene is actually the most porphyrytic quartzmonzodiorite. PPL.
common accessory mineral in these samples, Sample LQ-2.
in the order of 10% modal, but most of the
crystals have been replaced by pseudomorphic
uralitic amphibole. pl
Clinopyroxene is colorless and is not
pl
zoned. The large extinction angle (close to 45º)
and the absence of color points to a Mg-rich
member of the diopside-hedenbergite series, <cpx
or to a augite-diopside.
<cpx
The size of the crystals is close to 3 mm,
and occurs as small subhedral crystals (0,5-5 <cpx
mm). These crystals have a short prismatic
habit, and have slightly rounded borders (figs.
6.2.1.49-6.2.1.50). Twinning is hardly
distinguishable, and exsolutions are not Figure 6.2.1.50. The above image in crossed polars,
observed owing to the small size of the note the higher interference colors of clinopyroxene.
crystals. La Quebradona porphyrytic quartzmonzodiorite.
<amp
pl
pl
pl
<amp or
pl
qtz
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 5 1 . U r a l i t i c a m p h i b o l e , Figure 6.2.1.52. The above image, in crossed

produced by alteration of clinopyroxene. polars. La Quebradona porphyrytic
PPL. quartzmonzodiorite. Sample LQ-2.
pl
<amp
amp
pl
Figure 6.2.1.53. A clinopyroxene crystal Figure 6.2.54. The above image, in crossed
replaced by uralitic amphibole. Note some polars. The fibrous amphibole is clearly
magnetite associated with clinopyroxene. distinguished.
PPL, La Quebradona porphyrytic quartz-
monzodiorite. Sample LQ-2.
Amphibole Apatite
Primary amphibole is probably absent Apatite is very rare in these rocks. It

from these rocks, and most of the amphibole occurs as small subhedral crystals, with short
occurs as aggregates of fibrous crystals that prismatic habit. They have up to 500 microns
replace clinopyroxene (figs. 6.2.1.51- in length.
6.2.1.54). Fibres are arranged parallel to the
c axis of the pyroxene crystals. In some cases, Titanite
the amphibole crystals show zoning: the central
part of the fibres has pale brownish-green Titanite is very scarce. It was observed
hues, and the extreme of the fibres have a dark only as anhedral crystals, as a product of
green color, thus suggesting that the amphibole alteration where Ti-rich biotite altered to
is a member of the series tremolite-actinolite. chlorite.
Zircon
Small zircon crystals occur only as a trace

mineral in these rocks, and are uncommon. They pl
tend to be euhedral, with a prismatic habit (fig.
6.2.1.55) . Their crystal size is less than 100 m.
pl
They may produce metamictic aureolas on the
mafic minerals. or
<zr
Epidote
qtz
It occurs as a secondary mineral, and
develops small (lesss than 100-250 microns)
anhedral crystals, mainly associated with altered Figure 6.2.1.55. Zircon crystal as a inclusion
plagioclase, biotite and clinopyroxene. However, in a plagioclase. PPL. La Quebradona
at the least in a case an euhedral crystal as porphyrytic quartzmonzodiorite, sample LQ-2.
inclusion in a fresh plagioclase suggest that some
epidote could be primary magmatic (fig.
6.2.1.56).
Magnetite
pl
mineral in these granodiorites, although it is less <epi
than 5 % modal. It develops euhedral {111} to
subhedral crystals, with sizes between 200 and
500 m, scattered in the rock (fig. 6.2.1.57). No
exolutions or zoning are observed in magnetite,
and it is partially replaced by hematite along
cleavages. Other generation of magnetite is found Figure 6.2.1.56. Epidote crystal (epi)
as small euhedral crystals, and accompanies the included into plagioclase (pl). La Quebradona
amphibole that replaces pyroxene. porphyrytic quartzmonzodiorite. Crossed polars,
sample 120515.
Ilmenite
It is found as a rare accessory, in some

cases accompanying magnetite. It tends to be
subhedral and uses to be replaced by titanite.
Pyrite <mt
ilm>
In fresh rocks, pyrite is common but in lesser
amounts than magnetite. It develops euhedral to
subhedral crystals, typically, cubes. In the
mineralized areas, it may replace the magnetite
crystals and can be the most common opaque
mineral, forming poikiloblastic anhedral grains Figure 6.2.1.57. Euhedral magnetite (mt) showing
with inclusions of all the minerals of the rock. In a inclusion of an ilmenite crystal (ilm). La
this case, grain size is medium, in the range 250 Quebradona porphyrytic quartzmonzodiorite.
microns - 1 mm. PPL, reflected light.
6.2.1- Petrography of the Middle Cauca region porphyritic rocks 689
6.2.1.6. BIOTITE RHYODACITE OF
THE QUEBRADA SAN PEDRO FACIES pl
<qtz
These rocks were sampled following the <bt <bt
Quebrada San Pedro creek in the Middle qtz
Cauca valley (sample CC-O-001, Figure pl
6.1.1.1). qtz
The rhyodacites of the Quebrada San pl
Pedro facies have a typical porphyrytic
texture, with phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase pl pl
and biotite scattered in an aphanitic matrix (fig. pl
6.2.1.58-6.2.1.59). We will base the rock
description on the phenocrysts, because of the
extremely fine size of the grains in the aphanitic F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 5 8 . Q u a r t z ( q t z ) a n d
matrix, in which probably volcanic glass were plagioclase (pl) phenocrysts, with minor
present. biotite, scattered in the matrix of the San
Pedro rhyodacite. PPL.
Quartz
pl
Its proportion is close to 45 % modal of <qtz
the phenocrysts. Most of quartz phenocrysts
are anhedral, have rounded borders and are
pl qtz>
embayed in some cases; some phenocrysts are
euhedral and show typical sections of b-quartz qtz>
<bt
(fig. 6.2.1.60). Grains size is in the range 5
pl
mm-1 cm. Wavy extinction is lacking, indicating
that these crystals do not suffered any type of pl pl
deformation. pl
Plagioclase Figure 6.2.1.59. The above image in crossed

polars.
Plagioclase contents averages 45 % modal
of the phenocrysts. Crystals are euhedral and
shortly prismatic in habit. Crystals have
polysynthetic twinning on the albite law, and
some of them have also pericline-type
twinning, and other types of cmplex multiple qtz1
twins. All the crystals are concentrically zoned.
qtz2
Sericitization of plagioclase may be important
in the vicinity of mineralized areas, as is the
development of replacement of plagioclase
during potassic alteration, which produces
veining by secondary K-feldspar.
K-feldspar
Sanidine constitutes around 5 % modal of

Figure 6.2.1.60.Embayed quartz grain (qtz1) and
the phenocrysts. These are euhedral, as tabular
subhedral section of a bypyramidal b-quartz
crystals, and its crystal size is around 2 mm.
crystal (qtz2). Crossed polars, San Pedro
Fresh sanidine crystals have a clean
rhyodacite.
<py
<bt2
<bt2
<or pl
pl <or
<bt
Figure 6.2.1.61. Plagioclase phenocryst (pl), partly Figure 6.2.1.62. The above image, in crossed
affected by veining with K-feldspar (or) due to polars. Note the replacement of plagioclase
potassic alteration. Hydrothermal biotite (bt2) and (pl) by K-feldspar (or).
pyrite (py) also occur.Rhyodacite of the Quebrada
San Pedro, in PPL.
bt2>
<bt1 <amp
Figure 6.2.1.63. Biotite phenocryst (bt1), F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 6 4 A b a s a l s e c t i o n o f

artly chloritized. Some hydrothermal biotite amphibole, completely chloritized.
is also present (bt2). Rhyodacite from Rhyodacite from Quebrada San Pedro, in
Quebrada San Pedro, in PPL. PPL.
appearance in thin section, but many of them 5 %. It is found as subhedral tabular crystals,
were sericitized. Simple twinning is lacking. up to 2 mm in length (fig. . It has dark brown
Some K-feldspar is produced by pleochroism, but it is usually altered to mixtures
hydrothermal alteration, and is found in veinlets of fine-grained chlorite, epidote, titanite,
in plagioclase, which becomes corroded along magnetite and rutile.
these veinlets (fig. 6.2.1.61-6.2.1.62). NNo A secondary generation of biotite is
twinning or perthites are observed in these produced by hydrothermal potassification. This
grains. younger biotite is fine-grained, and also has a
pleochroism in pale-brown tones. It occurs ars
Biotite rims around the primary minerals or, in many
cases as a pseudomorph of ferromagnesian
Biotite is a rare accesssory mineral in minerals, including younger biotite (fig.
these rocks, and its modal quantity is less than 6.2.1.61-6.2.1.64).
Amphibole
<amp
It occurs as euhedral prismatic crystals
(fig. 6.2.1.64), but they are completely
replaced by secondary minerals, in particular,
chlorite. It is rare, and the modal content does pl <amp
pl
not surpass he 0,5%. Grain size is small, less
than 250 microns. pl
<amp
Apatite
<amp
Apatite is scarce in these rocks, and <qtz
appears as euhedral crystals scattered in the
matrix. Crystal shape is simple: they are Figure 6.2.1.65. Quartz (qtz), amphibole
composed by prism and pinacoidal (amp) and plagioclase (pl) phenocrysts,
termination; they have a short prismatic habit. scattered in the matrix of the Oro Fino
dacite. PPL.
Magnetite
<amp
Magnetite is the opaque mineral of these
rocks, and it occurs only as a trace mineral.
Crystals are euhedral and consists of pl
<amp
octahedrons. Crystal size does not exceed 200
microns. No exolutions or zoning are observed
in magnetite, and it is partially replaced by pl
<amp
hematite along cleavages.
qtz>
<qtz
6.2.1.7. HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITIC
DACITE OF THE ORO FINO FACIES Figure 6.2.1.66. The above image in crossed
polars.
These rocks were sampled on a
porphyrytic dike in the right bank of the Middle
Cauca valley (sample CC-O-003, Figure
6.1.1.1).
The porphyry dacites of Oro Fino facies
have a typical porphyrytic texture, with qtz1
phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase and
qtz2
hornblende, and microphenocrysts of epidote
and allanite, scattered in an aphanitic matrix
(fig. 6.2.1.65-6.2.1.66).
Quartz
Quartz phenocrysts are very common, and

its content is close to 30 % modal. It may occur
as rounded inclusions in plagioclase (fig.
Figure 6.2.1.67. Corroded quartz crystal, as a
6.2.1.67).
inclusion in a plagioclase crystal. Crossed polars,
Quartz is generally found as euhedral (fig.
Oro Fino dacite.
6.2.1.68) to anhedral rounded crystals (fig.
<py
<bt2
<bt2
<or pl
pl <or
<bt
Figure 6.2.1.68. Plagioclase phenocryst (pl), partly Figure 6.2.1.69. The above image, in crossed
affected by veining with K-feldspar (or) due to polars. Note the replacement of plagioclase
potassic alteration. Hydrothermal biotite (bt2) and (pl) by K-feldspar (or).
pyrite (py) also occur.Rhyodacite of the Quebrada
San Pedro, in PPL.
<amp
amp>
<amp
<amp
<clc
Figure 6.2.1.70. Biotite phenocryst (bt1), F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 7 1 A b a s a l s e c t i o n o f

artly chloritized. Some hydrothermal biotite amphibole, completely chloritized.
is also present (bt2). Rhyodacite from Rhyodacite from Quebrada San Pedro, in
Quebrada San Pedro, in PPL. PPL.
6.2.1.69). Many of the crystals are embayed Plagioclase

o r, a t l e a s t , r o u n d e d , t h u s i n d i c a t i n g
disequilibria with the coexisting melt. Other Plagioclase is the dominant mineral phase
crystals are broken, with angulous or in the phenocrysts, and its content is close to
conchoidal fractures (fig. 6.2.1.70), thus 45 % modal. Plagioclase is euhedral and the
suggesting the existence of explosive habit is shortly prismatic; the maximum length
processes during the crystallization of the of the crystals is about 1,5 cm.
magma. Tw i n n i n g i s v e r y c o m p l e x , w i t h
The diameter of the quartz crystals ranges combinations of albite, pericline and Karlsbad
0,5-1 cm. Quartz crystals contain euhedral laws, but other types of polysynthetic or simple
inclusions of apatite, plagioclase, amphibole twinning may be also present in many crystals
and epidote. (fig. 62.1.69).
Zoning is concentric and may be
recognized by changes in the interference color, <amp
in the sericitization degree and in the
distribution of the mineral inclusions. Cores of
the crystals are often completely sericitized;
rims tend to be fresh, indicating a normal trend
of zonation. pl
Plagioclase crystals contain euhedral
<ep
inclusions of apatite, quartz, amphibole and
epidote.
<ep
<ep
Amphibole
Green amphibole is the other important Figure 6.2.1.72. Epidote microphenocrysts (ep)
component of the phenocrysts, around 25 % included into plagioclase (pl). Oro Fino dacite.
modal. The amphibole phenocrysts are PPL.
euhedral, and have a prismatic habit (fig.
6.2.1.70-6.2.1.71). These crystals range in
length 0,2 cm- 0,6 cm. Therefore, they are
smaller than plagioclase and quartz and could
be considered as microphenocrysts.
Amphibole crystals have a distinct dark
green pleochroism, and zoning is concentric but
hardly distinguishable under the polarising
microscope.
pl
It is altered to clinochlore, in association
with fine-grained epidote, titanite and
magnetite (fig. 6.2.1.70-6.2.1.71). In some
cases, the alteration may be complete.
Epidote Figure 6.2.1.73. The above image, in crossed

polars.
In addition to the secondary epidote found
as replacement of many mafic minerals and
plagioclase, epidote is clearly found in these
rocks as a primary magmatic mineral.
Epidote is found as euhedral
microphenocrysts, with a short prismatic habit
(fig.6.2.1.72-6.2.1.76). These crystals can
appear as inclusions in plagioclase or quartz
phenocrysts, but they are also found scattered
in the aphanitic matrix. In any case, they are pl
<ep
not associated with secondary minerals as
chlorite and magnetite, and their contacts with
the host plagioclase are sharp.
Color is pale yellow, thus suggesting a low
Fe content. The crystal size is not more than
Figure 6.2.1.74. Epidote microphenocrysts (ep)
500 microns, and the color is dark yellow,
showing sector zoning, included into plagioclase
which is indicative of a high content in Fe.
(pl). Oro Fino dacite. Crossed polars.
Crystals exhibit a neat concentrical or sector
pl
pl pl
ep2> <ep1 <epi

amp amp
pl pl
Figure 6.2.1.75. Epidote microphenocrysts Figure 6.2.1.76. Epidote microphenocrysts (ep)

(ep1), included into plagioclase (pl), rimmed by included into plagioclase (pl). Oro Fino dacite.
eoidote hydrothermal (ep2). Oro Fino dacite. Crossed polars.
pl
amp>
pl
clc>
ap> <zr
amp
Figure 6.2.1.77. Apatite euhedral crystal in Figure 6.2.1.78. Euhedral zircon crystal in
t h e m a t r i x o f t h e O ro F i n o d a c i t e . the matrix of the Oro Fino dacite, in PPL.
Amphibole crystals (amp), partly replaced Amphibole (amp) and plagioclase (pl) are
by clinochlore (clc) are also distinct. PPL. also present as phenocrysts.
mt> mt>
ilm>
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 7 9 . E u h e d r a l m a g n e t i t e Figure 6.2.1.80. Euhedral platelets of ilmenite

crystals (mt) scattered in the matrix of the (ilm) scattered in the matrix of the Oro Fino
Oro Fino dacite. PPL, reflected light dacite. PPL, reflected light
zoning, (fig. 6.2.1.74) which is more easily 6.2.1.8. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE
observed in crossed polars. In some cases a DACITE OF THE MARMATO FACIES
sector zoning is distinct.
The primary epidote microphenocrysts These rocks have been found close to the
may be overgrown by anhedral aggregates of important Marmato gold mines in the Middle
fine-grained secondary epidote (fig. 6.2.1.75- Cauca valley (sample CC-M-da2, Figure
6.2.1.76). 6.1.1.1).
The dacites of Marmatofacies have a
Allanite porphyrytic texture, with phenocrysts of
quartz, sanidine, plagioclase, biotite and
Allanite is very rare in these rocks, where amphibole spread in an aphanitic matrix (fig.
is found only as a trace mineral. Crystals are 6.2.1.81.6.2.1.82).
euhedral, scattered in the matrix, and have a The description is mainly based on the
short prismatic habit. Color is brownish, phenocrysts, because of the extremely fine size
exhibiting a strong pleochroism in brown hues. of the grains in the matrix. These rocks has
Zoning is marked by changes in color and sufffered a strong hydrothermal aalteration.
interference colors, and is of the concentric
type. The mineral is not metamictic.
ep>
Apatite pl
Apatite is common in these rocks, where

develops euhedral crystals scattered in the pl
matrix or as inclusions in other minerals. The pl
crystals consists of the hexagonal prism and pl
the pinacoid; the habit is short prismatic (fig. <amp
ep>
6.2.1.77).
Zircon <qtz
Rare euhedral zircon crystals, less than F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 1 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e

100 microns in lenght, can be observed in the hornblende biotite dacite of the Marmato
matrix. They have a prismatic habit (fig. facies, in PPL. Quartz (qtz), plagioclase (pl)
6.2.1.78). and amphibole (amp) are outstanding.
Magnetite ep>
pl
Magnetite is quite common, although in a
proportion lower than 3%. The crystals are
euhedral, and they consists of octahedrons up pl
pl
to 500 microns in size (fig. 6.2.1.79).
pl
Alteration to supergene hematite along <amp
cleavages may be present. ep>
Ilmenite <qtz
Although rarer than magnetite, ilmenite is

Figure 6.2.1.82. The above image in cross-
also present in the matrix of the rock, either
polarized light. Some secondary epidote (ep) is
as anhedral grains or as euhedral platelets (fig.
produced by alteration of plagioclase.Note
6.2.1.80). Size is small, less than 200 microns.
intense sericitization of plagioclase.
pl
qtz
pl
qtz qtz
qtz
pl
pl
Figure 6.2.1.83. Quartz phenocrysts (qtz) Figure 6.2.1.84. Typical embayed quartz grain.
showing hexagonal sections typical of -quartz. Marmato dacite, crossed polars.
Marmato dacite, crossed polars.
pl
pl <epi
pl
<epi
pl ser
ser
amp
Figure 6.2.1.85. Plagioclase showing albite Figure 6.2.1.86. Euhedral plagioclase

twins (pl), partly replaced by sericite (ser). crystal (pl) partly replaced by sericite (ser)
Marmato dacite, crossed polars and radial aggregates of epidote (epi.
Crossed polars, Marmato dacite.
Quartz Plagioclase
Its proportion is close to 30 % modal of Plagioclase contents averages 40 % modal

the phenocrysts. Quartz phenocrysts tend to of the phenocrysts. Plagioclase develops
develop the hexagonal bypyramidal crystals euhedral short prismatic crystals, and all the
typical for beta-quartz (fig. 62.1.83). crystals have polysynthetic twinning on the
However, in many cases the crystals can be albite law ad are zoned (fig. 6.2.1.85).
strongly corroded and embayed or rounded in All of these crystals are pseudomorphosed
different degree (fig. 6.2.1.84). Crystals use in more or less grade by secondary minerals,
to be free of inclusions. generally to sericite (fig. 6.2.1.85) but also to
Grain size is in the range 5 mm-1 cm. mixtures of quartz, sericite, epidote and calcite
Wavy extinction is lacking, indicating that these (fig. 6.2.1.86). The core is the most altered
crystals do not suffered any type of part of the crystal in many crystals,
deformation. corresponding to a normal zoning, but in some
crystals the alteration is spread on an irregular
pattern.
<qtz
K-feldspar
Based on the optical properties, it can be <epi

qtz
classified as sanidine. It constitutes around 5
% modal of the phenocrysts. It is found as
euhedral short primatic crystals, and its crystal <qtz
size is around 1 mm. Sanidine crystals are clean
unless they will be altered, acquiring in this case
pl
a turbid appearance because of sericitization.
However, the most of the crystals tend to be
Figure 6.2.1.87. Biotite microphenocrysts
sericitized completely. They do not have
icompletely replaced by hydrothermal epidote
microperthites. Simple twinning may be present
(epi). Quartz is also oibserved (qtz). Marmato
in some crystals, but is rare.
dacite, crossed polars.
Biotite
Biotite is an abundant accesssory mineral

pl
in these rocks, and its modal quantity is close
epi
to 10 %. It is found as subhedral prismatic
microphenocrystals, less than 1 mm in lenght,
but the typical brown pleochroism is masked
because the complete alteration of the mineral
to mixtures of chlorite, epidote, magnetite,
quartz, titanite and prehnite along cleavages
and grain borders (fig. 6.2.1.87).
Amphibole F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 8 . B a s a l s e c t i o n o f a n
amphibole microphenocryst completely
Amphibole phenocrysts are very common replaced by hydrothermal epidote (epi).
in these rocks, in a slightly lesser amount than Marmato dacite, crossed polars.
biotite. The crystals are euhedral, and have the
typical long prismatic habit. Crystal size is big,
and some crystals can achieve up to 2 cm in
length.
The optical characteristics are hardly
distinguished, because the crystals are altered
to a secondaryhydrothermal association
similar to those found in the case of biotite
(6.2.1.88-6.2.1.89). epi
Apatite
Apatite is very common in these rocks. It

occurs as small euhedral crystals, with short Figure 6.2.1.89. Longitudinal section of an
prismatic habit. Crystals consist of a amphibole microphenocryst completely
combination of hexagonal pinacoid and prism, replaced by hydrothermal epidote (epi).
and have up to 500 microns in length. Marmato dacite, crossed polars.
pl pl
pl pl
pl pl
Figure 6.2.1.90. General view of sample Figure 6.2.1.91. The above image in crossed
Q33 from the Dos Quebradas porphyrytic polars. Pl, plagioclase.
andesite. PPL.
pl
pl
pl
pl
bt2
bt2
Figure 6.2.1.92. General view of the sample Figure 6.2.1.93. The above image in crossed
Q34. Note an amphibole crystal replaced by polars. Note the fine grain of the
secondary biotite (bt2). Zoning can be aggregates of hydrothermal biotite (bt)
envisaged in plagioclase (pl). Dos replacing amphible.
Quebradas porphyrytic andesite. PPL.
pl
pl <epi
pl
<epi
pl ser
ser
amp
Figure 6.2.1.94. Combination of Baveno, Figure 6.2.1.95. Concentric oscyllatory

albite and pericline twins in plagioclase zoning in plagioclase phenocrysts in the Dos
phenocrysts in the Dos Quebradas Quebradas porphyrytic andesite. Crossed
porphyrytic andesite. Crossed polars. polars.
Magnetite cloudy, rich in fluid inclusioons and hence is
probably secondary in the most of the cases.
Magnetite is the more frequent opaque Hence, it is complicate to establish the original
mineral in these rocks, but occurs only as a mineral composition of the matrix, which is
trace mineral, well below of 1 % modal. The strongly affected by the hydrothermal
magnetite crystals tend to be euhedral, forming alteration, with development of secondary
small octahedrons, although many of the biotite (fig. 6.2.1.92-6.2.1.93).
crystals are also euhedral. They are very small,
with sizes between 200 and 500 microns, Plagioclase
scattered in the rock. No exolutions or zoning
are observed in magnetite, and it is partially Plagioclase is the dominant mineral phase
replaced by hematite along cleavages. in the phenocrysts, being around 65 % modal
of them. Plagioclase crystals are euhedral and
shortly prismatic in habit; the maximum length
6.2.1.9. HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITIC of the crystals is about 1 cm. Twinning may be
ANDESITE OF THE DOS QUEBRADAS complex, including combinations of Baveno,
FACIES albite and pericline laws (fig. 6.2.1.94). Zoning
is prominent, of the oscyllatory type (fig.
These rocks are affected by a pervasive 6.2.1.95). Secondary K-feldspar veining is not
potassic alteration in different grade, in so abundant as in other rocks affected by
association with the development of quartz potassic alteration.
veinlets. The primary minerals are missing in
some cases and it is necessary to reconstruct Amphibole
the primary mineral paragenesis. This fact must
be taken into account when studying the global Amphibole was the second mineral in
chemical composition based on the chemical abbundance in the phenocrysts, around 35 %
analyses, because the original composition of modal, but has been completely
the rock is highly modified. pseudomorphosed by secondary fine-grained
This description is based on two samples biotite platelets (fig. 6.2.1.92-6.2.1.93), which
from a porphyrytic body drilled at the gold mine is in some cases accompanied with anhedral
of Dos Quebradas, in the Middle Cauca valley sparry calcite. Secondary biotite has only some
(samples Q-33 and Q-34 , Figure 6.1.1.1). tens of microns in length.
This facies is very similar to the porphyrytic A late chloritization complicate the
andesite of La Aurora. recognaisance of the primary features of
The porphyry andesite of Dos Quebradas amphibole.
facies comprises phenocrysts of plagioclase, The amphibole phenocrysts were euhedral,
and hornblende scattered in a microcrystalline with a long prismatic habit, and a length in the
matrix (fig. 6.2.1.90-6.2.1.91). These rocks order of 0,3 cm- 1 cm.
are strongly affected by secondary
potasification, silicification and sericitization, Biotite
particularly in the vicinity of quartz veins. These
alterations affect both the phencrysts and the In addition to the hydrothermal biotite
matrix of the rock. produced during the alteration, primary
The matrix consists of intergrowths of magmatic biotite is also present in these rocks,
plagioclase, quartz, K-feldspar and fine- although in minor amounts (less than 2%
grained biotite. The quartz, in many cases, is modal).
clearly secondary, and occupies geodic Primary biotite crystals are larger than
position. The biotite is clearly hydrothermal, those of secondary biotite, and their size can
fine-grained and tabular, and may be very arrive up to 2 mm. They are found as typical
abbundant. Finally, the K-feldspar is very euhedral pseudohexagonal crystals of tabular
clc
clc <bt2
<bt2 <bt2
bt1
bt
clc
Figure 6.2.1.96. Biotite phenocryst (bt1) Figure 6.2.1.97. The above image in crossed
partly replaced by chlorite (clc). Dos polars. Pl, plagioclase. Note secondary biotite
Quebradas porphyrytic andesite. PPL. (bt2). Dos Quebradas porphyrytic andesite.
pl
pl
<ap <mt
pl
Figure 6.2.1.98. Apatite crystals (ap) Figure 6.2.1.99. Magnetite crystals (mt) in
included in plagioclase. Dos Quebradas the matrix of Dos Quebradas porphyrytic
porphyrytic andesite. PPL. andesite.. PPL, reflected light.
habit, showing brownish-red pleochrosim and 100 microns in maximum dimensions, with
partial replacement by greenish clinochlore short prismatic habit. It is not metamict, and
following grain borders and cleavages (figs. no inherited cores were observed.
6.2.1.96-6.2.1.99).
Magnetite
Apatite
Magnetite is a common accessory mineral
Apatite is a trace mineral in these rocks, in these rocks, and it may acchieve modal
althugh it is not so rare. Crystals are long contents in the range 2-4 %. Its crystals are
prismatic in habit, and are less than 100 subhedral to anhedral, and tend to be rounded.
microns in length (fig. 6.2.1.98). It is possible to identificate, in some cases,
rounded octahedrons of 300 microns in size
Zircon (fig. 6.2.1.99).
Partial replacements of magnetite crystals
As in the case of apatite, zircon is a trace by sulfides, as pyrite and chalcopyrite, are
mineral and is found as small crystals, less than commonly distinguished.
clc
pl
pl <amp pl
amp>
pl <amp
pl1
pl
Figure 6.2.1.100. General view og the Q-37 Figure 6.2.1.101. The above image in crossed
sample, Dos Quebradas early porphyrytic polars.
diorite. PPL. Pl, plagioclase, amp, amphibol.
pl
pl
<ap pl
pl
Figure 6.2.1.102. General view og the Q-37 Figure 6.2.1.103. The above image in
sample, Dos Quebradas early porphyrytic crossed polars. Pyroxenes stand out by their
diorite. PPL. Cpx, clinopyroxene. higher interference colors.
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . E A R LY P O R P H Y R I T I C in volume of the rock) of plagioclase and

DIORITES OF THE DOS QUEBRADAS hornblende scattered in a microcrystalline matrix
FACIES (25% in volume of the rock; fig. 6.2.1.100-
6.2.1.101)); a distinctive keynote with similar
As mentioned in other intrusive facies from facies is the occurrence of minor quantities of
the Cauca Valley, these rocks are affected by altered clinopyroxene (fig. 6.2.1.102-6.2.1.103).
hydrothermal alteration, although in a lower The matrix consists of fine-grained granular
grade. aggregates of plagioclase, quartz, magnetite and
This description is based on two samples pyroxene.
from porphyrytic bodies drilled from Dos
Quebradas mine (drill hole 5), in the Middle Plagioclase
Cauca valley (samples Q-35 and Q-37, Figure
6.1.1.1). These facies are crosscut by the Dos Plagioclase, as in many other porphyrytic
Quebradas porphyryes. bodies of the Cauca Valley, is the dominant mineral
The early porphyry diorite of Dos phase in the phenocrysts, being around 75 % modal
Quebradas facies comprises phenocrysts (75% of them. It is euhedral and shortly prismatic in habit;
pl
pl pl
pl
pl
pl
clc
Figure 6.2.1.104. Plagioclase crystals with Figure 6.2.1.105. Plagioclase crystals showing
pericline and albite twins. Dos Quebradas zoning, in crossed polars. Dos Quebradas
porphyrytic diorite, crossed polars. porphyrytic diorite.
Figure 6.2.1.106.Detail of the interstitial matrix, Figure 6.2.1.107. The above image in crossed
composed by intergrown of plagioclase and polars. Dos Quebradas porphyrytic diorite.
quartz. PPL.
the maximum length of the crystals is about 1 cm. rounded grains, less than 50 microns in
Twinning is complex, with combinations of albite and diameter (fig. 6.2.1.104-6.2.1.105).
pericline laws (fig. 6.2.1.104), and zoning is
prominent, of the concentric normal type (fig. Clinopyroxene
6.2.1.105). These characteristics are very similar
to those of Dos Quebradas. Hydrothermal Clinopyroxene is scarce, less than 5% of
alteration is not well developed on these samples. the modal composition of the rock, and it may
Plagioclase is one of the most important occur as phenocrysts or scattered as
component in the matrix, probably around 70% microphenocrysts in the matrix (fig. 6.2.1.108-
modal. It occurs in anhedral grains of less than 50 6.2.1.109).
microns. In many cases, it has been completely
pseudomorphosed by secondary uralitic
Quartz amphibole (probably, members of the
tremolite-actinolite series). In other cases, it
Quartz is found in small quantities (less can be as inclusion in altered amphibole
than 30%) in the matrix. It develops anhedral crystals (figs. 6.2.1.110-6.2.1.113).
<cpx
pl pl
<cpx
cpx>
pl
pl pl <cpx
F i g u re 6.2.1.108. C l i n o p y ro x e n e Figure 6.2.1.109. The above image in

m i c ro c r y s t s ( c p x ) . D o s Q u e b r a d a s crossed polars. Sample Q 35.
porphyrytic diorite. PPL.
amp pl
amp
amp <cpx
amp
pl <cpx <cpx
<cpx
Figure 6.2.1.110. Clinopyroxene inclusions Figure 6.2.1.111. The above image in

(cpx) in amphibole (amp). Dos Quebradas crossed polars. Note the fibrous aspect of
porphyrytic diorite. PPL. amphibole. Dos Quebradas porphyrytic diorite.
Sample Q35.
pl
<cpx <cpx
amp
amp
Figure 6.2.1.112. Amphibole crystal (amp) Figure 6.2.1.113. The above image in
with inclusions of pyroxene crystals (cpx) in crossed polars. Sample Q 37.
the Dos Quebradas porphyrytic diorite. PPL.
amp
amp
pl
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 11 4 . Z o n e d a m p h i b o l e Figure 6.2.1.115. The above image, in

phenocryst (amp) from the Dos Quebradas cross-polarized light. Note polysynthetic
porphyrytic diorite. PPL. twinning in amphibole. Pl is plagioclase.
pl
pl
<amp
<amp
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 11 6 . B a s a l s e c t i o n s o f F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 11 7 . T h e a b o v e i m a g e i n
amphibole crystals in porphyrytic diorite of crossed polars.
the Dos Quebradas. PPL.
When clinopyroxene is unaltered, it is Amphibole

possible to distinguish a very pale green color,
which is indicative of low iron content in these Amphibole is the second mineral in
pyroxenes. The extinction angle is close to 45º. abbundance in the phenocrysts, around 20 %
Therefore, they correspond to calcic modal. These phenocrysts are euhedral, with
clinopyroxenes (augite-diopside). The a long prismatic habit, and a length in the order
pyroxene phenocrysts are euhedral, with a long of 0,3 cm- 1 cm. Color is olive green and
prismatic habit, and a length in the order of zoning is common, and it is revealed by slight
0,3 cm- 0,5 cm. changes in the color of the mineral (figs.
The crystal size is smaller in the 6.2.1.114-6.2.1.117). Polysynthetic twinning
phenocrysts from the matrix, in the order of is widespread.
0,1 cm, although their shape is similar. Amphibole may contain pyroxene
The pyroxene from the matrix contains inclusions. Alteration grade is variable, and
many inclusions of minerals, and this fact some crystals may be altered following crystal
indicates a late development of these borders to a secondary fibrous amphibole of
pyroxenes, as well as a relative low activity of the tremolite-actinolite series, almost colorless.
water during this episode. Therefore, this secondary amphibole could be
pl
pl <zr
<zr
Figure 6.2.1.118. Zircon (zr) as inclusions Figure 6.2.1.119. Zircon as inclusions in

in plagioclase (pl). Dos Quebradas plagioclase, porphyrytic diorites of Dos
porphyrytic diorite. PPL. Quebradas. PPL.
pl pl
<mt
<ap
pl
Figure 6.2.1.120. Apatite crystals (ap) Figure 6.2.1.121. Magnetite crystals (mt) in
included in plagioclase. Dos Quebradas the matrix of Dos Quebradas porphyrytic
porphyrytic diorite. PPL. diorite. PPL, reflected light.
tremolite. Other secondary minerals comprise prism and pinacoids. They are less than 100
sparry calcite and fine-grained aggregates of microns in length.
clinochlore, epidote and titanite.
Zircon Magnetite
Zircon is other trace mineral and is found Magnetite is an accessory mineral that can
as small prismatic crystals, less than 50 microns achieve up to 5% modal in the matrix of these
in length (figs. 6.2.1.118-6.2.1.119). rocks. The crystals are subhedral to anhedral,
and tend to be rounded, with around 500
Apatite microns in maximum size (fig. 6.2.1.121),
although a population of microcrystals in the
Apatite is a trace mineral in these rocks, matrix has less than 50 microns in diameter.
and can be seen as inclusions in phenocrysts. Partial replacements of magnetite crystals by
Crystals are long prismatic in habit, and sulfides, as pyrite and chalcopyrite, are
consists of combinations of the hexagonal commonly distinguished.
6.2.1.11. PORPHYRITIC QUARTZDIORITE difficult to distinguish the mineral patterns of

OF MANDEVAL FACIES some primary minerals, particularly in the
matrix of the rock. A dense network of
Porphyrytic bodies of this type outcrop at randomly oriented veins crosscut the rock.
the Mandeval creek, in the Middle Cauca Veins have a width of a few millimeters, and
valley (sample CC-Q-005, Figure 6.1.1.1). consist mainly of quartz and sulfides.
The porphyrytic monzodiorite of Mandeval Hydrothermal potassic alteration is clearly
facies comprises phenocrysts (50% in volume developed. Plagioclase is replaced by veinlets
of the rock) of plagioclase, quartz and of K-feldspar, and the matrix and the
hornblende scattered in a microcrystalline amphiboles are replaced by secondary biotite.
matrix (50% in volume of the rock; fig. This biotite is fine-grained, and may be very
6.2.1.122-6.2.1.123). abundant.
The matrix consists of fine-grained
granular aggregates of plagioclase, quartz, Quartz
magnetite and minor amounts of K-feldspar.
The rock is affected by a high grade of Quartz phenocrysts are rare, less than 5%
hydrothermal alteration, and therefore it is modal, and the crystal size is not very large,
pl
Figure 6.2.1.122. General aspect of the Figure 6.2.1.123. The above image, in
Mandeval porphyrytic quartzdiorite. PPL. cross-polarized light.
qtz> qtz>
pl
pl
<qtz
<qtz
Figure 6.2.1.124. Detail of the matrix of the F i g u re 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 2 5 . T h e a b o v e i m a g e i n

Mandeval porphyrytic quartzdiorite, in PPL. crossed polars. Euhedral quartz and fine-
grained plagioclase are distinct
generally less than 2 mm. These crystals are
anhedral, rounded and in most of the cases
embayed.
Quartz is more common in the matrix, amp
where it can develop euhedral crystals with the
typical b-quartz form (fig. 6.2.1.124-
6.2.1.125).
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral phase

in the phenocrysts, being around 65 % modal
of them. It is euhedral and shortly prismatic in
habit; the maximum length of the crystals is Figure 6.2.1.126. Basal section of an
about 1 cm. amphibole phenocryst (amp) from the
Several generations of crystals have been Mandeval porphyrytic quartzdiorite. PPL.
identified, although all of them have similar
patterns. Combinations of albite and pericline
laws define the twinning, and concentrical
zoning of normal type is widespread.
Glomeroporphyrytic textures can also be
amp
observed, but are rare.
Amphibole
Amphibole is the second mineral in pl

abbundance in the phenocrysts, around 20 %
modal. These phenocrysts are euhedral (fig.
6.2.1.126-6.2.1.127), with a long prismatic
habit, and a length in the order of 0,1 cm- 0,5 Figure 6.2.1.127. The above image, in
cm. Color is pale olive green and zoning is cross-polarized light. The amphiboles (amp)
apparently absent. No polysynthetic twinning have higher interference colors than the
has been recognized on them. Amphibole may plagioclase. Mandeval porphyrytic quartz-
be altered to a secondary fibrous amphibole diorite.
of the tremolite-actinolite series, or to
hydrothermal biotite.
Apatite
Apatite is very scarce in these rocks, just pl

as small inclusions in phenocrysts. Crystals are
long prismatic to needless, and consists of
combinations of the hexagonal prism and <ap
pinacoids. They are less than 50 microns in
length (fig. 6.2.1.128).
Magnetite
Figure 6.2.1.128. Apatite inclusions in
Magnetite is the main opaque mineral, and plagioclase. Mandeval porphyrytic
occurs mainly in the matrix, although it do not quartdiorite. PPL.
overpass 3% modal. The crystals are rounded, with than 50 microns in diameter. Partial replacements
around 500 microns in maximum size, although a of magnetite crystals by sulfides, as pyrite and
population of microcrystals in the matrix has less chalcopyrite, are commonly distinguished.
6.2.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Middle Cauca Region 709

MIDDLE CAUCA REGION
Geochemical characterization of the High MgO (8.11-8.82%), CaO (11.82-

middle Cauca region rocks include samples 13.24%) and FeO (7.23-8.30%), and low
from the basement (i.e. the Romeral Na 2O (1.48-2.20%) and K 2O (0.07-0.20%)
assemblage), the late Miocene hypabyssal values are observed.
intrusives and the coeval and associated The samples plot into the tholeiite field of
volcanoclastic rocks (i.e. the Combia the AFM triangle plot by Irvine and Baragar
Formation). (1971) (Figure 6.2.2.1) and the K 2O vs. SiO 2
plot by Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) (Figure
6.2.2.2).
6 . 2 . 2 . 1 . G E O C H E M I S T RY O F T H E In the Total Alkalis (TAS) graphic by Le
ROMERAL ASSEMBLAGE IN THE Bas et al. (1986), the samples of the Barroso
MIDDLE CAUCA REGION Formation fall into the Basalt field (Figure
6.2.2.3).
A set of six samples of the Romeral The cationic Al-(Fetot+Ti)-Mg triangular
assemblage basement in the middle Cauca plot by Jensen (1976), classifies the rock
region were selected for geochemical analyses. samples of the Barroso Formation as High-Mg
The selected samples include four basaltic basalts (Figure 6.2.2.4).
rock samples of the Cretaceous ocean suite M o r e o v e r, t h e ( 1 0 x M n O ) - Ti O 2 -
(i.e. the Barroso Formation of the Cañas (10xP 2O 5) discrimination diagram for basalts
Gordas Group) collected to the SSE of the and basaltic andesites by Mullen (1983),
Quinchía townsite (Samples WR-22, WR-24, classify these rocks as Island Arc Tholeiites
WR-33 and WR-34). (Figure 6.2.2.5).
In addition, a micro meta-gabbro sample
(WR-81) collected about 5km to the WNW Trace elements Geochemistry
of Anserma townsite was also analyzed.
Moreover, a meta-diorite sample (WR- Trace elements contents of the Barroso
80) collected close to the Romeral Fault and Formation were compared against the
Suture System, about 4km to the west of Neira Primordial Mantle values after Wood et al.
townsite (i.e. the Arquia Complex) was (1979), in multielemental ‘spider-diagrams’
analyzed as well. plots (Figure 6.2.2.6).
The samples returned flat primitive mantle-
Major Element Geochemistry normalized trace elements patterns with
enrichments of 5x the mantle values.
The samples of the Romeral Basement The absence of High Field Strength (HFS)
returned low SiO 2 contents (48.28-49.99%), elements negative anomalies (e.g. Nd-Ta and
moderate Al 2O3 contents (13.73-15.49%). Ti) indicates a lack of subduction-related
710 SECTION 6.2.- MIDDLE CAUCA REGION PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 . A F M p l o t ( I r v i n e a n d Figure 6.2.2.2. K2O vs. SiO2 plot (Peccerillo

Baragar, 1971) for the rocks of the Romeral and Taylor, 1976) for the rocks of the
assemblage. Romeral assemblage.
Figure 6.2.2.3. TAS classification plot (Le Figure 6.2.2.4. Cationic Al-(Fe tot +Ti)-Mg
Bas et al., 1986) for the rocks of the Romeral triangular plot (Jensen, 1976) for the rocks
assemblage. of the Romeral assemblage.
Figure 6.2.2.5. (10xMnO)-TiO 2-(10xP 2O 5) F i g u re 6 . 2 . 2 . 6 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -

discrimination diagram (Mullen, 1983), for normalized trace element spider-diagram
the rocks of the Romeral assemblage. for the rocks of the Romeral assemblage.
signature for these rocks, and U enrichment is
evident in variable positive anomalies for these
patterns.
The Th vs. Co classification diagram
proposed by Hastie et al. (2007) as a better
substitute of the K 2O vs. SiO 2 diagram by
Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) for weathered
and metamorphosed rocks, classifies the rocks
of the Barroso Formation as Island Arc
Tholeiite Basalts (Figure 6.2.2.7).
The geotectonic triangle plots by Wood
(1980) show all of the samples plotting into
the N-MORB/E-MORB, WPT, with exception
Figure 6.2.2.7. Th vs. Co plot (Hastie et al., of the Arquia meta-diorite sample which plots
2 0 0 7 ) f o r t h e ro c k s o f t h e R o m e r a l into the Island Arc Tholeiites field (Figure 6.2.2.8).
assemblage.
Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry
The rock samples of the Barroso

Formation yielded low REE values
( REE=30.1-38.7ppm) The chondrite-
normalized REE diagrams using the values
proposed by Boynton (1984), also indicate
non fractionated flat patterns ((La/Lu) N=0.8-
1.4) with enrichments about 10x the chondrite
values (Figure 6.2.2.9).
Weak positive or negative Eu anomalies
are observed (Eu/Eu*=0.93-1.19).
6 . 2 . 2 . 2 . G E O C H E M I S T RY O F T H E
Figure 6.2.2.8. Th-Zr/117-Nb/16 triangle MIOCENE INTRUSIVES IN THE
plot (Wood, 1980) for the rocks of the MIDDLE CAUCA REGION
Romeral assemblage.
Intrusives in the Middle Cauca region were
also characterized from a geochemical viewpoint.
Selected intrusives collected in different
areas along the middle Cauca river canyon
were analyzed for major, minor and trace
elements, including Rare Earth Elements.
The selected rock samples include three
diorite samples of the Farallones Batholith
(Samples WR-40, WR-41 and WR-42); a
diorite porphyry sample from the La Estrella
Sector at Buiritica Mine (Sample WR-203);
and diorite porphyry collected at the
Chuscalitos creek in Guintar (Sample WR-36).
Two diorite porphyry rocks close to the
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 2 . 9 . Chondrite-normalized
Titiribí townsite (Samples WR-26 and WR-69)
(Boynton, 1984) REE plot for the rocks of the
were also selected for geochemical analyses.
Romeral assemblage.
Two diamond-drill core diorite porphyry Granodiorite porphyry samples collected

samples from La Mina Project (B2Gold; WR- at Orofino (Sample WR-20) and Marmato
182 and WR-183), collected about 5km to the (Sample WR-21) areas along the middle
south of the Venecia townsite were included. Cauca river valley are also included.
Two diamond-drill core diorite porphyry Small porphyry intrusives sparsely
samples from the La Aurora Project (B2Gold; distributed around Supia (Sample WR-87),
Samples WR-180 and WR-181), along with a Riosucio (WR-86) and Quinchía (Samples
micro-diorite sample collected at the La WR-84 and WR-85) townsites, were also
Coqueta creek in the Quebradona area about included in the characterization.
6.5km to the south of the Jericó townsite
(Sample WR-19) were analyzed. Major Elements Geochemistry
Three more samples of the Tamesis Stock
collected about 13km to the east of the Jardin The Miocene intrusives of the Middle
townsite (Samples WR-151, WR-233 and Cauca region returned moderate SiO2 contents
WR-234) were also included. spanning the 54.71wt%-66.41wt% interval.
Figure 6.2.2.10. Harker variation diagrams for the late Miocene hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle
Cauca region.
Al 2 O3 contents are high (15.56-17.68wt%),
whereas variable contents of MgO (0.73-
4.34wt%), CaO (3.63-8.06wt%), Na2O (2.12-
4.79wt%) and K 2 O (1.38-3.42wt%) are
observed.
The Harker diagrams for major oxides
indicate negative correlations between MgO,
CaO and TiO 2 with respect to SiO 2. Data for
other major oxides are scattered and show no
clear correlation with respect to silica content
(Figure 6.2.2.10).
In the AFM triangle plot by Irvine and
Baragar (1971), the Miocene intrusive rocks
Figure 6.2.2.11. AFM plot (Irvine and of the Middle Cauca region define a clear calc-
B a r a g a r, 1 9 7 1 ) f o r t h e l a t e M i o c e n e alkaline trend. The samples from the Farallones
hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle Cauca Batholith shift up and plot along the boundary
region. line between the tholeiite and calc-alkaline
series (Figure 6.2.2.11).
The K 2O vs. SiO 2 plot by Peccerillo and
Taylor (1976), indicate that all of the samples
of the Middle Cauca region plot within the
medium- to high-K calc-alkaline series
(Figures 6.2.2.12).
Two of the samples from the Tamesis stock
(Samples WR-233 and WR-234) yielded
remarkable low K 2O contents.
The Th vs. Co plot by Hastie et al. (2007),
which is used as an alternative plot to the K2O
vs. SiO2 plot in order to reduce the metamorphism
and weathering/alteration effects in volcanic
rocks and may be applied to intrusive rocks,
F i g u re 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 2 . K 2 O v s . S i O 2 p l o t
show all of the Middle Cauca region intrusive
(Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976) for the late
rock samples plotting within the (medium-K)
Miocene hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle
calc-alkaline series with compositional
Cauca region.
variations from basaltic andesites/andesites to
dacites/rhyolites (Figure 6.2.2.13).
In the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand
(1943), most of the samples of the late
Miocene hypabyssal intrusives plot in the
peraluminous field being of the I-type granite
series (A/CNK<1.1) (Figure 6.2.2.14).
On the other hand, samples WR-233 and
WR-234 of the Tamesis Stock along with the
sample WR-84 of the Quinchía area plot to
the right into the peraluminous field, probably
because of their evident altered/weathered
character previously recognized in hand sample
examination.
Figure 6.2.2.13. Th vs. Co plot (Hastie et
In the Total Alkalis (TAS) plot by Cox et
al., 2007) for the late Miocene hypabyssal
al. (1979), the intrusive rocks from the Middle
intrusives of the Middle Cauca region.
Figure 6.2.2.14. A/CNK vs. A/NK plot (Shand, Figure 6.2.2.15. TAS classification plot (Cox
1943) for the late Miocene hypabyssal et al., 1979) for the late Miocene hypabyssal
intrusives of the Middle Cauca region. intrusives of the Middle Cauca region.
Figure 6.2.2.16. R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot Figure 4.2.2.17. Bulk continental crust-
(Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the late normalized (Taylor and McLennan, 1995) trace
Miocene hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle element ‘spider-diagram’ for the late Miocene
Cauca region. hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle Cauca region.
Figure 4.2.2.18. Primordial mantle-normalized Figure 4.2.2.19. Chondrite-normalized (Boynton,

(Wood et al., 1979) trace element ‘spider- 1984) REE plot f o r t h e l a t e M i o c e n e
diagram’ for the late Miocene hypabyssal hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle Cauca
intrusives of the Middle Cauca region. region.
Cauca region plot mainly into the diorite field show remarkable depletion in HREE with
with some exceptions (e.g. the Orofino and respect to other Miocene intrusive rocks of the
Marmato areas porphyries, and some samples Middle Cauca region.
of the Tamesis Stock) plotting into the quartz-
diorite (granodiorite) field (Figure 6.2.2.15).
The R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot by 6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . G E O C H E M I S T RY O F T H E
Batchelor and Bowden (1985) show the rock C O M B I A F O R M AT I O N I N T H E
samples plotting into the Pre-plate collision MIDDLE CAUCA REGION
(subduction-related) and the Post-collision
uplift fields (Figure 6.2.2.16). Previous geochemical characterization of
the rock of the volcanoclastic sequence of the
Trace Elements Geochemistry Combia Formation was carried out by
Marriner and Millward (1984) and Tejada et
The trace element contents of the Miocene al. (2007).
intrusive rocks of the Middle Cauca region In this work, the geochemical
were compared against the Bulk Continental characterization of the volcanic rocks of the
Crust and Primordial Mantle values by Taylor Combia Formation was carried out by
and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979), analyzing samples from four different areas
respectively (Figures 6.2.2.17 and 6.2.2.18). along the middle Cauca canyon river.
All of the samples show clear subduction- The analyzed samples include andesite
related geochemical signature, including Large rocks from the surroundings of the Quinchia
Ion Lithophile (LIL) elements enrichments (e.g. townsite collected in surface outcrops (Samples
Ba, K and Sr positive anomalies) and High WR-30, WR-31, WR-32 and WR-125).
Field Strength (HFS) elements depletion (e.g. A basaltic rock collected to the west of
Nb-Ta and Ti negative anomalies). the Tamesis Stock, about 15km to the SE of
Additional trace elements geochemistry the Andes townsite (Sample WR-125) was also
remarkable features include high Sr (368- analyzed.
1080ppm) and low Y (4-24.6ppm) contents. Th Four samples of basalt to basaltic andesite
and U contents are low spanning the ranges of rocks collected around the Jerico townsite at
1.11-5.47ppm and 0.64-2.64ppm, respectively. La Quebradona area (Samples WR-17 and
WR-18) and La Aurora Project diamond drill
Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry cores (B2Gold; Samples WR-178 and WR-
179) were selected for analysis.
The REE contents of the Miocene intrusive Moreover, another basaltic andesite rock
rocks of the Middle Cauca region are low and sample collected at the San Cristobal creek
variable (REE=36.6-115.4ppm). close to La Mina Project (B2Gold; Sample
The chondrite-normalized REE diagram WR-16) was analyzed.
using the chondrite values proposed by
Boynton (1984), indicate moderate Major Elements Geochemistry
fractionated decreasing slopes ((La/Lu)N=3.3-
11.8), with clear LREE enrichment with respect The samples of the Combia Formation
to HREE (Figure 6.2.2.19). yielded variable SiO 2 (49.16-58.76wt%) and
No important Eu positive or negative high Al2O3 (15.95-17.72) contents. Moderate
anomalies are observed in the samples (Eu/ values for MgO (1.99-5.04wt%), CaO (5.95-
Eu*=0.88-1.13) and most of them show 10.81wt%), Na 2O (2.33-3.01wt%) and K 2O
relatively flat HREE patterns ((Gd/Lu)N=~1.0) (0.75-3.43wt%) are also observed.
with enrichments about 10x the chondrite In the AFM triangle plot by Irvine and
values. Baragar (1971) the samples of the Combia
Two porphyry samples collected at the Formation plot into both, the tholeiite and calc-
Supia (WR-87) and Orofino (WR-20) areas alkaline fields (Figure 6.2.2.20).

Baragar, 1971) for the volcanoclastic rocks ( P e c c e r i l l o a n d Ta y l o r, 1 9 7 6 ) f o r t h e
of the Combia Formation. v o l c a n o c l a s t i c ro c k s o f t h e C o m b i a
Formation.
Figure 6.2.2.22. Th vs. Co plot (Hastie et Figure 6.2.2.23. Cationic Al-(Fe tot+Ti)-Mg
al., 2007) for the volcanoclastic rocks of the triangular plot (Jensen, 1976) for the
Combia Formation. volcanoclastic rocks of the Combia Formation.
Figure 6.2.2.24. Th-Zr/117-Nb/16 triangle Figure 6.2.2.25. Primordial Mantle-normalized

plot (Wood, 1980) for the volcanoclastic trace element spider-diagram for the
rocks of the Combia Formation. volcanoclastic rocks of the Combia Formation.
This feature was also observed in previous Trace Elements Geochemistry
works on the Combia Formation geochemistry
where a mixed tholeitic and calc-alkaline The trace elements contents of the volcanic
affinity and geochemical features have been rocks of the Combia Formation were
mentioned for these volcanic rocks (Marriner compared against the Primordial Mantle values
and Milward, 1984; Lopez et al., 2006; Tejada after Wood et al. (1979) in multielemental
et al., 2007). ‘spider-diagram’ (Figure 6.2.2.25).
In particular, the andesite samples of the No remarkable differences are observed
Combia Formation collected around the between them and all of them show subduction-
Quinchía townsite (WR-30, WR-31, WR-32 related geochemical signature with Large Ion
and WR-125) along with the diamond-drill Lithophile (LIL) elements enrichments (e.g. Ba,
core samples of the La Aurora Project (WR- K and Sr) and High Field Strength (HFS)
178 and WR-179) and the sample collected elements depletion (e.g. Nb-Ta and Ti).
from an outcrop in the La Quebradona area Additional importanta characteristics of
fall into the calc-alkaline field, whereas the the Combia Formation volcanic rocks include:
basalt to basaltic andesite samples collected high Sr (446-1211ppm) and variable U (0.49-
in the north, at La Mina Project (WR-16), 1.87ppm) and Th (0.95-4.16ppm) contents.
close to the Andes townsite (WR-95) and La
Quebradona area (WR-19), fall into the Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry
tholeiite field.
Conversely, in the K 2O vs. SiO 2 plot The Rare Earth Elements values of the
(Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976) medium- to high- volcanic rocks of the Combia Formation were
K calc-alkaline series trends are defined also compared against the chondrite values
(Figure 6.2.2.21). after Boynton (1984) (Figure 6.2.2.26).
Samples of the La Quebradona area The Rare Earth Elements contents are
(Sample WR-18) and La Aurora Project variable (REE=42.7-83.8), and all of the
diamond-drill cores (WR-179) plot into the samples exhibit similar moderate fractionated
shoshonite field, due probably to moderate to decreasing slope patterns characterized by
hydrothermal alteration which may shift up the LREE enrichment with respect to HREE ((La/
potassium content. Lu) N=1.9-5.2).
The alternative Th vs. Co plot designed Eu anomalies are subtle, weakly positive
by Hastie et al. (2007) which reduces the or negative (Eu/Eu*=0.83-1.14), and HREE
effects of the weathering and metamorphism exhibit relatively flat patterns ((Gd/Lu)N=1.0-
show all of the samples plotting into the calc- 1.3) with enrichment of about 10x the chondrite
alkaline field with variable composition from values.
basalts up to diorites/rhyolites (Figure
6.2.2.22).
All of the Combia Formation samples plot
within the metaluminous field of the A/NK vs.
A/CNK plot defined by Shand (1943) (Figure
6.2.2.22).
The cation Al-(Fe tot+Ti)-Mg triangle plot
proposed by Jensen (1976) shows all of the
samples plotting into the calc-alkaline fields
from basalts up to dacites (Figure 6.2.2.23).
The geotectonic triangle plots defined by
Wood (1980) show all of the Combia
Formation samples plotting into the Calc-
Figure 6.2.2.26. Chondrite-normalized
alkaline (Volcanic Arc) Basalts field (Figure
(Boynton, 1984) REE plot for the volcanoclastic
6.2.2.24).
rocks of the Combia Formation.
6.2.3. - Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Middle Cauca region porphyritic rocks 719
6.2.3. GEOCHRONOLOGY AND ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF

THE MIDDLE CAUCA REGION PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
In order to determine magmatic 6.2.3.1. ZIRCON U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS

crystallization ages of the middle Cauca region ANALYSES
intrusives, five zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS
analyses were carried out. Five zircon U-Pb analyses were carried
In addition, four whole-rock and mineral out in rock samples of the Miocene intrusives
separates (i.e. hornblende and biotite) samples, of the Middle Cauca region, and the results
in fine-grained intrusives or aphanitic volcanic are summarized in Table 6.2.3.1.
rocks with considerable amounts of fresh The samples include hypabyssal intrusive
biotite or hornblende crystals/phenocrysts. rocks around the Titiribí, Venecia, Jerico and
R b - S r, S m - N d a n d P b - P b i s o t o p e Quinchía townsites, yielding ages spanning the
geochemistry analyses were carried out on six 8.0Ma to 7.6Ma interval.
intrusive/hypabyssal samples and five samples Moreover, a sample of the Tamesis Stock,
from the volcanoclastic Combia Formation, for close to the Tamesis townsite was also dated
isotope geochemistry characterization. by zircon U-Pb method.
Table 6.2.3.1. Zircon U-Pb magmatic crystallization ages for the Middle Cauca region
porphyritic rocks
UNIT AGES
Titiribí porphyry suite
diorite Miocene hypabyssal 75° 47’ 38.9” W
WR-69 Titiribí 7.6 ± 0.3 Ma LA-MC-ICP-MS -
porphyry intrusives 6° 4’ 4.4” N
La Mina porphyry suite

MIN-01 Venecia 7.6 ± 0.2 Ma LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 42Ma
La Quebradona-La Aurora porphyry suite
Aurora-IM-01 Jerico 8.0 +0.9/-0.4 Ma LA-MC-ICP-MS -
Tamesis Stock
75° 43’ 43.2” W ca. 10-11Ma;
WR-234 granodiorite Tamesis Stock Tamesis 7.2±0.2 Ma LA-MC-ICP-MS
5° 36’ 47.6” N 80Ma
Dos Quebradas porphyry suite

Q-34 Quinchía 8.0 ± 0.5 Ma LA-MC-ICP-MS -
At the El Medio creek, located few cents (Aurora-IM-01) yielded a late Miocene age
of meters to the SW from the Titiribí townsite, of 8.0+0.9/-0.4Ma (Figure 6.2.3.3).
a sample of a hornblende dacite porphyry In the Dos Quebradas Project, a
(Sample WR-69; section 6.2.1.1), yielded a diamond-drill core diorite porphyry sample (Q-
late Miocene age of 7.6±0.3Ma (Figure 6.2.3.1). 34; DQ-DD-2, 314-316 m), returned a late
At La Mina Project, located about 5km Miocene age of 8.0±0.5Ma (Figure 6.2.3.4).
to the south of the Venecia townsite, a rock The granodiorite of the Tamesis Stock
sample of a diorite porphyry (Sample MIN- (Sample WR-234), returned also a late
01), returned a late Miocene age of 7.6±0.2Ma Miocene age of 7.2±0.2Ma (Figure 6.2.3.5).
(Figure 6.2.3.2). Figure 6.2.4.6 summarize the late Miocene
At the La Aurora Project, located about ages obtained for intrusive rocks along the
8km to the SE of the Jericó townsite, a Middle Cauca river valley, spanning the range
diamond-drill core diorite porphyry sample between 8.0Ma and 7.2Ma.
Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry from the Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry from the
Titiribí district (Sample WR-69). La Mina Project (Sample MIN-01).
Pb analyses of diorite porphyry from the La analyses of diorite porphyry from the Dos
Aurora Project (Sample Aurora-IM-01). Quebradas Project, Quinchía (Q-34).
Figure 6.2.3.5. Tera-Wasserburg concordia plot

for zircon U-Pb analyses of granodiorite of the
Tamesis Stock (Sample WR-234).
6.2.3.2. K-Ar ANALYSES OF THE LATE

MIOCENE INTRUSIVES OF THE
MIDDLE CAUCA AREA
Results of K-Ar analyses carried out in

rock samples from the late Miocene intrusives
and volcanic rocks of the Middle Cauca region
are summarized in Table 6.2.3.2.
K-Ar analyses of samples from the Middle
Cauca region include intrusive rocks from the
Buritica Gold Project (Continental Gold; Figure 6.2.3.6. Z i rc o n U - P b a g e s f o r
Sample Buritica-1), and the San Diego Mine hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle Cauca
at the Frontino Viejo area (El Cerro intrusive; region and the Combia Formation.
Sample SanDiego-1).
Table 6.2.3.2. K-Ar ages for intrusives of the Middle Cauca region and the Combia Formation.
Sample Material Lithology Coordinates
(Wt. %) (nl/g) (%) (Ma)
Buritica Mine porphyry suite
Hornblende diorite 75° 54’ 31.2” W
Buritica-1 hornblende 0.961 0.443 78 11.8±1.1
porphyry 6° 41’ 58.6” N
El Cerro intrusive, San Diego Mine, Frontino viejo
76° 9’35.5” W
SanDiego-1 biotite Biotite diorite 6.917 3.196 47 11.8±0.4
6° 41’ 55.1” N
Tamesis Stock
Biotite hornblende 75° 41’ 47.0” W
TM-2 biotite 7.096 2.155 57 7.8±0.4
granodiorite 5° 36’ 20.0” N
Combia Formation
75° 42’ 49.7” W 0.443 0.106 89 6.1±1.3

TM-3 whole-rock Andesite
5° 38’ 49.4” N 0.443 0.107 92 6.2±1.6
Weighted Average 6.1±1.0
These samples returned similar ages close
to the limit middle to late Miocene (WR-19, WR-30, WR-95, WR-178 and WR-
(11.8±1.1Ma in hornblende and 11.8±0.4Ma 179) yielded variable Rb (21.04-116.62ppm),
in biotite, respectively), which compares well Sr (450.34-923.33ppm), Sm (2.51-4.34ppm)
with the samples dated at La Dorada (Sample and Nd (8.63-24.10ppm) values.
WR-66) and Altamira (Sample WR-68) The initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios for the samples
of the Middle Cauca region are low and cluster
sectors of the La Vega-La Sierra area in the
spanning the range between 0.70377 and
Cauca Department (Section 6.6.4).
In addition, a biotite hornblende 0.70506.
Moreover, most of the Miocene rock
granodiorite from the Tamesis Stock (Sample
samples from the Middle Cauca region
TM-2) returned a late Miocene age of
returned variable positive Nd values (+2.57 to
7.8±0.4Ma, in the same error interval of the
+11.47), and only the sample WR-95 of the
zircon U-Pb magmatic crystallization age
Combia Formation yielded slight negative Nd
obtained for the same intrusion (Sample WR-
value (-0.89).
234 = 7.2±0.2Ma; Section 6.2.4.1).
Finally, an andesite rock sample of the The Sr-Nd plot show most of the samples
plotting within or close to the ‘Mantle Array’,
volcanoclastic sequence of the Combia
Formation (Sample TM-3) was analyzed two indicating a dominant mantle-derived source
times and a weighted average late Miocene age for the magmas with minor crustal
of 6.1±1.0Ma was obtained. contamination/assimilation (Figure 6.2.4.7).
This age is younger than previously In particular, rocks from the hypabyssal
reported 9.1Ma K-Ar age for this unit intrusives of the Middle Cauca region at Titiribi
(Restrepo et al., 1981 in Toro et al., 1999), (Sample WR-69), La Mina (WR-183), La
and compares well with the later magmatic Aurora (Sample WR-181) and Marmato
pulses of the ‘Combia volcanism’ at ca. 6Ma (Sample WR-20), along with the sample of the
as suggested by Ramirez et al. (2006). Farallones Batholith and the the sample of the
Combia Formation from diamond-drill cores
at La Aurora Project (Sample WR-178),
6.2.3.3. Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE cluster in a narrow field.
GEOCHEMISTRY Moreover, the porphyry sample from the
Marmato Mining District (Sample WR-21)
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd results for the intrusive returned initial 87 Sr/ 86Sr ratio (0.70430) and
and volcanic rocks of the Middle Cauca region  Nd value (+3.05), similar to those presented
by Tassinari et al. (2008) for the Marmato
are presented in Tables 6.2.4.3 and 6.2.4.4.
Stock ( 87Sr/ 86 Sr=0.70445-0.70460; Nd =+2.2
The sample of the Farallones Batholith
to +3.2).
(Sample WR-40) yielded moderate Rb
The samples of the Combia Formation plot
(50.96ppm) and high Sr (641.49ppm) values,
in a wide Nd range, with the sample collected
accompanied by high Sm (3.35ppm) and Nd
to the east of Jardin townsite (Sample WR-
(14.95ppm).
95) yielding a slight negative value (-0.89) and
On the other hand, the rock sample of the
plotting under the Mantle Array, and the sample
Tamesis Stock (Sample WR-151) returned
from the Quinchía area (Sample WR-30) and
higher Rb (85.99ppm) but lower Sr
the sample from an outcrop in the La Aurora
(553.97ppm) values.
Project returning high positive  Nd values
The hypabyssal intrusives from Marmato,
(+11.47 and +8.89, respectively) and plotting
Titiribi, La Aurora and La Mina (Samples WR-
over the Mantle Array.
21, WR-69, WR-181 and WR-183) returned
The Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope results
moderate Rb (38.29-71.74ppm) and high Sr
obtained in this work for the Combia Formation
(636.24-909.77ppm) values, accompanied by
rocks exhibit wide variations and compare well
variable Sm (1.77-3.81ppm) and Nd (7.05-
with those reported by Ordoñez and Pimentel
18.40ppm) values.
(2001b) ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr=0.70378-0.70574 and
The samples from the Combia Formation
Table 6.2.3.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Middle Cauca region and the Combia Formation.
Table 6.2.3.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Middle Cauca region and the Combia Formation.
SAMPLE AGE (Ma) Sm (ppm) Nd (ppm) 147Sm/ 144Nd 143Nd/144Nd
(m)
143Nd/144Nd
(T) Nd(T)
Farallones Batholith
WR-40 10 3.35 14.95 0.13567 0.51298 0.51297 +6.65
Tamesis Stock
WR-151 8 - - - - - -
Marmato porphyry suite
WR-21 8 1.77 7.05 0.15160 0.51279 0.51279 +3.05
Titiribi porphyry suite
WR-69 8 3.21 14.44 0.13442 0.51288 0.51287 +4.70
La Aurora porphyry suite
WR-181 8 3.81 18.40 0.12522 0.51277 0.51276 +2.57
La Mina porphyry suite
WR-183 8 2.62 13.27 0.11955 0.51295 0.51294 +6.10
Combia Formation
WR-95 6* 4.34 24.10 0.10889 0.51259 0.51259 -0.89
WR-178 6* 2.51 8.63 0.17620 0.51292 0.51291 +5.54
WR-19 6* 2.99 12.59 0.14381 0.51309 0.51309 +8.89
WR-30 6* 3.73 15.80 0.14261 0.51323 0.51322 +11.47
WR-179 6* - - - - - -
 Nd(T) =-0.66 to +6.79) and by Tassinari et al.

(2008) for the same unit ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr=0.70396
and  Nd(T)=+4.9).
6.2.3.4. LEAD ISOTOPE

GEOCHEMISTRY
The Pb-Pb isotope geochemistry results from

the Miocene intrusives and volcanic rocks of the
Middle Cauca region are summarized in the Table
6.2.4.5. Figure 6.2.3.7. Nd vs. 87Sr/86Sr plot for samples
In addition, lead isotope results were of the hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the Middle
plotted into the uranogenic ( 207Pb/ 204Pb vs. Cauca region and the Combia Formation.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) and thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204Pb) diagrams (Figure 6.2.4.8).
All of the samples returned radiogenic lead
( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb=19.06, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb=15.65 and
isotope values (207Pb/204Pb>15.55) and cluster in 208
Pb/204Pb=38.92) when compared with other
narrow ranges (206Pb/204Pb=18.79-19.22, 207Pb/
204 Miocene hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle
Pb=15.60-15.68, 208Pb/204Pb=38.59-38.93).
Cauca region and thus, it plots separately,
The sample from the Farallones Batholith
shifted to the right.
returned the most radiogenic values ( 206 Pb/
204
Pb=19.21, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb=15.68 and 208 Pb/
204
Pb=38.93).
On the other hand, the sample of the Table 6.2.3.4. Lead isotope geochemistry results
Támesis Stock returned similar lead isotope for the hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the Middle
v a l u e s w i t h 206 P b / 204 P b = 1 9 . 2 1 , 207P b / Cauca region and the Combia Formation.
204
Pb=15.65 and 208Pb/ 204Pb=38.89 values. 206Pb/204Pb 207Pb/204Pb 208Pb/204Pb
SAMPLE
These results compare well but are slightly less
radiogenic than the lead isotope ratios reported Farallones Batholith
by Tassinari et al. (2008) for the same intrusive WR-40 19.21 15.68 38.93
( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb=19.03, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb=15.56 and Tamesis Stock
208
Pb/ 204 Pb=38.74).
WR-151 19.21 15.65 38.89
The samples of the Combia Formation
Marmato porphyry suite
span in relatively wide lead isotope ranges with
206
Pb/ 204 Pb=18.91-19.22, 207Pb/ 204Pb=15.60- WR-21 19.06 15.65 38.92
15.67 and 208Pb/204Pb=38.59-38.87. The most Titiribí porphyry suite
radioactive rocks (Samples WR-19 and WR- WR-69 18.80 15.64 38.70
95) yielded similar values to the Farallones
La Aurora porphyry suite
Batholith and the Támesis Stock samples.
With respect to the hypabyssal intrusives, WR-181 18.79 15.64 38.68
the lead isotope results show how the porphyry La Mina porphyry suite
samples from Titiribí (WR-69), La Mina (WR- WR-183 18.81 15.63 38.68
183) and La Aurora (WR-181), returned very Combia Formation
similar isotope ratios plotting in almost a single point
WR-95 19.21 15.67 38.85
(206Pb/204Pb=18.79-18.81, 207Pb/ 204Pb=15.63-
15.64 and 208Pb/204Pb=38.68-38.70). WR-178 18.95 15.60 38.63
Conversely, the porphyry rock collected WR-19 19.22 15.67 38.84
at the Marmato Mining District (Sample WR- WR-30 18.91 15.61 38.59
21) yielded more radiogenic lead isotope ratios
WR-179 19.04 15.65 38.87
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) plot for samples of the Middle Cauca region and the Combia Formation.
In the thorogenic diagram, the samples of hypabyssal intrusives (e.g. porphyry rocks from
the Combia Formation, the Farallones Batholith Titiribí, La Mina and La Aurora projects) plot to
and the Támesis Stock, plot over the Upper the left, over the Orogenic lead isotope evolution
Crust lead isotope evolution curve, whereas curve proposed by Zartman and Doe (1981).
SECTION 6.3.
Porphyry-Associated
and Related Gold Deposits
in the Middle Cauca Region
6.3.1. - The Titiribí Gold District 729
6.3.1. THE TITIRIBÍ GOLD DISTRICT
6.3.1.1. INTRODUCTION the period 1880-1910 in which the mine was

owned by english companies. Only during the
The Titiribí Mining District (TMD) is found period between 1912 and 1922 the production
in the Antioquia Department, over the western was about 4,16 t Au and 30,8 t Ag. The total
flank of the Central Cordillera in the Colombian production during this period is not well-
Andes. It is centered close to the Titiribí known, but an approximate calculation
townsite (fig. 6.3.1.1) indicates 3-5 Moz gold (Bostford, 1926;
Regular production in this long-living gold- Emmons, 1937; Grosse, 1926). Most of gold
silver mining district started in 1793 during the was refined in the Sitio Viejo townsite. During
Spanish colonial times, but gold extraction in these times up to 14 mines were operative, but
the area was made also in precolumbine times. most of them were closing after 1945, and
However, the most productive epoch was in most of their tunnels are collapsed.
EL
ZANCUDO
CERRO
VETAS
Figure 6.3.1.1. Location map of the Titiribí gold deposits.

730 SECTION 6.3.- PORPHYRY ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSITS IN THE MIDDLE CAUCA REGION
Fig. 6.3.1.2. Panoramic view of the Titiribí mining area, taken from the road Los Micos-
Titiribí in direction W.
During the period 2000-2010 only a mine Independence tunnel. At that moment the mine
was in explotation along the Independence was operative (fig. 6.3.1.3) and the mineral
tunnel, which is found N of Sitio Viejo (fig. was processed in a plant close to the entrance
6.3.1.2) and several exploration projects are of the mine (fig. 6.3.1.4).
active at the present moment.
Our description is based on observations
made during a visit in 2005 in the 6.3.1.2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The geology of the neighborings of the

Independence mine is reflected in the
symplified geological map of the Figure
6.3.1.5.
A highly complex basement can be firstly
distinguished. It is made up by megablocks and
tectonic wedges of melange-type rocks
(Romeral Assemblage), mainly para-
autochtonous Paleozoic metamorphic rocks
(psammitic and graphitic chlorite schists of the
Arquia Formation) and allochtonous Cretaceous
volcanic and sedimentary rocks, predominantly
Fig. 6.3.1.3. Entrance to the Independencia oceanic. The graphitic black shales may contain
tunnel in Titiribí. abundant dissseminated pyrite.
This complex basement has been
interpreted as a tectonic melange formed during
the collision-accretion of Mesozoic oceanic
rocks with the North Andean margin along the
dextral Romeral fault system, started during the
Early Cretaceous (Cediel et al., 2003).
Autochtonous siliciclastic sedimentary
sequences of Oligocene age unconformably
overlies this complex basement, and have been
Fig. 6.3.1.4.Treatment plant close to the Fig. 6.3.1.5 (next page). Geology of the Titiribi
Independencia tunnel. mining area. Adapted from an unpublished report
by Redwood (2010).
6.3.1. - The Titiribí Gold District 731
Fig. 6.3.1.6. Geological profiles along the directions indicated in fig. 6.3.1.5; sane legenda as in the
above figure. Adapted from Redwood (2010).
mapped with the name of Amagá Group. These Thrusts locally grades to high-angle inverse
series are made up by sandstones and quartz- faults. These faults postdate the intrusives, and
rich conglomerates, but they contain also some control the distribution of the mineralized gold
black shales, greenish and reddish shales and veins (fig. 6.3.1.6).
sub-antracitic coal beds. The Amagá Group Both the Romeral Melange and the Amagá
has been interpreted as formed in transitional Group were syntectonically intruded by a series
marine-continental environments. of plutonic rocks, dykes and sills, of diorite to
The region was deformed during the monzonite compositions. The intrusions are
Lower-Middle Miocene in a compressional hypoabissal and poly-phase, and are
regime, and similar conditions were produced contemporaneous with a system os extrusive
during the Middle-Upper Miocene. Take-off rocks (Combia Formation, ca. 6-9Ma; K-Ar/
thrusts with dominant E vergence constitute the WR this work; zircon Fission Tracks, Ramirez
main structural style of this tectonic stage. et al., 2006).
6.3.1. The Titiribí Gold District 733
In detail, the mineralized area is
distributed around and into an irregular
porphyrytic intrusive whose outcrops measure
approximately 700 m in direction N-S for 550
m in direction E-W (fig. 6.3.1.1). This intrusive
is found in the core of the Cerro Vetas mountain
and the outcrops are mainly located in the top
of this hill, approximately 2 km west of the
Titiribí town. The mineralized area comprises
a total of about 12 km2.
6.3.1.3. STRUCTURE OF THE DEPOSIT
The mineralizations have been found along

all E flank of the Cerro Vetas, and this means
a recognized vertical development of about
900 m.
Two main types of mineralization can be
distinguished in the Titiribí district, based on
the grade of the deposits and the style of
mineralization (Shaw, 2002): Figure 6.3.1.7. Silicification along the contact
between the basal Oligocene conglomerates and
a) high-grade Au-Ag (Zn-Pb-Cu-As- the underlying Paleozoic schists. Independencia
Sb) deposits, consisting of structurally tunnel.
and stratigraphically controled veins and
mantos. These deposits are the only
exploited historically and at the present
times, and are the typical mineralizations
found in the El Zancudo sector (North
of the old Sitio Viejo smelters. The most
important mineralizations of this type are
systems of veins of variable width; these
veins can be exploited along hundreds
of meters in depth. The Independence
tunnel intercepts the deepest parts
known in the system.
b) low-grade Au-Cu (Ag) deposits of

porphyry-type, hosted in volcanic and
intrusive rocks, poorly explored up to the
moment. These mineralizations are
currently been investigated as a possible
target for open-pit mining, and in addition
to gold is planned to recover copper. The
typical place of development is close to
Cerro Vetas, southwest of the Sitio Viejo.
Figure 6.3.1.8. Another detail of the highly
On the other hand, the high-grade silicified contact in other place in the
deposits can be subdivided into 5 styles of Independencia tunnel.
mineralization according with the shape of the

mineralization (Shaw, 2002):
(1) veins and replacements following

the unconformity between the basement
and the Oligocene siliciclastic sequence
(i.e., El Casta o, Otra Mina and, in
minor extension, some parts of the
Independencia tunnel, figs. 6.3.1.7-
6.3.1.8). Ore enrichments are
accompanied by a strong silicification
and sericitization of the conglomerate
matrix and clasts.
(2) mantos, disseminations in sills and

stratabound replacements in the
siliciclastic sedimentary sequences of
Oligocene age (i.e., some parts of the
Lyell mine). These mineralizations are
also accompanied by a strong
silicification and similar hydrothermal
alterations to the above mentioned. Figure 6.3.1.9. High-angle quartz vein
Therefore, these mineralizations are (Platanal) in the Independencia tunnel.
similar to the type above indicated and
were important in the upper levels.
(2) Veins infilling high angle inverse

N-S trending faults. An example is the
Platanal vein in the Independencia mine
(fig. 6.3.1.9); it is the dominant style of
the veins in the Lyell mine.
(3) Veins infilling gently dipping

roughly E-W trending faults cutting all
the lithologies (i.e.Cateadores mine, but
also in the Esperanza vein and other Figure 6.3.1.10. Low-angle quartz vein
veins in the Independencia tunnel, fig. (Esperanza) in the Independencia tunnel.
6.3.1.10, 6.3.1.11); these veins tend to
appear in the deeper parts of the
mineralized system.
(4) veins and replacements along the

intrusive contacts between the Miocene
porphyrytic bodies and the hosting
rocks, either the Paleozoic basement or
the Oligocene siliciclastic sequence (i.e.
Cateadores mine and Los Chorros Alto
mine). These mineralizations are
texturally similar to those indicated for
Figure 6.3.1.11. Low-angle quartz vein in the
types 1 and 2.
lower part of the Independencia tunnel.
Figure 6.3.1.12. Map of the Independencia mine, with situation of the studied samples.
Figure 6.3.1.13. Profile of the Independencia mine, showing te situation of the mineralized
veins, in particular, the Colombiana vein.
Therefore, despite the existance of these hydrothermal infilling and producing a

apparently different morphological types, the cataclastic texture in the ores, thus indicating
hydrothermal process is the same and the a synkinematic (syntectonic) emplacement of
differences were produced because in each the mineralization.
case the hydrothermal fluids simply used In the Independencia mine, in addition, the
different paths (lithological contacts, faults, La Colombian and La Colmena veins represent
joints or unconformities. the infilling of important joints, and represent
Moreover, Shaw (2003) also suggested the most of the mineralization in the studied
that changes in dipping in the faults can be sector (as can be seen in the vein path in
interpreted as produced by the existence of figures 6.3.1.12 and 6.3.1.13).
“ramp and flat” thrusting. These faults have an These veins have the typical NNW-SSE
important fault gauge affecting the trend of the faults of the area. However, in
can be fractured and displaced by later fault

generations. On the other hand, the
development of these joints can be associated
with the movement of the abovementioned
faults, as can be observed in the figure
6.3.1.10.
All of the abovementioned veins have a
vertical and lateral continuity in the order of
hundreds of meters and are well mineralized,
with a width ranging from some decimeters up
to 1 m. They are trending NNW-SSE, and
dipping about 30-45º. These joints and the
Figure 6.3.1.14. A detail of the La Colombiana vein infilling can be associated with the
vein in the Independence tunnel; note no development of the compressive faults.
lateral displacement in the vertical banding As indicated, the veins are hosted in
of thePaleozoic schists. Paleozoic metasediments, Oligocene sediments
and Miocene volcanics. The hydrothermal
alteration is argilitic and siliceous, and in lesser
extension carbonatic. In the case of the
Independencia tunnel, the host rocks are mainly
P a l e o z o i c s c h i s t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e the
hydrothermal alterations are hardly distinguishable
at the field scale.
6.3.1.4. MINERALOGY AND TEXTURES
Hydrothermal alterations may extend

some centimeters across the host rocks, and
consists mainly of sericitization and
chloritization (figs. 6.3.1.16-6.3.1.17),
accompanied with minor dolomitization and
probably development of fine-grained adularia.
Depending of the primary porosity of the
host rocks, some piritization may be produced
on the host rocks following small
discontinuities and producing a fine-grained
Figure 6.3.1.15. Another detail of the joint pyrite. This pyrite is arranged along the
infilling in the deeper levels of the borders of the veins and following the
Independence tunnel. sedimentary bandings (fig. 6.3.1.18).
Breccias are common in many veins, and
contains mainly fragments of the host rock
cemented by gangue or sulfide minerals (fig.
detail, it is possible to observe that at the least 6.3.1.19).
in the case of the La Colombiana vein there is Two main types of textures can be
no movement along the planes of the veins (the distinguished in the vein infilling:
estratification surfaces of the Paleozoic a) cataclastic textures and brecciated ores
materials are not displaced, fig. 6.3.1.14- in sheared veins, typical of veins hosted in
6.3.1.15), and therefore they correspond to active faults, as in Colmena and Platanal veins
joins and not to faults. However, these veins (fig. 6.3.1.20-6.3.1.21).
Figure 6.3.1.16. Sericitic hydrothermal Figure 6.3.1.17. Another detail of sericitic the
alteration in the host schist around small hydrothermal alteration(pale greenish) around
cracks. Independencia tunnel. a pyrite vein (dark)
Figure 6.3.1.18. Pyritization of the hosting Figure 6.3.1.19. Highly silicifed breccias of
schists along quartz vein contacts and s c h i s t s ( g re y i s h ) f i l l i n g a v e i n . T h e
sedimentary laminations. Independencia interstitial material is milky quartz.
tunnel.
Figure 6.3.1.20. Cataclastic pyrite cemented Figure 6.3.1.21. Another detail of a cataclastic
by late sphalerite-rich ore from the ore, with sheared rock fragments cemented by
independencia tunnel, La Colmena vein. cataclastic pyrite. Independencia tunnel,
Platanal vein.
Figure 6.3.1.22. Crustiform quartz crystals Figure 6.3.1..23. Another detail of a crustiform
filling open spaces in the Colombiana vein, quartz vein infilling, with quartz crystals in
Independencia tunnel. geodical porosity. C o l o m b i a n a v e i n ,
Independencia tunnel.
Figure 6.3.1.24. Sequence of passive drusical Figure 6.3.1..25. Sequence of passive drusical
g ro w t h o f p y r i t e a n d s p h a l e r i t e o v e r g ro w t h o f p y r i t e a n d s p h a l e r i t e o v e r
arsenopyrite. Colombiana vein, arsenopyrite. Colombiana vein, Independen-
Independencia tunnel. cia tunnel.
Figure 6.3.1.26. Geodical cavities filled with Figure 6.3.1..27. Bladed calcite filling geodical
quartz euhedral crystals. Colombiana vein, porosity in a vein.Independence tunnel.
Independencia tunnel.
b) sequences of passive crystallization of
quartz, calcite and sulfides; these sequences
are normally crustiform (fig. 6.3.1.22-
6.3.1.23), but cockades, druses (fig. 6.3.1.
24-6.3.1.25).and geodes (fig. 6.3.1.26) are
widespread. This type of mineralization is
usually found in joint infillings, as in the
Colombiana vein.
The remaining porosity can be partially
infilled with calcite of the bladed type
(commonly formed by boiling); see fig.
6.3.1.27.
The sequence of vein infilling can be
established easier in the sequences of passive Figure 6.3.1.28. Sequence of vein infilling. A first
crystallization as in the Colombiana mine. It is generation of euhedral quartz overgrow
similar in the sheared veins, but the cataclastic framents of schist (lest). Arsenopyrite (opaque)
processes mask partially the order of and sphalerite (reddish) growth later. PPL.
formation.
The vein infilling comprises quartz,
dolomite or ankerite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
chalcopyritee, galena, gold and sulfosalts
(tetrahedrite, ramdohrite, zoubekite,
bournoonite, boulangerite, jamesonite,
miargyrite, diaphorite) and calcite.
Quartz
Quartz is generally colorless and tends to

occur as euhedral crystals, arranged in druses.
The crystal size depends on the position in the
veins: the earlier generations are smaller (some Figure 6.3.1.29. The above image in crossed
hundreds of microns) and the latest may polars. Colombiana vein, Independencia
achieve more than 1 centimeter in lenght. It tunnel.
forms the selvages of the veins (fig. 6.3.1.28-
6.3.1.30).
Quartz can be produced in several
generations.
Arsenopyrite
Arsenopyrite is often the first ore to be

produced, and tends to occur as drusical
aggregates of euhedral prismatic crystals, up
to 1 cm in lenght (fig. 6.3.1.30).
There are several generations, and
probably the crystallization of arsenopyrite is
cyclical. Some generations are clearly forming
the selvages, but late generations occur also Figure 6.3.1.30. The above image in reflected
close to the center of the veins and replace light. Note a gold grain in the lower right
pyrite. corner.
Etching reveals that crystals of the early

generations of arsenopyrite are zoned (in some
cases, concentrically (figs. 6.3.1.31-6.3.1.32),
and in other cases, with zoning of the
hourglass-type fig. 6.3.133). Some crystals
have polysynthetic twinning (fig. 6.3.1.34).
Arsenopyrite uses to be overgrowing the
early generation of quartz. It is replaced by
pyrite, but it may aso replace pyrite. It is
corroded by the rest of the sulfides and
sulfosalts.
Pyrite
Figure 6.3.1.31. Sequence of vein infilling. A first
Pyrite uses to be euhedral to subhedral. generation of euhedral oncentrycally zoned
In the sheared veins, the early generations have arsenopyrite (yellowish) is overgrown by
been affected by cataclasic processes and sulfosalts (grey). Veta Colombiana. PPL.
cemented with later pyrite generations, although
these phenomenons can be appreciated only
by etching the samples or observing them
before removing the patinas.
Etching reveals a complex internal
structure for each crystal, and this zoning
should be taken into account in any further
geochemical study. Zoning may be interupted
by brecciation of the grain, and the crystals
are overgrown by late pyrite generations (fig.
6.3.1.35, 6.3.1.36).
Pyrite overgrow arsenopyrite in
Colombiana, but in sheared veins the
cataclastic pyrite can be cemented by late Figure 6.3.1.32. Other detail of concentric
generations of arsenopyrite and finally, again zoning in arsenopyrite crystals. La
by late pyrite generations (fig. 6.3.1.37, Colombiana vein, Independencia tunnel.
6.3.1.38). PPL, reflected light.
Sphalerite
Two main generations of sphalerite are

distinguished. The first one (sphalerite I) tends
to occur as subhedral rounded grains, up to 2
cm in diameter. It has a reddish color and is
Fe-rich and tends to be opaque. It does not
has chalcopyrite disease.
The second generation of sphalerite
(sphalerite II) is clearest, being Fe-poor, and
tends to be found as replacements along the
grain borders or small cracks of sphalerite I
(fig. 6.3.1.39). It may be associated with Figure 6.3.1.33. Detail of ssector hourglass-type
chalcopyrite, but no chalcopyrite occurs as zoning in arsenopyrite. Greyish minerals are
chalcopyrite disease. sulfosalts.
Figure 6.3.1.34. Arsenopyrite crystals showing Figure 6.3.1.35. Detail of the pyrite zoning,
concentric zoning and polysynthetic twinning. affected by cataclastic processes and cemnted
El Platanal vein. PPL, reflected light. by late pyrite.
Figure 6.3.1.36 Zoned pyrite, fractured and Figure 6.3.1.37. Pyrite zoned and overgrown
cemented by late arsenopyrite. El Platanal by arsenopyrite (white). Colombiana vein,
vein, PPL, reflected light. Independencia tunnel. PPL, reflected light.
Figure 6.3.1.38. Early generations of pyrite Figure 6.3.1.39. Sphalerite I (dark) is overgrown
fractured and cemented by late pyrite (darker) and cut along cracks by sphalerite II
and arsenopyrite (white). El Platanal vein, PPL. (yellowish). PPL, transmitted light.
Galena PbS
Galena is common in the deposit, and

occupies porosities among the above
mentioned minerals. It occurs as anhedral <ga
grains and it is generally fine-grained, although sl
in some centers of veins it may achieve some
py
centimeters in diameter. <ttd
aspy
Tetrahedrite series (Cu,Fe,Ag,Zn)12Sb4S13
Sb-rich members of the tetrahedrite group

are found filling cracks into arsenopyrite and
pyrite (fig. 6.3.1.40) or galena (fig. Figure 6.3.1.40. Tetrahedrite (ttd), sphalerite (Sl)
6.3.1.41).It is anhedral and it is fine-grained, and galena (ga) veining arsenopyrite (aspy),
less than 1 mm in diameter. pyrite (py) and sphalerite (sl). PPL, reflected
The optical properties of the tetrahedrite light.
grains are variable and depends of the silver
content, which changes between different
veins. The color may change between greenish
up to brownish when the mineral becomes
enriched in silver.
ga
Bournonite aspy
<ttd
This sulfosalt is also found filling small qtz
cracks in the above mentioned minerals, as
galena in fig. 6.3.1.42. It is anhedral and only
fine-grained, less than 100 microns in diameter.
Figure 6.3.1.41. Tetraedrite veinlets (ttd) cutting
Boulangerite PbCuSbS 3 galena (ga). Galena is occupying porosity
between quartz grains (qtz) and replaces
Boulangerite is very common in the arsenopyrite (aspy). PPL, reflected light.
deposit and can be easily observed in hand
sample. It is found filling cavities, and develops
euhedral prismatic crystals, generally fibers,
that can achieve some millimeters in lenght, but
normally the dimensions does not exceed 200
microns. Crystals are often arranged in radial
groups.
Boulangerite is commonly associated with
galena (figs. Its formation takes place probably
during a long period, because it tends to
replace all the above minerals (figs.
6.3.1.436.3.1.44), but it occurs also as small
inclusions in other minerals, particularly the
younger arsenopyrite (figs. 6.3.1.45- Figure 6.3.1.42. Passive sequence of pyrite (py)
6.3.1.46). Boulangerite is often associated with overgrown by sphalerite (sl) and finally galena.
tetrahedrite, which can be produced also later Bournonite and tetrahedrite (ttd) veinlets cut
(fig. 6.3.1.47-6.3.1.50). galena. SEM image, mode BSE.
py
py
bgt
bgt
ga bgt
ga py
bgt
bgt
qtz qtz
bgt
Figure 6.3.1.43. Sequence of quartz (qtz), Figure 6.3.1.44. The above image, in SEM image
pyrite (py), galena (ga) and boulangerite in mode BSE.
(Bgt). PPL, reflected light.
qtz
py qtz
py
aspy aspy
aspy
aspy
bgt bgt
Figure 6.3.1.45. Boulangerite (bgt) overgrowing Figure 6.3.1.46. The above image under
arsenopyrite (aspy), pyrite (py) and quartz (qtz). SEM, in mode BSE. Note the coexistence of
PPL, reflected light. boulangerite inclusions in this generation of
arsenopyrite.
qtz ttd py
ga
ttd
bgt bgt>
Figure 6.3.1.47. Tetrahedrite (ttd) and Figure 6.3.1.48. Tetraedrite (ttd) and
boulangerite (bgt) replacing galena (ga) in boulangerite (bgt) replacing pyrite (py. PPL,
quartz. PPL, reflected light. reflected light.
<bgt qtz
ga
py
ttd
qtz
<bgt
aspy
ttd
F i g u re 6 . 3 . 1 . 4 9 . Te t r a h e d r i t e ( t t d ) , F i g u re 6 . 3 . 1 . 5 0 . Te t r a h e d r i t e ( t t d )
boulangerite (bgt) and galena (ga) overgrowing boulangerite prismatic rystals
replacing arsenopyrite (aspy) and pyrite (bgt). Qtz represents quartz. SEM image,
(py). PPL, reflected light, veta Platanal. mode BSE. Platanal vein.
Figure 6.3.1.51. Jamesonite fibrous crystals Figure 6.3.1.52. Jamesonite in association

associated with late tetrahedrite (ttd). SEM w i t h b o u l a n g e r i t e o c c u p y i n g p o ro s i t y
image, mode BSE. Platanal vein. between quartz crystals. Aspy, arsenopyrite.
SEM image, mode BSE. Platanal vein.
Figure 6.3.1.53. Fibrous aggregates of Figure 6.3.1.54. Zoubekite fibres and

zoubekite overgrowing arsenopyrite (aspy) and tetrahedrite (ttd) overgrowing arsenopyrite and
quartz. SEM image, mode BSE. Platanal vein. quartz. SEM image, BSE mode. Platanal vein.
Figure 6.3.1.55. Aggregates of zoubekite Figure 6.3.1.56. Fibrous aggregates of

(zoub) and tetrahedrite (ttd) replacing sphalerite zoubekite and ramdohrite in sphalerite (sl),
(sl). Galena (ga), pyrite (py), arsenopyrite filling porosity in quartz (qtz). SEM image, BSE
(aspy) and quartz are also distinguishable. SEM mode, Platanal vein.
image, BSE mode, Platanal vein.
Figure 6.3.1.57. Miargyrite (miarg) in tetrahedrite Figure 6.3.1.58. Diaphorite veining sphalerite
(ttd). SEM image, mode BSE. Platanal vein. (sl). SEM image, mode BSE. Platanal vein.
Jamesonite Pb 4FeSb 6S 14 the Titiribí deposit. Zoubekite appears as radial

aggregates of needle-shaped prismatic
This sulfosalt is not very common in the crystals, less than 250 microns in lenght (fig.
Titiribí deposit. It occurs as fibrous crystals, 6.3.1.53). These crystals are developed on
less than 100 microns in lenght in association arsenopyrite, quartz an pyrite druses. It is also
wih other sulfosalts, filling small cracks. Is is commonly associated with tetrahedrite (fig.
found associated with tetrahedrite, which can 6.3.1.54).
overgrowth the fibers (fig. 6.3.1.51). It is also
found associated with boulangerite (fig. Ramdöhrite Ag 3Pb 6Sb 11S 24
6.3.1.52).
It is also found as rare fibrous aggregates,
Zoubekite AgPb 4Sb 4S 10 less than 100 microns in lenght, associated with
other sulfosalts (fig. 6.3.1.56). It occurs as
Despite zoubekite is a rare sulfosalt inclusions in sphalerite, or filling veins in this
worldwide, this mineral is commonly found in mineral.
<bgt
aspy
<ga
Au
Au <Au
qtz aspy
Figure 6.3.1.59. Gold (Au) and boulangerite Figure 6.3.1.60. Gold (Au) and galena (ga)
(bgt) replacing arsenopyrite (aspy). PPL, replacing arsenopyrite (aspy). PPL.
reflected light.
aspy
aspy ga
qtz ga> Au
Au
ga
<Au
Figure 6.3.1.61. Gold (Au) and galena (ga) Figure 6.3.1.62. Gold (Au) and galena (ga)
replacing arsenopyrite (aspy) and quartz re p l a c i n g a r s e n o p y r i t e ( a s p y ) . P P L ,
(qtz). PPL reflected light. reflected light.
Miargyrite AgSbS2 silver sulfosalts. Its grain size is less than 30

microns.
Miargyrite is found as irregular grains
replacing Ag-rich tetrahedrite (fig. 6.3.1.57). Gold (Au,Ag)
Its grain size is less than 50 microns.
Gold is very abundant in the Titiribí
Diaphorite Pb 2Ag 3Sb3S 8 deposit. It forms grains that can be easily
distinguished with the naked eyes (up to 2 mm
Diaphorite is very rare in this deposit, and in diameter). It occurs filling cracks in and
has been found only filling small cracks into drusical porosity, along with galena and all of
other sulfides, in particular, in sphalerite (fig. the above mentioned sulfosalts (figs. 6.3.1.59-
6.3.1.58), associated sometimes with other 6.3.1.62).
6.3.1.5. MINERAL SEQUENCE pulses separed between them by fracturing,
along with pyrite and a first generation of
The mineral sequence consists of mainly sphalerite, abundant quartz and, locally,
passive sequences in the joint infillings, as in dolomite. These minerals tend to be euhedral,
La Colmena. More replacements are found in but fracturing during F1 produces cataclastic
the veins contained in faults. In every case, the textures and reprecipitation of these ores.
mineral deposition is controled by the Late hydrothermal stages, produced after
fracturing, and the sequence is not continuous, fracturation episodes (F2, F3 and F4 in figure
but disrupted by fracturing, as indicated in fig. 6.3.1.63), allows to fill the remaining porosity
6.3.1.63. (small cracks into the early minerals and
The first epidode of fracturing (f0)is geodical porosity). Part of the arsenopyrite-
followed by the first hydrothermal event, pyrite earlier assemblages is replaced by
producing quartz, dolomite, arsenopyrite and sphalerite and chalcopyrite, galena, sulfosalts
pyrite. Most of the hydrothermal alterations of and native gold.
the host rock (silicification and sericitization) As in other gold deposits in Colombia,
could be produced at this stage. It is possible gold is found as a late mineral in the paragenetic
that adularia is present in small fine-grained sequence, in association with galena and Pb-
crystals. and Ag-sulfosalts and, in some cases, a
The ocurrence of abundant arsenopyrite generation of calcite. These sulfosalts are fine-
is a key point in the Titiribí deposits. This grained and therefore hard to recover.
mineral controls the activity of As in the fluids, A late tectonic pulse (f5) is accompanied
and As is absent in the late sulfosalts. by the precipitation of late bladed calcite
Arsenopyrite is produced in several early generations.
Figure 6.3.1.63. Mineral sequence in the Titiribí deposits.

The mineral chemistry of several minerals

has been investigated by using electron
microprobe. We will discuss here the
variations that are produced in minerals having
non-stoiciometry variations or forming part of
mineral series.
Arsenopyrite
Arsenopyrite is in association with pyrite

and has a clear concentric zoning. However,
there are only some few variations in the
amount of As, which is lower than the teoric
catomic content when compared with those of
Fe and S (fig. 6.3.1.64). This S enrichment has
been in mineral deposits worlwide where F i g u re 6 . 3 . 1 . 6 4 . A t o m i c p l o t o f t h e
arsenopyrite is found in association with pyrite arsenopyrite compositions from Titiribí in
(Kretschmar and Scott, 1976), as is the case t h e d i a g r a m o f K re t s c h m a r a n d S c o t t
of Titiribí. These authors explain these (1976). Values are in atoms per formula
variations as an indicative of high activity of S unit. The shaded area corresponds to an
in the hydrothermal fluids. enlargement of the area marked in red color
However, it is not possible to sort more in the atomic diagram (upper right corner
quntitative data on temperature and sulfur os the image).
activitis in the solutions because the
arsenopyrite is not in equilibrium with the other
mineral species, as can be seen with the
corrosion of the crystals by the other sulfides
and the strong zoning in the arsenopyrite
crystals.
The arsenopyrite crystals may colect Au
in her structure. It is important to analyze in
the future the composition of these arsenopyrite
crystals, because arsenopyrite can accept Au
in its structure. During the replacement of
arsenopyrite gould could be removed from this
mineral.
Sphalerite
Sphalerite from Titiribí is not very rich in

Fe, and in the most of the cases the content is F i g u re 6 . 3 . 1 . 6 5 . A t o m i c p l o t o f t h e
lower than 15%, which is congruent with the arsenopyrite compositions from Titiribí in
paragenesis of sphalerite with pyrite instead of t h e d i a g r a m o f K re t s c h m a r a n d S c o t t
pyrrhotite. Lack of equiliibria with iron sulfides (1976). Values are in atoms per formula
prevents its use as barometer. unit. The shaded area corresponds to an
The Cd content is high in most of the enlargement of the area marked in red color
samples, and it is roughly correlated with the in the atomic diagram (upper right corner
Fe content (fig. 6.3.2.65). os the image).
Tetrahedrite group
The fahlerz of these mines plots very well

inside the tetrahedrite domain (fig. 6.3.1.66),
but the sheared veins (Platanal and Colmena)
are relatively enriched in silver than the veins
filling joints (Colombiana). However, those
changes may also reflect a change in the
compositions of the hydrothermal fluids in the
vertical development of the deposit, because
the samples obtained from the Colombiana vein
represent the deepest part of the deposit.
The textural relations between
tetrahedrite, sphalerite and the silver sulfosalts
and gold are not clear in most of the cases,
Figure 6.3.1.66. Atomic plot of the tetrahedrite but tetrahedrite seems to be a primary and
compositions of Titiribí. unzoned mineral. Therefore, tentatively we
have used the diagram of Sack et al. (2003)
to get an approximation to the conditions of
formation for the mineal associations. The plot
(fig. 6.3.1.67)provides a range of temperatures
for the system of veins in the Independencia
mine hat is lower than that obtained by Gallego
and Akasaka (2010) for the ensemble of the
Titiribí mines. However, our sampling is
representative of the system of veins and not
the porphyry-related mineralizations or other
styles formed at higher temperatures. These
temperatures are compatible with an
epythermal system more than a porphyry-
related system. It must be taken into account,
however, that these temperatures could be
Figure 6.3.1.67. Plot of the Titiribí compositions of
representatives only of the younger stages of
tetrahedrite in the diagram of Sack et al. (2003)
hydrothermal crystallization, because
tetrahedrite is a late mineral in Titiribí (see fig.
6.3.1.63).
Gold
The analyzed gold grains from Titiribí do

not exhibit significative variations between the
veins, and it is not evident the existance of
different gold generations as in tother deposits
in Colombia, i.e. he deposits of the Antioquia
batholith.
The composition of gold crystals is
strongly enriched in silver and would
corrspond to electrum (fig. 6.3.1.68). The
content of other metals (Fe, Cu, Hg) is almost
Figure 6.3.1.68. Plot of the atomic proportions of
nule and no significative.
gold from the Titiribí deposit.
Table 6.3.1.1. Sulfur isotope composition

of sulfide samples from the different
mineralized veins of he Independence
Tunnel
Figure 6.3.1.69. Sulfur isotope results in

s u l f i d e s f ro m a u r i f e ro u s v e i n s a t t h e
Independencia Tunnel. Arsenopyrite: Aspy,
galena: Gn, sphalerite: Sph, pyrite: Py,
chalcopyrite: Cpy, sulfosalts: Ss.
6.3.1.7. SULFUR ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
In order to complement the ore

characterization of gold deposits at the El
Zancudo Mine of the Titiribí Mining District,
thirty-six sulfide separates from the different
mineralized veins in the Independencia Tunnel
(e.g. Platanal, Colmena and La Colombiana
veins) were analyzed for sulfur isotopes (Table
6.3.1.1 and Figure 6.3.1.68). Minerals used
for this study were pyrite, chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena and
boulangerite, the most common and coarse
grained of the sulfosalts in Titiribí. It must be
taken into account that this sampling was done
by hand-picking the crushed samples.
H o w e v e r, t h i s s a m p l i n g c a n n o t b e
representative of the different zoned
generations of pyrite and arsenopyrite, or the
different generations of sphalerite.
The analyzed samples returned values for
34
mil. Moreover, the sulfur isotope results for the

The slightly positive or negative values sulfides of the Titiribí mining district are similar
close to zero obtained for the sulfide samples and are consistent with sulfur isotope values
of the Independencia Tunnel gold occurrences obtained from sulfide samples of other gold
could be consistent with a mantle-derived occurrences in the Middle Cauca region (e.g.
source for sulfur (-3< 34 S>+3; Rollinson, Quinchía and Marmato gold deposits; sections
1993). 6.3.2 and 6.3.3).
Table 6.3.1.2. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the Independencia
Tunnel gold occurrences.
6.3.1.8. LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Lead isotope data obtained for four

sulfide samples (e.g. pyrite, arsenopyrite,
sphalerite and galena) from the La Colombia-
na Vein at the Independencia Tunnel of the El
Zancudo Mine of the Titiribi Mining District
gold mineralization in the region yielded
radiogenic values ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb>15.5) (Table
6.3.1.2 and Figure 6.3.1.70).
The lead isotope values for sulfides clus-
ter in narrow ranges ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb = 18.98-
19.14, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.58-15.79 and 208 Pb/ Figure 6.3.1.70. Lead isotope composition
204
Pb = 38.61-39.28). They are also similar for sulfide samples from gold occurrences
and consistent with lead isotope values for at the Independencia Tunnel and hypabyssal
sulfides obtained in this study for galena intrusive rocks of the Middle Cauca region.
samples of the Marmato-Echandia Mining Lead isotope evolution curves after
District in the Middle Cauca region ( 206 Pb/ Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe
204
Pb = 19.04-19.05, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.658- (1981) are shown for comparison.
15.66 and 208Pb/ 204Pb = 38.48-38.68; Section
6.3.2) and lead isotope data published by
Tassinari et al. (2008) for sulfide samples (e.g.
207
pyrite, galena, sphalerite) the Marmato Mining Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.61-15.65 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb =
District ( 206Pb/ 204 Pb = 18.97-19.26, 207 Pb/ 38.48-38.68; Section 6.3.3).
204
Pb = 15.60-15.91 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.85- When compared to the lead isotope
38.86). values obtained for hypabyssal intrusives of the
Conversely, lead isotope values for Middle Cauca region, the sulfide samples form
sulfide samples from the Miraflores breccia the Independencia Tunnel exhibit more
mineralization and the Guayacan Mine radiogenic values than the Titiribí, La Mina and
mineralization in the Quinchia area yielded less La Aurora porphyries, whereas plot close to
radiogenic values ( 206Pb/204Pb = 18.82-18.93, the value obtained for the Marmato porphyry.
6.3.2. - The Marmato Gold District 753
6.3.2. THE MARMATO GOLD DISTRICT
6.3.2.1. INTRODUCTION The Marmato district is well known

worlwide because is the type locality for
The Marmato gold mining district is marmatite, the iron-rich variety of sphalerite.
located close to the Marmato town in the However, the Marmato district is important for
Cauca Valley, in the Western Cordillera of its gold production. Mining has been operative
Colombia, in the Caldas Department, 50 km continuously since the early times of the
NNW of the Manizales city. Spanish Colony, at the least in 1537. Since
The relief in the Marmato area consists of then, the total gold production is unknown, and
abrupt mountains and deep valleys, with peaks only some the production of a total of 50 years
reaching 1850 m (fig.6.3.3.1). A dense vegetal has been recorded. This production is about
covery occurs in he area. more than 5,8 tons gold. Therefore, this is one
Figure 6.3.2.1. Location map of the Marmato gold deposits.

El Burro Hill of the most important productive districts in

the world. Moreover, the district contains huge
Zona
reserves of gold, about 15.9 millions oz
Alta Echandía (Tassinari et al., 2008).
area area Underground mining by tens of artisanal
tunnels have been exclusive up to the present
Marmato times. The deposit has been classically divided
town in three parts, based on topographical and
Zona
historical criteria (fig. 6.3.2.2):
Baja
area 1) the upper part of the Marmato
mountain, in the Upper Marmato area. There
are a big number of tunnels, and some of them
are operated by artisanal procedures.
2) the lower part of the Marmato
mountain, also exploited by several tunnels,
and active underground mining has been grown
El Llano
in the last times (fig. 6.3.2.3).
3) the Echandia area, N of the zona Alta
The most important mines are those called
Fig. 6.3.2.2. General landscape view of the Plata Fría, La María, Aguaceral, La Negra, La
mining operations in the Marmato- Felicia and La Palma.
Echandía area, with the situation of the Despite the historic role of the artsanal
main mining concessions. Adapted from an and small mining operations in the area, the true
unpublished report by SRK Consulting potential of the area is poorly understood, and
(2011). a project to mine the whole area by open pit
operation is under consideration by Medoro
Resources at the current moment.
6.3.2.2. GEOLOGY
The Marmato gold mining district is found

close to the Romeral fault, which is the
boundary between the continental basement of
the Central Cordillera (to the east) and the
oceanic sequences of the Western Cordillera
(to the west). Therefore, the Marmato area is
found in the melange zone of the Romeral
Assemblage, between the Romeral and the
Cauca faults.
In detail, outcrops of the oceanic
basement in the area consist of black schists
of the Paleozoic Arquia group, basalts,
ultramafic ofiolite rocks and amphibolites. This
ensemble is cut by an ensemble of Miocene
porphyrytic calk-alkaline intrusions, mainly
andesitic to dacitic in composition, and
Fig. 6.3.2.3. Entrance to a tunnel in the unconformably covered by the
lower part of the Marmato mountain (Zona vulcanosedimentary materials of the Miocene
Baja area). Amagá Formation (fig. 6.3.2.4).
6.3.2. - The Marmato Gold District
755
Fig. 6.3.2.4. Geology of the Marmato-Echandía mining area. Adapted from Tassinari et al. (2008).
The deposit consists of a dense system

of subparallel veins filling fault zones and joints,
mainly trending N70W and subvertical
(fig.6.3.2.5-6.3.2.6). Some intrusive contacts
seem to be also mineralized (Rossetti and
Colombo, 1999).
These veins are hosted mainly in the
Miocene porphyrytic rocks, but can be also
found in the metapelitic and metabasitic rocks.
The width of the mineralized veins is quite
variable, from a fex millimeters to around 1 m,
but most of them have some centimeters in
width.
The hydrothermal alteration is pervasive
in the area; the dominant forms are
propylitization, silicification, carbonatization,
pyritization and sericitization.
Propylitic alteration is the most pervasive,
and results in replacement of the primary
minerals by calcite, epidote and chlorite (fig.
6.3.2.7).
Sericitic alteration is found only in the Fig. 6.3.2.5. A subvertical vein in a tunnel of the
vicinity of the veins, up to some centimeters in Zona Baja Area, the so-called Mellizos vein.
distance. Fine-grained sericite aggregates
replaces the feldspars and the matrix of the
host rock, which takes a pale grey colour (figs.
6.3.2.8-6.3.2.9). In detail, the rock becomes
altered to small sericite platelets, accompanied
by quartz and pyrite (figs. 6.3.2.9-6.3.2.10).
Sericitization may be accompanied by the
development of adularia. Adularia develops
euhedral crystals with a typical diamond shape
in thin section (fig.s 6.3.2.12-6.3.2.13). These
crystals may achieve millimeter dimensions, and
uses to develop in the vein selvages, although
in some cases they can fill the whole of the Fig. 6.3.2.6. An exploited part of Mellizos vein.
vein. Most of the adularia crystals display
zoning and complex twinning, and in some
cases they are replaced by sericite. They are
often overgrown by quartz, carbonates and
sulfides (fig. igs. 6.3.2.9-6.3.2.10).
Pyritization produces replacement of the
primary minerals by pyrite. This pyrites may
be a pseudomorph or can develop cubes.
The vein infilling is mainly made up by
quartz, carbonates and sulfides (pyrite,
arsenopyrite, galena and sphalerite). Native
gold is the only gold mineral identified so far,
and may be accompanied by silver minerals Fig. 6.3.2.7. Propyitic alteration in porphyrytic
that can be enriched in some mines. andesite. Epidote replaces plagioclase cores.
Fig. 6.3.2.8. Sericite alteration in hand F ig. 6.3.2.9. Sericitic alteration strongly
sample, affecting porphyrytic andesite. Vein developed close to the mineralized veins (left of
has pyrite at the selvages and quartz in the the image). Sericite (white) replaces plagioclase.
core. Note pyritization in the host rock.
Fig. 6.3.2.10. Quartz-sulfide veins in highly Fig. 6.3.2.11. The above image in crossed polars.
sericitized andesite porphyry. PPL. Zona Note the development of twinned calcite at the
Alta. center of the vein. Sericite is fine-grained.
Fig. 6.3.2.12. A quartz-adularia vein in Fig. 6.3.2.13. The above image in crossed polars.
sericitized andesite porphyry. Adularia occurs at Typical diamond-shapes euhedral crystals of
the selvages and can be distinguished by its dirty adularia can be easily identified at the vein
aspect when compared with the central quartz. selvages. Note the sericitization of host rock.
6.3.2.3. MINERALOGY AND TEXTURES
The most common textures in the veins

iare those typical of open space infilling, as
druses, comb or cockades. Symmetrical bands
are common (fig. 6.3.2.14). However, it is
common to find cataclastic textures in the veins
developed in fault zones (fig. 6.3.2.15).
The vein mineralogy is realtively symple,
and the dominant gangue minerals are quartz
and calcite (with adular and minor siderite).
The sulfides comprise pyrite, arsenopyrite,
sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, marcasite and Fig. 6.3.2.14. Symmetric vein infilling with
scarce pyrrhotite. Gold is abundan and some pyrite at the selvages nd Fe-rich sphalerite
silver minerals (acanthite, polybasite, (marmatite) in the center. Hand sample,
freibergite) are more rare. Zona Alta.
Pyrite
It is so far the most common sulfide in all

the mineralized areas, and may constitute more
than 70 % of the ore in most of the veins. It
tends to occur in euhedral crystals, covering
drusical infillings or scattered among qaurtz.
Grain size is strongly variable between some
tens of microns and some millimeters. Crystals
are apparently homogeneous, but etching or
natural tarnishing of the polished sections reveals
a complex zoning that indicates a polyphasic F i g u re 6 . 3 . 2 . 1 5 . C a t a c l a s t i c t e x t u re s
growth, with cycles of dissolution/precipitation developed on quartz and pyrite aggregates
under disequilibrium conditions (fig. 6.3.2.16). filling a vein developed into a fault zone.
Sawn hand sample, from the Mellizos vein
Sphalerite (Zona Baja).
Two generations of sphalerite can be

distinguished. the earlier is Fe-poor, less than
4% wt% Fe, and is replaced by another
generation of darker Fe-rich sphalerite
(marmatite, up to 20% wt Fe; figs. 6.3.2.17-
6.3.2.21). Sphalerite replaces pyrite and is, on
its turn, replaced in more or less extension by
chalcopyrite along cleavages and grain borders
(chalcopyrite disease).
Arsenopyrite
It is common in the deposit as small Figure 6.3.2.16. Concentric zoning in

euhedral crystals, less than 100 microns in etched pyrite. Note the corroded surfaces
lenght. It replaces pyrite and sphalerite between the zones. PPL, reflected light.
(fig.6.3.2.22) Zona Alta.
Fig. 6.3.2.17. Pyrite (opaque) and Fig. 6.3.2.18. The above image in crossed
sphalerite vein in porphyrytic dacite. Note polars. Note the sericitization of the host
two generations of sphalerite. PPL. rock. Zona Alta.
Fig. 6.3.2.19. The above image in PPL, Fig. 6.3.2.20. Two sphalerite generations
reflected light. Note that sphalerite replaces phalerite replacing pyrite. Quartz is found
pyrite. There are no optical differences in the vein selvages. PPL, reflected light.
between both sphalerite generations. Zona Alta.
sl <aspy
py
qtz>
<aspy
Fig. 6.3.2.21. The above image in PPL, Fig. 6.3.2.22. Replacement of pyrite (py) by
transmitted light. Note the replacement of sphalerite (sl); a vein with quartz (qtz) and
a yellowish Fe-poor sphalerite by reddish arsenopyrite (aspy) crosscut both minerals.
Fe-rich sphalerite. PPL, reflected light. Zona Alta.
Pyrrhotite found as anhedral grains and occupies drusical

porosity of small cracks into other minerals, in
It is not commonly observed in hand particular, in pyrite, along with chalcopyrite and
sample, but it is found in small quantities in galena (fig.6.3.2.25). It is also found as small
polished section. It accompanies late rounded inclusions into pyrite, possibly
arsenopyrite, quartz and calcite replacing following the corroded surfaces of zoning (fig.
pyrite, as anhedral grains (fig. 6.3.2.23- 6.3.2.26). In appearence, there is only one gold
6.3.2.24). Crystal size is small, less than 1 mm generation. Gold is very abundant in this
in diameter. It is often altered to marcasite and deposit, but its extremely fine-grained size
other secondary minerals. makes difficult its observation.
Gold Chalcopyrite
Native gold is fine-grained in this deposit, Chalcopyrite is not rare in the deposit, and
generally less than 20 microns in diamter. It is can be present as the main product of vein
Fig. 6.3.2.23. Replacement of pyrite (py) by Fig. 6.3.2.24. Replacement of pyrite (py) by
arsenopyrite (aspy) and pyrrhotite (po) sphalerite (sl);veins with quartz (qtz),
PPL, reflected light. Zona Alta. calcite (cc) and pyrrhotite (po) replace both
minerals. PPL, reflected light. Zona Alta.
Fig. 6.3.2.25. Replacement of pyrite Fig. 6.3.2.26. Replacement of pyrite (py) by

euhedral crystals (py) by chalcopyrite (cpy) native gold. PPL, reflected light. Zona Alta.
and native gold (Au) PPL, reflected light.
Zona Alta.
infilling in some cases. However, it is more Acanthite
common as a late product of vein infilling,
replacing sphalerite in the «chalcopyrite Acanthite is rare in this deposit, and has
disease» or filling small cracks into other been found as small (less than 50 microns)
minerals, generally pyrite (fig. 6.3.2.25). grains associated with galena (fig 6.3.2.27).
Galena Marcasite
Galena is not very common in this mine, It is a common mineral in the deposit, and
and is found mainly as small anhedral grains of is produced in late stages, along with late
microscopic size, generally less than 100 calcite. It can replace pseudomorphically
microns in diameter. It is found generally filling pyrrhotite (fig. 6.3.2.28), form epytactic
small cracks in other minerals, notably crystals on pyrite (fig. 6.3.2.29) or develop
replacing pyrite crystals (fig. 6.3.2.27). Some finely layered gels («melnikovite»; fig.
crystals are found in geodes. 6.3.2.30).
Fig. 6.3.2.27. Replacement of pyrite (py) by Fig. 6.3.2.28. Replacement of pyrrhotite

galena (ga) and acanthite (ac). PPL, crystals along their cleavages, producing
reflected light. Zona Alta. fine-grained marcasite. PPL, reflected light.
Zona Alta.
F i g . 6 . 3 . 2 . 2 9 . E p y t a c t i c m a rc a s i t e Fig. 6.3.2.30. Fine-grained botryoidal

aggregates (mc) covering pyrite crystals marcasite («melnikovite», mk) overgrowing
(py). PPL, reflected light. Zona Alta. pyrite (py), along with calcite (cc). PPL,
reflected light. Zona Alta.
6.3.2.4. MINERAL SEQUENCE sphalerite generation. This second generation

of sphalerite, produced under lower S
The mineral sequence is typical of an activities, has a darker color and is almost
epithermal environment, with adularia opaque, and it constitutes the typical
produced in an early stage and quartz as a main «marmatite» of the deposit.
vein infilling material, along with pyrite and All of the above sphalerite generations
sphalerite, after a first stage of fracturation become partly replaced, in more or less
which produces the vein porosity. Adularia may extension, by chalcopyrite, which can be
be replaced by late sericite. accompanied by gold, galena and acanthite.
In a first stage, under high sulfur activity, These minerals are found filling drusical
pyrite is produced in association with an Fe- porosity or small fractures cutting the
poor clear sphalerite. These associations were preexisting ores.
developed in a syntectonic stage, and some Late vein infilling consists largely of quart
parts of the mineralization may have cataclastic with carbonates (siderite or calcite) whose can
texture. infill the remaining porosity of the vein, in many
In a second stage, developed under lower cases accompanied with fine-grained
activity of sulfur, pyrrhotite substitutes to pyrite marcasite or amorfous melnikovite
as the iron sulfide, although the development aggregates.
of pyrrhotite is not so common. In this stage, The last infilling is made up by calcite
in addition to arsenopyrite, Fe-rich sphalerite blades, probably produced into a boiling
is produced, which replaces the above existing environment.
Figure 6.3.2.31. Parageetic sequencee of the mineral associations from the Marmato gold
deposit. F represents diferent stages of fracturation, F0 and F1 are the main stages.
Table 6.3.2.1. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the Marmato-Echandía
District mineralization.
6.3.2.5. MINERALIZATION/ Therefore, the geochronological data

HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AGE published for the Marmato Mining District
show that gold mineralization post-dates the
The age of mineralization/hydrothermal intrusion of porphyry rocks in the Marmato
alteration at the Marmato Mining District Mining District and would be related to tectonic
determined by Tassinari et al. (2008) from a activity along the Romeral Fault and Suture
K-Ar analysis of a sericitized plagioclase from System, as previously suggested by Tassinari
the porphyry dacite which hosts quartz gold- et al. (2008).
bearing veins at the Baja Zone of Marmato,
yielded a late Miocene age of 5.6±0.6Ma.
These authors interpret this age as the age 6.3.2.6. LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
for ore deposition at the district and correlate In order to complement ore
it with the age published by Vinasco et al. characterization at the Marmato-Echandía
(2001) for inferred movement caused by Mining District, two lead isotope analyses were
tectonic reactivation along the ‘Cauca-Romeral carried out in galena samples from the Ochoa
Fault System’ (5.6±0.4Ma Ar-Ar biotite), Mine at the Alta zone of Marmato (Sample E-
which is slightly younger than the magmatic age 1) and the Plata Fría Mine at Echandía Zone
for the Marmato Stock obtained by the same (Sample M-10) (Table 6.3.2.1 and Figure
author (6.7±0.06Ma Ar-Ar biotite; Vinasco et 6.3.2.32).
al., 2001). The lead isotope data show radiogenic
Recently, zircon U-Pb SHRIMP analyses values ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb>15.5) that are almost
of hypabyssal intrusives at the Marmato Mining identical ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb = 19.04-19.05, 207 Pb/
District yielded a magmatic crystallization age 204
Pb = 15.658-15.66 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb =
of 6.5±0.2Ma (Frantz et al., 2003). 38.86-38.85). They are also similar and
Figure 6.3.2.32. Lead isotope composition for sulfide samples the Marmato-Echandía District
mineralization and hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the Middle Cauca region. Lead isotope evolution
curves after Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe (1981) are shown for comparison.
consistent with lead isotope data published by Table 6.3.2.2. Sulfur isotope composition
Tassinari et al. (2008) for sulfide samples (e.g. of sulfide samples from the Marmato-
pyrite, galena, sphalerite) the Marmato- Echandía Mining District gold
Echandía Mining District (206Pb/204Pb = 18.97- occurrences.
19.26, 207Pb/ 204Pb = 15.60-15.91 and 208 Pb/
204
Pb = 38.81-39.75), defining a clear
subvertical trend near the orogenic and upper
crust lead evolution curves of the Plumbotectonics
model by Zartman and Doe (1981).
As mentioned above, in Section 6.3.1,
lead isotope values for sulfides obtained in this
study for sulfide samples of the Independencia
Tunnel at the Titiribí Mining District in the
northern Middle Cauca region ( 206Pb/ 204Pb =
18.98-19.14, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.58-15.79 and
208
Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.61-39.28; Section 6.3.1)
plot in the same subvertical trend of the
Marmato-Echandía Mining District.
Comparing sulfide lead isotope values
from the Marmato-Echandía Mining District
against lead isotope values of hypabyssal
intrusives of the Middle Cauca Region, they
plot remarkably near to the Marmato porphyry
sample, which as mentioned above, yielded
more radiogenic values in comparison with
other hypabyssal intrusives of the Middle
Cauca region (e.g. Titiribí, La Mina, La
Aurora).
Fifteen sulfur isotope analyses in samples

from different mines of the Alta Zone of the
Marmato-Echandía Mining District were
carried out. The analyzed samples include
mineralized veins at the La Mona, San Pedro,
El Obsequio, Ochoa mines and the Mellizos
Vein (Table 9.3.2.2 and Figure 6.3.2.33).
The sulfide samples selected for this study
comprise pyrite and sphalerite separates, as
they are the most common and coarse-grained
minerals in the mineralization observed at the
Marmato-Echandía Mining District. It must be
taken into account that the sampling was done Figure 6.3.2.33. Diagram with the sulfur
by hand-picking the crushed samples. isotope results in sulfides from several
However, this sampling is not representative a u r i f e ro u s v e i n s f ro m t h e M a r m a t o -
of the different generations observed in zoned Echandía Mining District. Pyrite: Py,
pyrite crystals, and replacements in sphalerite sphalerite: Sph.
crystals.
The sulfide samples returned values for The sulfur isotope results for the sulfides
34
of the Marmato-Echandía Mining District are
mil, which seem to be consistent with a mantle- similar and are consistent with sulfur isotope
derived source for sulfur (-3<  34 S>+3; values obtained from sulfide samples of other
Rollinson, 1993), and would suggest a gold occurrences in the Middle Cauca region
magmatic source for the sulfur in the sulfide (e.g. Titiribí and Quinchía gold deposits;
mineralization. sections 6.3.1 and 6.3.3).
6.3.3. - Quinchia porphyry-type deposits and related breccias 767
6.3.3. QUINCHIA PORPHYRY-TYPE DEPOSITS AND

RELATED BRECCIAS
6.3.3.1. INTRODUCTION The relief in the Quinchia area is made up

by abrupt hills, with changes in relief in the
The Quinchia gold mining district is order of the 500 m (fig.6.3.3.1), covered by a
located close to the Quinchia town in the dense vegetation.
Cauca Valley (fig. 6.3.3.1), in the Western The Quinchia district is other of historical
Cordillera of Colombia, in the Risaralda gold production in Colombia, and at the
Department, 110 km N of the Pereira city. present moment some artisanal mines are
lt
fau
ato
rm
Ma
Figure 6.3.3.1. Location of the Au deposits of Quinchía (adapted from Geotec, 2003 and Lugo, 2003).
Fig. 6.3.3.2. Detail of the mineralized vein in Fig. 6.3.3.3. Entrance of an old mine tunnel
the Guayacán mine, in the Quinchia area. in the Quebrada Mandeval.
Fig. 6.3.3.4. General landscape view of the old

mining operations in the Miraflores breccia area.
operated along small tunnels to sort a reduced

gold production. Some of the classical mines
in the district are the so-called Guayacán (fig.
6.3.3.2) and several in the Mandeval creek
(fig. 6.3.3.3). In addition, an important breccia
structure (the so-called Miraflores breccia, fig. Fig. 6.3.3.5. Detail of an outcrop of a poorly
6.3.3.4) has been for long time mined in the mineralized subvertical vein with sericitic
vicinity of the district. However, at the present alteration developed in the porphyrytic area of
moment several porphyrytic intrusives are the the La Cumbre prospect, in the Quinchia district.
main targets for exploration.
6.3.3. - Quinchia porphyry-type deposits and related breccias
769
Fig. 6.3.3.6. Geology of the Quinchia prospecting area. Adapted from an unpublished report by BATERO (2011).
The main mineralized porphyries are These faults have a long activity and seems to
cropping out in the Dos Quebradas and La have controlled the emplacement of the
Cumbre areas (fig. 6.3.3.5, 6.3.3.6). Up to 8 porphyrytic intrusions (Lugo, 2003). The most
Mt ore at an estimated 0.7 g/t Au have been important system is related with the Cauca-
identified by BATERO based on the drilling Romeral fault system, and the main regional
previously made up by AngloGold Ashanti. fault in the area is named Marmato. This fault
is trending NE-SW and produces a tectonic
the contact between the Irra stock and the
6.3.3.2. GEOLOGY Miocene porphyries. Other important system
is trending NW-SE to WNW-ESE. These
The deposits are developed on the oceanic faults produces a dense network of minor
units of the Western Cordillera of Colombia. fissures.
The geology of the area is relatively symple, The mineralized fissures and the associated
as can be observed in the figure 6.3.3.6. hydrothermal alterations are also found in the
The oceanic basement in the area is made host rock in the vicinity of the porphyrytic
up by the Lower to Upper Cretaceous basalts intrusives. This happpens, for instance, in the
of the Barroso Formation, in the Cañas Gordas Mandeval creek, where a dense network of
Group. At the South of the area, these materials mineralized veinlets is cutting across the
are intruded by the Irra monzonites of Upper diabases of the Barroso Formation (figs.
Cretaceous age and by the Irra porphyrytic 6.3.3.7-6.3.3.8).
andesite-dacite. Several hydrothermal breccias are found
These Cretaceous rocks are across all the area, and are other of the mined
unconformably overlain by the continental targets in the past. The most important are
sedimentary series (mainly clays, with some those known as Miraflores and Tres Cuevas
coarse detritic sediments interbedded) of the breccias.
Amagá Formation (Upper Oligocene). The Miraflores Breccia is located east of
All of the above materials are on its turn the porphyrytic bodies and is hosted by the
unconformably covered by a thick sequence diabases and microgabbros of the Barroso
of pyroclastic and efusive rocks of the Combia Formation. It consists of a hydrothermal
Formation (Upper Miocene, 12-6Ma). breccia zones, up to 50 m wide and about 500
Finally, the ensemble is intruded by an m in lenght. The trend of these structures
ensemble of porphyrytic rocks. These stocks ranges between N10-N50ºW, and they are
are better developed to the East and to the subvertical.The breccias have fragments of the
South of the area, but in the vicinity of Quinchia host rocks (diabases) and of the Irra porphyry
they have reduced dimensions, generally less (fig. 6.3.3.9). These fragments have 1 cm-0,5
than 500 m in diameter, and are of dioritic m in diameter and are roughly rounded, without
composition. These porphyrytic diorites are matrix, and are cemented by a hydrothermal
crosscut by a dense network on quartz-pyrite infilling consisting mainly of quartz and sulfides
veinlets, which in many cases can be described (pyrite and minor chlacopyrite and sphlaerite)
as stockwork. Moreover, the primary mineral and gold (fig. 6.3.3.10).
associations of the porpyrytic diorites are The Tres Cuevas Breccia is found to the
replaced in a different grade by mineral West of the Guerrero farm, and it is not mined
associations typical of hydrothermal at the present time (fig. 6.3.3.11). It consists
alterations. of angulous rock fragments of a porphyrytic
The main types of hydrothermal alteration rock in an argillitic matrix (fig. 6.3.3.12).
present are potassic, sericitic, propylitic and Quartz veinlets are also found in this matrix,
sodic-calcic. Argillitic alteration is rarely and contain disseminated sulfides. The
present. dimensions of the body are about 40x50x70
These materials are affected by several m. Some fractures cutting across the structure
systems of faults of Miocene age (fig. 6.3.3.1). have a direction NW-SE.
Fig. 6.3.3.7. Outcrop from the Mandeval Fig. 6.3.3.8. Another detail of quartz veinlets in
creek showing a dense network of quartz - the Mandeval creek.
pyrite veinlets developed in the diabases of
the Barroso Formation.
Fig. 6.3.3.9. A detail of the oucrop of the Fig. 6.3.3.10. TAnother detail of the Miraflores
Miraflores breccia into the tunnel. Some breccia, where the hydrothermal quartz cement
fragments of diabases (greyish) and of the is clearly distinguished.
Irra porphyry are outstanding.
Fig. 6.3.3.11. Aspect of the Tres Cuevas Breccia Fig. 6.3.3.12. A detail in outcrop of the Tres
mine entrance. Note the general alteration of the Cuevas Breccia. Some of the clasts have been
rock. dissolved, and the remaining matrix is mainly
argylliitic.
6.3.3.3. MINERALOGY AND TEXTURES When examined under the microscope, the
main textural patterns in the potassic alteration
The textural patterns in the porphyrytic haloes are the next:
rock are very different when comparing the a) replacement of the fine-grained matrix
original textures (fig. 6.3.3.13) with the altered of the porphyrytic rock by fine-grained biotite
rocks, particularly when affected by the and K-feldspar (figs. 6.3.3.15-6.3.3.19).
potassic alteration. The altered areas are b) replacement of the plagioclase
cross-cut by a network of quartz-sulfide fenocrysts of the porphyrytic rock by
veinlets , and the selvages of the veinlets are secondary biotite along cracks, grain borders,
affected by potassic or sodic halos ; the rest cleavages, twin planes and other discontinuities
of the rock uses to take a reddish hue because (fig. 6.3.3.20-6.3.3.21).
of the enrichment in secondary biotite and K- c) replacement of the primary biotite
feldspar (fig. 6.3.3.14). Potassic alterations are crystals of millimeter size by secondary biotite
dominant in the porphyrytic deposits of of less than 200 microns in size (fig. 6.3.3.22-
Quinchia. 6.3.3.23).
Fig. 6.3.3.13. General aspect, in hand Figure 6.3.3.14. Detail in hand sample piece
sample, of a core of the porphyrytic rocks of a core, of an porphyrytic rock veined and
of the Quinchia gold district. Dos affected by potassic alteration. Note the
Quebradas area. darkening. Sample q40. Dos Quebradas
area.
Fig. 6.3.3.15. Detail of the replacement of Figure 6.3.3.16. The above image in crossed
the porphyrytic matrix by K feldspar and polars Note the extensive distribution of
biotite. PPL, hin section. Sample q40, Dos fine-grained biotite.
Quebradas.
Fig. 6.3.3.17. A detail of the biotitized Fig. 6.3.3.18. The above image in crossed
matrix of the above sample, in PPL, polars.
transmitted light. Dos Quebradas.
Fig. 6.3.3.19. Plagioclase phenocrysts and Fig. 6.3.3.20. The above image in crossed
porphyrytic matrix replaced by fine-grained polars.
biotite. Sample q38, Dos Quebradas area.
Fig. 6.3.3.21. Biotite phenocryst partially Fig. 6.3.3.22. The above image in crossed
replaced by a secondary generation of fine- polars.
grained biotite. Sample q43, Dos Quebradas
area.
Fig. 6.3.3.23. Plagioclase phenocrys Fig. 6.3.3.24. Another detail, see the
replaced by secondary K-feldspar and replacement along cracks. Sample q38, Dos
biotite along a small crack. Crossed polars. Quebradas.
Sample q38, Dos Quebradas.
Fig. 6.3.3.25. Replacement of plagioclase by F i g. 6.3.3.26. A detail vith higher

K-feldspar restricted to the vein selvages. magnification of the above image. Note K-F
C ro s s e d p o l a r s . S a m p l e q 3 8 , D o s is restricted to the proimity of the vein.
Quebradas. Crossed polars. Sample q38, Dos Quebradas.
Fig. 6.3.3.27. Another detail, in PPL, of the Fig. 6.3.3.28. The above image, in crossed
replacement of plagioclase by K-feldspar polars.Note FK in the cracks in plagioclase.
along a quartz vein.A pyrite grain is
distinct. PPL. Sample q 44, Dos Quebradas.
d) replacement of plagioclase phenocrysts arranged as subparallel sets or can be arranged
by secondary K-feldspar. This replacement in a stockwork disposition (fig. 6.3.3.30).
takes place along grain borders or, mainly, There are different generations of veins,
along small cracks in plagioclase (fig. 6.3.3.23- and some late generations may cut and displace
6.3.3.24). It tends to occur in the selvages of the early ones, as observed at the microscopic
the quartz veins (fig. 6.3.3.25-6.3.3.28). scale (fig. 6.3.3.31).
Similar alterations are observed in the A generation of veins may be constituted
samples from the Mandeval vein or in the by quartz and magnetite. Development of
veining developed in the Mandeval creek on magnetite is also produced at a big scale in
the basaltic rocks of the Amagá formation, thus the host rocks. Magnetite is subhedral to
suggesting that the veinlets in the porphyry and euhedral, and occurs as crystals less than 100
the main veins were formed by the same microns in diameter scattered through all of the
hydrothermal process (fig. 6.3.3.29). rock.
These processes are accompanied by the Magnetite used to be corroded and
development of extensive veining. Veins can be replaced by coarse crystalline pyrite (fig.
Fig. 6.3.3.29. Replacement of plagioclase by Fig. 6.3.3.30. Stockwork style of veining in the
K-feldspar restricted to the vein selvages. Mandeval area. PPL.
Crossed polars. Sample q38, Mandeval
area.
Fig. 6.3.3.31. A generation of veinlets cross- Fig. 6.3.3.32. Magnetite replaced by pyrite
cut by a late generation of quartz-sulfide in the porphyrytic rocks. Sample q41, Dos
rich veins, in PPL. Sample q38, Dos Quebradas.
Quebradas.
6.3.3.33), in particular, in the proximities of in sulfides. Chalcedony may also be present in

the quartz-pyrite veins. Pyrite may be these veins.
accompanied by chalcopyrte in these Vein infilling, as in the Guayacán vein,
replacements (fig. 6.3.3.33 -6.3.3.34). consist largely of quartz and pyrite (fig.
The above veins can be cut by late quartz- 6.3.3.39). In a late stage pyrite is replaced by
sulfide veins, whose are more common in the galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, silver-poor
deposit. tetrahedrite and, in lesser amounts, native gold.
Sericitization is not so developed as in Chemical composition of native gold is
other areas. It is widespread but it is not the close to the 100% gold, with a very low silver
dominant form in the cores sampled (fig. content. The grain size is fine, less than 50
6.3.3.35). microns and occurs as anhedral grains (fig.
A late low-temperature alteration seems 6.3.3.40). It seems to be rare.
to be present in these deposits, as there are The rest of the sulfides and sulfosalts are
veins with an assemblage quartz + fluorite (?) also fine-grained, anhedral and scarce, and are
+ epidote + calcite + pyrite + heulandite (fig. filling small craks replacing pyrite (figs.
6.3.3.36-6.3.3.38). These veins are enriched 6.3.3.41-6.3.3.42).
<cpy
<mt
<py <mt
<py
Fig. 6.3.3.33. Replacement of magnetite Fig. 6.3.3.34. Another detail of the above
(mt) in the host rock by pyrite (py) and sample, in PPL, reflected light. Magnetite (mt)
chalcopyrite (cpy). Sample q43, PPL, is replaced by pyite (py).
reflected light. Dos Quebradas area.
he qtz
qtz <ep
Fig. 6.3.3.35. Sericitization and silicification Fig. 6.3.3.36. Veins with quartz (qtz) +epidote
of the host rock. Crossed polars, transmitted (ep)+ calcite + heulandite (he) + pyrite (opaque
light. Sample 139. Dos Quebradas area. mineral in the vein) in PPL, transmitted light.
Sample q448, Dos Quebradas area.
qtz
<ca he <py
<ep
qtz
<mt
Fig. 6.3.337. The above image in crossed Fig. 6.3.3.38. The above image in PPL,
polars. He, heulandite; ca, calcite; ep, reflected light. Note magnetite (mt) in the
epidot; qtz, quartze. host rock, and pyrite (py) in the vein.
<ga
py
<Au
Fig. 6.3.3.39. Pyrite crystals scattered in the Fig. 6.3.3.40. Gold grain (Au) in pyrite (py),
quartz vein. PPL, reflected light, Guayacán along with galena (ga). The yellow color of
vein. gold is indicative of a low Ag content. PPL,
reflected light, Guayacán vein.
cv thd cpy
cpy
py
py
py
<ga
F i g . 6.3.3.41. Tetrahedrite (Thd) and Fig. 6.3.3.42. Chalcopyrite (cpy) and galena
chalcopyrite (cpy) replacing pyrite (py). Some (ga) replacing pyrite (py). PPL, reflected
late covellite (cv) is present. PPL, reflected light, Guayacán vein.
light, Guayacán vein.
The mineral associations and the textures

in the Miraflores breccia are diferent as those
of the main phases developed in the
porphyrytic rocks. The hydrothermal
alteration is also different, with a strong
development of epidotization on the selvages <ep
at the expenses of the diabase fragments
(fig.6.3.3.43).
The vein infilling in Miraflores consists of
fine-grained quartz in the margins of the veins
(and, in some cases, chalcedony) that evolves
to millimeter-sized comb or cockade textures
(fig. 6.3.3.44); in these comb and cockades
quartz is associated with subhedral sphalerite Fig. 6.3.3.43. Epidotization (ep) at the
and pyrite. selvages of the Miraflores vein; the vein
Geodical porosity is common (fig. infilling is quartz. The fragments are
6.3.3.45), and the porosity can be partly or diabases.
completely filled with bladed calcite or several
zeolites (heulandite or chabazite; Ceballos and
Castañeda, 2008). These zeolites tend to
develop euhedral crystals; heulandite develops diabase
bladed crystals (fig. 6.3.3.46) and chabazite <sl
pseudocubic trigonal rhombohedrons.
In detail, pyrite uses to develop euhedral qtz
to subhedral crystals, up to 5 mm in size, and
is corroded by the other minerals. No
cataclastic textures have been observed in
pyrite.
Anhedral to subhedral sphalerite grains are
Fe-poor and is yellowish in thin section. It is
Fig. 6.3.3.44. Quartz comb and cockade
one of the main sulfides in the deposit and
textures developed on diabase breccia
shows abundant chalcopyrite disease in some
fragments. The dark mineral intergrown with
parts of the crystals (fig. 6.3.3.47). Grain size
quartz is sphalerite (sl).
ranges between some hundreds of microns and
5 mm.
Chalcopyrite, galena and native gold are
found as vein infillings, mainly as veinlets into
pyrite, and all these minerals are fine-grained <he
(in many cases, less than 10 microns in
diameter). These minerals seem to have grown
under textural equilibrium conditions. Native
gold has a silvery hue, ths suggesting moderate
to high Ag contents in electrum. It may be
found in association with all of the
aforementioned sulfides (fig. 6.3.3.48-
6.3.3.50).
Hessite is one of the last minerals to be Fig. 6.3.3.45. Geodical porosity in the
formed. It has been found only as small Miraflores vein filled by drusical/geodical
anhedral grains, filling porosity or small cracks quartz (qtz) and small heulandite crystals
into pyrite crystals (fig.6.3.3.51). (he).
sl
<he
qtz <cpy
Fig. 6.3.346. A detail of the heulandite Fig. 6.3.3.47. Sphalerite crystals (sl) partly
crystals (he) overgrowing geodical quartz replaced by chalcopyritee disease. PPL,
crystals (qtz). reflected light. Sample q22, Miraflores
breccia.
py
py
sl> ga
py py
<Au
<Au ca Au> <Au
<Au <Au
ga cpy
sl
Figure 6.3.3.48. Pyrite (py) veined by Fig. 6.3.3.49. Pyrite (py) veined by galena
chalcopyrite (cpy), galena (ga), sphalerite (ga), sphalerite (sl), calcite (ca) and gold
(sl) and gold (Au). PPL, reflected light, (Au).P PL, reflected light, Miraflores
Miraflores breccia. breccia.
ca py
py
py <Au
<Au <Au
<ga
<he
ga ca
sl>
Fig. 6.3.3.50. Pyrite (py) veined by galena Fig. 6.3.3.51. Native gold (Au) and hessite
(ga), sphalerite (sl), calcite (ca) and gold (he) accompanied with bladed calcite (ca)
(Au).P PL, reflected light, Miraflores replacing pyrite crystals (py). SEM image,
breccia. mode BSE. Sample q22, Miraflores breccia.
Table 6.3.3.1. K-Ar analysis for potassic (secondary biotite) hydrothermal alteration
from the Dos Quebradas Project
6.3.3.4. MINERALIZATION/
HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AGE

mineralization/hydrothermal alteration at the
Dos Quebradas Project (Anglogold Ashanti
Colombia 2007) in the Quinchía Mining
District, an early diorite porphyry sample with
strongly pervasive potassic (i.e. secondary
biotite) alteration from diamond-drill core
(Sample Q-39; DQ-DD-8 146.50m) was
analyzed by the K-Ar methodology (Figure
6.3.3.52 and Table 6.3.3.1). Figure 6.3.3.52. Diorite porphyry with
In addition, a sample of molybdenite in the strongly pervasive potassic (secondary
Dos Quebradas Project (Sample Q-45; DQ- biotite) alteration from the Dos Quebradas
DD-3 198.74m) hosted in diorite porphyry Project (Sample Q-39).
with strongly pervasive sericitic alteration was
analyzed by the Re-Os methodology (Figure
6.3.3.53 and Table 6.6.3.2).
The analyzed samples yielded late
Miocene ages of 8.2±0.7Ma and 7.7±0.2Ma
for secondary biotite and the molybdenite
respectively.
On a broad scale, when compared with
the magmatic zircon U-Pb age obtained for the
hypabyssal intrusive suite at the Dos
Quebradas Project (Sample Q-34; Section
6.2.3), which yielded late Miocene age of
8.0±0.5Ma, it is observed a close temporal Figure 6.3.3.53. Molybdenite mineralization in
relationship between magmatism and a sericitized porphyrytic rock from a core
hydrothermal alteration/mineralization ages, obtained in the Dos Quebradas Project
where errors for the analyses overlap (Figure (Sample Q-45).
6.3.3.54).
Table 6.3.3.2. Re-Os analysis for the molybdenite sample of the Dos Quebradas Project.
6.3.3.5 LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
In order to complement ore

characterization in the Quinchía Mining District
of the Middle Cauca region, three sulfide
samples were analyzed for lead isotopes.
The analyzed samples include two sulfide
samples of the Miraflores breccia
mineralization at the Miraflores Mine tunnel
(Sample Q-25) and diamond-drill cores
(Sample Q-32), and a sample of the Guayacan
Mine mineralization in the La Cumbre area
(Table 6.3.3.3 and Figure 6.3.3.3).
The lead isotope data show radiogenic
values (207Pb/204Pb>15.5) that cluster in narrow
Figure 6.3.3.54. Figure 6.3.3.54. Zircon U- lead isotope ratios ranges ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb =
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS, whole-rock (secondary 18.82-18.93, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.61-15.65 and
208
biotite) K-Ar and molybdenite Re-Os ages Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.48-38.68).
for samples from the Quinchía Project. When compared with the sulfide lead
isotope values from other gold deposits from
Table 6.3.3.3. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the Quinchía
Mining District mineralization.
Figure 6.3.3.55. Lead isotope composition for sulfide samples the Quinchia Mining District
mineralization and hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the Middle Cauca region. Lead isotope
evolution curves after Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and Doe (1981) are shown for
comparison.
the middle Cauca Region, the lead isotope Table 6.3.3.4. Sulfur isotope
values from Quinchía are less radiogenic than composition of sulfide samples from the
lead isotope values obtained for the Marmato Quinchía Mining District gold
and Titiribí mineralizations (Sections 6.3.1 and occurrences.
6.3.2).
The comparison of the sulfide samples
from the Quinchía Mining District against lead
isotope composition for hypabyssal intrusives
of the Middle Cauca region (e.g. Titiribí, La
Mina, La Aurora), show a similar lead
composition between them (Figure (6.3.3.55).
In the Quinchía Mining District, two

sulfide samples from the Guayacan Mine
(Sample Q-28) were analyzed for sulfur
isotopes (Table 6.3.3.4 and Figure 6.3.3.4).
The sulfide samples selected comprise
coarse-grained pyrite and sphalerite separates
that returned values for  34S close to zero
which could indicate a mantle-derived source Figure 6.3.3.56. Sulfur isotope results in
for the sulfur, and compare well with other s u l f i d e s f ro m a u r i f e ro u s v e i n s a t t h e
sulfide values obtained for the Middle Cauca Quinchía Mining District. Pyrite: Py,
mineralizations at Titiribí and Marmato. sphalerite: Sph.
6.3.4. - The Quebradona-La Aurora gold deposits 783
6.3.4. THE QUEBRADONA-LA AURORA GOLD

DEPOSITS
6.3.4.1. INTRODUCTION outcrops of porphyrytic bodies and hydrothermal

breccias. The analyses in the Aurora area returned
La Aurora-Quebradona areas are found values with peaks of about 2 g/t along tens of
about 60 km SSW of Medellín, in the Antioquia meters, and most of the values allowed to take in
Department, 8-10 km SE of the Jericó town consideration the existance of a porphyry-type
(fig. 6.3.4.1). gold deposit with high volumes at low tenors.
During the period 2006-2010 the area Our description is based on observations
was submitted to drilling for gold exploration, made during a visit in 2005 in the Quebradona
based on the existence of geochemical outrcrops and some drills on the Aurora
anomalies nd the occurrence of several prospect.
Figure 6.3.4.1. Location map of the Quebradona-La Aurora gold deposits.

6.3.4.2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The area is made up by large outcrops of

the vulcanosedimentary rocks of the Combia
Formation, of the Upper Miocene, which are
intruded by porphyrytic bodies and magmatic
breccias, also of Upper Miocene age (fig.
6.3.4.1).
The Quebradona area has an important
outcrop of magmatic breccias. The intrusive
body has an elongated elipsoidal shape. It has
more than 80 m wide and 400 m long, with an
Fig. 6.3.4.2. General view of Quebradona area. important vertical development, more than 100
meters.
The Quebradona igneous breccias
consists of irregular angulous fragments of the
volcanoclastic materials of the Combia
formation scattered in a fine-grained igneous
matrix. The size of the fragments is diverse,
and range between some milimeters to several
decimeters.
Both matrix anf rock fragments have been
affected by strong hydrothermal alteration,
producing pervasive sericitic and argillic
alterations of the rock fragments and of the
Fig. 6.3.4.3.Outcrop of the Quebradona igneous matrix, and a silicification. As a result
breccial. of this silicification, the rock becomes more
resistive to the weathering and to the erosion
than the enclosing volcanoclastic rocks;
therefore, these rocks tend to produce
important topographic reliefs (figs. 6.3.4.2-
6.3.4.4).
The Quebradona igneous breccias, in
addition, contain a large amount of members
of the tourmaline group (figs. 6.3.4.5-6.3.4.6).
Tourmaline occurs as prismatic crystals, up to
1 cm in lenght, arranged radially, as in the
luxulianites (fig. 6.3.4.7-6.3.4.10). It is Fe-
rich, close to the schorl end member, and
therefore it is black in hand samples and has a
dark greenish pleochroism in thin section.
Crystals have zoning, either concentric and
longitudinal.The outhermost part of the
tourmaline fans is slightly depleted in Fe, and
presents a clearer color than the centers (fig.
6.3.4.9).
On the other hand, the host rocks of the
breccia have been affected by extensive
hydrothermal alterations, mainly argillic and
Fig. 6.3.4.4.Outcrop of the Quebradona
sericitic, with a important silicification, similar
breccia.
6.3.4. - The Quebradona-La Aurora gold deposits 785
Fig. 6.3.4.5. Aspect of the Quebradona Fig. 6.3.4.6. Sawn sample of the Quebradona
breccia in hand sample. note the extensive breccia. Note a strong alteration of the
development of tourmaline aggregates ensemble and the presence of some angulous
(black). fragments of the host rocks.
Fig. 6.3.4.7. Pyrite crystals scattered in the 6.3.4.8. The above image in crossed polars.
quartz vein. PPL, reflected light, Guayacán Note that silicification and sericitization of
vein. Quebradona outcrop. the host rock are extreme.
<ga
Fig. 6.3.4.9. Another aspect of the tourmaline Fig. 6.3.4.10. The above image in crossed
fans in PPL, transmitted light. Note polars. Note that silicification and
longitudinal zoning in the tourmaline prisms. sericitization of the host rock are extreme.
Quebradona outcrop.
to the alteration in the breccias. A dense

network of small veinlets is spread along these
bodies. Veins are enriched in fine-grained
sulfides (fig. 6.3.4.11), but these sulfides have
been completely replaced by secondary
minerals (mainly jarosite, hematite and
goethite) in the outcropping areas. Based on
the shapes of the crystals, most of these
crystals could correspond to pyrite before the
oxydizing processes.
Despite the significative tenors of gold in
these rocks, no visible gold has been found in
the Quebradona samples up to the present Fig. 6.3.4.11. Highly altered host rock of the host
moment. rocks of the Quebradona breccia, veined by
weathered sulfide-rich associations.
SECTION 6.4.
The Cajamarca-Salento Area

Porphyritic Rocks
6.4.1- Petrography of the Cajamarca-Salento porphyritic rocks 789
6.4.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE CAJAMARCA-SALENTO

PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
6.4.1.1. HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITIC These rocks exhibit a typical porphyrytic

DACITES OF THE LA COLOSA FACIES texture, that consists of phenocrysts of quartz,
plagioclase, biotite and amphibole scattered in
Some acid intrusions occur in the area of La an aphanitic matrix (fig. 6.4.1.1-6.4.1.4). The
Colosa gold mine, one of the gold mines with a ratio matrix/phenocrysts is highly variable, but
higher potential in Colombia. Therefore, these in general the matrix predominates over the
rocks have been sampled in more detail in order phenocrysts. These rocks have been affected
to study the petrography (samples Col-11, LC- by different grades of hydrothermal alteration,
4, LC-5, LC-10, col-60, Figure 6.4.1.1). mainly potassic and sericitic.
amp>
qtz
pl
Figure 6.4.1.1.General view of sample col-60 Figure 6.4.1.2. The above image, in crossed
(porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa mine). polars. Note the zoning of the plagioclase
PPL. Phenocrysts are biotite (bt), quartz (qtz), crystals, and euhedral b-quartz.
amphibole (amp) and plagioclase (pl).
pl
qtz
bt>
Figure 6.4.1.3.General overview of the sample Figure 6.4.1.4. The above image, in crossed
LC-4 (porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa polars.
mine, Cajamarca). PPL. Phenocrysts are biotite
(bt), quartz (qtz) and plagioclase (pl).
790 SECTION 6.4-THE CAJAMARCA-SALENTO AREA PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
pl
amp>
pl
qtz
Figure 6.4.1.3. General view of the sample col- Figure 6.4.1.4. The above samples in crossed
11 (porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa polars.Note amphibole (amp), quartz (qtz) and
mine). PPL. plagioclase (pl).
amp> amp>
pl
pl pl
amp>
pl
amp> qtz
Figure6.4.1.5. General overview of the sample Figure 6.4.1.6. The above image in crossed
LC-4 (porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa polars. Note amphibole (amp), quartz (qtz) and
mine, Cajamarca). PPL. Phenocrysts are biotite plagioclase (pl).
(bt), quartz (qtz) and plagioclase (pl).
pl
bt2 qtz bt2
pl pl
Figure6.4.1.7. General overview of the sample Figure 6.4.1.8. The above image in crossed
LC-4 (porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa polars. Note amphibole replaced by secondary
mine, Cajamarca). PPL. Note secondary biotite biotite (bt2), quartz (qtz) and plagioclase (pl).
(bt2).
pl
pl
qtz2
pl pl
qtz1>
Figure 6.4.1.9. Quartz microphenocrysts (qtz1) Figure 6.4.1.10. Rounded quartz phenocryst,
and rounded phenocrysts (qtz2).Crossed polars, PPL. Porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa
porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa mine. mine.
pl
or
pl
qtz
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 1 . 11 . D e t a i l o f t h e m a t r i x , Figure 6.4.1.12. The above image in crossed

showing plagioclase-quartz intergrowths. polars, porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa
PPL, porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa mine.
mine..
Quartz microphenocrysts and are in the order of 1 mm

or even less. Quartz phenocrysts from La
Quartz phenocrysts are very common in Colosa do not show undulous extinction.
these rocks (up to 20 % modal). They consist Quartz is also a common component in the
of modified beta-quartz subhedral to euhedral aphanitic matrix, although its small size
crystals, that are more common as complicates a detailed study of the proportions;
microphenocrysts (fig. 6.4.1.9). A bypyramidal probably it may arrive up to 30 % modal. It is
habit may be identified on the sections. euhedral and has similar shapes and sections
Howwever, many of the crystals are rounded, as in the phenocrysts but do not show
showing symptoms of resorption by the matrix embayments, and occupies interstitial positions
(fig. 6.4.1.9-6.4.1.10), and embayment among the plagioclase crystals (fig. 6.4.1.11-
textures are very frequent. 6.4.1.12). The crystal size is in the order of
The size of the crystals is close to 8 mm, 30 microns in diameter. It does not show wavy
although many grains could be considered as extinction.
K-feldspar
With doubts because of their small crystal pl

size and the degree of potassic alteration, some
primary crystals in the matrix could correspond
to this mineral group, and they could be
present probably in lesser amounts than 10%
modal. These grains are anhedral and pl
interstitial between quatz and plagioclase. They
do not have microperthites or twinning.
Probably part of the observed K-feldspar
can correspond to hydrothermal alterations,
produced during the potassic alteration of the
area. Figure 6.4.1.13. Plagioclase crystal in PPL,
sample col-60. Porphyrytic dacite of the La
Plagioclase Colosa mine.

phenocrystals (up to 50 % modal). Plagioclase
crystals are euhedral, with a short prismatic
habit; the maximum length of the crystals is
about 8 mm, and most of the crystals are well
over 4 mm. Twinning is complex, and
combinations of albite and pericline laws are pl
distinguished. Conspicuous concentric zoning
of the normal or complex types is widespread
(fig. 6.4.1.13-6.4.1.14).
Mineral inclusions in plagioclase crystals
comprise quartz, amphibole, biotite and other
generation of plagioclase (fig. 6.4.1.15), many Figure 6.4.1.14. The above image, in crossed
of whose are strongly corroded. In addition, polars. Note complex zoning in plagioclase.
some crystals have inclusions of volcanic glass Biotite is also present. Sample col-60.
arranged on the concentric zones.
Some secondary potassic alteration can
be observed on different crystals, in the form
of small veinlets of K-feldspar. Secondary
epidote can be found along the crystal borders
of the grains. There are no enough textural
evidences to consider the presence of magmatic
epidote in the La Colosa rhyodacites. By the pl
contrary, some of the epidote grains, arranged
at the border of the plagioclase crystals, are
associated withzones of potassic alteration. pl
In the matrix, the plagioclase crystals are
very fine-grained, and are probably the most
important constituent, about 60 % modal. They
are subhedral, shortly prismatic, and do not Figure 6.4.1.15. Plagioclase aggregate in
exhibit polysynthetic twinning. Zoning is crossed polars, sample LC-11. Note different
concentric, and probably many of them are plagioclase generations. Porphyrytic dacite of
altered. the La Colosa mine.
pl or>
pl
pl
or
epi>
<or
qtz
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 1 . 1 6 . P l a g i o c l a s e c ry s t a l Figure 6.4.1.17. The above image in crossed

replaced by subsolidus epidote and K- polars.Pl, plagioclase, epi, epidote, or, K-
feldspar. Porphyrytic dacite of the La Colosa feldspar.
mine. PPL, sample LC-5.
pl
pl pl
amp amp amp

or
qtz
Figure 6.4.1.18. Longitudinal section of a Figure 6.4.1.19. The above image in crossed
zoned amphibole crystal. Porphyrytic dacite polars.
of the La Colosa mine. PPL, sample LC-6.
Amphibole The amphiboles are concentrically zoned,

with oscilant changes in the color; these colors
Amphibole is found in these rocks in only are in different dark green hues, indicating a
a slight higher content than biotite, around 16 high tenor of Fe. Polysynthetic or simple
% modal. The fresh amphibole phenocrysts are twinning may be present in some crystals.
euhedral, and have a prismatic habit (fig Most of the crystals are affected by
6.4.1.18-6.4.1.19). hydrothermal alteration at different grades.
There is a progressive change in crystal Typically, the amphibole grains are altered to
size from the matrix to the phenocrysts, from secondary fine-grained biotite (fig. 6.4.1.24-
300 microns to 3 mm. Therefore, many of these 6.4.1.25); in other cases it may be
crystals are better described as pseudomorphosed by clinochlore or by an
microphenocrysts. Microphenocrysts have uralite-type fibrous amphibole, poor in Fe as
similar characteristics to those of the indicated by its pale green color (fig. 6.4.1.26-
phenocrysts (fig. 6.4.1.20-6.4.1.23). 6.4.1.27).
amp amp
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 1 . 2 0 . Z o n e d a m p h i b o l e Figure 6.4.1.21. The above image, in crossed

microphenocrysts. Porphyrytic dacite of the La polars.
Colosa mine. PPL, sample LC-6.
pl amp> pl
qtz amp>
or or
qtz qtz
Figure 6.4.1.22. Detail of the matrix, Figure 6.4.1.23. The above image, in crossed
showing amphibole, quartz and plagioclase. polars.
Porphyrytic dacite of the La Colosa mine. PPL,
sample LC-6.
bt2> amp bt2> amp
Figure 6.4.1.24. A basal amphibole section, Figure 6.4.1.25. The above image in crossed
replaced by hydrothermal biotitte(bt2). polars. Note that biotitization is made of
Porphyrytic dacite of the La Colosa mine. PPL, fine-grained biotite crystals..
sample Col-11.
amp2 amp2
pl
Figure 6.4.1.26. Secondary uralitic amphibole Figure 6.4.1.27. The above image, in crossed
after primary amphibole. Porphyrytic dacite of polars.
the La Colosa mine. PPL, sample LC-5.
pl pl
pl pl
or or
qtz qtz
Figure 6.4.1.28. Fresh Biotite phenocrysts Figure 6.4.1.29. The above image, in crossed
(bt).Porphyrytic dacite of the La Colosa mine. polars.
PPL, sample LC-4.
Biotite mineral depends of the stage of alteration:

biotite at high temperature, related with
Biotite is found, similarly to amphibole, as potassic alteration, and clinochlore at lower
microphenocrysts (fig. 6.4.1.28-6.4.1.29). It temperature, in many cases related with
is rarer than amphibole, up to 4% modal, and propylitic alteration.
can be easily distinguished from amphibole Secondary biotite is associated with
owing its brownish pleochroism. mineralization, and has a pale-brownish to
Primary biotite is euhedral and has a flat yellowish colour, indicating lower Fe contents.
tabular habit. The crystal size is in the same In addition, it occurs as diminute crystals, in
range of the amphibole crystals. many cases, only some microns in lenght. It is
Biotite seems to be more stable than also tabular and very flat. It is found as a
amphibole in such altered environment, but it replacement product of amphibole (fig.
may be altered in diverse grade to secondary 6.4.1.24-6.4.1.25) and biotite, and may
biotite or clinochlore. The type of secndary replace also the volcanic glass in the matrix.
epi> epi>
pl
Figure 6.4.1.30. Primary epidote crystal Figure 6.4.1.31. The above image, in crossed
included in plagioclase. Porphyrytic dacite of polars.
the La Colosa mine. PPL, sample col-60
pl pl
zr> pl
mt>
or or
qtz qtz
Figure 6.4.1.32. Zircon crystal (zr) included Figure 6.4.1.33. Magnetite grains (mt in the
in zoned plagioclase.Porphyrytic dacite of the matrix. Porphyrytic dacite of the La Colosa
La Colosa mine. PPL, sample LC-6. mine. PPL, sample LC-5.
Fe-poor clinochlore also replaces biotite Apatite

along grain borders and cleavages. In some
cases, clinochore is associated with fine- Apatite is a trace mineral, with a moderate
grained epidote and titanite. size (up to 500 microns in length). They are
composed by prism and pinacoid, and the habit
Epidote is prismatic; they have slightly rounded faces.
Most of the epidote crystals observed in Zircon

these sections correspond to secondary
epidote, and occur as typical radial aggregates Zircon is a trace mineral, which is found
pseudomorphic of plagioclase, biotite or as euhedral crystals with short prismatic habit,
amphibole. However, some crystals are found terminated by bypyramids of first and second
as inclusions in unaltered plagioclase and could order (fig. 6.4.1.32). It is generally found as
correspond to primary crystals (fig. 6.4.1.30- inclusions in phenocrysts. The length of the
6.4.1-31). crystal never overpasses 50 microns. These
zircon crystals are not metamict, and do not
contain older cores.
Magnetite
Magnetite is a trace mineral in these rocks,

being in the order of 1 %. Crystals are ilm>
subhedral rounded octahedrons of less than
100 microns in size (fig. 6.4.1.33).
Replacement to hematite is common along the pl
Ilmenite
Figure 6.4.1.34. Ilmenite grains (ilm), partly
Ilmenite is rarer than magnetite, but has replaced by titanite (darker).Porphyrytic dacite
been found as subhedral tabular crystals, of the La Colosa mine. PPL, sample LC-5.
skeletal, up to 100 microns in length. It is also
partly replaced by titanite, along cleavages and
grain borders (fig. 6.4.1.34).
pl
Hematite
Hematite is also a trace mineral, which pl

occurs as subhedral platelets, lesss than 100 or
microns in length. These platelets can be
grouped in radial aggregates, and are
associated to altered zones. qtz
6.4.1.2. HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITIC F i g u re 6 . 4 . 1 . 3 5 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f a

ANDESITES OF THE LA COLOSA porphyrytic andesite of the La Colosa mine. PPL,
FACIES sample WR-52. Most phenocrysts are plagioclase
altered to sericite.
Andesites from the La Colosa gold mine
form other of the host rocks of this important
mineralized area (samples LC-11, COL-30,
WR-52; Figure J).
Similarly with the dacites of La Colosa,
these rocks exhibit a porphyrytic texture, but
phenocrysts of quartz are lacking or are smaller
and rare (figs. 6.4.1.35-6.4.1.38). This detail
is useful to distinguish both types of rocks in
the field. On the other hand, the andesites are
darker in fresh surface, owing to a higher
presence of amphibole in the phenoocrysts and
matrix. An additional difference is that biotite
is lacking.
The ratio matrix/phenocrysts is also highly Figure 6.4.1.36. The above image in crossed
variable, but in general the matrix predominates polars. Porphyrytic andesite of the La Colosa
over the phenocrysts. The crystal size in the mine. Sample WR-52.
matrix is enerally extremelly fine, and therefore

it is very difficult to identificate the mineral
pl components using optical microscope.
pl Moreover, potassic and sericitic hydrothermal
alterations overprinted in many cases the
amp> primary mineral associations.
pl
Quartz
amp Quartz phenocrysts are rare in these rocks

(less than 5 % modal), or are absent. Similarly
to the dacites, modified beta-quartz subhedral
crystals may exist, but when present, they are
Figure 6.4.1.37. General view of a less strongly corroded and embayed. These
altered porphyrytic andesite of the La Colosa crystals do not overpass 4 mm in diameter, and
mine. PPL, sample col-30. do not show undulous extinction.
Quartz is also scarce in the aphanitic
matrix; probably it may arrive up to 15 %
modal. It tends to be euhedral with the typical
pl beta forms. The diameter of these crystals does
pl not overpass 20 microns. It does not show
wavy extinction.
amp>
pl Plagioclase

amp phenocrystals (up to 50 % modal). Plagioclase
crystals are euhedral, with a short prismatic
habit; the maximum length of the crystals is
about 8 mm. Complex combinations of
Figure 6.4.1.38. The above image, in crossed Karlsbad, Baveno, albite and pericline laws are
polars.Note that amphibole is quite altered the most common twinning pattern.
to fine-grained biotite associated to Crystals have concentric zoning of the
hydrothermal potassic alteration. normal type, and have inclusions of many
minerals, among them amphibole and other oldr
generations of plagioclase.
Secondary potassic alteration and strong
sericitization can be observed on different
crystals, and may pseudomorphose completely
the crystals. K-feldspar, sericite or secondary
pl
epidote and calcite are the minerals that can
be asssociated with these processes of
hydrothermal alteration.
In the matrix, the plagioclase crystals are
almost cryptocrystalline, and are probably the
most important constituent, about 85 % modal.
They are subhedral, shortly prismatic, and do
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 1 . 3 9 . Z o n e d a n d t w i n n e d
not exhibit polysynthetic twinning. Zoning is
plagioclase crystal (plr). Porphyrytic andesite
concentric, and probably many of them are
of the La Colosa mine. PPL, sample col-30.
altered.
Amphibole Apatite
Amphibole is an essential mineral in these Apatite characteristic are similar to those

rocks, around 45 % modal of the phenocrysts, described in the dacites from La Colosa.
although they could be defined as
microphenocrysts owing to the small size of Zircon
these crystals (ranging 300 microns-2 mm).
These crystals are euhedral, and have a Zircon is a trace mineral, which is found
prismatic habit. Zoning is very well defined in as euhedral crystals with short prismatic habit,
the fresh crystals, and is of oscillatory type, terminated by bypyramids of first and second
producing concentric variations in the color, order. The length of the crystal never overpasses
from pale green to dark green. Polysynthetic 50 microns. These zircon crystals are not
or simple twinning is common. metamict, and do not contain older cores.
In the altered areas, the amphibole grains
are pseudomorphosed by secondary fine- Magnetite
grained biotite (fig. 6.4.1.37-6.4.1.38); in
other cases they may be replaced by mixtures Magnetite is a trace mineral in these rocks,
of clinochlore, epidote and sericite.; in rare being in the order of 1 %. Crystals are euhedral
cases, tremolitic uralite can be present. octahedrons of less than 10 microns in size,
and are found disseminated in the matrix. They
Epidote can also mantle ilmenite crystals, thus indicating
a late formation of this mineral.
Epidote is a very rare primary magmatic
accessory mineral in the La Colosa andesites, Ilmenite
but has been found at the least in a fresh
sample. It occurs as euhedral inclusions into Ilmenite is rarer than magnetite, but has
fresh, unaltered plagioclase crystals. Epidote been found as subhedral tabular crystals,
is shortly prismatic in habit, concentrically skeletal, up to 100 microns in length. It is partly
zoned and Fe-rich. The crystal size is variable, replaced by titanite, along cleavages and grain
but it tends to be in the order of 250 microns. borders.
6.4.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Cajamarca-Salento porphyritic rocks 801

CAJAMARCA-SALENTO PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
In order to characterize from a 50, WR-51 and WR-276) and two surface
geochemical point of view the different rock samples (WR-52 and WR-283) collected
intrusive facies at the Cajamarca area (i.e. La along one of the eastern tributary stream of La
Colosa Project and surrounding area), and Colosa creek were selected as representative
compare them with other Miocene hypabyssal of the intermineral diorite porphyry facies.
intrusive occurrences in the Colombian Andes, Seven rock samples of the later facies
a set of twenty samples were selected for include three quartz-diorite porphyry diamond-
whole-rock analyses of major, minor and trace drill core samples (WR-278 to WR-280) and
elements (including REE). four samples of late dikes collected over
The samples include nineteen samples from different surface outcrops (WR-53, WR-54,
La Colosa Project (AngloGold Ashanti WR-282 and WR-284).
Colombia) area, comprising 13 diamond-drill In addition, another hypabyssal intrusive
core samples and 6 surface rock samples. located about 15km to the south of the Salento
Intrusive facies of the La Colosa Project townsite (Sample WR-76), was also analyzed.
have been subdivided on the basis of Most of the selected samples show no
parameters such as textural and compositional significant hydrothermal alteration in the Wilt
features of the intrusives, hydrothermal (1995) alteration diagrams (Figure 6.4.2.1).
alteration type and degree and gold grades The samples WR-52, WR-54, WR-278 and
(Lodder et al., 2010). WR-282 show high A/CNK molecular values
Different intrusive facies include: high Au when plotted in the A/CNK vs. SiO2 alteration
grade early diorite porphyry facies with diagram, which can be interpreted as a
potassic and sodic-calcic hydrothermal hydrothermal alteration indicator.
alteration; moderate Au grade intermineral Surface outcrop samples (e.g. WR-52,
diorite porphyry facies with intermediate argillic WR-53, WR-54, WR-282, WR-283 and WR-
and propylitic alteration sometimes 284) show evidences of weak to moderate
overimpossed to the potassic alteration; and weathering in hand sample examination.
Au barren late mineral quartz-diorite porphyry High values of Loss On Ignition
facies accompanied by diorite/quartz-diorite (LOI>2.0%) in some samples (e.g. WR-52,
dikes. WR-53, WR-54, WR-270, WR-271, WR-
Early diorite porphyry facies selected for 273, WR-275, WR-277, WR-278 and WR-
whole-rock geochemical analyses include 282) may indicate hydrothermal alteration/
seven diamond-drill core samples (WR-270 to weathering as indicated by Wilt (1995), thus,
WR-277). the geochemical results must be interpreted
Three diamond-drill core samples (WR- carefully.
802 SECTION 6.4.- THE CAJAMARCA-SALENTO AREA PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
6.4.2.1 MAJOR ELEMENT FeO t with respect to SiO 2 are also observed.
GEOCHEMISTRY Al 2O 3 and K2O values show scattered values
and no positive or negative correlation can be
The hypabyssal intrusive rock samples established (Figure 6.4.2.2).
from La Colosa Project yielded moderate SiO2 In particular, late mineral porphyries
contents spanning a range between 55.20% (Samples WR-278, WR-279 and WR-280)
and 66.7%, accompanied by relatively high returned higher Na 2O (>4.45%) contents with
Al 2O3 contents (15.88-18.28%). Broadly, late respect to early and intermineral porphyries.
facies show higher silica contents than early The sample of the Salento porphyry (WR-
and intermineral ones. 76) returned similar major oxides contents that
Other major oxides returned variable La Colosa Project samples, with remarkable
values (MgO=1.07-3.49%; CaO=1.30- lower Al2O3 (14.7%) and higher MgO (5.74%)
6.75%, and K 2O=1.10-3.57%), with Na 2O and CaO (6.58%) values.
yielding relatively high values (3.57-4.78%). The AFM triangular plot by Irvine and
Positive correlation is clearly observed Baragar (1971), show how all of the samples
between Na 2O and SiO 2, whereas negative define a clear calc-alkaline trend (Figure
correlations of MgO, CaO, TiO 2, P 2O 5 and 6.4.2.3).
Figure 6.4.2.1. Alteration filter diagrams after Wilt (1995) for the porphyry rocks of the
Cajamarca Region.
Most of the samples cluster and plot into these surface samples. The intermineral
the medium-K calc-alkaline series of the K 2O porphyry of the sample WR-52, which also
vs. SiO 2 plot by Peccerillo and Taylor (1976), plot in the peraluminous field, shows strong
some samples of the early and late porphyry phyllic (sericite) alteration under hand sample
facies plot into the high-K calc-alkaline series examination.
field probably due to the effects of In general terms, most of the samples plot
hydrothermal alteration/weathering mentioned into the metaluminous field with A/CNK<1.1,
above (e.g. WR-270, WR-271, WR-274, indicating an I-type granitoid series affinity
WR-275 and WR-280) (Figure, 6.4.2.4). (Figure 6.4.2.5).
Most of the samples plot into the The Total Alkalis (TAS) plot by Cox et
metaluminous field of the A/NK vs. A/CNK al. (1979), show most of the early and
plot by Shand (1943) (Figure 6.4.2.5) intermineral porphyry samples plotting into the
Late quartz-diorite dikes tend to plot in diorite field, as do the late dikes samples. The
the peraluminous field which may be due to late porphyry facies plot into the granodiorite
moderate weathering evidences observed in field (Figure 6.4.2.6).
Figure 6.4.2.2. Harker variation diagrams for the porphyry rocks of the Cajamarca Region.
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 2 . 3 . A F M p l o t ( I r v i n e a n d Figure 6.4.2.4. K 2O vs. SiO 2 plot (Peccerillo

Baragar, 1971) for the porphyry rocks of the and Taylor, 1976) for the porphyry rocks
Cajamarca Region. of the Cajamarca Region.
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 2 . 5 . A / N K v s . A / C N K p l o t Figure 6.4.2.6. TAS classification plot (Cox

(Shand, 1943) for the porphyry rocks of the et al., 1979) for the porphyry rocks of the
Cajamarca Region. Cajamarca Region.
Figure 6.4.2.7. Feldspar triangle plot Figure 6.4.2.8. R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot
(O’Connor, 1965) for the porphyry rocks (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the
of the Cajamarca Region. porphyry rocks of the Cajamarca Region.
Again, the effects of certain degree of
hydrothermal alteration/weathering are
observed in some samples shifted up and
plotting out of the classification fields (e.g.
Samples WR-270, WR-271, WR-274, WR-
275 and WR-280).
In the feldspar triangle by O’Connor
(1965), early and intermineral porphyry
samples plot in the center the granodiorite field,
whereas samples of the late porphyries and dikes
tend to plot downward, close to the limit with the
Figure 6.4.2.9. Bulk Continental Crust- trondhjemite and granite fields (Figure 6.4.2.7).
normalized trace element spider-diagram In the R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot by
for the porphyry rocks of the Cajamarca Batchelor and Bowden (1985), most of the
Region. samples plot within or close to the Post-
collision uplift field. Conversely, the
intermineral porphyry facies samples and the
Salento porphyry samples plot separately, in
the middle of the Pre-plate collision
(subduction-related) field (Figure 6.4.2.8).
6.4.2.2. TRACE ELEMENTS

GEOCHEMISTRY
Trace elements contents in the hypabyssal

intrusives of the Cajamarca region were
compared against the Bulk Continental Earth
and Primordial Mantle values after Taylor and
F i g u re 6 . 4 . 2 . 1 0 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e - McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979),
normalized trace element spider-diagram respectively, through multielemental normalized
for the porphyry rocks of the Cajamarca ‘spider-diagrams’ (Figure 6.4.2.9 and
Region. 6.4.2.10).
There is a remarkable subduction-related
geochemical signature in all of the samples from
the Cajamarca region, characterized by Large
Ion Litophile (LIL) elements enrichments (e.g.
Ba, K and Sr) and High Field Strength (HFS)
elements depletion (e.g. Nb-Ta and Ti).
Early and intermineral porphyry facies
show very similar trace elements patterns,
whereas the late porphyries and dikes exhibit
a remarkable depletion in the more compatible
elements (Tb-Yb).
Additional trace elements features
observed in the Cajamarca region hypabyssal
intrusives include high Sr contents (>400ppm)
and low Y contents (<20ppm). Moreover, high
p l o t f o r t h e p o r p h y ry ro c k s o f t h e
values of Th and U are also observed (2.83-
Cajamarca Region.. Chondrite normalizing
4.48ppm and 1.03-1.83ppm, respectively).
values after Boynton (1984).
The Salento porphyry sample (WR-76) show porphyry sample returned slightly higher REE values
important differences in trace elements values with ((REE=127.7ppm).
respect of the Cajamarca region porphyries, such Early and intermineral porphyry facies of the
as higher V and Cr values (165ppm and 240ppm, La Colosa Project area in the Cajamarca region
respectively). Higher Sr and lower Y values (938ppm exhibit moderate decreasing slope fractionated
and 14.4ppm) are also observed. patterns ((La/Lu)N= 5.9-8.1), characterized by
relatively flat HREE patterns ((Gd/Lu)N=0.9-1.3)
with values about 10 times the chondrite values.
6.4.2.3. RARE EARTH ELEMENTS Conversely, late porphyry and dikes facies
GEOCHEMISTRY show steeper slopes indicating a higher fractionation
degree ((La/Lu)N=10.3-15.4), with a clear depletion
The Rare Earth Elements (REE) values of on the HREE with respect to the early and
the Cajamarca region hypabyssal intrusives intermineral porphyry facies. Gentle decreasing
were compared against the chondrite value slope HREE patterns are also characteristic ((Gd/
after Boynton (1984) (Figure 6.4.2.11). Lu)N=1.3-2.2) with five to ten times the chondrite
Rare Earth Elements contents are similar in all values.There is a clear depletion of late porphyry
of the samples of the La Colosa Project facies on HREE with respect to early and
(REE=73.1-101.1ppm), whereas the Salento intermineral porphyry facies.
6.4.3. - Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Cajamarca-Salento porphyritic rocks 807

THE CAJAMARCA-SALENTO PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
In order to constraint the magmatic At the La Colosa Project (AngloGold

crystallization age of the different Miocene Ashanti Colombia; Lodder et al., 2010) the
intrusives in the Cajamarca region, including samples include three early diorite porphyry
the Rio Dulce and La Colosa projects facies collected from the diamond-drill cores
(AngloGold Ashanti Colombia), a set of ele- (Samples COL-1, COL-2 and COL-3), two
ven rock samples were dated by zircon U-Pb intermineral porphyry facies collected at
LA-MC-ICP-MS method (Table 6.4.3.1). surface outcrops within the La colosa Project
Table 6.4.3.1. Zircon U-Pb magmatic crystallization ages for the hypabyssal intrusives from the
Cajamarca region
area (Samples 10018054 and 10029776), and of the La Colosa Project yielded late Miocene
a late mineral porphyry dike also collected on ages spanning the ca. 8.3-7.3Ma interval.
surface outcrop within the project area The three early diorite porphyry facies
(Sample LC-10). samples (COL-1, COL-2 and COL-3)
In addition, another three samples of returned late Miocene ages between ca. 8.3Ma
moderately to strongly potassic altered (i.e. and 7.9Ma (Figures 6.4.3.2, 6.4.3.3 and
pervasive secondary biotite) hypabyssal 6.4.3.4).
intrusives located to the NW of the La Colosa The samples of the intermineral porphyries
Project area were also dated, including the La (Samples 10018054 and 10029776) yielded
Morena (Sample 12044046), Tierradentro slightly younger late Miocene ages of
(Sample 12036426), and Salento (Sample 7.6±0.2Ma and 7.5±0.2Ma (Figures 6.4.3.5
12009392) areas. Moreover, a medium- to and 6.4.3.6).
fine-grained quartz-diorite in the Montecristo Moreover, the late porphyry sample of the
area (Sample 12036376) was also dated. La Colosa Project (Sample LC-10) returned
Despite most of intrusive rocks of the Rio even younger late Miocene magmatic
Dulce area in the northern Cajamarca region crystallization age of 7.3±0.2Ma (Figure
returned Pliocene-Pleistocene ages (Chapter 6.4.3.7).
7), a sample of a diorite porphyry diatrema at Inheritance ages obtained from zircon
the Espiritu Santo area (Sample 12035970) crystals analyses of samples from the La
yielded an early Miocene age, and thus, is Colosa Project area span a wide range
included in this section among the Miocene between ca. 1060Ma and 13Ma (Table
intrusives dated. 6.4.3.1).
The hypabyssal intrusives around the La
Colosa Project at La Morena (Sample
6.4.3.1. ZIRCON U-Pb 1 2 0 4 4 0 4 6 ) a n d Ti e r r a d e n t r o ( S a m p l e
GEOCHRONOLOGY 12036426) areas returned late Miocene ages
of 8.4±0.2Ma and 8.1±0.1Ma, respectively
The results obtained for zircon U-Pb LA- (Figures 6.4.3.8 and 6.4.3.9).
MC-ICP-MS analyses carried out in These magmatic crystallization ages com-
hypabyssal intrusive samples from the pare well with the ages obtained for the early
Cajamarca region are summarized in Table diorite porphyry facies from the La Colosa
6.4.3.1. Project.
The samples returned early to late The quartz-diorite sample from the
Miocene magmatic crystallization ages Montecristo area (Sample 12036376) returned
spanning the range between ca. 18-6Ma. a late Miocene age of 7.6±0.2Ma (Figure
The oldest age was obtained for the 6.4.3.10) which compares well with the ages
Espiritu Santo diorite porphyry diatrema rock obtained for the intermineral porphyry facies
sample (12035970) which returned an early of the La Colosa Project.
Miocene age of 17.1±0.4Ma (Figure 6.4.3.1). The granodiorite porphyry sample from
This age compares well with earliest the Salento area (Sample 12009392) returned
magmatic facies of the Cauca Department at the youngest age of all the samples in the
the Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires- Cajamarca region. This late Miocene
Suarez area (Sample ZIR-01=17.7±0.5Ma) magmatic crystallization age of 6.3±0.3Ma
and at La Vega-La Sierra area (Sample WR- (Figure 6.4.3.11), is much younger than late
177=17.0±0.4Ma) (Section 6.6.4). porphyry and dikes facies at La Colosa
The analyzed zircon crystals returned Project.
pretty consistent results with no inheritance The magmatic crystallization zircon U-Pb
ages. ages obtained from the Cajamarca area,
On the other hand, the magmatic including the La Colosa Project and other areas
crystallization ages for the hypabyssal intrusives (e.g. La Morena, Tierradentro, Montecristo
and Salento) are summarized in Figure
6.4.3.12
The magmatic ages obtained in this work
for hypabyssal intrusives of the La Colosa
Project and the surrounding areas constraint
the magmatic activity on the area between
8.3Ma and 6.3Ma. This late Miocene
magmatic activity spans a similar interval to the
magmatic activity in the Middle Cauca canyon
region (Section 6.2.3), and is clearly younger
than the Cauca Department magmatism
(Section 6.6.3).
Figure 6.4.3.1. Concordia plot for zircon U-
Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry of the
Espiritu Santo area (Sample 12035970).
Figure 6.4.3.2. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of early diorite porphyry from the La
Colosa Project (Sample COL-1).
Figure 6.4.3.3. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of early diorite porphyry from the La
Colosa Project (Sample COL-3).
Figure 6.4.3.4. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of early granodiorite porphyry
from the La Colosa Project (Sample COL-2).
Figure 6.4.3.5. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of intermineral granodiorite
porphyry from the La Colosa Project (Sample 10018054).
Figure 6.4.3.6. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of intermineral diorite porphyry
from the La Colosa Project (Sample 10029776).
Figure 6.4.3.7. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of late diorite porphyry dike
from the La Colosa Project (Sample LC-10).
Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry from the Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry from the
La Morena area (Sample 12044046). Tierradentro area (Sample 12036426).
U-Pb analyses of the quartzdiorite from the U-Pb analyses of the granodiorite porphyry
Montecristo area (Sample 12036376). from the salento area (Sample 12009392).
6.4.3.2. Sr AND Nd I S O TO P E
GEOCHEMISTRY
In order to characterize the magma

sources for the hypabyssal intrusives of the La
Colosa Project area and compare them with
isotope signature of other Miocene magmatic
rocks, Sr and Nd isotope analyses were carried
out in selected samples from different facies
of the magmatic suite.
The selected samples include a sample of
the early diorite porphyry facies (Sample WR-
271), two samples of the intermineral diorite
porphyry facies (Samples WR-276 and WR-
283), a sample of the late porphyry facies
(WR-278), and a sample of the late dike fa-
cies (WR-282).
Sr and Nd isotope geochemistry results
for samples of the hypabyssal intrusives of the
La Colosa Project are summarized in the
Figure 6.4.3.12. Zircon U-Pb ages for tables 6.4.3.2 and 6.4.3.3.
hypabyssal intrusives of the Cajamarca Rb and Sr contents of these samples are
region. moderate to high (21.88-57.53ppm and 523-
669ppm, respectively), whereas the Sm and
Nd contents are high (2.83-3.86ppm and
13.5-18.4ppm, respectively).
Table 6.4.3.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Cajamarca region.
Table 6.4.3.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Cajamarca region.
Present 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios for these samples
are low and cluster in a narrow range between
0.70427 and 0.70451. Moreover, present  Nd
values are positive, spanning the range between
+2.32 and +4.49.
In the Sr-Nd plot, all of the samples clus-
ter in a small area and plot within the Mantle
Array, indicating a mantle-derived source for
the magmas (Figure 6.4.3.13).
Within the magmatic suite slight variations
in Nd isotopic composition is observed, with
earlier facies showing higher values than Figure 6.4.3.13.  Nd vs. 87Sr/ 86 Sr plot for
younger ones. samples of the hypabyssal intrusive rocks
of the Cajamarca region.
SECTION 6.5.
Porphyry-Associated
in the Cajamarca-Salento Area
6.5.1. - The Colosa Gold Deposit 817
6.5.1. THE COLOSA GOLD DEPOSIT
6.5.1.1. INTRODUCTION Some small artisanal exploitations on small

veins in the area were active for many years
The La Colosa deposit is one of the most ago. However, after a systematic regional
promising gold deposits in Colombia. It is prospection in the Colombian Andes,
found about 7 km Northwest of the Cajamarca AngloGold Ashanti re-evaluated the
town and 30 km west of Ibagué, the capital of possibilities in the area taking into account the
the Tolima department, Central Colombia (fig. interpretation of the deposits as produced by
6.5.1.1). a porphyrytic system of the gold-type. In
Figure 6.5.1.1. Location map of the La Colosa gold deposits.

818 SECTION 6.5.- PORPHYRY-ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSITS IN THE CAJAMARCA -SALENTO AREA
Fig. 6.5.1.2. General ladscape view of La Colosa creek and the prospected area, previous to the
opeing of the mines.
addition to detailed mapping, extensive drilling series, mainly low-grade greenish chlorite-
allowed to define the reserves of the area. By muscovite schists, including grafitic schists,
2006 the interest on the area grew, after a marbles, quartzites and sericite schists (Nelson,
careful evaluation of the possibilities to develop 1962; Maya and Gnzález, 1995). The age of
an open pit exploitation of a big deposit at low- these series is controversial, because authors
grade. provide ages ranging from Paleozoic to
The area is found int the Central Cordillera Paleogene (Restrepo y Toussaint, 1978;
of Colombia, at the West of the Palestina fault Núñez et al., 1979; Millward et al., 1982);
system. It is a mountainous area, with high McCourt et al. (1984) interpreted these
reliefs, and most of the area is coverd by a apparent ages as being representative of
dense vegetation (fig. 6.5.1.2). Therefore, the successive stages of deformation and
discovery and delimitation of the deposit is the metamorphism.
result of a successful sequence of prospecting Many round to elliptic shaped porphyrytic
stages, which are explianed by Lodder et al. bodies of Miocene age intrude the Cajamarca
(2010) as a nice exemple of well-planned basement in the entire Tolima Department
mineral exploration program. (Pulido, 1988). They have a andesitic/dioritic
Reserves in the Colosa porphyry has composition (see description on section 6.2)
been calculated as 468.8 Mt at 0.86 g/t Au and are related to gold occurrences (Pulido,
(AngloGold Ashanti, 2008), which permits to 1988; Núñez, 2001).
define the Colosa as the most important The Colosa area has an ensemble of
porphyry gold deposit discovered to date. porphyrytic dikes, whose have been classified
in detail according to the outcrop relations with
the mineralization, texture and mineralogy (fig.
6.5.1.2. GEOLOGICAL SETTING 6.5.1.3). The next types have been defined: a)
early, b) intermineral and c) late. In addition,
Two main geological elements can be some intrusive breccias have been
defined in the area: the basement and the distinguished, in particular, because they are
porphyryies wich intrude the above rocks (fig. also mineralized.
6.5.1.3). The early porphyrytic units are made up
The basement of the area is made by the of six dioritic bodies. The earliest unit (NDE1)
Cajamarca group, an ensemble of metapelitic is a fine to medium-grained porphyrytic diorite.
6.5.1. - The Colosa Gold Deposit
819
Fig. 6.5.1.3. Geological map of the La Colosa area (Gil Rodríguez, 2010).
This intrusive is followed by a fine- to medium-

grained diorite breccia (NBXE1), and by two
fine- to coarse-grained diorite porphyries
(NDE2 and NDE3). The porphyrytic texture
is usually distinguishable (figs. 6.5.1.4-6.5.1.6)
and the degree of alteration is highly variable.
The above mentioned early porphyrytic
bodies were affected by pervasive potassic
alteration and by sodic-calcic alteration, and
have high grade Au mineralization.
Potassic alteration consists of the
replacement of the primary paragenesis by K-
feldspar and/or biotite. K-feldspar tends to Fig. 6.5.1.4. Aspect of a porphyrytic diorite
replace plagioclase around small cracks or rock from the early porphyrytic event of La
internal grain discontinuities (cleavages, Colosa gold deposit.
twinning, zoning, etc; fig. 6.5.1.7-6.5.1.8).
Biotite is widespread and may account for the
change in colour of the rock: the porphyries
or the host rocks adopt a reddish-dark brown
color after biotitization.
Sodic-calcic alteration may overprint the
potassic alteration in some areas. It produces
the replacement of the preexisting mineral
paragenesis with fine-grained pseudomorfic
albite accompanied by fibrous aggregates of
dark green actinolite crystals (fig. 6.5.1.9-
6.5.1.10).
Strong potassic hydrothermal alteration,
probably produced during this stage, is also
found in the hosting schists. In this case, the Fig. 6.5.1.5. Aspect of another porphyrytic
rock becomes strongly replaced by biotite. diorite rock from the early porphyrytic
Biotite is found as randomly oriented platy event of La Colosa gold deposit.
crystals, of brownish colo, and the rock adopts
a hornfels aspect (fig. 6.5.1.11-6.5.1.12). The
result is that these rocks have been mapped
under the «hornflkes» category as is in the
figure 6.5.1.3.
Four dioritic bodies are refered as
intermineral (NDI1, NDI2, NBXI, and NDI3;
fig. .6.5.1.3). These are fine- to medium-
grained porphyries with minor differences on
their grain size (fig. 6.5.1.13); NBXI is an
intrusive breccia. This ensemble is affected by
weak intermediate argillic (sericite + chlorite
+ illite; fig. 6.5.1.14) and propylitic alteration
(chlorite + epidote ± calcite), which may
overprint the mineral associations produced
Fig. 6.5.1.6. Aspect of a porphyrytic diorite
during the high-temperature potassic alteration
rock from the early porphyrytic event of La
.Intermineral diorites have only moderate Au
Colosa gold deposit.
grades.
Fig. 6.5.1.7. Aspect of the potassic alteration. Fig. 6.5.1.8. The above simage in crossed
Note a sulfide-rich vein producing replacement polars. Note fine-grained biotite scattered
of plagioclase by K-feldspar and amphibole by among the matrix, and K feldspar veining
biotite. PPL, transmitted light. the plagioclase.
Fig. 6.5.1.9. A detail of the sodic-calcic 6.5.1.10. The above image in crossed polars.
alteration. Secondary actinolite needless The higher interference colors correspond
has a typical dark green pleochroism. PPL, to actinolite.
transmitted light.
<ga
Fig. 6.5.1.11. Aspect of the «hornflels», Fig. 6.5.1.12. The above image in crossed
strongly metasomatized host schists. Note the polars.
randomly oriented biotite crystals PPL,
transmitted light.
The late porphyrytic intrusions have a

quartz dioritic composition (NDA and NQD
in fig. 6.5.1.3; NDA is indicated in this figure
as a dacite porphyry). There are also dioritic
to quartz dioritic dikes (NDQ and NDL in fig.
6.5.1.3; NDQ is refered as a quartz diorite dike
in this figure). All these rocks were only
affected by weak to moderate sericitic and
propylitic alteration, and do not contain
interesting gold grades.
6.5.1.3. ORE MINERALOGY AND Fig. 6.5.1.13. A detail of a fresh part of one
TEXTURES of the intermineral porphyritc rocks from
the Colosa deposit.
The styles of the mineralization are clearly
epigenetic, and comprise veins and replacements.
Veins tend to infill small joints, and in most
of the cases have only few millimeters in width.
The vein infilling consists of quartz and sulfides,
in different prportions. In some cases quartz is
the dominant mineal in these veins, and in other
cases sulfides predominate (fig. 6.5.1.16-
6.5.1.19). Veins have a hydrothermal alteration
as indicated.
Replacements are widespread and affects
different types of minerals in different rocks (fig.
6.5.1.19). In most of the cases, the minerals more
suitable to be replaced ny sulfides are the
ferromagnesian, mainly amphiboles and micas.
The mineral associations in Colosa seems to 6.5.1.14. A detail of a hydrothermally
be produced as an ensemble of replacement sericitized-argillized part of one of the
sequences, involving as main minerals pyrite, intermineral porphyritc rocks from the
magnetite and arsenopyrite, with minor amounts Colosa deposit.
of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, gold and
tellurides.
Pyrite
It is the main sulfude in the deposit. It tends

to form euhedral crystals but in some cases may
be anhedral in particluar, when replaces other
minerals. Its grain size is extremely variable, since
few microns to more than 2 cm.
In the replaced units, calcite may be
poykiloblastic, and to have many inclusions of the
silicate minerals of the rock. Several generations Fig. 6.5.1.15. A detail of a fresh part of one
of pyrite may exist (fig. 6.5.1.20). Cataclastic of the late porphyritc rocks from the Colosa
textures in pyrite (fig. 6.5.1.21) indicates its deposit. Note the absence of hydrothermal
syntectonic emplacement. alteration.
Fig. 6.5.1.16. Aspect of some hydrothermal Fig. 6.5.1.17. Sawn sample of quartz veins
veins in the porphyryic rocks of La Colosa. with minor pyrite in the porphyrytic rocks
Ve i n i n f i l l i n g c o n s i s t s o f p y r i t e a n d of La Colosa.
arsenopyrite.
Fig. 6.5.1.18. Fine-grained pyrite crystals

6.5.1.19. Different styles of mineralization
filling a vein in the La Colosa. Note a
at Colosa: veinlets and massive replacement
slightly dark brownish potassic alteration
of the host rock.
(Fe) at the selvages.
<ga
Fig. 6.5.1.20. Two generations of pyrite, Fig. 6.5.1.21. Cataclastic textures in pyrite.
distinguished by the different tarnishing. The Note some equilibria textures, as triple
second is richer in inclusions. points and curbed borders.
Arsenopyrite
Arsenopyrite occurs in differents

generations, and may replace pyrite (fig.
6.5.1.22) or to be replaced by this mineral. In
aspy
all of the cases, it occurs as euhedral crystals,
with the typical diamond sections (fig.
6.5.1.23). py
Etching or tarnishing of the crystals allows
to observe zoning, concentric or complex;
polysynthetic twinning may also be present (fig.
6.5.1.24).
These sulfides seem to be associated with
the low-temperature alterations, as Fig. 6.5.1.22. Arsenopyrite crystals (aspy)
chloritization and sericitization (figs. 6.5.1.25- replacing pyrite (py). PPL, reflected light.
6.5.1.26). La Colosa.
Pyrrhotite
Pyrrhotite is produced in a late stage, in

association with chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite,
and replaces pyrite (fig. 6.5.1.27-6.5.1.29).
It is scarce in this deposit although it is present
<aspy
in most of the samples, and tends to appear in
anhedral grains wich are interstitial between
pyrite grains or replaces this mineral along small
cracks. Grain size is fine, less than 100
microns. In many cases it can be altered to a
secondary «melnikovite», producing textures
of the bird-eye type.
6.5.1.23. A detail of the arsenopyrite
aggregates; note the euhedral shapes and
Chalcopyrite
diamond sections. Gangue is quartz. PPL,
reflected light.
Anhedral chalcopyrite grains are not rare,
and some veins can be infilled with this mineral.
However, the grain size is generally small. In
the most of the cases it is found filling small
cracks into pyrite, along with pyrrhotite and
aspy
arsenopyrite (fig. 6.5.1.28-6.5.1.29). It may
be found in the contact between two
generations of pyrite.
Galena
It is also rare in this deposit. It is found

only filling small cracks, in particular, in pyrite
grains. It is anhedral and the grain size never Fig. 6.5.1.24.Arsenopyrite crystals (aspy)
exceeds 100 microns. Associated minerals showing twinning and complex zonning.
include pyrrhotite and, in lesser amount, Crossed polars, reflected light. Sample
sphalerite. DD54, 70,4 m.
<aspy
<aspy <chl
ser
Fig. 6.5.1.25. Arsenopyrite crystals (aspy) F i g . 6.5.1.26. A s p e c t o f t h e a b o v e

cementing a mineralized breccia. PPL, association in crossed polars, transmitted
reflectd light. light. Arsenopyrite is associated with
sericitization (ser) and chloritization (Chl).
py
<po <cpy
py
<cpy
<po
Fig. 6.5.1.27. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced 6.5.1.28. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced by
by pyrrhotite (po). PPL, reflected light. pyrrhotite (po) and calcopyrite (cpy). PPL,
reflected light.
py py
<po
<aspy
<ga
<cpy
Fig. 6.5.1.29. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced Fig. 6.5.1.30. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced
by pyrrhotite (po), chalcopyrite (cpy) and by galena (ga) along veinlets and inclusions.
arsenopyrite (aspy). PPL, reflected light. PPL, reflected light.
Sphalerite
It is not common in this deposit, and only

small anhedral grains are found, generally
associated with chalcopyrite and galena filling
mall cracks into pyrite crystals. No py
chalcopyrite disease has been observed to
date.
<po <Au
Gold
Gold is widespread in the La Colosa

deposit, although it is extremely fine-grained
(in most of the cases well less than 20 microns). Fig. 6.5.1.31. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced
It is rch in gold content and silver poor, and by pyrrhotite (po) and native gold (Au).
has a marked yellow color. PPL, reflected light. La Colosa.
Gold occurs as small anhedral to rounded
inclusions in pyrite crystals. Gold can be found
in these inclusions either alone (fig. 6.5.1.31-
6.5.1.33) or associated wiith other minerals as
py
arsenopyrite (fig. 6.5.1.34), galena (fig.
6.5.1.35) and chalcopyrite (fig. 6.5.1.36,
6.5.1.37). In some cases, the epigenetic
character of gold is clear, as in fig. 6.5.136; in <Au <Au
other cases, i.e. fig. 6.5.1.37 it is not so clear.
However, probably gold is found in the
discontinuity surfaces among different pyrite
generations (fig. 6.5.1.37). This texture suggest
that gold is at the interface btween 2 pyrite
generatins whose are difficult to detect witout
etching. Therefore, gold and the accompanying 6.5.1.32. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced by
pyrrhotite (po) and native gold (Au). PPL,
minerals were produced probaly between the
reflected light. La Colosa.
formation of the pyrite I and pyrite II
generations. These observations, and the small
size and the purity of the gold grains, could
suggest that part of the gold can be contained
in pyrite I, and has been extracted and
oprecipitated during the partial corrosion of py
<Au
pyrite I before the deposition of pyrite II. In
this case, pyrite II can be devoid of gold.
Further chemical analysis of both generations
of pyrite may be obtained by using LA-ICP-
MS or other analytical facility.
<Au
Calaverite (?)
Extremely fine grained tellurides of gold

and silver occur in similar position to gold (fig. Fig. 6.5.1.33. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced
6.5.1.38). The extremely fine-grain size do not by native gold (Au). SEM image, BSE mode.
allowed to obtain accurate electron
py
py
<aspy
<Au
<Au <ga
Fig. 6.5.1.34. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced Fig. 6.5.1.35. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced
by native gold (Au) and arsenopyrite along by native gold (Au) and galena (ga) PPL,
small veinlets and inclusions. SEM image, reflected light.
py <cpy
py2 py1
<Au
Au> <cpy <cpy
Fig. 6.5.1.36. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced 6.5.1.37. Pyrite crystals of the first
by native gold (Au) and chalcopyrite (cpy) generation (py1) replaced by native gold
along small veinlets. SEM image, BSE (Au), pyrite of the second generation (py2)
mode. and chalcopyrite (cpy). PPL, reflected light.
<Au py
py <tsu
<Au
<cal
cpy
Fig. 6.5.138. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced Fig. 6.5.1.39. Pyrite crystals (py) replaced
by native gold (Au), calaverite (cal) and by native gold (Au) and tsumoite (tsu). SEM
chalcopyrite (cpy). SEM image, BSE mode. image, BSE mode.
microprobe analyses up to the present Tetradymite

moment.
This telluride occurs as rare small anhedral
Tsumoite (?) grains filling veinlets into pyrite (figs. 6.5.1.41-
6.5.1.42).
Bismuth tellurides are common in La
Colosa. They are fine-grained, less than 5 Molybdenite
microns in diameter, and therefore getting good
chemical analysis using microprobe has not Molybdenite platelets were found around
been possible up to the present moment. They pyrite crystals (fig. 6.5.1.43). It is scarce in
are anhedral and fill small gracks into pyrite the deposit, and its paragenetic position
(figs. 6.5.1.39-6.5.1.40). remains obscure.
<tdm
py <tsu
<tsu py
Fig. 6.5.1.40. Small grains of tsumoite (?) Fig. 6.5.1.41.Small grains of tetradymite
into pyrite. SEM image, BSE mode. filling small cracks into pyrite. SEM image,
BSE mode.
<tdm
py
py
<mo
6.5.1.42. Small grains of tetradymite filling Fig. 6.5.1.43. SMolybdenite platelets (mo)
small cracks into pyrite. SEM image, BSE at the borders of pyrite crystals (py) SEM
mode. image, BSE mode.
Table 6.5.1.1. K-Ar results for potassic (secondary biotite) hydrothermal alteration at
the Colosa Project.
6.5.1.4. AGE OF THE MINERALIZATION AND

OFTHE HYDROTHERMALALTERATION

mineralization/hydrothermal alteration at the
Colosa Project, two samples with strongly
pervasive potassic (secondary biotite)
hydrothermal alteration were analyzed by the
K-Ar method (Table 6.5.1.1).
The analyzed samples include an early
diorite porphyry sample (LC-4) collected over
the La Colosa creek and an early breccia
sample (LC-2) collected in the La Colosa creek Figure 6.5.1.44. Potassic biotite alteration in
area, yielding 8.0±0.8Ma and 7.9±0.8Ma early diorite porphyry facies of the Colosa area
respectively (Figure 6.5.1.44). (Sample LC-4).
In addition, molybdenite veinlet
mineralization collected from the La Colosa
Project diamond-drill cores (Sample DH-23)
was also analyzed by the Re-Os method for
dating the mineralization (Table 6.5.1.45),
yielding 8.43±0.08Ma.
Broadly, late Miocene ages obtained for
the potassic hydrothermal alteration and
molybdenite mineralization at the Colosa
Project compares well and are consistent with
the early diorite porphyry facies magmatic
crystallization at ca. 8.3-7.9Ma (see chapter
Figure 6.5.1.45. Potassic biotite alteration in early
6.4 and Figure 6.5.1.46).
breccia of the Colosa creek (Sample LC-2).
Table 6.5.1.2. Re-Os results for molybdenite mineralization of the Colosa Project.
Figure 6.5.1.47. Lead isotope composition for

sulfide samples from the Colosa Project
Figure 6.5.1.46. Summary of geochronological mineralization. Lead isotope evolution curves
results for the Colosa Project. after Plumbotectonics model of Zartman and
Doe (1981) are shown for comparison.
It must be taken into account that these 6.5.1.5 LEAD ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
ages constrain the age of the mineralization at
the Colosa Project, but detailed In order to complement ore characterization
geochronological analyses involving multiple at the Colosa Project, two lead isotope analyses
isotopic methods such as K-Ar, 40Ar-39Ar, Re- were carried out in pyrite samples from diamond-
Os and U-Pb must be applied in future studies drill cores (Samples COL-DD-40 and COL-DD-
in order to date different mineralizing events 43). Results are provided in table 6.3.1.3 and in
and their relationship with specific intrusive the figure 6.3.1.47.
pulses within the system (e.g. Maksaev et al., The lead isotope data show similar
2004). radiogenic values ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb>15.5), with
Table 6..5.1.3. Lead isotope composition of sulfide samples from the Colosa Project mineralization.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb = 18.89-18.92, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb = Table 6.5.1.4. Sulfur isotope composition of sulfide
15.64-15.66 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb = 38.76-38.96 samples from the Colosa Project mineralization.
lead isotope ratios.
When compared with lead isotope ratios
of other sulfide mineralizations spatially
associated with late Miocene hypabyssal
intrusives at the Middle Cauca region, the
Colosa Project samples show similar values to
those of the Quinchia Mining District, but are
less radiogenic than the sulfide samples from
the Titiribí and Marmato districts.
Four sulfur isotope analyses in sulfide

samples from diamond-drill cores from the
Colosa Project were carried out (Table 6.5.1.4
and Figure 6.5.1.48).
The sulfide samples selected for this study
comprise coarse-grained pyrite separates
common in vein-type mineralization hosted in Figure 6.5.1.48. Sulfur isotope composition for
porphyry intrusives of the Colosa Project. It sulfide samples from the Colosa Project
must be taken into account that the sampling mineralization.
was done by hand-picking the crushed samples,
and is not representative of the different
generations of pyrite within the paragenetic
sequence. with a mantle-derived source for sulfur (-
The sulfide samples returned variable 3< 34S>+3; Rollinson, 1993), and would
values for 34S, spanning the range from -3.5 suggest a magmatic source for the sulfur in the
to +2.0 per mil, which seem to be consistent sulfide mineralization.
SECTION 6.6.
The Cauca Department

Porphyritic Rocks
6.6.1- Petrography of the Cauca Department porphyritic rocks 835
6.6.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT

PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
6.6.1.1. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE proportion is about 25% modal. A weak

TONALITES OF THE LA DORADA undulatory extinction may be distinguished.
FACIES
Plagioclase
Tonalites of this type were found in
outcrops along the road Santa Barbara-La Plagioclase crystals are the dominant
Vega, in the La Dorada area (sample LDR- mineral in abbundance (up to 45%). They are
66). Tonalites present a fine to medium grained euhedral and exhibit a short prismatic habit.
phaneritic holocrystalline texture. Mineral Grain size is in the range between 5-8 mm.
composition comprises quartz and plagioclase Polysynthetic twining is complex, polysinthetic
as main minerals (figs. 6.6.1.1-6.6.1.2), with on the albite and pericline laws (fig. 6.6.1.3),
accessory amounts of biotite and amphibole; and other simple laws. Concentric zoning is well
apatite, zircon and magnetite occur in trace developed (fig. 6.6.1.4), and subsolidus
amounts. K-feldspar is lacking in these rocks. alteration to sericite is weak.
Quartz Biotite
It is in all the cases anhedral and is found Biotite is present in a low modal amount,
in rounded grains. However, it occurs in two up to 5%. The grain size has two populations:
populations established according with the one, the dominant, is in the range 4-6 mm and
grain size: one is coarse grained (about 5 mm corresponds to primary biotite; the second
in diameter) and the other is fine-graines consists of scarce and diminute crystals of
(about 500 microns in average), and is found biotite (less than 500 microns in length) that
in interstitial positions, probably representing thennd to be found as a replacement product
a ormation in a late stage. In total, the of amphibole. The dominant population is
bt>
qtz qtz
pl
bt>
qtz pl
amp amp
Figure 6.6.11. General view of the sample ldr- Figure 6.6.1.2. The above image, in crossed
66, a tonalite from La Dorada. PPL. Biotite (bt), polars. Note the intense alteration in
quartz (qtz), amphibole (amp) and plagioclase amphibole crystals
(pl) are distinguished.
836 SECTION 6.6 - THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
pl
amp>
pl
pl
qtz
Figure 6.6.1.3. Periclie+albite twinned Figure 6.6.1.4. Zoned plagioclase crystals of the
plagioclase crystals of the sample ldr-66, a sample ldr-66, a tonalite from La Dorada.
tonalite from La Dorada. Crossed polars. Crossed polars.
amp amp
bt2> bt2>
pl
pl
amp
bt1
Figure 6.6.1.5. Basal amphibole section (amp), Figure 6.6.1.6. The above image in crossed
partly replaced by hydrothermal biotite (bt2) of polars. Note amphibole (amp), quartz (qtz) and
the sample ldr-66, a tonalite from La Dorada. plagioclase (pl).
Bt1 is primary biotite. PPL.
pl
amp amp
bt1
qtz
pl
Figure6.6.1.7. Longitudinal section of an Figure 6.6.1.8. The above image in crossed

amphibole crystal, accompanied with polars.
primary biotite (bt1). sample ldr-66, a
tonalite from La Dorada. PPL.
found as subhedral tabular to prismatic crystals,
and have strong pleochroism in reddish brown
hues. Partial alteration to associations of pale
green clinochlore and secondary magnetite are pl <bt2
quite common.
Amphibole amp
bt1
Amphibole is present in higher modal
proportions to those of biotite, up to 20 %.
The grain size is in the range 5-15 mm. It tends
to be euhedral, and crystals have long primatic
habit (fig. 6.4.1.5-6.4.1.8). Pleochroism is
slow because of the pale green colors. Zoning Figure 6.6.1.9. Quartz microphenocrysts (qtz1)
is absent, and polysynthetic twining is found in and rounded phenocrysts (qtz2).Crossed polars,
all of the crystals. porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa mine.
Inclusions of euhedral biotite crystals
indicate a late growth of amphibole; however,
some small biotite grains found at the borders
of the amphibole or along the cleavages could
be related to a late potassic alteration (fig.
6.4.1.9-6.4.1.10).
Most of the amphibole is found as single
crystals, but there are also nodular aggregates amp
constituted by small amphibole crystals, that
pl
could be perhaps some type of modified
xenolite.
Apatite
Figure 6.6.1.10. Rounded quartz phenocryst,
Apatite is a trace mineral and has been PPL. Porphyrytic horblende dacite, La Colosa
found only as small crystals found as inclusions mine.
in quartz, plagioclase, biotite and amphibole.
It forms subhedral crystals of short prismatic
habit with less than 50 microns in length.
Zircon
Zircon crystals are subhedral, and are amp

bt
found as short prismatic crystals, less than 50
microns in length, that also occur as inclusions
<zr
in other minerals, mainly biotite and amphibole,
and, rarely, in quartz crystals (fig. 6.4.1.11).
Magnetite
Magnetite is the unique opaque mineral in Figure6.6.1.11.Zircon grain included in

these rocks, and it is only a trace mineral. It quartz.
develops subhedral grains, with sizes between
50 and 300 microns.
6.6.1.2. PORPHYRITIC TONALITES OF

THE LA DORADA FACIES
Porphyrytic tonalites of this type crop out

<amp
along the road in the La Dorada area (sample
WR-68). The dark color in outcrop of these
samples is produced by a strong potassic
alteration, who produces biotitization.
The porphyrytic rock consists of
phenocrysts of plagioclase and hornblende pl
scattered in a criptocrystalline matrix, made up
by the same minerals and quartz (fig. 6.6.1.12-
6.6.1.13). The ratio phenocrysts/matrix is
about 0,4. The secondary biotitization is very Figure 6.6.1.12. General view of the porphyrytic
strong. tonalite of the La Dorada. Phenocrysts are
plagioclase (pl) and amphibole (amp).
Quartz
Quartz is no present in the phenocrysts,

and has been found only in the matrix, where
appears as enhedral grains, scattered among
the plagioclase crystals.
It is difficult to evaluate carefully the
proportions of quartz in the matrix, because
of the extremely fine grain size, but it may be
present up to 40% modal. pl
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral among Figure 6.6.1.13. The above image, in crossed
the phenocrysts (up to 60%), and is the mineral polars. Note complete pseudomorphism of
with a bigger size (up to 5 mm). Crystals are amphibole by fine-grained secondary biotite
euhedral, with a short prismatic habit. crystals. Sample WR-68.
Polysynthetic twining is complex, and mainly
consists of combinations of polysynthetic
twinning on the albite and pericline laws, and
other simple laws. Concentric zoning is well
developed (fig. 6.6.1.14).
These crystals are partly altered to sericite
and in some cases, they are veined by pl
hydrothermal K-feldspar. It may contain
inclusions of microphenocrysts of amphibole
and epidote. pl
Plagioclase in the matrix has a diferent
aspect. The crystal size is smaller, less than 40
microns in length, and the crystals have a more
long prismatic habit. Only polysynthetic Figure 6.6.1.14. Zoned plagioclase crystal in
twinning on the albite law is present, and zoning the porphyrytic tonalite of the La Dorada.
is absent. Plagioclase may constitute up to the Crossed polars. Note abundant fine-grained
40% modal of the matrix. brown hydrotherma biotite in the matrix.
bt2
F i g u re 6 . 6 . 1 . 1 5 . A m p h i b o l e c ry s t a l s Figure 6.6.1.16. The above image in crossed

pseudomorphosed by fine-grained brown polars. Note the fine-grained nature of the
biotite. PPL, porphyrytic tonalite of the La biotitization (bt2), which also occurs in the
Dorada. matrix.
pl bt2
pl
pl
or or> epi> epi>
qtz
Figure 6.6.1.17. Epidote crystal included Figure 6.6.1.18. Epidote crystal included
into a plagioclase, partly replaced by K- into a plagioclase, partly replaced by K-
feldspar (or). Crossed polarrs, porphyrytic feldspar (or). Crossed polarrs, porphyrytic
tonalite of the La Dorada. tonalite of the La Dorada.
Amphibole The amphiboole content in the matrix was

lesser than in phenocrysts, up to 20 % modal.
Amphibole was present in the phenocrysts
in a high proportion, up to 40% modal. The Epidote
grain size is in the range 1-2 mm and it tends
to be euhedral, with long prismatic habit. Fe-rich epidote is found as euhedral short
However, it is completely pseudomorphosed prismatic microphenocrysts, up to 400 microns
by secondary biotite, which occurs as fine- in length, included into plagioclase crystals (fig.
grained platelets (less than 50 microns in size) 6.6.1.17-6.6.1.18). These epidote grains are
with strong reddish-brown pleochroism (fig. considered as possibly primary magmatic
6.6.1.15-6.6.1.16). because the hosting plagioclases are not very
Amphibole in the matrix was similar in altered, although K-feldspar replacement
shape to the amphibole present in phenocrysts, occurs. Zoning may be possible in these
but has been also completely altered to biotite. crystals. They occur just as trace minerals.
Apatite
Apatite is also a trace mineral, and is

found as small inclusions in the phenocrysts. It
occurs as euhedral crystals of long prismatic
habit, made up by hexagonal prism and
pinacoid, with less than 50 microns in length.
Pyrite amp>
pl
Opaque minerals are rare in this rock, and
only pyrite has been found in the altered zones,
where it occurs as anhedral crystals, very rich
in inclusions of minerals of the matrix. It should F i g u re 6 . 6 . 1 . 1 9 . G e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e
be produced during the hydrothermal amphibole porphyrytic diorites of the La
alteration. Dorada facies, in PPL. Sample WR-67.
6.6.1.3. HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITIC

DIORITES OF THE LA DORADA FACIES pl
amp>
Porphyrytic diorites of this type were
sampled in road in the La Dorada area (sample
WR-67). These rocks are very distinct from or
amp>
the other in the area because of the dark color
produced by a high content in mafic minerals. pl
qtz
These porphyrytic diorites have a typical
porphyrytic texture, with phenocrysts of
plagioclase, biotite and hornblende, and an
aphanitic matrix, made up by the same minerals Figure 6.6.1.20. The above image, in crossed
(figs. 6.6.1.19-6.6.1.20). Apatite, zircon and polars. Amp, amphibole, pl, plagioclase.
ilmenite occur in trace amounts. K-feldspar and Brownish color is, in part, due to the
quartz are lacking in these rocks. The abundance of fine-grained econdary biotite.
phenocrysts are scarce (less than 15% modal).
Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral among

<FK
the phenocrysts (up to 65%). These are
euhedral and have a short prismatic habit.
Grain size is in the range between 5-8 mm. pl
Polysynthetic twining is complex, and mainly or
twinning on the albite and pericline laws, and qtz
other simple laws. Concentric zoning is well
developed. These crystals may be partly
Figure 6.6.1.21. Plagioclase phenocryst (pl),
replaced by secondary hydrothermal K-
partly replaced along the border of the grains by
feldspar (fig. 6.6.1.21-6.6.1.22).
hydrothermal K-feldspar (FK), more turbid.
Plagioclase in the matrix is very different.
PPL. Amphibole porphyrytic diorites of the La
The crystal size is smaller, less than 100 microns
Dorada facies.
<FK
bt1
pl
Figure 6.6.1.22. The above image, in crossed Figure 6.6.1.23. A detail of a corroded primary
polars. Sample WR-67. biotite phenocryst (bt1). PPL. Amphibole
porphyrytic diorites of the La Dorada facies.
pl pl
amp
or or amp
bt2> bt2>
qtz qtz
Figure 6.6.1.24. Amphibole phenocrysts Figure 6.6.1.25. The above image in crossed
(amp), partly replaced by secondary biotite polars. Sample Wr-67.
(bt2). PPL. Amphibole porphyrytic diorites of
the La Dorada facies.
in length, and the crystals have a tabular habit. pale green clinochlore and secondary
Only polysynthetic twinning on the albite law magnetite.
is present, and zoning is absent. Plagioclase A second population of biotite is found in
may constitute up to the 40% modal of the the matrix, where it is more abundant (up to
matrix. 30% modal). It occurs as small platelets, less
than 100 microns in length. The color is similar
Biotite to that of the phenocrysts. At the least part of
this biotite can be hydrothermal
Biotite is present in a low modal amount Some biotite microcrystals, also in the
in the phenocrysts, up to 10 %. The grain size range of 50-100 microns in diameter, are found
is in the range 4-6 mm. It is found as subhedral as a replacement product of amphibole and
to rounded tabular to prismatic crystals (fig. biotite phenocrysts (figs. 6.6.1.24-6.6.1.25).
6.6.1.23), and have strong pleochroism in They may correspond to a late hydrothermal
reddish brown hues. Cleavages and grain biotite, and could be developped in association
borders can be replaced by associations of with late hydrothermal potasssic alteration.
Clinopyroxene Amphibole
Some pyroxene pseudomorphs are found Amphibole is present in the phenocrysts

among the phenocrysts. They have up to 4 mm in a higher modal proportion to that of biotite,
in lenght, and are completely replaced by sat up to 25 %. The grain size is in the range 3-5
the least two generations of fibrous uralitic mm. It tends to be euhedral, and crystals have
amphibole, which is pale greenish to colorless; long prismatic habit.
on its turn, this secondary amphibole may be Pleochroism is strong in brownish-green
partly replaced by the reddish hydrothermal colors. Zoning is concentric, well developed
biotite (fig. 6.6.1.26-6.6.1.27). Pyroxene is (fig. 6.6.1.28-6.6.1.29), and polysynthetic
rare and can be conssidered just a trace twining is found in all of the crystals. Inclusions
mineral, but their presence is important as a of euhedral biotite crystals indicate a late
petrogenetic indicator. Despite the composition growth of amphibole; however, a late potassic
is difficult to be identified, probably it could alteration produces smal biotite crystals that
be a clinopyroxene of the diopside-augite replace the amphibole along grain borders and
series. fractures.
amp2
bt2> bt2>
amp2
F i g u re 6 . 6 . 1 . 2 6 . Pyroxene phenocryst Figure 6.6.1.27. The above image in crossed

completely replaced by uralitic amphibole polars. Amphibole porphyrytic diorites of the
(amp2), which is replaced by hydrothermal biotite La Dorada facies. Sample WR-67.
(bt2). PPL.
amp1 amp1
Figure 6.6.1.28. Longitudinal section of a Figure 6.6.1.29. The above image in

zoned amphibole phenocryst (amp1). PPL. crossed polars. Note the replacement of
Amphibole porphyrytic diorites of the La Dorada some crystals by secondary biotite.
facies. Sample WR-67.
Amphibole crystals may also be found as Zircon
inclusions in plagioclase (fig. 6.6.1.30-6.6.1.31).
Amphibole in the matrix is similar in shape Zircon crystals are euhedral, and are found
and optical properties to the amphibole present as short prismatic crystals with bypyramidal
in phenocrysts, and the difference is on the terminations, less than 50 microns in length .
crystal size, less than 100 microns. On the other They are found in the matrix or as inclusions in
hand, the concentration of amphibole is higher phenocrysts (fig. 6.6.1.32).
in the matrix, ariving up to 30% modal.
Ilmenite
Apatite
Ilmenite is the unique primary opaque
Apatite is a trace mineral, and is found as mineral in these rocks, and it is only a trace
small inclusions in the phenocrysts. It occurs mineral. It develops anhedral grains, with sizes
as euhedral crystals of long prismatic habit, between 50 and 100 microns. These crystals
made up by hexagonal prism and pinacoid, are generally corroded and replaced by a
with less than 50 microns in length. titanite rim (fig. 6.6.1.33).
pl
pl pl
<amp1
<amp1
Figure 6.6.1.30. Basal amphibole section Figure 6.6.1.31. The above image in crossed
(amp1), as inclusion in plagioclase phenocryst polars. Note zoning in plagioclase. Amphibole is
(pl). PPL. Amphibole porphyrytic diorites of the not replaced and has the original olive green
La Dorada facies. Sample WR-67. color.
amp
<ttn
<zr pl
<ilm
Figure 6.6.1.32. Zircon crystal (zr) included Figure 6.6.1.33. Ilmenite (ilm) crystal in the
i n p l a g i o c l a s e p h e n o c r y s t ( p l ) . PPL. matrix, partly replaced by titanite (ttn). PPL,
Amphibole porphyrytic diorites of the La Dorada reflected light. Amphibole porphyrytic diorites
facies. Sample WR-67. of the La Dorada facies.Sample WR-67.
6.6.1.4. PORPHYRITIC DACITE OF THE just a small differnce in crystal size in the
GARRAPATERO FACIES microphenocrysts of biotite and amphibole, that
are smaller in Loma Esperanza. In addition, garnet
Porphyrytic dacites of this type crop out is a rare trace accessory in the Garrapatero rocks,
along the road in Garrapatero area (sample but has not been found in Loma Esperanza.
227), and samples very similar were obtained Hence, we will base the description of these rocks
at Loma Esperanza (sample 228). on the Garrapatero sample, with some
The porphyrytic rock consists of contributions from Loma Esperanza.
phenocrysts of plagioclase and quartz
scattered in a microcrystalline matrix, made up Quartz
by the same minerals, K-feldspar and
microphenocrysts of biotite and amphibole Quartz is an important component of the
(figs. 6.6.1.34-6.6.1.37). The ratio phenocrysts, where it may achieve up to 35%
phenocrysts/matrix is about 0,6. modal. It is found as rounded subhedral grains,
Differences between the samples from corresponding to bypyramidal beta-quartz
Garrapatero and Loma Esperanza are minor, crystals. These crystals may be embayed
qtz> qtz>
<amp <amp
pl
<bt1 pl <bt1
Figure 6.6.1.34. General view of a porphyrytic Figure 6.6.1.35. The above image in crossed
dacite of the Garrapatero facies. Garrapatero, polars. Note a coarse-grained matrix.
sample 227. Pl, plagioclase, qtz, quartz, amp,
amphibole, bt, biotite. PPL.
pl
amp> pl amp>
qtz>
pl
qtz> <bt1
<bt1 qtz>
Figure6.6.1.36. General view of a porphyrytic Figure 6.6.1.37. The above image in

dacite of the Garrapatero facies. Loma crossed polars. Note a fine-grained matrix
Esperanza, sample 228 Pl, plagioclase, qtz, when compared with the Garrapatero type
quartz, amp, amphibole, bt, biotite. PPL. locality.
(fig.6.6.1.38). The crystal size is between 5-9 size, but it is probably 15 % modal in the matrix.
mm. Most of the crystals do not show wavy Some part of this feldspar can be produced by
extinction. hydrothermal alteration.
Quartz is also found in the matrix, where
appears also as subhedral grains, intergrown Plagioclase
with plagioclase (fig. 6.6.1.39). It is difficult
to evaluate carefully the proportions because Plagioclase is the dominant mineral among
of the extremely fine grain size, but it may be the phenocrysts (up to 60%), and is the mineral
present up to 25 % modal in the matrix. with a bigger size (up to 5 mm). Crystals are
euhedral, with a short prismatic habit.
K-feldspar Polysynthetic twining is complex, and mainly
It is found only as anhedral grains in the twinning on the albite and pericline laws (fig.
matrix, where may be interstitial among quartz and 6.6.1.40), and other simple laws. Crystals may
plagioclase. It is difficult to evaluate carefully the include older generations of plagioclase (fig.
proportions because of the extremely fine grain 6.6.1.41). Concentric zoning is well developed.
qtz amp
pl
<qtz qtz>
Figure 6.6.1.38. Embayed quartz phenocryst. Figure 6.6.1.39. Detail of the matrix in crossed
Note fine-grained biotite in the matrix. Crossed polars. Note subhedral quartz (qtz) and
polars.Porphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero plagioclase (pl). Porphyrytic dacite of the
facies. Loma Esperanza, sample 228. Garrapatero facies. Garrapatero, sample 227.
<qtz
pl
pl
Figure6.6.1.40. Zoned plagioclase crystal Figure 6.6.1.41. Plagioclase crystal containing

showing multiple twinning on albite and pericline older generations of plagioclase. Crossed polars.
laws.Porphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero facies. Porphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero facies.
Crossed polars. Loma Esperanza, sample 228. Loma Esperanza, sample 228.
These crystals are partly altered to sericite. It may Esperanza, it is more fine-grained, ranging
contain inclusions of microphenocrysts of between 0,3-0,5 mm. In both outcrops the
amphibole and epidote. mineral is euhedral, with long prismatic habit (figs.
Plagioclase in the matrix has a diferent aspect. 6.6.1.42-6.6.1.47). Concentrical color zoning is
The crystal size is smaller, less than 40 microns in connspicuous, and different trends occur according
length, and the crystals have a more long prismatic with the grain size; the most common is a pale green
habit. Only polysynthetic twinning on the albite core and a darker border, but inverse trends are
law is present, and zoning is absent. Plagioclase seen, as well as oscillatory changes. In some cases,
may constitute up to the 25 % modal of the matrix. the dark green color suggest the presence of Fe3+
in the structure (fig. 6.6.1.44). Polysynthetic
Amphibole twinning is universal.
Amphibole occurs as phenocrysts or as Biotite

microphenocrysts in the matrix, where it can reach
proportions up to 15 % modal. At Garrapatero, Biotite, similarly to amphibole, occurs only
the grain size is in the range 0,2-1 mm; at Loma as microphenocrysts in the matrix, where it can
pl
amp
amp
Figure 6.6.1.42. Zoned aphibole phenocryst Figure 6.6.1.43. The above image in crossed
(amp). Note biotite crystals (bt) in the matrix. polars.
PPL. Porphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero
facies. Loma Esperanza, sample 228.
<bt
amp amp
pl pl
Figure6.6.1.44. Longitudinal section of an Figure 6.6.1.45. The above image in

amphibole crystal, accompanied with primary crossed polars.
biotite (bt). orphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero
facies. Loma Esperanza, sample 228.
reach up to 20% modal. In Garrapatero, the grain thus corresponding to compositions of the
size is in the range 0,4-2 mm, bigger than the piralspite series. It is just a trace mineral.
amphiboles; in Loma Esperanza, the crystal size
if slightly smaller, between 0,3-0,6 mm. In all the Apatite
cases, biotite is euhedral, with tabular habit,
although in Loma Esperanza the crystals are more Apatite is a trace mineral, and is found as
flattened. Color is reddish brown. The cleavages small euhedral inclusions in the phenocrysts. Habit
may be slightly bent or kinked, and may be altered is long prismatic, made up by hexagonal prism
to clinochlore along these cleavages. and pinacoid, with less than 200 microns in length.
Garnet Ilmenite
Anhedral grains of garnet, having less than Ilmenite is the only opaque mineral present
100 microns in diameter, have been found as in these samples, and it is found as scarce
inclusions into a plagioclase crystal (fig. 6.6.1.49). subhedral prismatic crystals, with skeletal shape.
The crystal is pale rose, not zoned and isotropic, The grain size is around 500 microns.
bt>
amp
amp
Figure 6.6.1.46. Euhedral longitudinal zoned Figure 6.6.1.47. The above image in crossed
amphibole (amp) in a coarse matrix. PPL. polars. Note some biotite in the matrix (bt).
Porphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero facies.
Garrapatero, sample 227.
amp
bt pl
<grn
bt
qtz
Figure6.6.1.48. Longitudinal section of a Figure 6.6.1.49. Inclusionn of garnet (grn)

biotite crystal (bt), accompanied with into a plagioclase phenocryst (pl).
amphibole (amp). Porphyrytic dacite of the Porphyrytic dacite of the Garrapatero facies.
Garrapatero facies. Garrapatero, sample 227. Garrapatero, sample 227.

PORPHYRITIC GRANODIORITES OF pl
THE SAN JERONIMO FACIES
These porphyrytic granodiorites were

found in the San Jeronimo area (sample 226;
<qtz
Figure 6.1.1.1). Intense hydrothermal
alterations, such as sericitization and
chloritization, obliterated the primary mineral amp> pl
associations. have masked the original mineral
composition of these rocks.
These granodiorites are fine to medium
grained, with a porphyrytic texture and a
coarse-grained matrix (fig. 6.6.1.50- Figure 6.6.1.50. General view of the hornblende
6.6.1.51). Mineral composition consists of biotite porphyrytic granodiorites of the San
quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase as essential Jerónimo facies. Sample 226, in PPL.
minerals, with lesser amounts of biotite and
amphibole. There are a slightly higher
proportion of phenocrysts by rapport to the
matrix. amp
<qtz
Quartz
pl
It is found mainly in the matrix, where it
can arrive to 30% modal. Quartz crystals are
subhedral, and the sections could correspond
to crystals of beta-quartz owing to the squared
sections, that correspond to longitudinal
sections of a bypyramidal hexagonal habit.
Grain size is 1-3 mm in average. Undulatory Figure 6.6.1.51. The above image in crossed
extinction is lacking. polars. Observe strongly sericitized plagioclase
(pl), quartz (qtz) and amphibole (amp).
Plagioclase
Plagioclase crystals are abundant in the

phenocrysts (up to 80% modal) and are
euhedral with a short prismatic habit. Grain size
is in the range 4-7 mm. Zoning is concentric pl pl
(fig. 6.6.1.52), and polysynthetic twinning is
on the albite law. Crystals are strongly
sericitized. pl
Plagioclase is also present in the qtz
microcrystalline matrix, where exhibit similar qtz
patterns as in the phenocrysts, but with a fine amp
grain size, in the order of a fex tens of microns. pl
Orthoclase
Figure 6.6.1.52. Detail of the alteration in
plagioclase; note concentric zoning. Hornblende
Orthoclase is not prsent as phenocrystals,
biotite porphyrytic granodiorites of the San
but it is abundant in the matrix. The proportions
Jerónimo facies. Sample 226, crossed polars.
are difficult to establish owing to the extreme Biotite
degree of hydrothermal alteration of these
rocks, but it probably attains 30% modal in Biotite crystals were completely altered to
the matrix. aggregates of greenish clinochlore or fine-
Crystals are anhedral and ocupies grained muscovite (sericite), associated with
interstitial position among plagioclase. Grain minor quantities of fine-grained titanite,
size is in the range 1-2 mm. Microperthites or epidote, magnetite or ilmenite and calcite. In
twinning are absent, and the crystals are some cases, biotite pseudomorphs by coarse
strongly sericitized. muscovite crystals are seen (fig. 6.6.2.53-
It is difficult to establish if the K-fedspar 6.6.1.54). However, the original shape may be
is primary or if it is related to a potassic deducted because the replacement is
hydrothermal alteration, as in other places in pseudomorphic; hence, the original form has
the Las Vegas region. It should be important been established as subhedral tabular crystals.
to compare these samples with samples of the Biotite is found in accessory quantities, up to
same rock coming from areas not affected by 10 % modal, and the crystal size in the range
hydrothermal alterations. 4-6 mm.
bt bt
F i g u re 6 . 6 . 1 . 5 3 . B i o t i t e p h e n o c r y s t , Figure 6.6.1.54. The above image in crossed

sericitized. Hornblende biotite porphyrytic polars.
granodiorites of the San Jerónimo facies.
Sample 226, in PPL.
pl
pl
pl
amp amp
qtz
Figure6.6.1.55. Amphibole crystal (amp), Figure 6.6.1.56. The above image in

partly chloritized. Hornblende biotite porphyrytic crossed polars.
granodiorites of the San Jerónimo facies. Sample
226, in PPL..
Amphibole
The grain size is in the range 5-10 mm,

and the crystals were euhedral, with long
prismatic habit. However, replacement of
amphibole is complete and produces, as in the
case of biotite, mixtures of clinochlore with amp
other secondary minerals (fig. 6.6.1.44-
6.6.1.45), as fine-grained anhedral titanite,
calcite and epidote, accompanied by fine-
grained anhedral crystals of ilmenite, magnetite;
in the most weathered parts of the profile,
hematite can be present as a secondary
product. F i g u re 6 . 6 . 1 . 5 7 . H i g h l y c h l o r i t i z e d
In some cases, owing to differences in the amphibole phenocrysts. Hornblende biotite
proportions of secondary products, it is porphyrytic granodiorites of the San
possible to establish an original pattern of Jerónimo facies. Sample. 226, in PPL.
zoning in the amphibole crystals, that probably
would have in origin a border enriched in iron,
as suggested by the slightly higher content in
secondary opaque minerals in the grain borders
(figs. 6.6.1.57-6.6.1.58)
Amphibole should be present in similar amp
modal proportions to those of biotite, but it is
difficult to establish because of the high
alteration of the rock. .
Apatite
Although being a trace mineral, apatite is

relatively common in these rocks, when Figure 6.6.1.58. The above image in crossed
compared with similar rocks in the Las Vegas polars. Note darkening at the borders owing to
region. It may occur as inclusions in quartz, a higher content in secondary opaque minerals.
plagioclase, biotite and amphibole. The
crystals are euhedral (fig. 6.6.1.59), and
consist of combinations of hexagonal prism and clc
the corresponding pinacoid. The habit is long
prismatic. The crystal size is also big in
comparation with similar rocks, and may be in
the order of 500 microns. <ap
<ap
Zircon

short prismatic crystals, less than 50 microns
inclusions in biotite and amphibole, and, Figure 6.6.1.59. Apatite crystals (ap) in the
occasionally, on quartz crystals. In appearence, matrix. Biotite is replaced by chlorite (clc).
izircon crystals does not contains inherited Hornblende biotite porphyrytic granodiorites of
zircon grains, and zoning is lacking. the San Jerónimo facies. Sample 226, in PPL.
6.6.1.6. FELSITIC RHYODACITE OF 6.6.1.62-6.6.1.63). Mafic minerals are not
THE CAJIBIO FACIES seen, probably because of the strong alteration
affecting this rock (a succesion of potassic,
A fine-grained, microcrystalline rock rock chloritic and sericitic alterations). The
crops out in the Cajibio sector, in the microphenocrysts are scarce, only around 25%
Santander de Quilichao area. Description is of the rock.
based on sample WR-224, which is strongly
altered. It should be necessary some additional Quartz
section of fresh rocks to establish the original
mineral assemblages. Quartz is an important component of the
The rock has a very low content in aphanitic matrix, where it may achieve up to
phenocryst, and most of the crystals are 40 % modal. It is found as rounded subhedral
cryptocrystalline (fig. 6.6.1.60-6.6.1.61). It grains, corresponding to bypyramidal beta-
consists of microphenocrysts of plagioclase quartz crystals. It may be also anhedral. The
scattered in a microcrystalline matrix, made up crystal size is between 0,1-0,3 mm. These
by quartz, plagioclase and K-feldspar (fig. crystals do not show wavy extinction.
Figure 6.6.1.60. General aspect of the Figure 6.6.1.61. The above image in crossed
felsitic rhyodacite of the Cajibio facies. polars.
Note the cryptocrystalline matrix and lack
of phenocrysts.PPL, sample WR-224.
pl
pl pl
pl pl pl
pl
<qtz
FK
qtz FK qtz
<ser
Figure 6.6.1.62. Aspect of the matrix of the Figure 6.6.1.63. The above image in crossed
felsitic rhyodacite of Cajibio, composed by polars. Plagioclase is subhedral. Note the
plagioclase (pl), quartz (qtz) and K-feldspar interstitial K-feldspar (FK), accompanied
(FK). PPL, sample WR-224. by sericite (ser).
K-feldspar of polysynthetic twinning on the albite and

pericline laws, and other simple laws.
It is found only as anhedral grains in the Concentric zoning is well developed. These
aphanitic matrix, intergrown with quartz and crystals are partly altered to K-feldspar and
plagioclase. It is probably around 30 % modal sericite.
in the matrix. It is not altered, although it has a Plagioclase in the matrix has a similar
cloudy aspect. Perthites are absent, and the aspect, but the crystal size is around 0,1-0,3
crystals are not twinned. mm. Plagioclase may constitute up to the 30
% modal of the matrix.
Plagioclase
Amphibole
Plagioclase is the only mineral that makes
up the microphenocrysts, and the size is close Amphibole was present in the fresh rock
to 0,8 mm. These crystals are euhedral, with a as phenocrysts of long prismatic habit, up to 5
short prismatic habit. Polysynthetic twining is mm in lenght and less than 1 mm in width (fig.
complex, and mainly consists of combinations 6.6.1.64-6.6.1.65). However, this mineral
amp amp
Figure 6.6.1.64. Hornblende phenocryst, Figure 6.6.1.65. The above image in crossed
replaced by calcite and chlorite. Hornblende polars. Note the high interferece colous of the
biotite porphyrytic granodiorites of the San calcite.
Jerónimo facies. Sample 226, in PPL.
pl
bt clc
<ser
<qtz
pl
Figure6.6.1.66. Biotite crystal in the matrix Figure 6.6.1.67. The above image in
(bt), chloritized and sericitized. Hornblende crossed polars. Note sericite (ser) at the
biotite porphyrytic granodiorites of the San borders of chlorite (clc)
Jerónimo facies. Sample 226, in PPL..
should be very scarce, and in addition has been strongly replaced by mixtures of chlorite and
completely replaced by calcite and sericite. sericite. Sericite alteration seems to overprint
At the present moment it is not possible the chloritizations (figs. 6.6.1.66-6.6.1.67).
to establish the original composition, but the The shape of the crystals should be
presence of calcite as a fominant phase among tabular, as in most of the biotite occurrences.
the secondary hydrothermal alteration products
of the mineral suggests that the mineral was a Ilmenite
calcic amphibole, possibly a hornblende.
Ilmenite is the only opaque mineral present
Biotite in these samples, and it is found as scarce
subhedral prismatic crystals, with skeletal
As in the case of the amphibole, it has shape. The grain size is around 300 microns,
not been observed as fresh crystals. It is and it is partly altered to titanite.
6.6.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Cauca Department porphyritic rocks 855
6.6.2. WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE CAUCA

DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Whole-rock geochemistry analyses of the different intrusive rocks were selected for
Cauca igneous rocks include a complete set whole-rock geochemistry analyses.
of 30 rock samples from the La Vega-La Sierra These samples include three samples
area in the south and the Buenos Santander around the Santander de Quilichao townsite,
de Quilichao-Aires-Suarez area in the north, at the Las Frías Hill (WR-226), Garrapatero
within the Cauca Department. (WR-227) and Loma Esperanza (WR-228)
In the La Vega-La Sierra area, the sectors; four samples around Buenos Aires and
analyzed samples include the three rock Suarez townsites (Samples WR-110 to WR-
samples from La Dorada Sector, located about 113); and another sample around the Cajibio
5km to the NW of La Vega Townsite, townsite (WR-224).
described above in the Section 6.6.1: the All of the samples show no significant
hornblende biotite tonalite facies (Sample WR- evidence of hydrothermal alteration/weathering
66; Section 6.6.1.1), the porphyritic tonalite under hand sample inspection.
facies (Sample WR-68; Section 6.6.1.2), and
the hornblende porphyritic diorite facies
(Sample WR-67; Section 6.6.1.3). These 6.6.2.1. MAJOR ELEMENTS
samples are included into the ‘Betulia Igneous GEOCHEMISTRY
Complex’ (Orrego et al., 1999).
Four dacite porphyry samples around La The samples of the La Vega-La Sierra area
Sierra townsite were also analyzed, including show similar major elements contents with no
two samples from Cerro Gordo (Samples WR- significant differences.
174 and WR-175), located about 5km to the The samples returned moderate to high
north of La Sierra townsite; and two samples SiO 2 (55.03-68.86%) and Al 2 O 3 (14.15-
from the Dominical area (Samples WR-176 and 17.00%) contents.
WR-177), located 8km to the SW of La Sierra The CaO, Na 2O and K 2O contents are
townsite. moderate (3.66-6.89%, 2.70-4.67% and
In addition, a set of 15 representative 1.17-3.19%, respectively); whereas the MgO
samples from the Betulia Igneous Complex contents are highly variable (0.55-6.98%).
(Orrego et al., 1999), to the NW of La Vega All of the samples of the La Vega-La Sierra
townsite were also analyzed (Samples WR-250 area and the Santander de Quilichao-Buenos
to WR-264). These samples include different Aires-Suarez area plot into the calc-alkaline
phaneritic and porphyritic igneous facies field of the AFM triangle plot by Irvine and
mapped and described in detail by Gil- Baragar (1971) (Figure 6.6.2.1).
Rodriguez and Betancourt-Devia (in prep.). On the K 2O vs. SiO 2 plot by Peccerillo
In the Santander de Quilichao-Buenos and Taylor (1976), the samples define a
Aires-Suarez area, eight rock samples from medium-K calc-alkaline trend with some
856 SECTION 6.6. - THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS

Baragar, 1971) for the hypabyssal intrusive a n d Ta y l o r, 1 9 7 6 ) f o r t h e h y p a b y s s a l
rocks of the Cauca Department. intrusive rocks of the Cauca Department.

(Shand, 1943) for the hypabyssal intrusive et al., 1979) for the hypabyssal intrusive
rocks of the Cauca Department. rocks of the Cauca Department.
( O ’ C o n n o r, 1 9 6 5 ) f o r t h e h y p a b y s s a l (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the hypabyssal
intrusive rocks of the Cauca Department. intrusive rocks of the Cauca Department.
6.6.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Cauca Department porphyritic rocks 857
samples (WR-66, WR-68 and WR-175) into the Pre-plate Collision (subduction-
shifting up into the high-K calc-alkaline field, related) field (Figure 6.6.2.6).
probably associated with moderate to strong
potassic alteration as evidenced by the
presence of secondary biotite in the samples 6.6.2.2. TRACE ELEMENTS
(Sections 6.6.1.1 and 6.6.1.2) (Figure GEOCHEMISTRY
6.6.2.2).
On the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand With respect to the trace elements,
(1943), most of the samples plot into the remarkable differences are observed between
metaluminous field with exception of the sample the south La Vega-La Sierra area and the north
close to the Cajibio townsite (WR-224) which Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez
plots into the peraluminous field (Figure area.
6.6.2.3). In any case, the samples returned A/ Trace element contents of the Cauca
CNK<1.1 values, indicating an I-type granite igneous rocks were compared against the Bulk
series affinity. Continental Earth and the Primordial Mantle
The TAS classification plot after Cox et values after Taylor and McLennan (1995) and
al. (1979), show most of the samples of La Wood et al. (1979), respectively, into
Vega-La Sierra area plotting into the diorite multielemental ‘spider-diagram’ plots (Figures
field and some into the granodiorite field. 6.6.2.7 and 6.6.2.8).
Conversely, the samples from the Santander The samples of the La Vega-La Sierra
de Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez area plot region in the south of the Cauca department
mostly in the granodiorite field with few exhibit similar patterns characterized by
samples plotting into de diorite field (Figure enrichment of Large Ion Lithophile (LIL)
6.6.2.4). elements (e.g. Ba, K and Sr) and depletion of
The feldspar triangle by O’Connor (1965) High Field Strength (HFS) elements (e.g. Nb-
shows most of the Cauca igneous rocks from Ta and Ti), indicating strong subduction-
the north Santander de Quilichao-Buenos related signature.
Aires-Suarez area and the south La Vega-La On the other hand, the Santander de
Sierra area clustering in the granodiorite field Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez area in the
(Figure 6.6.2.5). north of the Cauca Department returned more
The R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot by variable trace elements values with anomalies
Batchelor and Bowden (1985) shows most of being not so well-defined, but still the subduction-
the samples of the Cauca igneous rocks plotting related signature can be distinguished.
Figure 6.6.2.7. Bulk Continental Crust- F i g u re 6 . 6 . 2 . 8 . P r i m o rd i a l M a n t l e -

for the hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the for the hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Cauca Department. Cauca Department.
858 SECTION 6.6. - THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Additional remarkable features are high Sr

(>400ppm), low Y (<18ppm), low Yb
(<1.9ppm), low Rb (<65ppm).
Differences between the northern and
southern areas of the igneous rocks of the
Cauca Department include higher (>20ppm) Ni
and Cr contents in the La Vega-La Sierra rock
samples with respect to the Santander de
Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez area samples
(<20ppm).

6 . 6 . 2 . 3 . R A R E E A RT H E L E M E N T S plot for the hypabyssal intrusive rocks of
GEOCHEMISTRY the Cauca Department.
The Rare Earth Elements (REE) contents Weakly negative Eu anomalies are
of the Cauca igneous rocks were compared dominant with some exceptions of weak
against the chondrite values after Boynton positive anomalies (Eu/Eu*= 0.89-1.09), and
(1984) (Figure 6.6.2.9). the HREE show gentle decreasing patterns with
Again, REE patterns indicate remarkable enrichments of about 10x the chondrite values
differences of the La Vega-La Sierra rock ((Gd/Lu)N=1.2-2.4).
samples with the Santander de Quilichao- On the other hand, the samples from the
Buenos Aires-Suarez rock samples. Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez
The samples from La Vega-La Sierra area area show more variable REE patterns.
yielded higher REE contents (REE=61.4- The more gentle decreasing fractionated
131.0ppm) with respect to the samples from slopes ((La/Lu) N =2.6-6.4) indicate less
Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez fractionation of the LREE with respect to the
area (REE=27.3-67.0ppm) HREE when compared to La Vega-La Sierra
The samples from La Vega-La Sierra area area samples, and Eu anomalies vary from
show very similar REE patterns with moderate weakly negative to weakly positive (Eu/
to steep decreasing fractionated slopes ((La/ Eu*=0.91-1.05).
Lu)N=8.8-15.2), where LREE enrichment with In particular, the samples WR-224 and
respect to HREE is clear. WR-228 returned anomalous lower HREE values.
6.6.3. - Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Cauca Department porphyritic rocks 859

THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
In order to constraint the age of the Cauca crystallization age of the intrusive suite was
hypabyssal igneous rocks, six samples were constrained by the analysis of a medium-
dated by zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS grained diorite porphyry sample (ZIR-01)
method. selected as a representative sample of the
The analyzed samples include the Suarez hypabyssal intrusive suite.
hornblende biotite tonalite (Sample WR-66; Moreover, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb
Section 6.6.1.1), the tonalite porphyry isotope chemistry analyses were carried out in
(Sample WR-68; Section 6.6.1.2), and the six samples, three of the La Vega-La Sierra
hornblende diorite porphyry (Sample WR-67; area (WR-254, WR-254 and WR-261) and
Section 6.6.1.3), of the ‘Betulia Igneous three from Santander de Quilichao-Buenos
Complex’ in the southern La Vega-La Sierra Aires-Suarez area (WR-224, WR-227 and
area. WR-228).
In addition, two samples of the diorite
porphyry rocks at Cerro Gordo (WR-175) and
Dominical (WR-177) sector were also dated 6.6.3.1. ZIRCON U-Pb GEOCHEMISTRY
in this southern area.
In the northern Santander de Quilichao- Seven rock samples of the Cauca
Buenos Aires-Suarez area, the magmatic hypabyssal igneous bodies were dated by the
Table 6.6.3.1. Zircon U-Pb magmatic crystallization ages for the hypabyssal intrusives from the
Cauca Department
860 SECTION 6.6.- THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Pb analyses of the Dominical hypabyssal Pb analyses of the Cerro Gordo hypabyssal
intrusive (Sample WR-177). intrusive (Sample WR-175).
Pb analyses of the tonalite of La Dorada, at analyses of the tonalite porphyry of Altamira,
La Vega-La Sierra area (Sample WR-66). La Vega-La Sierra area (Sample WR-68).
Figure 6.6.3.5. Concordia plot for zircon U-Pb Figure 6.6.3.6. Concordia plot for zircon U-
analyses of the diorite porphyry of La Dorada, Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry of the
La Vega-La Sierra area (Sample WR-67). Suarez porphyry suite (Sample ZIR-01).
zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS method. The
results of the analyses are summarized in Table
6.6.3.1.
The samples from the La Vega-La Sierra
area yielded early to late Miocene ages
spanning the ca. 17-9Ma interval.
The oldest magmatic crystallization age
was obtained from the sample of the Dominical
area (WR-177) which returned an early
Miocene age of 17.0±0.4Ma (Figure 6.6.3.1).
The Cerro Gordo porphyry sample (WR-
175) retruned a middle Miocene magmatic
crystallization age of 14.0±0.3Ma (Figure
6.6.3.2).
The phaneritic hornblende biotite tonalite
sample from La Dorada (Sample WR-66;
Section 6.6.1.1), and the tonalite porphyry
sample from Altamira (Sample WR-68; Section
6.6.1.2) returned similar ages in the middle/
late Miocene limit of 11.8±0.2Ma and
11.6±0.2Ma, respectively (Figures 6.6.3.3 and F i g u re 6 . 6 . 3 . 7 . Z i rc o n U - P b a g e s f o r
6.6.3.4). hypabyssal intrusives of the Cauca
The hornblende diorite porphyry from La Department.
Dorada returned the youngest late Miocene
magmatic age of 9.2±0.2Ma (Figure 6.6.3.5).
On the other hand, the hypabyssal igneous Inheritance ages were obtained in few
rock sample from the northern Cauca zircon crystals of the samples WR-67 and WR-
Department in the Santander de Quilichao- 68 at ca. 30Ma, 50Ma, 80Ma and 90Ma
Buenos Aires-Suarez area (i.e. the Suarez would indicate assimilation of pre-existing
porphyry suite), returned an early Miocene rocks within the Romeral mélange/assemblage
magmatic crystallization age of 17.7±0.5Ma (Section 2.2.3.3).
(Figure 6.6.3.6), which compares well with the
earliest magmatic facies identified in the La
Vega-La Sierra area at Dominical (Sample 6.6.3.2. Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb ISOTOPE
WR-177). GEOCHEMISTRY
A summary of the ages obtained for the
Cauca porphyry rocks in the northern and The Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd results obtained
southern areas is presented in the Figure for the samples of the Cauca Department
6.6.3.7. hypabyssal igneous rocks are summarized in
The magmatic crystallization zircon U-Pb the tables 6.6.3.2 and 6.6.3.3.
ages obtained in this work indicate a strong All of the samples returned moderate Rb
magmatic activity during Miocene times in the contents in a narrow range (40.74-65.58ppm)
Cauca Department region, expressed in with high Sr contents (558.15-855.10ppm).
different intrusive facies spanning the 17Ma to On the other hand, Sm and Nd contents
9Ma interval. This magmatic activity would in the northern Santander de Quilichao-Buenos
have been extended to the south into the Aires-Suarez area are lower (1.22-1.56ppm
Nariño Department, as indicated by the and 5.07-6.53ppm, respectively), when
hornblende K-Ar (magmatic?) age of the compared with the those from the Betulia
Arboledas (Berruecos) andesite porphyry Igneous Complex samples (Sm=2.66-3.73ppm
sample (9.9±0.8Ma; Section 6.9.3.2). and Nd=12.76-18.03ppm).
862 SECTION 6.6.- THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Table 6.6.3.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for intrusive rocks of the Cauca
Department.
Table 6.6.3.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for intrusive rocks of the Cauca
Department.

results for the intrusive rocks of the
Cauca Department.
Figure 6.6.3.8.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for

samples of the intrusive rocks of the Cauca
Department.
206
Pb/ 204 Pb) plot for samples of the Cauca Department.
The samples returned low initial 87Sr/86Sr variable crustal-derived source component
ratios and positive Nd values. (Figure 6.6.3.8).
Initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios from the Betulia The lead isotope geochemistry results
Igneous Complex span in the 0.70431- obtained from the Cauca hypabyssal intrusives
0.70505 interval, and yielded slightly negative are summarized in Table 6.6.3.4.
to positive  Nd values (-1.06 to +3.21). All of the samples returned radiogenic
The hypabyssal intrusives of the Suarez values with 207Pb/ 204Pb>15.55, and cluster in
porphyry suite at the Santander de Quilichao- narrow ranges ( 206 Pb/ 204 Pb = 19.00-19.31;
207
Buenos Aires-Suarez area, returned lower Pb/ 204 Pb = 15.63-15.76 and 208 Pb/ 204 Pb =
initial 87Sr/ 86Sr ratios (0.70370 and 0.70373) 38.71-39.20).
and more positive  Nd values (+3.89 and In both, the uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
+6.11). Pb/ 204 Pb) and thorogenic ( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
Initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio and  Nd value from 206
Pb/ 204 Pb) lead isotope plots, the samples
the Cajibio porphyry (0.70469 and +0.13), define subvertical arrays with narrow 206Pb/
204
compares well with the Betulia Igneous Pb range, and it is clearly observed how the
Complex values. Betulia Igneous Complex yield more radiogenic
In the Sr-Nd plot, all of the samples plot values than the samples from the Santander de
within the mantle array, indicating a principle Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez area (Figure
mantle-derived source for the magmas with 6.6.3.9).
SECTION 6.7.
Porphyry-Associated
in the Cauca Department
6.7.1. INTRODUCTION
The gold deposits of the Cauca region

define a ca. 130km long NNE trending corridor
along the Cauca river basin in the Cauca
Department.
Porphyry-type Cu-Au mineralization in the
Cauca region is closely associated to middle
to late Miocene diorite to granodiorite
hypabyssal intrusives, which intrude the meta-
sedimentary and meta-volcanic oceanic-affinity
rocks of the early Cretaceous Dagua-
Diabasico assemblage and the continental
sedimentary rocks of the Esmita Formation
(Paris and Marin, 1979; Cediel and Cáceres,
2000; Gómez et al., 2007).
Gold mineralization is located in two
areas: to the north the Buenos Aires-Suarez
area and to the south the La Vega trend area
(Figure 6.7.1.1)
The northernmost Buenos Aires-Suárez
area is located over the Western Cordillera, in
the western margin of the upper Cauca river
valley, where important gold occurrences are
exploited in different areas such as La Teta,
Paso de bobo, Santander de Quilichao-
M u n c h i q u e a n d Ta m b o - S a n t a n d e r d e
Quilichao areas (Utter, 1984).
The southern La Vega trend area is
located over the Central Cordillera around the
La Vega and La Sierra townsites, where
important gold mineralizations include
Dominical, Cerro Gordo, La Vega and La
Concepción (Shaw, 2003).
The magmatic belt continues to the south
into the Nariño Department, with the late
Miocene Arboledas (Berruecos) hypabyssal
intrusive which also host significant gold
mineralization (Section 6.9.1.2).
In the following sections, a brief description Figure 6.7.1.1. Areas with Au mineralization
of the porphyry-related gold mineralization in the in the Cauca Department and sampling
La Vega region is presented. location.
6.7.2.- The ‘La Vega Trend’ gold deposits 869
6.7.2. THE ‘LA VEGA TREND’ GOLD DEPOSITS
The La Vega trend gold deposits are Betancourt-Devia, in prep.; Aguja-Bocanegra

distributed in a ca. 60 km long NNE-trending et al., 2009).
corridor along the Cauca river basin in the Moreover, about 45km to the southwest
western border of the southern Central o f t h e L a Ve g a t r e n d , t h e B e r r u e c o s
Cordillera, located about 80km to the SW of (Arboledas) Cu-Au porphyry suite, in the
Popayán city, in the Cauca Department. Nariño Department (9.9±0.8Ma K-Ar/whole-
In this well-defined corridor numerous rock; Section 6.9.3.2), seem to extend the
know gold occurrences associated to a As-Sb- continuity of the middle to late Miocene La
Hg-Ag-Pb-Zn metal signature are spatially Vega trend into the Nariño Department.
associated to middle to late Miocene porphyry Gold mineralization styles at the La Vega
suites intruding mixed fine-grained sedimentary trend include porphyry-hosted Au-Cu(Ag,Mo)
and schistose metamorphic sequences of the mineralization (e.g. Cerro Bolívar, Betulia,
tectonic mélange of the Romeral assemblage, Dominical-Santa Lucía-Piedra Sentada, Cerro
along low-angle regional thrust detachments Gordo) and spatially related epithermal
(Shaw, 2003). quartz+sulfide veins (e.g. La Concepción,
Most important porphyry suites identified Dominical, Cerro Gordo).
within the La Vega trend include from south to At La Concepción Mine, located about
north: the Cerro Bolívar porphyry suite, the 80km to the south from Popayán city, in the
Betulia Igneous Complex (ca. 12-9Ma U-Pb/ Almaguer Municipality of the Cauca
Zr; Section 6.6.3.1), Dominical-Santa Lucía- Department, gold has been extracted from a
Piedra Sentada porphyry suite (17.0±0.4Ma 3m wide, low-angle high-grade, quartz+sulfide
U-Pb/Zr; Section 6.6.3.1), and the Cerro structure hosted within a middle Miocene
Gordo porphyry suite (14.0±0.3Ma U-Pb/Zr; porphyry intrusive suite, but also within
Section 6.6.3.1). adjacent sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
Petrographic analyses of the hypabyssal of the Esmita Formation and the Cajamarca
intrusive rocks of the Betulia Igneous Complex Group, respectively (Shaw, 2003).
and the Dominical-Santa Lucía-Piedra Sentada According to this author, hydrothermal
porphyry suite within La Vega trend indicate alteration at La Concepción is widespread,
that they are highly variable in texture and pervasive and locally intense, including
composition. Texture vary from holocrystalline silicification, sericitization and pyritization.
to porphyritic and composition between Euhedral plates of biotite (potassic alteration?)
biotite-hornblende bearing diorite, tonalite, in altered porphyry were also described.
granodiorite, quartz-diorite and quartz- The Dominical-La Depresión area within
monzonite (Sections 6.6.1.1, 6.6.1.2 and the Dominical-Santa Lucía-Piedra Sentada
6.6.1.3; Shaw, 2003; Gil-Rodríguez and porphyry suite, is well-recognized by its
870 SECTION 6.7.- PORPHYRY-ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSTS IN THE CAUCA DEPARTMENT
numerous Au-Ag-Sb-As-Cu occurrences, hydrothermal alteration and high-temperature
mostly associated to a middle Miocene biotite- vein types (M-, A-, EB- and B-type); and 2)
hornblende-bearing intermediate to felsic a post-mineral phase characterized by
porphyry bodies intruding reduced fine-grained propylitic hydrothermal alteration accompanied
sedimentary rocks of the Esmita Formation by lower temperature vein types (B-, D-,
(Shaw, 2003). Cl+Ep-type).
At the Santa Lucía Porphyry Stock, In addition, low-sulfidation epithermal
porphyry-type Au-Cu mineralization has been quartz+sulfide vein-type mineralization with
recognized (Gómez-Gutiérrez and Molano- typical open-space filling textures (e.g.
Mendoza, 2009). Gold mineralization is massive, crustiform, colloform, breccia, comb,
associated with four different dacite-andesite Moss, zoning, mosaic) appear overimpossed
intrusive magmatic pulses grouped in two to the porphyry-type mineralization in the
phases: 1) an early high-temperature phase southern sector (Leguizamon-Bejarano et al.,
characterized by potassic (secondary biotite) 2009).
SECTION 6.8.
The Santander Massif

Porphyritic Rocks
6.8.1-Petrography of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks 873
6.8.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE SANTANDER MASSIF

PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
6.8.1.1. PORPHYRITIC DACITE OF THE scattered in a microcrystalline matrix (fig.

LA ARAÑA FACIES 6.8.1.1-6.8.1.2). The ratio phenocrysts/matrix
is close to 0,4.
Porphyrytic dacites of this type crop out The matrix of the rock is equigranular,
along the road in La Araña area (sample WR- almost cryptocrystalline, and is composed by
28). quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspars and minor
The porphyrytic rock of La Araña consists amounts of other minerals as brownish biotite,
of phenocrysts of plagioclase, brownish biotite amphibole, zircon, apatite and opaque minerals
and altered greenish amphibole, randomly (fig. 6.8.1.3-6.8.1.4).
pl
pl
bt1> bt>
pl
pl
bt1
Figure 6.8.1.1. General view of the porphyrytic Figure 6.8.1.2. The above image in crossed
dacite of the La Araña facies in PPL. Plagioclase polars. Note the fineness of the matrix.
(pl) and biotite crystals (bt) are outstanding. Note
some replacement in plagioclase.
bt1 pl bt1
<qtz
Figure6.8.1.3.Detail of the matrix of the Figure 6.8.1.4. The above image in crossed
above rock in PPL, mainly composed by polars.
quartz and feldspars, with minor amounts
of biotite (bt1).
874 SECTION 6.8 - THE SANTANDER MASSIF PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Quartz Concentric zoning is conspicuous (fig.

6.6.1.6), and twinning is complex, with
Quartz is the dominant mineral in the fine- combinations of pericline and albite laws; and
grained matrix (around 50% modal), and it Karlsbad and other simple laws are also
occurs as anhedral crystals. The crystal size is common.
in the order of 20 microns. In addition, scarce The crystal size of plagioclase phenocrysts
microphenocrysts showing the typical sections is in the centimetric order. It may contain
of beta-quartz can be also distinguished; their inclusions of older generations of plagioclase
size is in the order of 100 microns (fig. crystals.
6.6.1.5). Plagioclase in the matrix is also abundant,
and tends to be anhedral and zoned. Twinning
Plagioclase is lacking, making difficult to distinguish
optically this mineral from K-feldspar. It is
Plagioclase predominates among the difficult to assign a proportion for the minerals
phenocrysts (up to 75 % modal), and is in the matrix, but perhaps is in the order of
euhedral, with a short prismatic habit. 35% modal.
<bt1
bt1
<qtz
pl
bt2>
F igure 6.8.1.5. Euhedral quartz micro- Figure 6.8.1.6. Plagioclase crystal showing
phenocryst. (qtz). Basal biotite section (bt), partly zoning, accompanied by biotite (bt). Porphyrytic
corroded in the borders by fine-grained biotite (bt2). dacite of the La Araña facies in PPL.
PPL. Porphyrytic dacite of La Araña facies.
bt1
bt1 bt2
bt2
Figure 6.8.1.7. Longitudinal biotite section (bt1), Figure 6.8.1.8. TBasal biotite section (bt), partly
partly corroded in the borders by fine-grained biotite corroded in the borders by fine-grained biotite (bt2).
(bt2). PPL. Porphyrytic dacite of La Araña facies. PPL. Porphyrytic dacite of La Araña facies.
6.8.1-Petrography of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks 875
Sanidine represent up to 25% of the phenocrysts (fig.
6.6.1.7-6.6.1.8). It may be replaced aong the
Sanidine is absent in the phenocrysts, but grain borders by a second generation of biotite,
it seems to occur in the matrix filling interstitial that has a greenish pleochroism and that is found
positions among quartz grains. The crystals mainly scattered in the matrix.
should be larger than those of quartz, about Biotite is also found as microphenocrysts
100 microns, and the proportion could be in in the matrix, whose size is in the order of 0,5
the order of 15 % modal of the matrix. mm. In the matrix, biotite can reach proportions
up to 15% modal, and is anhedral or subhedral
Biotite tabular. It has a greenish brown pleochroism
(fig. 6.6.1.9-6.6.1.10).
Biotite may occur as phenocrysts, subhedral
and roughly tabular, but the borders of the crystals Allanite
are intergrown with the matrix. These crystals are
strongly pleochroic, with pale to dark brownish This miineral is found as scarce rounded
hues. The size is in the centimeter order, and can grains included in biotite (fig. 6.6.1.11-6.6.1.12).
bt2> bt2>
Figure 6.8.1.9. Aspect of biotite (bt2) in the Figure 6.8.1.10 The above image in crossed
matrix. Note the interstitial character of polars.
magnetite. Porphyrytic dacite of the La
Araña facies in PPL.
pl
bt1
aln> <aln
Figure 6.8.1.11. Allanite crystal (aln) as a Figure 6.8.1.12. The above image in
inclusion into biotite (bt1) phenocrysts in crossed polars.
porphyrytic dacite of the La Araña facies. PPL.
.
876 SECTION 6.8 - THE SANTANDER MASSIF PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Allanite has a very pale yellow color indicative

of a low content of Fe in its crystalline
structure, and it is not metamict, because it
does not create pleochroic haloes on the
surrounding biotite crystals. Its grain size is
small, less than 0,5 mm. It is not associated to
secondary epidote.
Apatite
Apatite is a trace mineral, and is found <zrn

only as euhedral crystals in the matrix or in
inclusions intoo the phenocrysts. Crystals have
long prismatic habit, and are made up by Figure 6.8.1.13. Detail of small zircon crystals
hexagonal prism and pinacoid, with less than included in the matrix. PPL., porphyrytic dacite
200 microns in length. of the La Araña facies.
Zircon
Zircon is very scarce, and has been found

as small inclusions in biotite crystals or
scattered in the matrix. In the matrix two
<zrn
populations are distinguished: one is less than
5 microns sin size (fig. 6.8.1.13)
The other population has euhedral crystals
scattered in th matrix (fig. 6.8.1.14). These are
larger, about 40 microns, and tend to be more
euhedral, showing a dominant tetragonal prisjm
with short bypyramidal terminations. It is not
metamict, and does not develop metamictic
Figure 6.8.1.14. Another detail of a zircon
aureolas.
crystal in the matrix. PPL, porphyrytic dacite of
the La Araña facies.
Ilmenite
Ilmenite occurs in the matrix, where is found

as scarce tabular subhedral grains, but it is
completely altered to hematite. The grain size is
between 50- 150 microns.
Magnetite
Magnetite crystals occur in the matrix in two mt>

populations: one has fine-grained euhedral
crystals (less than 20 microns; fig. 6.8.1.15); the
other occurs as larger anhedral rounded crystals
(up to 1 mm). These crystals have ilmenite
exsolutions. All of them are pseudomorphosed by
F i g u re 6 . 8 . 1 . 1 5 . E u h e d r a l m a g n e t i t e
hematite, except some crystals included into
crystals in the matrix. Porphyrytic dacite of
quartz.
the La Araña facies. PPL, reflected light.
6.8.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks 877

SANTANDER MASSIF PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Two porphyry rock samples from the Remarkable high K 2 O contents are
Vetas area at the Vetas-California Mining observed in both samples (4.46% and 5.09%)
District were selected for whole-rock probably associated with the moderate
geochemical analyses, including major, minor weathering alteration observed.
and trace elements. Both of the Samples plot into the calc-
The samples selected include dacite alkaline field of the AFM triangle plot by Irvine
porphyry collected at La Araña sector (Sample and Baragar (1971) and, due to the high
WR-28; Section 6.8.1.1), and andesite potassium contents, they plot into the
porphyry collected at the Barbacoas sector shoshonite series field of the K2O vs. SiO2 plot
(Sample WR-29). by Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) (Figures
The andesite porphyry sample of the 6.8.2.1 and 6.8.2.2).
Barbacoas sector (WR-29), was collected The A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand et
very close to the published coordinates of the al. (1943), show both of the samples plotting
sample MD22-1 dated by Mantilla et al. into the peraluminous field, with A/CNK>1.1
(2009), and it is probably the same intrusive. (Figure 6.8.2.3).
Hand sample inspection and petrography In the TAS classification diagram by Cox
analysis indicate that sample WR-28 show no et al. (1979), both of the samples plot into the
important alteration effects. The Barbacoas granodiorite field, but particularly, Barbacoas
sector porphyry exhibit moderate clay sector porphyry rock plot out of the field,
alteration features product of weathering confirming its altered character (Figure
alteration in hand sample inspection. 6.8.2.4).
The feldspar triangle by O’Connor (1965)
show the La Araña sector sample plotting into
6.8.2.1. MAJOR ELEMENTS the quartz-monzonite field, and the Barbacoas
GEOCHEMISTRY sector sample plot anomalously in the
orthoclase (Or) vertex (Figure 6.8.2.5).
The porphyry samples of the Santander In the R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot by
Region returned high SiO 2 (64.66% and Batchelor and Bowden (1985), the sample from
69.76%) and Al 2O 3 (15.91% and 17.86%) La Araña sector (WR-28) plot into the pre-plate
contents. collision (subduction-related) field, and the
MgO, CaO and Na 2O contents are low sample from the Barbacoas sector (WR-29) plot
for the La Araña sector porphyry sample out of the fields, again demonstrating its altered
(1.33%, 2.21% and 2.32%, respectively) and character (Figure 6.8.2.6).
very low for the Barbacoas sector porphyry In summary, major elements geochemistry
s a m p l e ( 0 . 7 2 % , 0 . 0 8 % a n d 0 . 11 % , confirm a moderately altered character for the
respectively). sample of the Barbacoas sector (WR-29).
SECTION 6.8.- THE SANTANDER MASSIF PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
878
Figure 6.8.2.1. AFM plot (Irvine and Baragar, Figure 6.8.2.2. K2O vs. SiO2 plot (Peccerillo
1971) for the Miocene porphyry rocks of the and Taylor, 1976) for the Miocene porphyry
Vetas-California Mining District. rocks of the Vetas-California Mining District.
Figure 6.8.2.3. A/NK vs. A/CNK plot (Shand, Figure 6.8.2.4. TAS classification plot (Cox et
1943) for the Miocene porphyry rocks of the al., 1979) for the Miocene porphyry rocks of
Vetas-California Mining District. the Vetas-California Mining District.
Figure 6.8.2.5. Feldspar triangle plot Figure 6.8.2.6. R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot (Batchelor
(O’Connor, 1965) for the Miocene porphyry and Bowden, 1985) for the Miocene porphyry rocks
rocks of the Vetas-California Mining District. of the Vetas-California Mining District.
6.8.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks 879
Figure 6.8.2.7. Trace element ‘spider-diagrams’ for rocks of the Miocene porphyry intrusives
of the Vetas-California Mining District. Bulk Continental Crust- and Primordial Mantle-
normalization using data published by Taylor and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
6.8.2.2 TRACE ELEMENTS Rare earth elements values for the

GEOCHEMISTRY porphyry rocks of the Santander Region were
compared against the chondrite values after
With respect to the trace elements Boynton (1984) (Figure 6.8.2.8).
geochemistry, Bulk Continental Crust- (Taylor Both samples show REE patterns
and McLennan, 1995) and Primordial Mantle- characterized by decreasing slopes ((La/
normalized (Wood et al., 1979) multielemental Lu)N=10.8 and 12.8), indicating fractionation
‘spider-diagram’ plots show similar behavior of LREE with respect to HREE.
for both of the Miocene porphyry samples Moreover, the sample from La Araña
(Figure 6.8.2.7). sector (WR-28) show HREE flat patterns
It is remarkable the potassium enrichment, ((Gd/Lu)N=1.0) with enrichments of about 10x
as mentioned above, whereas other Large Ion the chondrite values.
Lithophile elements (e.g. Ba and Sr) show no On the other hand, the sample from the
important enrichments. Barbacoas sector intrusive (WR-29) show an
The subduction-related signature of the unusual gentle zig-zag pattern.
Miocene porphyry rocks is well-defined by Weak negative Eu anomalies for both
High Field Strength elements negative samples are observed (Eu/Eu*= 0.82 and 0.93).
anomalies (i.e. Nb-Ta and Ti), observed for
both samples.
Anomalous strong negative anomalies for Ba,
Sr and P, accompanied by moderate enrichment
of U are geochemical features observed for the
moderately altered sample of the Barbacoas
sector (Sample WR-29) (Figure 6.8.2.7).
6 . 8 . 2 . 3 . R A R E E A RT H E L E M E N T S
GEOCHEMISTRY
Both of the porphyry samples of the Vetas

area in the Vetas California Mining District Figure 6.8.2.8. Chondrite-normalized REE
returned high REE contents (REE= 165.4ppm plot for rocks of the Miocene porphyry
and 114.8ppm for sample WR-28 and WR- intrusives of the Vetas-California Mining
29 respectively). District. Chondrite normalizing values after
Boynton (1984).
6.8.3. - Geochronology of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks and related mineralization 881
6.8.3. GEOCHRONOLOGY OF THE SANTANDER MASSIF

PORPHYRITIC ROCKS AND RELATED MINERALIZATION
Recognition of late Miocene hypabyssal Thus, the magmatic crystallization age

intrusives in the Santander Massif closely obtained for this rock can be interpreted as a
related to the gold mineralization in the Vetas- maximum mineralization/hydrothermal
California Mining District is relatively recent. alteration age in the California sector of the
Felder et al. (2005) described in detail the Vetas-California Mining District.
high-sulfidation Au-Ag mineralization and In addition, a sample of chalky alunite vein
related hydrothermal alteration of the containing euhedral pyrite crystals from the
Angostura Project (Greystar Resources Ltd.) Angostura Project was analyzed by K-Ar
and mentioned the presence of ‘younger porphyritic method in order to date the hydrothermal
rocks of probably Tertiary age common in the alteration age in this important gold mining
immediate area of mineralization’. district.
Recent zircon U-Pb geochronological
study by Mantilla et al. (2009) confirms the
existence of late Miocene porphyritic bodies 6.8.3.1. ZIRCON U-Pb GEOCHRONOLOGY
in the Santander Massif. They analyzed two
samples of porphyry rocks from both, the The porphyry rock cropping out in the San
California and Vetas municipalities yielding late Celestino Mine (Sample SanCelestino-1) at La
Miocene magmatic crystallization ages of Baja sector close to the Angostura Project
8.4±0.2Ma and 9.0+0.3/-0.2Ma, respectively. (Greystar Resources Ltd.) is a medium- to
In this work a sample of the hypabyssal coarse-grained porphyritic rock with quartz
intrusive cropping out in the San Celestino Mine and plagioclase phenocrysts embedded in a
at La Baja zone in the California area of the fine-grained grey colored siliceous matrix.
Vetas California Mining District was dated by Within the porphyritic body, hydrothermal
zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS in order to breccias with alunite matrix are locally present,
constrain the magmatic crystallization age for along with alunite in veins and veinlets which
this porphyritic rock. evidence the strong hydrothermal alteration
The analyzed porphyry rock sample show effects on these rocks (Figure 6.8.3.1).
clear evidence of mineralization and In addition, sulfide mineralization in the
hydrothermal alteration effects, such as local porphyritic body includes pyrite veinlets
presence of hydrothermal breccias within the commonly associated with marcasite,
porphyritic body with alunite matrix, alunite chalcosite and enargite.
veinlets cutting the porphyry rocks and sulfide The zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS
mineralization in veinlets (e.g. pyrite associated analysis of the hypabyssal intrusive of the San
with marcasite, chalcosite and enargite). Celestino Mine (Sample SanCelestino-1)
SECTION 6.8. - THE SANTANDER MASSIF PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
882
hyd bx>
<da porh
Figure 6.8.3.1. Contact between the dacite Figure 6.8.3.2. Concordia plot for zircon U-
porphyry (da porph) and a embedded Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses of the dacite
hydrothermal breccia with alunite matrix porphyry of San Celestino Mine (Sample San
(hyd bx) (Sample SanCelestino-1). Source: Celestino-1).
Greystar Resources Ltd.
returned a Late Miocene magmatic 6.8.3.2. K-Ar GEOCHRONOLOGY OF THE

crystallization age of 10.2±0.2Ma (Table MINERALIZATION/HYDROTHERMAL
6.8.3.1 and Figure 6.8.3.2). ALTERATION
The age obtained for the magmatic
crystallization of the San Celestino porphyry A sample from an alunite vein collected at
rock, compares well with the late Miocene the Angostura Project (Sample
magmatic ages published by Mantilla et al. AngosturaAlunite-1) was analyzed by K-Ar
(2009), and also indicates a maximum age for method in order to determine the
the gold mineralization/hydrothermal alteration mineralization/hydrothermal alteration age in
in the Angostura Project area. the project area (Figure 6.8.3.3).
Inheritance ages obtained in zircon grains Two analyses carried out in the sample
of the sample include ca. 30Ma, 50Ma, returned a Pliocene ages of 2.8±0.3Ma and
180Ma and 200Ma. These inheritance ages are 4.2±1.5Ma, with a weighted average of
also similar to those reported by Mantilla et 3.4±0.3Ma (Table 6.8.3.2).
al. (2009). These authors relate the older ages The ages obtained for the alunite from
to inherited zircons of older magmatic rocks hydrothermal alteration at the Angostura Project
in the area (i.e. the Santander Plutonic Group), area indicate a younger age for the gold
and the younger ages are explained as possible mineralization and related hydrothermal alteration
age mixing in zircon grains with more complex than the age obtained for the magmatic
internal structure or inherited zircon grains from crystallization of the porphyry intrusive rocks.
younger unidentified magmatic pulses in the Neogene magmatism along the Eastern
area. Cordillera has been recently recognized in
Table 6.8.3.1. Zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS results for the dacite porphyry sample of
the San Celestino Mine.
6.8.3. - Geochronology of the Santander Massif porphyritic rocks and related mineralization 883
Table 6.8.3.2. Alunite K-Ar analysis on vein sample of the Angostura Project.
other especific areas, such as Paipa, Iza and

Tierra Negra in the Boyacá Department
(Jaramillo et al., 2005; Pardo et al., 2005a and
2005b; Vesga and Jaramillo, 2009).
Recently discovery of gold-copper-
molybdenum porphyry mineralization hosted in
dacite porphyry rocks with strong potassic
hydrothermal alteration (secondary biotite) in
diamond-drill cores of the Vetas Gold Project
(CB Gold Inc.) within the Vetas-California
Mining District, confirm the importance of the
late Miocene/Pliocene? magmatic/metallogenic
event in the Santander Massif, and clearly Figure 6.8.3.3. Alunite vein with pyrite
demonstrates the necessity of detailed mapping hosted in strongly sericitized porphyry rock
and geochronological studies in the area for (Sample AngosturaAlunite-1), Angostura
future development of gold exploration Project.
programs within the Vetas-California Mining
District.
SECTION 6.9.
The Nariño Department

Intrusive Rocks
6.9.1 - Petrography of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks 887
6.9.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT

INTRUSIVE ROCKS
6.9.1.1. HORNBLENDE BIOTITE K-feldspar is very scarce. These rocks are rich
TONALITE OF THE LA LLANADA FACIES in mafic accessory minerals, mainly hornblende
and biotite, and hence they have a relatively
The Llanada facies have been studied on dark color.
several samples, showing small variations in the These tonalites may be found fresh in some
modal composition (samples WR-220, WR- outcrops (figs. 6.9.1.1-6.9.1.2), but hydrothermal
229,WR-230, Figure 6.1.1.1). alteration may be intensive in those in the vicinity
The La Llanada tonalites are of the mineralized areas. In particular, these rocks
holocrystalline, faneritic and fine-grained. They can be affected by different grades of potassic
mainly consist of plagioclase and quartz, and alteration, as low (figs. 6.9.1.3-6.9.1.4) or
pl
bt1 bt1
amp
<qtz
Figure 6.9.1.1. General view of a fresh tonalite, Figure 6.9.1.2. The above image in crossed
not affected by hydrothermal alterations. La polars. Amp, amphibole, bt1, primary biotite,
Llanada hornblende biotite tonalites.Sample bt2 hydrothermal biotite.
WR-229.
pl bt1>
pl
bt1> bt>
amp
bt2> amp
Figure6.9.1.3.General view of a slightly altered Figure 6.9.1.4. The above image in crossed
tonalite, affected by potassic alteration. La polars.Amp, amphibole, bt1, primary
Llanada hornblende biotite tonalites. biotite, bt2 hydrothermal biotite.
Sample WR-220.
888 SECTION 6.9 - THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
<bt1
bt1
<qtz
pl
bt2>
Figure 6.9.1.5. General view of a partly altered Figure 6.9.1.6. The above image in crossed
tonalite, affected by potassic alteration. La polars. Note the extent of biotitization, with
Llanada hornblende biotite tonalites. development of small biotite crystals during
Sample WR-230. potassic alteration.
pl
pl
pl
Figure 6.9.1.7. Plagioclase displaying convolute Figure 6.9.1.8. Plagioclase displaying convolute
zoning and inclusions of older plagioclase zoning and inclusions of older plagioclase
generations. La Llanada hornblende biotite generations. La Llanada hornblende biotite
tonalites. Sample WR-229. Crossed polars. tonalites. Sample WR-229. Crossed polars.
pl
pl
bt1
F i g u re 6 . 9 . 1 . 9 . Plagioclase displaying Figure 6.9.1.10. Plagioclase displaying zoning

convolute zoning and inclusions of older and polysynthetic twins. La Llanada hornblende
plagioclase generations. La Llanada hornblende biotite tonalites. Sample WR-230. Crossed polars.
biotite tonalites. Sample WR-229. Crossed polars.
higher (figs. 6.9.1.5-6.9.1.6). Sericitization generations (fig. 6.9.1.7-6.9.1.9), as well as
and chloritization may be also present in inclusions of apatite, amphibole and biotite.
different grades. Plagioclase crystals can be partly altered to
sericite and K-feldspar (figs. 6.9.1.11-
Plagioclase 6.9.1.14), in particular, in the vicinity of the
mineralized areas.
rock, with a proportion around 35 % modal. Orthoclase
Plagioclase is subhedral and the habit is short
prismatic, with a maximum length of 1 cm. K-feldspar is extremely rare in these rocks,
Twinning is on the albite law; optical zoning is less than 5% modal. When present, the crystals
complex. Cores may show convolute zoning of K-feldspar are anhedral, and are found
(fig. 6.9.1.7-6.9.1.9), and borders concentric intergrown with quartz in the spaces between
zoning (fig. 6.9.1.10). plagioclase crystals. The maximum length of the
On the other hand, plagioclase crystals crystals is about 1 cm. Twinning is lacking, and
contain corroded crystals of older plagioclase patchy microperthites are not seen.
bt2>
FK pl
ser
ser
Figure 6.9.1.11. Plagioclase crystal (pl) partly Figure 6.9.1.12 Strongly sericitized plagioclase
replaced by hydrothermal K-feldspar (KF) and in crossed polars. La Llanada hornblende
sericite (ser). Crossed polars. La Llanada biotite tonalites. Sample WR-61.
hornblende biotite tonalites. Sample WR-61.
pl
bt1> bt1>
ser
ser bt1>
mu> mu>
<aln
Figure 6.9.1.13. Primary biotite crystals, Figure 6.9.1.14. The above image in
showing brownish-red pleochroism, partly crossed polars. Muscovite its outstanding by
replaced by muscovite. Plagioclase is i t s i n t e r f e re n c e c o l o r s . L a L l a n a d a
sericitized (ser). PPL, sample WR-61. hornblende biotite tonalites.
Quartz A second generation of biotite is fine

grained (only some tens of microns in leght)
Anhedral quartz is other common mineral, and the pleochrosim is reddish. It is associated
although in lesser amounts than plagioclase (about with potassic alteration (fig. 6.9.1.17-
30% modal), and shows wavy extinction. 6.9.1.18).
Biotite Amphibole
Primary biotite is a common accessory in Green amphibole is a common accessory

these rocks, and the proportion is variable, but in these rocks, and may achieve up to 10 %
in all the cases averaging 5 % modal of the modal, in many cases largely predominatin on
rock. Its pleochroism is in brownish hues, and biotite.
the size of these crystals is in the range 2-3 It occurs as euhedral, prismatic, olive-
mm. It can be partly replaced by chlorite and green crystals, which are in the range 3-10 mm
epidote following grain borders and cleavages in length. cm. Zoning is absent, and twinning
(fig. 6.9.1.15-6.9.1.16). may be present.
bt
bt amp
amp
bt1
bt1
bt1 amp
bt1 amp
Figure 6.9.1.15. Hornblende crystals (amp) with Figure 6.9.1.16. Detail of the above association
greenish pleochroism in a fresh sample. Biotite in crossed polars. Note the general clean
is also present (bt). PPL. La Llanada hornblende appearence of the rock.
biotite tonalites, sample WR-229.
<bt2
amp
amp
Figure 6.9.1.17. Hornblende crystals (amp) in a Figure 6.9.1.18. The above image in crossed
sample affected by potassic alteration. Note polars. La Llanada hornblende biotite
small reddish late biotite crystals (bt2) in the tonalites.
amphibole borders. PPL. Sample WR-220.
On its turn, ampbibole may be altered by in biotite. They produce conspicuous
fine-grained secondary biotite; these altered metamictic aureolas when included in biotite
amphiboles tend to be more brownish (fig. or amphibole, although the mineral itself is not
6.9.1.17-6.9.1.18) metamictic (fig. 6.9.1.20-6.9.1.21.
It does not show older cores, an zoning is
Apatite not distinct.
Apatite crystals are relatively common in Ilmenite

these rocks, as euhedral prismatic grains (fig.
6.9.1.19), less than 100 microns in length, Ilmenite is the only opaque present in the
normally as inclusions in other minerals. fresh areas, and it may be relatively common,
although being a trace mineral (less than 1%
Zircon modal). It occurs as small anhedral grains (less
than 250 microns in size; fig. 6.9.1.22).
It is a rare accessory mineral, and is found In the altered areas, ilmenite is replaced
as subhedral, rounded grains, included mainly by sulfides, mainly pyrrhotite.
<ap
bt
bt <zrn
Figure 6.9.1.19. Apatite crystal (ap) as a Figure 6.9.1.1.20. Zircon crystal (zrn) as an
inclusion in biotite (bt). Note the basal parting. inclusion in biotite (bt), in PPL. La Llanada
La Llanada hornblende biotite tonalites, hornblende biotite tonalites, sample WR-
sample WR-229. PPL. 229.
mt>
ilm>
Figure 6.9.1.21. Zircon inclusion (zr) in Figure 6.9.1.22. Ilmenite crystals (ilm),
biotite, showing metamicic aureolas. La s h o w i n g s l i g h t b i re f l e c t a n c e i n P P L ,
Llanada hornblende biotite tonalites, reflected light. La Llanada hornblende
sample WR-61. biotite tonalites, sample WR-229.
6.9.1.2.HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITIC Plagioclase

ANDESITE OF THE BERRUECOS
FACIES Most of the phenocrysts are made up of
plagioclase (up to 55 % modal). Plagioclase
This description is based on a sample from crystals are euhedral and the habit is shortly
a porphyrytic body cropping out in the prismatic; the maximum length of the crystals
Berruecos mining area, in the Nariño is about 8 mm, and most of the crystals are
department (sample wr150, Figure 6.1.1.1). well over 4 mm. Twinning is complex, and
The porphyry andesite of Berruecos intergrowts of domains of the albite and pericline
consists of phenocrysts of plagioclase, biotite laws are distinguished. Zoning is concentric, of
and amphibole scattered in an aphanitic matrix the normal type, very distinct, but convolute zoning
(fig. 6.9.1.23-6.9.1.24). my also occur (fig. 6.9.1.25).
The matrix predominates over the In the matrix, the plagioclase crystals are
phenocrysts, being in the order of the 60% very fine-grained, and are probably the most
modal. The matrix is mainly constituted by important constituent, about 80%. They are
plagioclase, with lesser amounts of quartz. subhedral, shortly prismatic, and do not exhibit
<amp
<amp <amp <amp
pl
pl
pl
pl
Figure 6.9.1.23. General view of the Figure 6.9.1.24. The above image in crossed
hornblende porphyrytic andesite of the polars. Note polysynthetic twinning and
Berruecos facies. Sample WR-150. Note concentric zoning in plagioclase
plagioclase (pl) and amphibole (amp) crystals. phenocrysts.
pl bt1
amp
amp
Figure 6.9.1.25. Plagioclase phenocryst (pl) Figure 6.9.1.26. Biotite (bt) and amphibole
displaying a convolute core, in crossed nicols. (amp) phenocrysts, in PPL. Hornblende
Hornblende porphyrytic andesite of the porphyrytic andesite of the Berruecos facies.
Berruecos facies. Sample WR-150. Sample WR-150.
polysynthetic twinning. Zoning is concentric, and is present in lesser amounts, just about 5
but they are not altered. % modal. Biotite is euhedral and has a flat
tabular habit (fig. 6.0.1.26). The crystal size
Quartz is in the same range of the amphibole crystals.
Biotite may be slightly altered to secondary
Quartz is a scarce component in the matrix, clinochlore along grain borders and cleavages.
where it can constitute up to 5% modal. It is
anhedral, and occupies interstitial positions Amphibole
among the plagioclase crystals. The crystal size
is in the order of 50 microns in diameter. It Amphibole is the second mineral in
does not show wavy extinction. abundance in the phenocrysts, around 35 %
modal. The amphibole phenocrysts are
Biotite euhedral, and have a prismatic habit (fig.
6.9.1.27-6.9.1.28).
Biotite is found, similarly to amphibole, as The crystal size is smaller than that found
microphenocrysts. It is rarer than amphibole, in plagioclase, and it is not possible to establish
amp amp
amp
amp
amp
amp
Figure 6.9.1.27. Amphibole phenocrysts Figure 6.9.1.28. The above image in crossed
showing color zoning. PPL, Hornblende polars.
porphyrytic andesite of the Berruecos
facies. Sample WR-150.
bt1>
amp pl
ap
amp
amp
Figure 6.9.1.29. Hrnblende (amp) showing Figure 6.9.1.30. Apatite crystal (ap) in the
twinning and zoning. Hornblende matrix, in PPL. Hornblende porphyrytic
porphyrytic andesite of the Berruecos andesite of the Berruecos facies. Sample
facies. Sample WR-150.. WR-150.
<zr
ilm>
mt ilm>
F igure 6.9.1.30. Plagioclase displaying Figure 6.9.1.31. Subhedral ilmenite crystals (ilm)
convolute zoning and inclusions of older in the matrix. PPL, reflected light.
plagioclase generations. La Llanada hornblende
biotite tonalites. Sample WR-229. Crossed polars.
two clear populations of amphibole according or as inclusions in other minerals, as

with the size, because the length of the crystals plagioclase, amphibole but also magnetite (fig.
is very variable between 30 microns and 300 6.9.1.30). It occurs as subhedral prismatic
microns. Moreover, these crystals are better crystals. It is not metamict, and no older cores
described as microphenocrysts. are recognized.
The amphiboles are concentrically zoned,
with oscilant changes in the color; these colors Magnetite
are in different dark green hues (fig.6.9.1.28).
Polysynthetic or simple twinning may be Magnetite is a trace mineral in these rocks,
present in some crystals. being in the order of 1 %. Crystals are
subhedral rounded octahedrons of less than
Apatite 100 microns in size. Replacement to hematite
is common along the grain borders and
Apatite is a trace mineral, but is easily cleavages.
distinguishable in his rock, because the crystals
have a moderate size (up to 500 microns in Ilmenite
length). They are composed by prism and
pinacoid, and the habit is prismatic (fig. 6.9.1.29). Ilmenite is found as subhedral tabular
crystals, up to 200 micron in lenth (fig.
Zircon 6.9.1.31), or as rounded crystals. It is also
partly replaced by fine-grained titanite or, more
Zircon is found as small crystals (less than commonly, by hematite, along cleavages nad
50 microns in diameter), normally in the matrix grain borders.
6.9.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks 895

NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
The three samples of the phaneritic it is the host rock for vein gold mineralization
intrusives from La Llanada Mining District area in this mine.
(Samples WR-220, WR-229 and WR-230), Hand sample inspection of the phaneritic
which on the basis of their petrographycal intrusive rocks of La Llanada Mining District
similitude were described above as the show that they are relatively fresh and no
hornblende biotite tonalite of La Llanada facies extensive hydrothermal alteration effects are
(Section 6.9.1), were analyzed for whole-rock observed.
geochemistry including major, minor and trace In addition, a sample of the late Miocene
elements. hypabyssal intrusive of Arboledas (Berruecos)
Another biotite hornblende tonalite area in the Nariño Department (Sample WR-
sample (WR-306) was selected for whole- 150) was also analyzed and the results are
rock geochemistry analysis. plotted with the La Llanada Mining District
Major element geochemistry data on the phaneritic intrusives for comparison.
intrusives of the La Llanada Mining District This sample is also unaltered and show no
were presented by Alvarez (1983), who hydrothermal alteration/weathering effects in
described as two different intrusive bodies hand sample inspection.
named as the Piedrancha and Cuembí
batholiths, but suggests that they could be a
single intrusive. 6.9.2.1. MAJOR ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY
For this work, the sample WR-229 was
collected in the southern area, about 5km to Besides the petrographycal similitude
the NW of Mallama (Piedrancha) townsite, described above (Section 6.9.1), the
along the Piedrancha - Ricaurte road. hornblende biotite tonalites of La Llanada
The sample WR-220 was collected in the Mining District collected in four different
northern area, about 4km to the NNW of La localities, show similar major element
Llanada townsite, at El Paramo sector, in the geochemistry.
former Wilmer Tunnel. This rock sample is the The sample of the Piedrancha Batholith
host rock of vein gold mineralization at El (WR-229) and the samples from the Cumbitara
Paramo, and is locally known as ‘El Vergel Stock at El Guayo Mine (WR-230) and at the
Stock’. Carrizal-Quebrada Honda road (WR-306),
The sample WR-306 was collected in the returned similar SiO 2 contents (60.99-
Carrizal-Quebrada Honda road of the Los 64.60%), whereas the sample from El Paramo
Andes-Sotomayor municipalities. sector (WR-220; El Vergel Stock) returned
The sample WR-230 was collected at El lower SiO 2 content (54.23%).
Guayo Mine, about 2km to the NW from La With respect to other major oxides, all of
Llanada townsite (i.e. Cumbitara Stock), and the four samples returned similar values: Al2O3
SECTION 6.9. - THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
896

Baragar, 1971) for the intrusive rocks of the and Taylor, 1976) for the intrusive rocks of
Nariño Region. the Nariño Region.

(Shand, 1943) for the intrusive rocks of the et al., 1979) for the intrusive rocks of the
Nariño Region. Nariño Region.
(O’Connor, 1965) for the intrusive rocks of (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the
the Nariño Region. intrusive rocks of the Nariño Region.
6.9.2. - Whole-rock geochemistry of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks 897
(16.46-17.66%), MgO (1.67-3.68%), CaO quartz-diorite (granodiorite) field with clearly
(5.4-7.7%), Na 2O (2.51-3.01%) and K 2O higher Total Alkalis (TAS) value due to its
(1.61-1.86%). higher Na 2 O and K 2 O contents (Figure
The sample of the Arboledas porphyry 6.9.2.4).
intrusive (WR-150) yielded similar major In the feldspar triangle by O’Connor
elements contents ( S i O 2= 6 2 . 5 2 % , (1965) La Llanada Mining district phaneritic
Al 2O 3=15.72%, MgO=3.48%, CaO=4.37%, rock samples cluster in a narrow area and plot
Na 2O=5.1% and K 2O=1.92%. into the granodiorite field, whereas the
All of the samples plot in the calc-alkaline Arboledas (Berruecos) porphyry plot
field of the AFM triangle plot by Irvine and separately in the same field, but close to the
Baragar (1971), and, in particular, the four contact with the trondhjemite field (Figure
samples of the phaneritic intrusives of the La 6.9.2.5).
Llanada Mining District show a well-defined The R 1 vs. R 2 geotectonic plot show
trend (Figures 6.9.2.1) phaneritic rocks of the intrusives of the La
All of the samples show a medium-K calc- Llanada Mining District plotting into the Pre-
alkaline series affinity in the K2O vs. SiO2 plot plate Collision (subduction-related) field, close
by Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) (Figure to the limit with the Matle Fractionates, and
6.9.2.2). the Arboledas (Berruecos) porphyry plot into
The A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand the Post-collision uplift field (Figure 6.9.2.6).
(1943) show a metaluminous character for the
phaneritic rock samples of La Llanada Mining
District adn for the hypabyssal intrusive of 6.9.2.2. TRACE ELEMENTS
Arboledas (Berruecos), being of the I-type GEOCHEMISTRY
granite series (A/CNK<1.1) (Figure 6.9.2.3).
On the TAS classification plot by Cox et The trace elements contents from La
al. (1979), the samples from the Piedrancha Llanada samples were compared against the
Batholith (WR-229) and the Cumbitara Stock Bulk Continental Crust (Taylor and McLennan,
samples at El Guayo Mine (WR-230) plot into 1995) and the Primordial Mantle (Wood et al.,
the diorite field, whereas the sample from the 1979) values (Figure 6.9.2.7).
Carrizal-Quebrada Honda road (WR-306) The four samples from La Llanada Mining
plot into the quartz-diorite (granodiorite) field. District, including the Piedrancha Batholith
El Vergel Stock sample (WR-220) at El Paramo, (WR-229) and El Vergel (WR-220) and
plot close to the gabbro field (Figure 6.9.2.4). Cumbitara (WR-230 and WR-306) stocks
The porphyry rock sample of Arboledas show similar (almost identical) trace elements
(Berruecos) area (WR-150) plot also into the patterns behavior (Figure 6.9.2.7).
Figure 6.9.2.7. Trace element ‘spider-diagrams’ for rocks of the Nariño region. Bulk
Continental Crust- and Primordial Mantle-normalization using data published by Taylor
and McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979).
SECTION 6.9. - THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
898
Large Ion Lithophile (LIL) elements (e.g.
Ba, K and Sr) enrichment is observed
accompanied by High Field Strength (HFS)
elements (e.g. Nb-Ta, Ti) depletion, which
clearly reveal a subduction-related signature
for these rocks.
Remarkable trace elements features from
La Llanada Mining District intrusives include
high Sr (>400ppm), and low Y and Yb values
(<21ppm and <2.3ppm, respectively).
On the other hand, the sample from the
Arboledas (Berruecos) porphyry rock (Sample Figure 6.9.2.8. Chondrite-normalized REE
WR-150) also show the same subduction- plot for rocks of the Miocene porphyry
related signature with high Sr (966ppm) and intrusives of the Vetas-California Mining
Zr (117ppm) contents. Remarkable higher Th District. Chondrite normalizing values after
(7.10ppm) and U (2.46ppm) contents are also Boynton (1984).
observed with respect to the phaneritic rocks
of La Llanada Mining District.
multielemental ‘spider-diagrams’, an almost

6 . 9 . 2 . 3 . R A R E E A RT H E L E M E N T S identical behavior is observed for the four
GEOCHEMISTRY samples (Figure 6.9.2.8).
The sample of the Arboledas (Berruecos)
The Rare Earth Elements (REE) of the La porphyry yielded slightly higher REE contents
Llanada Mining District phaneritic intrusives (REE=114.9ppm).
and the Arboledas (Berruecos) porphyry were They all show LREE enrichment with
compared against the chondrite values after respect to HREE, with gentle decreasing
Boynton (1984) (Figure 6.9.2.8). fractionated slopes ((La/Lu) N=2.1-5.9) with
The samples of the Piedrancha Batholith no Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.98-1.09).
and the El Vergel and Cumbirata stocks The HREE exhibit relatively flat patterns
returned low REE contents (REE=59- (Gd/Lu) N=1.0-1.1), with enrichments about
84ppm), and, as occur with the trace elements 10x the chondrite values.
6.9.3.- Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks 899

THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Early K-Ar in biotite and hornblende 6.9.3.1. ZIRCON U-Pb

mineral separates of the Piedrancha Batholith GEOCHRONOLOGY OF LA LLANADA
span a wide interval between 62Ma and 23Ma MINING DISTRICT INTRUSIVES
(see compilation in Maya, 1992).
Other intrusive rocks in the Nariño Results obtained in this work for the
Department area, such as the tonalite of the intrusives hosting the gold mineralization at La
Arboledas Stock and the dacite porphyry of Llanada Mining District are summarized in
the San Cristobal Hill (i.e. the San Cristobal Table 6.9.3.1.
Stock) returned K-Ar hornblende and biotite Zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS analysis of
mineral separates ages of 25±10Ma and 13± the Piedrancha Batholith (Sample WR-229)
3Ma, respectively (see compilation in Maya, which host the gold mineralization in the
1992). southern sector of La Llanada Mining District,
In this work, samples from the Piedrancha yielded a late Oligocene magmatic
Batholith (WR-229) and the El Vergel and crystallization age of 23.4±0.5Ma (Figure
Cumbitara stocks (WR-220 and WR-230) 6.9.3.1). This age compares well with the
were selected for zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS younger K-Ar biotite age reported in the
analyses in order to constraint the magmatic geological literature for this intrusive (Maya,
crystallization age of these intrusive rocks. 1992).
In addition, the granodiorite porphyry (i.e. In the northern area of the district, the El
the Berruecos Porphyry; Sample WR-150) Vergel Stock (Sample WR-220) which host the
from the Arboledas Porphyry Project was gold mineralization at El Paramo sector
selected for K-Ar in hornblende mineral returned an early Miocene magmatic
separate analysis. crystallization age of 21.9+0.4-0.6Ma (Figure
Moreover, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb 6.9.3.2).
isotope geochemistry analyses for La Llanada Moreover, the Cumbitara Stock (Sample
Mining District intrusives (Samples WR-229, WR-230), the host rock of the gold
WR-220 and WR-230) were also carried out. mineralization at El Guayo Mine, again,
Table 6.9.3.1. Zircon U-Pb magmatic crystallization ages for the intrusives from La Llanada
Mining district
900 SECTION 6.9.- THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
returned a late Oligocene magmatic

crystallization age of 23.1±0.4Ma (Figure
6.9.3.3).
No inheritance ages were observed in
none of the samples.
The magmatic crystallization ages obtained
in this work for the intrusive rocks hosting the
gold mineralization at La Llanada Mining
District record a late Oligocene to early
Miocene magmatic event spanning the ca. 24-
21Ma interval.
This geochronological evidence, allow to
establish a close temporal relationship between
small intrusive stocks at El Paramo and El
Guayo Mine (i.e. El Vegrel and Cumbitara Figure 6.9.3.1. Tera-Wasserburg concordia
stocks, respectively) with the larger southern plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of the tonalite
Piedrancha Batholith. of the Piedrancha Batholith (Sample WR-229).
All these intrusives show a close spatial
relationship with gold mineralization at La
Llanada Mining District, but the mineralization/
hydrothermal alteration age must be
constrained in order to define the metallogenic
role of the late Oligocene-early Miocene
intrusion in the gold mineralization of this area.
6.9.3.2. K-Ar GEOCHRONOLOGY

OF THE ARBOLEDAS (BERRUECOS)
GRANODIORITE PORPHYRY
The Arboledas (Berruecos) granodiorite

porphyry (Sample WR-150; Section 6.9.1.2)
in the northeastern Nariño Department was Figure 6.9.3.2. Concordia plot for zircon U-
dated by the K-Ar method in hornblende Pb analyses of the tonalite of the El Vergel
mineral separates in order to constraint the Stock (Sample WR-220).
cooling (magmatic?) age of the hypabyssal
intrusives in this region and compare with other
Cenozoic hypabyssal rocks in the La Vega
region and the middle Cauca river valley.
The sample of the Arboledas (Berruecos)
porphyry show no evidence of hydrothermal
alteration effects in the amphibole phenocrysts
(Section 6.9.1.2), and thus, the cooling age
obtained by the K-Ar analysis can be
interpreted as a magmatic age.
The result of the K-Ar analysis of the
Arboledas (Berruecos) granodiorite porphyry
is presented in Table 6.9.3.2.
The late Miocene cooling age of
9.9±0.8Ma obtained for this sample is slightly
plot for zircon U-Pb analyses of the tonalite
older than the youngest zircon U-Pb magmatic
of the Cumbitara Stock (Sample WR-230).
6.9.3.- Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Nariño Department intrusive rocks 901
Table 6.9.3.2. Hornblende mineral separate K-Ar age obtained for the Arboledas
(Berruecos) Porphyry (Sample WR-150).
crystallization age obtained for the diorite District are presented in tables 6.9.3.3 and
porphyry dike in the Betulia Complex in La 6.9.3.4.
Vega Region (9.2±0.2Ma; Sample WR-67; In general terms, the samples returned
Section 6.6.1.3). moderated Rb and high Sr contents (34.76-
This geochronological evidence indicates 42.51ppm and 556.28-637.08ppm,
that the gold mineralization-related late respectively).
Miocene magmatism at La Vega region can be The Piedrancha Batholith (Sample WR-
extended to the northern Nariño Department 229) returned higher Sm and Nd contents
in a single magmatic belt. (8.01 and 42.22ppm, respectively) with
respect to the el Vergel and Cumbitara Stocks
6.9.3.3. Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb (Sm=3.90-3.98ppm and Nd=15.70-
ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY OF LA 19.15ppm).
LLANADA MINING DISTRICT Initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio for the Piedrancha
INTRUSIVES Batholith is notably high (0.70671) with
respect to El Vergel and Cumbitara stocks
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd results obtained for the (0.70395-0.70349).
Piedrancha Batholith and the El Vergel and In addition, the Piedrancha Batholith
Cumbitara stocks at La Llanada Mining returned negative  Nd value (-2.87), whereas
Table 6.9.3.3. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for intrusive rocks at La Llanada
Mining district.
Table 6.9.3.4. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for intrusive rocks at La Llanada
Mining District.
902 SECTION 6.9.- THE NARIÑO DEPARTMENT INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Lead isotope geochemistry results for

intrusive rocks of La Llanada Mining District
intrusives are presented in Table 6.9.3.5.
The samples returned highly radiogenic
values ( 207Pb/ 204Pb>15.55). They all exhibit
similar results and cluster in narrow ranges
( 206P b / 204P b = 1 9 . 0 8 - 1 9 . 3 9 ; 207
Pb/
204 208 204
Pb=15.64-15.73; Pb/ Pb=38.68-
38.90).
Both the thorogenic and uranogenic plots
show La Llanada Mining District samples
Figure 6.9.3.4.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for plotting close to the upper crust lead isotope
samples of the intrusive rocks at La Llana- evolution curve by Zartman and Doe (1981)
da Mining District. (Figure 6.9.3.5).
The Piedrancha Batholith (Sample WR-
229) returned less radiogenic results than El
Vergel and Cumbitara stocks (Samples WR-
El Vergel and Cumbitara stocks returned 220 and WR-230, respectively).
positive  Nd values (+11.83 and +1.66).
The Sr-Nd plot for the intrusive rocks
from La LLanada Mining District (Figure
6.9.3.4), show how the El Ve rgel and
Cumbitara stocks samples (WR-220 and WR-
230) plot in the Mantle Array, indicating a
mantle-derived source for the magmas, but the
Piedrancha Batholith sample (WR-229) plot
in the enriched crustal quadrant.
The anomalous results obtained for Rb-
Sr and Sm-Nd analyses for the Piedrancha
Batholith sample (WR-229), are not supported
b y o t h e r a n a l y s e s ( e . g . p e t r o g r a p h y,
geochemistry and geochronology), which show
remarkable similitude between this intrusive
and the El Vergel and Cumbitara stocks. These
results must be confirmed before making a
definitive conclusion.

results for the intrusive rocks of La
Llanada Mining District.
Figure 6.9.3.5. Uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb

v s . 2 0 6 P b / 2 0 4 P b ) a n d t h o ro g e n i c
( 208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204 Pb) plot for
samples of the intrusives in the La
Llanada Mining District.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 7
PLIO-PLEISTOCENE
MAGMATISM VS. Au
METALLOGENY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 7.1.
Introduction
The Pliocene-Pleistocene magmatism intrusive breccias returned consistent Pleistocene

associated to the subduction of the Nazca Plate magmatic crystallization ages and are considered
under the South American Plate is widely to be genetically related to the coeval Pleistocene
distributed along the Colombian Andes. to present volcanic rocks cropping out along the
The most obvious expression of this entire Central Cordillera.
magmatism is the well-defined volcanic chain In addition, recent works identify Pliocene-
located in the axial portion of the Central Pleistocene magmatic activity in a restricted area
Cordillera, comprising several active volcanoes of the Boyacá Department over the Eastern
responsible for the extensive volcanic and Cordillera (e.g. Paipa Volcano and Iza Volcanic
pyroclastic deposits which cover the pre-existing Dome in the Boyacá Department) (Garzón, 2003;
geological units in this cordillera and to the west, Jaramillo et al., 2005; Pardo et al., 2005a,b;
in the Cauca-Patia depression (Cediel and Vesga and Jaramillo, 2009).
Caceres, 2000; Gomez et al., 2007). From a metallogenic point of view, important
The most important volcanoes in the gold mineralizations spatially related to the
Colombian Andes include the Nevado del Ruiz Pliocene-Pleistocene magmatic rocks are only
(5390 m.a.s.l.), Nevado del Huila (5750 m.a.s.l.), recognized up to this date in the Rio Dulce region
Galeras (4482 m.a.s.l.) and Cumbal (4764 over the Central cordillera, between the Tolima,
m.a.s.l.). Other important volcanoes in the Antioquia and Caldas departments.
Colombian Andes are: Azufral (4070 m.a.s.l.), In this area, disseminated Au-Ag
Doña Juana (4150 m.a.s.l.), Puracé (4646 mineralization inside or immediately outboard of
m.a.s.l.), Cerro Machín (2750 m.a.s.l.), Nevado intrusive diatreme breccias within a volcanic
del Tolima (5216 m.a.s.l.), Santa Isabel (4965 dome-diatreme complex has been identified and
m.a.s.l.) and Cerro Bravo (4000 m.a.s.l.). evaluated in recent years (AngloGold Ashanti
Moreover, hypabyssal magmatic bodies Colombia, 2009).
intrude the low-grade metamorphic rocks of the In the following sections new
Cajamarca and Valdivia groups, in the Rio Dulce petrographical, mineralogical, geochronological
area, close to the limit between the Antioquia and and whole-rock geochemistry data are presented
Caldas departments. concerning to the Pliocene-Pleistocene
New zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS magmatism in the Colombian Andes and its
analyses of these hypabyssal intrusive rocks and relationship with the gold metallogeny.
Pliocene-Pleistocene magmatism in
Colombia occurs mainly along the Central
cordillera and the Cauca-Patía depression,
where extensive volcanic and pyroclastic
deposits product of magmatism associated to
several still active volcanoes crop out (Figure
7.1.2.1).
This well-defined volcanic chain and its
extension to the south into Ecuador comprise
ca. 75 active volcanoes which are recognized
within the Andean geological literature as the
Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ) (e.g. Stern,
2004).
The active Andean volcanism in Colombia
comprises several volcanoes which can be
separate in three segments: the northern (e.g.
Cerro Bravo, Santa Isabel, Nevado del Ruiz,
Nevado del Tolima, Cerro Machín volcanoes),
the central (e.g. Nevado del Huila, Puracé,
Sotará volcanoes) and the southern (e.g.
Cumbal, Azufral, Galeras, Doña Juana
volcanoes) (Stern, 2004).
The northern and central segments are
located in the Central Cordillera, whereas the
southern segment is located in the Cauca-Patía
depression and the Western Cordillera.
K-Ar analyses in whole-rock samples and Figure 7.1.2.1. Pliocene-Pleistocene magmatism
plagioclase mineral separates from andesite distribution over the Colombian Andes. The Rio
rocks of the Nevado del Ruiz-Nevado del Dulce Region is also shown as the only known
Tolima volcanic complex returned ages example of gold mineralization spatially
spanning the range from 2.3Ma up to present associated to the Pliocene-Pleistocene magmatic
times (see compilation in Maya, 1992). event.
910 SECTION 7.1.- PLIO-PLEISTOCENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - INTRODUCTION
Associated to this Pleistocene to present volcanic centers, have evidenced the existence
volcanism, hypabyssal intrusives intruding the of local volcanic centers, like the Paipa
low grade metamorphic basement of the Volcano (Garzon, 2003; Pardo et al., 2005a)
Central Cordillera (i.e. the Cajamarca and and the Iza Volcanic Dome (Vesga and
Valdivia groups) are reported in the Rio Dulce Jaramillo, 2009), with associated acid volcanic
area, where important disseminated gold-silver deposits of a particular high-K alkaline to
mineralization in Pleistocene (ca. 2.4-0.4Ma) calco-alkaline geochemical signature (Pardo et
diatreme breccias within a volcanic dome- al., 2005b).
diatreme complex (i.e. Rio Dulce area) (Figure Scarce Ar-Ar and K-Ar ages indicate that
7.1.2.1). volcanic activity associated to the Paipa Volcano
Recent studies on well-known volcanic span the range between 2.4Ma and 1.9Ma, but
deposits over the Eastern Cordillera which field evidence expands the volcanic activity up
used to be attributed to the Central Cordillera to more recent times (Pardo et al., 2005a).
SECTION 7.2
Plio-Pleistocene
Porphyritic Rocks
7.2.1-Petrography of the Rio Dulce porphyritic rocks and other Plio-Pleistocene rocks 913
7.2.1. PETROGRAPHY OF THE RIO DULCE PORPHYRITIC

ROCKS AND OTHER PLIO-PLEISTOCENE ROCKS
7.2.1.1. PORPHYRITIC DACITE OF THE Quartz

RIO DULCE FACIES
Quartz is very common as phenocrysts,
Porphyrytic dacites of this type crop out in the order of 45% modal. Crystals
along the road in Rio Dulce area (sample WR- correspond to the high temperature alpha-
64). The porphyrytic rock consists of phenocrysts quartz, with the typical bypyramidal hexagonal
of plagioclase, quartz and rare sanidine, facies (fig. 7.2.1.1-7.2.1.2), but most of these
accompanied by microphenocrysts of biiotite and grains have rounded and embayed faces (fig.
altered amphibole, scattered in a microcrystalline 7.2.1.3). The crystal size is between 6 and-12
matrix (figs. 7.2.1.1-7.2.1.2). The ratio mm. These crystals do not show wavy
phenocrysts/matrix is about 0,4. extinction.
pl pl
bt
bt
bt bt
qtz qtz
pl pl
qtz qtz
Figure 7.2.1.1. General view of the porphyrytic Figure 7.2.1.2. The above image in crossed
dacite of Rio Dulce facies, in PPL. Qtz, quartz, polars. Note subhedral quartz phenocrysts
bt, biotite, pl, plagioclase. Sample WR-55. and the fineness of the volcanic matrix..
bt> bt>
qtz
bt>
pl
Figure 7.2.1.3.Detail of an embayed quartz Figure 7.2.1.4. Complex pericline+albite

phenocryst. Porphyrytic dacite of the Rio twinning in plagioclase. Porphyrytic dacite
Dulce facies. Crossed polars. Sample WR- o f R i o D u l c e . C ro s s e d p o l a r s . P l ,
55. plagioclase, bt, biotite. Sample WR-55.
914 SECTION 7.2 - PLIO-PLEISTOCENE PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
Quartz is also common in the fine-grained contain inclusions of older generations of

matrix (around 25% modal), and euhedral plagioclase crystals (figs. 7.2.1.5-7.2.1.6).
bypyramidal crystals can be also distinguished Plagioclase in the matrix has also a
therein. The crystal size is in the order of 20 prismatic habit. Twinning is simple and has
microns. concentrical growth. I may constitute up to the
35 % modal of the matrix.
Plagioclase
Sanidine
Plagioclase predominates among the
phenocrysts (up to 45 % modal), and is Sanidine phenocrysts are very rare (less
euhedral, with a short prismatic habit. Twinning than 5 % modal), and are anhedral, with a
is complex, with combinations of pericline and rounded shape. Crystals are neither twinned
albite laws (fig. 7.2.1.4), and Karlsbad and nor zoned. The crystal size is also in the
other simple laws are also common. The crystal centimetric order.
size is, as in quartz, in the centimetric order. It is difficult to assign optically the
Concentric zoning is clearly distinct. It may proportion of sanidine in the matrix, because
pl
pl
pl
pl
Figure 7.2.1.5. Plagioclase displaying patchy Figure 7.2.1.6. Plagioclase displaying concentric
zoning and inclusions of older plagioclase zoning and inclusions of older plagioclase
generations. Porphyrytic dacite of Rio Dulce. generations. Porphyrytic dacite of Rio Dulce.
Crossed polars. Sample WR-55. Crossed polars. Sample WR-55.
qtz qtz
amp amp>
Figure 7.2.1.7. Amphibole microphenocrysts in Figure 7.2.1.8. The above image, in crossed
the matrix, strongly altered to calcite and chlorite. polars.Sample WR-55.
Porphyrytic dacite of Rio Dulce, in
PPL.Sample WR-55.
the extreme fine grained, but it is probably in
the order of 15 % modal of the matrix.
bt>
Amphibole
amp>
Amphibole occurs as microphenocrysts <ap
scattered in the matrix, where it can reach amp>
proportions up to 15 % modal. The grain size ap>
is in the range 0,2-1 mm. Crystals are euhedral, bt>
amp>
with long prismatic habit. However, the optical
properties cannot be studied because it is qtz
completely replaced by mixtures of sparry
calcite, chlorite and small hematite platelets
(figs. 7.2.1.7-7.2.1.8).. Figure 7.2.1.9. Biotite microphenocrysts (bt) in
the matrix, accompanied with apatite (ap) and
Biotite altered amphibole (amp). Porphyrytic dacite
of Rio Dulce, in PPL.Sample WR-55.
As in the case of amphibole, biotite is
found as microphenocrysts in the matrix, whose
size is in the order of 0,5 mm. In the matrix,
biotite can reach proportions up to 5% modal,
and is euhedral, with tabular habit (fig.
7.2.1.9). It has a strong pleochroism from
pale-brown to dark brown color, and may be ilm>
partly altered to clinochlore and calcite along
Apatite
Apatite is a trace mineral, and is found

only as euhedral crystals in the matrix. Crystals Figure 7.2.1.10. Tabular ilmenite crystal (ilm) in
have long prismatic habit, and are made up by the matrix. Porphyrytic dacite of Rio Dulce,
hexagonal prism, the bypyramid and the in PPL (reflected light).Sample WR-55.
pinacoid (fig. 7.2.1.1.9), with less than 200
microns in length.
Ilmenite
Ilmenite occurs in the matrix, where is

found as scarce tabular subhedral grains (fig.
7.2.1.10). The grain size is between 50- 150 bt
microns. mt>
Magnetite mu>
Magnetite crystals are found in the matrix

as fine-grained euhedral octahedron crystals Figure 7.2.1.11. Magnetite crystals (mt) as
(less than 50 microns in diameter; fig. inclusions in biotite (bt) and surrounding the
7.2.1.11). In some cases, these crystals crystal. Porphyrytic dacite of Rio Dulce, in
overgrowth ilmenite grains. PPL, reflected light.Sample WR-55.
7.2.1.2. PORPHYRITIC ANDESITE OF Quartz
THE RIO DULCE FACIES
Quartz is extremely rare among the
Porphyrytic dacites of this type crop out phenocrysts, and is less than 5% modal. It
along the road in Rio Dulce area (sample WR- crystallized as beta-quartz, with the typical
65). bypyramidal hexagonal crystals (fig. 7.2.1.14),
The porphyrytic rock consists of but most of these grains have rounded and
phenocrysts of plagioclase and rare quartz, embayed faces. The crystal size is between 1-
accompanied by very abundant 2 mm. These crystals do not show wavy
microphenocrysts of altered amphibole, extinction
scattered in a microcrystalline matrix (fig. In spite quartz also occur in the fine-
7.2.1.12-7.2.1.13). The ratio phenocrysts/ grained matrix, there is also rare (less than 5%
matrix is about 0,6. modal), and it is found only as anhedral
The matrix is cryptocrystalline, and interstitial grains, less than20 microns in
composed of aggregates of plagioclase and diameter, scattered among the plagioclase
quartz. crystals.
amp> pl
pl <amp
qtz> qtz>
bt>
bt>
qtz>
Figure 7.2.1.12. General view of the porphyrytic Figure 7.2.1.13 The above image in crossed
andesite of the Rio Dulce facies. PPL. Sample polars. Note the strong hydrothermal alteration
WR-55. Note scarce quartz (qtz), plagioclase, (pl) of the rock, manifested by the extensive
amphibole (amp), biotitee (bt). sericitization of the plagioclases.
pl
qtz>
pl
Figure 7.2.1.14. Euhedral section of b-quartz in F i g u re 7 . 2 . 1 . 1 5 . P l a g i o c l a s e c r y s t a l s

the matrix. Crossed polars. Porphyrytic andesite showing twinning and zoning. Porphyrytic
of the Rio Dulce facies. Sample WR-55. andesite of the Rio Dulce facies. Crossed polars.
Sample WR-55.
Plagioclase Biotite
Plagioclase predominates largely among the As in the case of amphibole, biotite is found
phenocrysts (up to 95%), and is euhedral, with a as euhedral prismatic microphenocrysts in the
short prismatic habit. Polysynthetic twinning is on matrix, whose size is in the order of 0,5 mm. It
the albite law, and simple laws are rare. can be 5% modal ofthe matrix.. It is partly altered
The crystal size is also in the centimetric order. to clinochlore, calcite and prehnite along the
Concentric zoning is not conspicuous (fig. 7.2.1.15). cleavages (fig. 7.2.1.18-7.2.1.19).
It may contain inclusions of older generations of
plagioclase crystals, and is altered to sericite (fig. Amphibole
7.2.1.16).
Plagioclase in the matrix is hardly distinguishable Amphibole occurs as microphenocrysts
because of its extremely fine grains, but has also a scattered in the matrix, where it can reach
prismatic habit (fig. 7.2.1.17). Twinning is simple proportions up to 35 % modal. The grain size is in
twinning and has concentrical growth. I may the range 0,2-1 mm. Crystals are euhedral, with long
constitute up to the 55 % modal of the matrix. prismatic habit. However, the optical properties
<ser pl
<pl
Figure 7.2.1.16. Plagioclase crystal partly Figure 7.2.1.17. Small twinned plagioclase
replaced by sericite. Porphyrytic andesite of crystals in the matrix, in crossed polars.
the Rio Dulce facies. Crossed polars. Sample Porphyrytic andesite of the Rio Dulce facies.
WR-55. Sample WR-55.
bt <prh bt <prh
Figure 7.2.1.18. Biotite microphenocryst Figure 7.2.1.19. The above image in crossed
(bt) replaced along cleavages dy prehnite polars; note the high interference colors of
(prh). Porphyrytic andesite of the Rio Dulce prehnite. Porphyrytic andesite of the Rio Dulce
facies. PPL. Sample WR-55. facies. Crossed polars. Sample WR-55.
cannot be studied because it is completely replaced prismatic crystals, with acute bypyramidal
by sparry calcite and small hematite platelets (fig. terminations; the other has bigger grains but these
7.2.1.20-7.2.1.21). are rounded.
Apatite Magnetite
Apatite is a trace mineral, and is found only Magnetite crystals should be present as fine-
as euhedral crystals in the matrix. Crystals have grained euhedral crystals in the matrix (less than
long prismatic habit, and are made up by 20 microns). However, all of them have been
hexagonal prism and pinacoid, with less than 200 replaced by hematite.
microns in length.
Ilmenite
Zircon
Ilmenite occurs in the matrix, where is found
Two types of zircon populations can be as scarce rounded or irregular grains, partly
identified: one is euhedral and fine-grained (fig. replaced by hematite platelets (fig. 7.2.1.23). The
7.2.1.22), and the crystals consist of long grain size is between 50- 250 microns.
<amp <amp
<amp
<amp
amp> amp>
pl
pl
Figure 7.2.1.20. Altered amphibole Figure 7.2.1.21. The above image in crossed
microphenocrysts (amp). Porphyrytic andesite polars.
of the Rio Dulce facies. PPL. Sample WR-55.
ilm>
<mt
zrn> <mt
Figure 7.2.1.22. Zircon (zrn) as inclusions Figure 7.2.1.23. Tabular euhedral ilmenite
magnetite crystals (mt).Porphyrytic andesite of crystal in the matrix. Porphyrytic andesite of
the Rio Dulce facies. PPL, reflected light. Sample the Rio Dulce facies. PPL, reflected light. Sample
WR-55. WR-55.
7.2.1.3. OLIVINE BASALT OF THE pinacoids, with typical rhombic sections. It is
GUACHARACOS FACIES the dominant mineral in the phenocrysts
(around 60% modal), and the crystal size is in
Basaltic rocks of this type crop out along the order of 5 mm. A slight oxidation in the
the roads close the Guacharacos volcano grain borders produces a yellowish colour on
(sample WR-58). these borders (fig. 7.2.1.26-7.2.1.27).
These lavas have a porphyrytic texture, Olivine crystals are also found in the
consisting of phenocrysts of olivine and matrix, but only as rare anhedral crystals, less
clinopyroxene floating in a microcrystalline than 20 microns in size. It may represent about
fluidal matrix composed of plagioclase and 10% modal of the matrix.
volcanic glass (fig. 7.2.1.24-7.2.1.25). The
ratio phenocrysts/matrix is about 0,3. Clinopyroxene
Olivine Clinopyroxene occurs as euhedral

phenocrysts, showing monoclinic prisms,
Olivine occurs as euhedral phenocrysts, dypyramids, domes and pinacoids; the habit
showing rhombic prisms, dypyramids and tends to be short prismatic. It occurs in a lesser
<ol ol>
ol>
ol>
cpx> <cpx
Figure 7.2.1.24. General view of the olivine Figure 7.2.1.25 The above image in crossed
basalts of the Guacharaco facies, sample polars.Cpx, clinopyroxene, ol, oilivine.
WR-59.
ol ol
ol ol
pl
ol <pl ol
Figure 7.2.1.26. Detail of the olivine Figure 7.2.1.27. AThe above image in
phenocrysts. Crossed polars. Olivine basalts crossed polars. Note the small size of the
of the Guacharaco facies, sample WR-59. crystals in the matrix and the high content
Ol, olivine; pl, plagioclase. of volcanic glass in it.
ol
mt>
<pl mt>
mt>
ol
pl> mt>
Figure 7.2.1.28. Plagioclase crystals (pl) in the Figure 7.2.1.29. Subhedral magnetite crystals
matrix. PPL. Ol, olivine. Olivine basalts of (mt) in the matrix. PPL, reflected light. Olivine
the Guacharaco facies, sample WR-59. basalts of the Guacharaco facies, sample
WR-59.
proportion than olivine in the phenocrysts the matrix show a neat fluidal texture (fig.
(around 40% modal), and the crystal size is 7.2.1.28). Zoning is lacking, and twinning is
also smaller, in the order of 3-4 mm. They are on albite law. The crystal size is in the order of
concentrically zoned, and do not exhibit 50 microns.
twinning.
Clinopyroxene can also occur in the Magnetite
matrix, as small euhedral crystals, less than 20
microns in size. It may represent about 10% Magnetite crystals occur in the matrix, where
modal of the matrix. it can achieve up to 10% of the total modal. Fine-
grained euhedral octaedric crystals (less than 50
Plagioclase microns) are the dominant style (fig. 7.2.1.29).
These crystals may be zoned, with a darker core
Plagioclase is the dominant mineral in the that is probably enriched in Cr. Some of them are
matrix (up to 70 % modal), and is euhedral, pseudomorphosed by hematite along the grain
with a tabular shape. Plagioclase crystals of borders and cleavages.
7.2.2. - Geochemistry of the Rio Dulce porphyritic rocks and other Plio-Pleistocene rocks 921
7.2.2. GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE RIO DULDE PORPHYRITIC

ROCKS AND OTHER PLIO-PLEISTOCENE ROCKS
Whole-rock geochemical characterization rock geochemical analyses. The samples

of Pliocene-Pleistocene hypabyssal intrusives include hypabyssal intrusives close to the
and volcanic deposits was made by selecting Ibague city (Sample WR-96), the Rovira
rock samples over the Central Cordillera. townsite (Samples WR-97 and WR-98), the
Ortega townsite (WR-101) and the Chaparral
townsite (WR-102 to WR-104).
7.2.2.1. PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE In the south, to the north of the La Plata
HYPABYSSAL INTRUSIVES townsite, two diorite porphyries (Samples
WR-108 and WR-109) were analyzed.
Regarding the Pliocene-Pleistocene
hypabyssal intrusive rocks, selected samples Major Elements Geochemistry
include porphyritic rocks intruding the early
Paleozoic low-grade metamorphic rocks of the The Pliocene-Pleistocene hypabyssal
Cajamarca and Valdivia groups in the Rio intrusives returned moderate to high SiO 2
Dulce region. contents spanning the range between 53.80%
Moreover, rock samples of hypabyssal and 66.12%, with high Al2O3 contents (15.18-
intrusive rocks intruding the low-grade 18.07%). Relatively high MgO (1.45-4.22%),
metamorphic rocks of the Cajamarca and CaO (3.77-6.82%), Na 2O (3.56-4.49%) and
Valdivia groups and, sometimes, the Ibague K 2O (1.07-2.49%) contents are observed.
Batholith in the Cajamarca-Ibagué-Ataco The AFM triangle plot by Irvine and
region and in the south around the La Plata Baragar (1971) show all of the Pliocene-
townsite, in the Huila Department were also Pleistocene hypabyssal intrusives defining a
analyzed. clear calc-alkaline trend (Figure 7.2.2.1).
In the Rio Dulce area, samples selected The K 2O vs. SiO 2 graphic by Peccerillo
for geochemical analyses include three diorite and Taylor (1976) show most of the samples
porphyries (Samples WR-65, Section 7.2.1.2; clustering and plotting into the (medium-K)
WR-170 and WR-171) and one granodiorite calc-alkaline series field (Figure 7.2.2.2).
porphyry (Sample WR-64, Section 7.2.1.1) In the A/NK vs. A/CNK plot by Shand
rocks. (1943) the hypabyssal intrusives plot into the
From the Cajamarca-Ibague-Ataco area, metaluminous field, with exception of one of
a set of six samples were selected for whole- the diorite porphyry sample form the Rio dulce
area which plots into the peraluminous field

(Sample WR-170) (Figure 7.2.2.3).
The A/CNK values under 1.1 indicate that
these rocks pertain to the I-type granite series.
In the Total Alkalis (TAS) diagram after
Cox et al. (1979) the samples plot into the
diorite and granodiorite fields (Figure 7.2.2.4).
In general, samples from the Rio Dulce
and La Plata areas plot into the diorite field,
whereas most of the samples from the
Cajamarca-Ibague-Ataco area plot into the
granodiorite field with two samples returning
lower silica contents and plotting into the F i g u re 7 . 7 . 2 . 1 . A F M p l o t ( I r v i n e a n d
diorite (Sample WR-98) and basalt (Sample Baragar, 1971) for the Pliocene-Pleistocene
WR-104) fields. porphyry rocks.
The feldspar triangle by O’Connor (1965)
shows all of the samples plotting into the
granodiorite field (Figure 7.2.2.5).
Batchelor and Bowden (1985) shows all of the
samples plotting into the Pre-plate collision
(Subduction-related) field (Figure 7.2.2.6).
Trace Elements Geochemistry
The trace elements of the Pliocene-

Pleistocene hypabyssal intrusive rocks were
compared against the Bulk Continental Crust
and the Primordial Mantle after the values
proposed by Taylor and McLennan (1995) and Figure 7.7.2.2. K2O vs. SiO 2 plot geotectonic
Wood et al. (1979), respectively (Figure plot (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976) for the
7.2.2.7). Pliocene-Pleistocene porphyry rocks.
The Rio Dulce hypabyssal intrusives
(Samples WR-64, WR-65, WR-170 and WR-
171) show clear subduction-related signature,
with Large Ion Lithophile (LIL) elements
enrichment (e.g. Ba, K and Sr) and High Field
Strength (HFS) elements depletion (e.g. Nb-
Ta and Ti). They are also characterized by
relatively high U contents (1.29-3.10ppm).
The six samples of the Cajamarca-Ibague-
Ataco area show more variable patterns but
preserve same the subduction-related
geochemical signature, like the LIL elements
enrichment (e.g. Ba, K and Sr) and HFS
elements depletion (e.g. Nb-Ta and Ti). Both,
Th and U are highly variable (0.86-8.43ppm
F i g u re 7 . 7 . 2 . 3 . A / C N K v s . A / N K p l o t
and 0.27-2.38ppm, respectively).
(Shand, 1943) for the Pliocene-Pleistocene
The samples collected in the south, close
porphyry rocks.
to the La Plata townsite, exhibit very similar
Figure 7.7.2.4. Total alkalis (TAS) plot (Cox Figure 7.7.2.5. Feldspar triangle plot
et al., 1979) for the Pliocene-Pleistocene (O’Connor, 1965) for the porphyries of the
porphyry rocks. Río Dulce Region.
Figure 7.7.2.6. R 1 vs. R 2 plot geotectonic Figure 7.7.2.7. Bulk continental crust-
plot (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for the normalized (Taylor and McLennan, 1995)
Pliocene-Pleistocene porphyry rocks. trace element ‘spider-diagram’ for the
Pliocene-Pleistocene porphyry rocks.
F i g u re 7 . 7 . 2 . 8 . P r i m o rd i a l m a n t l e - F i g u re 7 . 7 . 2 . 9 . C h o n d r i t e - n o r m a l i z e d
n o r m a l i z e d ( Wo o d e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ) t r a c e (Boynton, 1984) REE plot for dacite
element ‘spider-diagram’ for the Pliocene- porphyry samples of the Pliocene-
Pleistocene porphyry rocks. Pleistocene porphyry rocks.
behavior with also remarkable subduction- The samples include a dacite tuff collected
related geochemical features with high Th and about 7km to the east of the Manizales city
U contents (9.57-11.8ppm and 3.26-3.90ppm, (Sample WR-79); a lapilli tuff from the
respectively). pyroclastic deposits of the Cerro Machin
volcano collected at the El Tigre creek in the
Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry Cajamarca-Ibague road (Sample WR-59); an
olivine basalt from the Guacharacos volcanic
The Rare Earth Elements values of the deposits (Sample WR-58; Section 7.2.1.3);
Pliocene-Pleistocene hypabyssal rocks were and an andesite sample collected about 13km
compared against the chondrite values to the NW of the La Argentina townsite
proposed by Boynton (1984) (Figure 7.2.2.8). (Sample WR-107).
The samples of the hypabyssal intrusive
rocks from the Rio Dulce area returned Major Elements Geochemistry
m o d e r a t e R E E c o n t e n t s ( R E E = 8 4 . 6 -
90.2ppm) and show similar REE patterns with The Pleistocene to present volcanic rocks
moderate decreasing fractionated slopes, returned moderate SiO2 contents spanning the
characterized by LREE enrichment with range between 50.94% and 64.30%, with
respect to HREE ((La/Lu) N=8.8-13.5). No variable Al 2O 3 contents (13.59-16.21%).
significant Eu anomalies are observed (Eu/ Variable values of MgO (1.86-10.69%), CaO
Eu*=0.87-1.04). (4.10-7.58%), Na 2O (2.67-4.47%) and K 2O
Only the sample WR-170 returned higher (1.26-2.16%) contents are observed.
REE contents (REE=127.7ppm) and exhibit The AFM triangle plot by Irvine and
different REE pattern with higher LREE values Baragar (1971) show all of the Pleistocene
and a conspicuous negative Ce anomaly, volcanic rocks plotting within the calc-alkaline
probably due to moderate hydrothermal field (Figure 7.2.2.9).
alteration as has been suggested hand sample The K 2O vs. SiO 2 graphic created by
examination. Peccerillo and Taylor (1976) show most of the
The hypabyssal rocks of the Cajamarca- samples plotting into the (medium-K) calc-
Ibague-Ataco area yielded similar or even alkaline series field with the sample WR-58
higher REE contents (REE=71.0-124.5ppm). plotting in the high-K calc-alkaline series field
They show variable decreasing fractionated (Figure 7.2.2.10).
slopes ((La/Lu)N=3.1-9.6), with no significant In the A/NK vs. A/CNK graphic designed
positive/negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.95- by Shand (1943) the volcanic rocks would
1.10). correspond to the metaluminous field (Figure
The hypabyssal rock samples of the La 7.2.2.11).
Plata region also returned high REE contents In the Total Alkalis (TAS) diagram as
(REE=113.9-117.2ppm), with fractionated defined by Cox et al. (1979) the samples plot
decreasing slope patterns ((La/Lu) N =9.3- into the basalt (Sample WR-58), the andesite
10.2), with subtle negative Eu anomalies (Eu/ (Samples WR-79 and WR-107) and the dacite
Eu*=0.91-0.98). (Sample WR-59) fields (Figure 7.2.2.12).
However, a plot in the feldspar triangle
proposed by O’Connor (1965) shows all of
7.2.2.2. PLEISTOCENE TO PRESENT the samples into the dacite field (Figure
VOLCANIC ROCKS 7.2.2.13).
Finally, the R1 vs. R2 geotectonic plot
With respecto to the Pliocene to present defined by Batchelor and Bowden (1985)
volcanic rocks, four different rock samples shows all of the Pleistocene to present volcanic
collected over the the Central Cordillera were rock samples plotting into the Pre-plate
selected for whole-rock geochemical collision (Subduction-related) field (Figure
characterization. 7.2.2.14).
Figure 7.7.2.10. AFM plot (Irvine and F i g u re 7 . 7 . 2 . 11 . K 2 O v s . S i O 2 p l o t

Baragar, 1971) for recent volcanic rocks. geotectonic plot (Peccerillo and Taylor,
1976) for recent volcanic rocks.
(Shand, 1943) for recent volcanic rocks. (Cox et al., 1979) for recent volcanic rocks.
(O’Connor, 1965) for recent volcanic rocks. plot (Batchelor and Bowden, 1985) for
recent volcanic rocks.
Trace Elements Geochemistry Rare Earth Elements Geochemistry
The trace elements of the Pleistocene to The Rare Earth Elements values of the
present volcanic rocks were compared against Pleistocene to present volcanic rocks were
the Bulk Continental Crust and the Primordial compared against the chondrite values
Mantle after the values proposed by Taylor and proposed by Boynton (1984) (Figure
McLennan (1995) and Wood et al. (1979), 7.2.2.16).
respectively (Figure 7.2.2.15). In general, all of All of the volcanic rock samples returned
the volcanic rock samples exhibit similar trace moderate to high REE contents, with basalt and
element patterns with fractionated decreasing basaltic andesite yielding higher values
slopes, and subduction-related geochemical (REE=128.7-174.8ppm) than tuffs
signature, including Large Ion Lithophile (LIL) (REE=74.4-106ppm). They all exhibit REE
elements enrichments (e.g. Ba, K and Sr) and patterns with moderate decreasing fractionated
High Field Strength (HFS) elements depletions slopes, characterized by LREE enrichment
(e.g. Nb-Ta and Ti). Additional trace elements with respect to HREE ((La/Lu) N=6.0-14.7).
features include high Sr (521-756ppm), Th (2.74- No significant Eu anomalies are observed (Eu/
8.28ppm) and U (1.35-3.06ppm) values. Eu*=0.92-1.0
7.2.3.- Geochronology and isotope geochemistry of the Plio-Pleistocene porphyritic rocks 927

THE PLIO-PLEISTOCENE PORPHYRITIC ROCKS
In order to determine magmatic 7.2.3.1. ZIRCON U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS

crystallization ages hypabyssal intrusives of the ANALYSES
Rio Dulce area located over the Central Cor-
dillera, eight zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS Eight zircon U-Pb analyses were carried
analyses were carried out. out in rock samples of the Pliocene-Pleistocene
In addition, a sample of a hypabyssal hypabyssal intrusives of the Rio Dulce region
intrusive in the Santander de Quilichao-Bue- and one sample of the Santander de Quilichao-
nos Aires-Suarez area, at the northern Cauca Buenos Aires-Suarez area of the northern
Department yielding a Pleistocene zircon U- Cauca Department (Table 7.2.3.1).
Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS age is included in this The samples of the Rio Dulce area
section. porphyry suite comprise eight different diorite/
Moreover, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb granodiorite porphyry rock samples yielding
isotope geochemistry analyses were carried ages spanning the 2.4Ma to 0.4Ma interval.
out in two hypabyssal intrusive samples of the At least three different magmatic pulses
Rio Dulce area. during Pliocene-Pleistocene times are well
Table 7.2.3.1. Zircon U-Pb magmatic crystallization ages for the Pliocene-Pleistocene porphyry
rocks.
UNIT AGES
Rio Dulce porphyry suite
Granodiorite Rio Dulce 75° 8’ 33.7” W
WR-64 El Porvenir 2.4±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 9Ma
porphyry porphyry suite 5° 31’ 13.4” N
Granodiorite Rio Dulce Rio Dulce 75° 9’ 7.2” W ca. 25Ma; 45Ma;
12040621 2.4±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS
porphyry porphyry suite region 5° 30’ 50.6” N 95Ma
Intrusive Rio Dulce Rio Dulce 75° 10’ 10.0” W
12018356 2.3±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 50Ma
breccia porphyry suite Project 5° 29’ 54.6” N
Diorite Rio Dulce Rio Dulce 75° 10’ 8.8” W
12018312 2.3±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
porphyry porphyry suite Project 5° 29’ 53.3” N
Granodiorite Rio Dulce Espiritu Santo 75° 7’ 29.4” W ca. 55-60Ma;
WR-65 1.2±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS
porphyry porphyry suite creek 5° 35’ 26.1” N 75Ma
Diorite Rio Dulce Espiritu Santo 75° 7’ 34.8” W
12033321 1.0±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS -
porphyry porphyry suite creek 5° 35’ 17.0” N
Quartz-diorite Rio Dulce Espiritu Santo- 75° 9’ 5.8” W
12040789 1.0±0.2 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 55-60Ma
porphyry porphyry suite SantaBarbara 5° 35’ 20.0” N
ca. 3Ma; 20-
Diorite Rio Dulce 75° 4’ 6.1” W
WR-171 La Cabaña Hill 0.4±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS 25Ma; 65Ma; 80-
porphyry porphyry suite 5° 37’ 11.6” N
90Ma
Santander de Quilichao-Buenos Aires-Suarez area
Porphyry facies
Granodiorite 76° 41’ 51.8” W
JB-361 intruding the Suarez Suarez 1.3±0.1 LA-MC-ICP-MS ca. 50-60Ma
porphyry 2° 56’ 5.65” N
porphyry suite
defined by the zircon U-Pb LA-MC-ICP-MS

magmatic crystallization ages, at 2.3-2.4Ma
1.0-1.2Ma and 0.4Ma.
At the local scale, within the Rio Dulce
area, the magmatic ages show a northeastward
migration of the magmatism, with the oldest
ages in the southwest and the youngest in the
northeast.
The oldest magmatic ages were obtained
in two granodiorite samples collected about
11km to the SSE from the Nariño townsite,
just about 2.5km to the NE of the ‘Rio Dulce
Breccia’ (Samples WR-64 and 12040621).
Both of them returned the same Pleistocene Figure 7.2.3.1. Concordia plot for zircon U-
age of 2.4±0.1Ma (Figures 7.2.3.1 and Pb analyses of the granodiorite porphyry of
7.2.3.2). El Porvenir (Sample WR-64).
In the ‘Rio Dulce diatreme’ area, the
mineralized intrusive breccia (Sample
12018356) returned a Pleistocene age of
2.3±0.1Ma (Figure 7.2.3.3). Diorite porphyry
which seems to cut the breccia (Sample
12018312) returned the same age which would
mean that they are almost coeval (Figure
7.2.3.4).
The second magmatic pulse (ca. 1.2-
1.0Ma) was recognized in the Espiritu Santo-
Santa Barbara porphyry/diatreme area, about
5km to the SE of the Nariño townsite, where
a quartz-diorite porphyry rock (Sample
12040789) returned a Pleistocene age of
1.0±0.2Ma (Figure 7.2.3.5). Figure 7.2.3.2. Concordia plot for zircon U-
In addition, two samples collected at the Pb analyses of the granodiorite porphyry of
Espiritu Santo creek, about 3km to the east of the Rio Dulce region (Sample 12040621).
the Sample 12040789, including granodiorite
(Sample WR-65) and diorite (Sample
12033321) porphyries, returned Pliocene ages
of 1.2±0.1Ma and 1.0±0.2Ma, respectively
(Figures 7.2.3.6 and 7.2.3.7).
In the northern Rio Dulce area, a diorite
porphyry (Sample WR-171) collected at La
Cabaña Hill, about 12km to the east of the
Nariño townsite, returned the youngest
magmatic age of 0.4±0.1Ma (Figure 7.2.3.8).
Besides the Pleistocene ages obtained
from hypabyssal rocks of the Rio Dulce
porphyry suite, another Pleistocene age was
obtained in the Santander de Quilichao-Bue-
nos Aires-Suarez area, in granodiorite
Figure 7.2.3.3. Concordia plot for zircon U-
porphyry (Sample JB-361) which is intruding
Pb analyses of the intrusive breccia of the
the early Miocene Suarez porphyry suite
Rio Dulce Project (Sample 12018356).
Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry of the Pb analyses of the granodiorite porphyry of
Rio Dulce Project (Sample 12018312). the Espiritu Santo creek (Sample WR-65).
Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry of the Pb analyses of the quartz-diorite porphyry
Espiritu Santo creek (Sample 12033321). of the Espiritu Santo-Santa Barbara area
(Sample 12040789).
Pb analyses of the diorite porphyry of the Pb analyses of the granodiorite porphyry of
La Cabaña Hill (Sample WR-171). the Suarez region (JB-361).
(Sample ZIR-01; Section 6.6.4), yielding a

Pleistocene age of 1.3±0.1Ma (Figure
7.2.3.9).
The Pleistocene ages obtained in this
work for the hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Rio Dulce area porphyry suite and the youngest
porphyry rock intruding the Suarez porphyry
suite are summarized in Figure 7.2.3.10.
They compare well with the Pleistocene
ages reported for the Ruiz-Tolima complex (see
compilation in Maya, 1992), and are also
coeval with the second eruptive epoch of the
Paipa Volcano in the Eastern Cordillera (Par-
do et al., 2005).
7.2.3.2. Rb-Sr AND Sm-Nd ISOTOPE

GEOCHEMISTRY
Results of the Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd

analyses carried out in selected Pliocene-
Pleistocene hypabyssal intrusive rocks of the
Rio dulce area are summarized in Tables Figure 7.2.3.10. Zircon U-Pb ages for Pliocene-
7.2.3.2 and 7.2.3.3. Pleistocene intrusive rocks of the Colombian Andes.
The samples selected for Rb-Sr isotope
analyses include a sample from the early (ca.
2.4Ma) magmatic pulse in the Rio Dulce Initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios for both samples
diatreme area (Sample WR-64), and a sample are similar, spanning the narrow range between
from the late youngest (ca. 1.0Ma) magmatic 0.70408 and 0.70435. These results compare
pulse in the La Cabaña Hill area (Sample WR- well with 87Sr/86Sr ratios published by Ordoñez
171). and Pimentel (2001) for extrusive rocks from
Sm-Nd isotope analysis only was carried recent volcanic centers of the Colombian An-
out for the rock from the La Cabaña Hill area des (e.g. the Tolima, Nevado del Ruiz, Bor-
(Sample WR-171). doncillo, Galeras and Doña Juana volcanoes),
Table 7.2.3.2. Rb-Sr isotope geochemistry results for Pliocene-Pleistocene intrusive

rocks of the Colombian Andes.
Table 7.2.3.3. Sm-Nd isotope geochemistry results for Pliocene-Pleistocene intrusive

results for Pliocene-Pleistocene intrusive
Figure 7.2.3.11.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for in late Miocene hypabyssal rocks from
samples of Pliocene-Pleistocene intrusive different regions of the Colombian Andes (e.g.
rocks of the Colombian Andes. Cauca Department, Middle Cauca river valley
and Cajamarca regions).
which returned initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios between 7.2.3.3. LEAD ISOTOPE

0.70407 and 0.70454. GEOCHEMISTRY
On the other hand, the Nd value obtained
for the sample WR-64 was positive (+5.13), Lead isotope analyses on the same early
and it is slightly higher than the  Nd results (WR-64) and late (WR-171) hypabyssal
reported by Ordoñez and Pimentel (2001), for intrusive rocks of the Rio Dulce area are
the recent extrusive rocks of the Colombian presented in Table 7.2.3.4.
Andes (+0.41 to +4.68). Both of the samples yielded very similar
In the Sr-Nd plot, the sample WR-64 lead isotope ratios: 206 Pb/ 204Pb=19.08 and
plots into the upper limit of the Mantle Array, 19.04, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb=15.62 and 15.63 and
where most of the recent volcanic rocks 208
Pb/ 204 Pb=38.79 and 38.80.
analyzed by Ordoñez and Pimentel (2001) plot The uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206 Pb/
(Figure 7.2.3.11). 204
Pb) and thorogenic ( 208Pb/ 204Pb vs. 206 Pb/
This result would indicate a mantle– 204
Pb) diagrams show the Rio Dulce
derived source for the magmas originating the hypabyssal intrusive rocks plotting over the
Rio Dulce porphyry suite with little involvement Upper Crust lead evolution curve of Zartman
of crustal sources, a common feature observed and Doe (1981) (Figure 7.2.3.12).
Figure 7.2.3.12. Thorogenic (208Pb/ 204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb) and uranogenic (207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/
204
Pb) plot for samples of Pliocene-Pleistocene intrusive rocks of the Colombian Andes.
SECTION 7.3
Porphyry-Associated
in the Río Dulce Region
7.3.1. - The Rio Dulce gold deposits 935
7.3.1. THE RIO DULCE GOLD DEPOSITS
The Rio Dulce region is located about In the following paragraphs the main
90km to the SE from Medellín city, in the geological features and the mineralization in the
municipalities of Pensilvania, Arboledas, area are briefly described.
Samaria, Puerto Venus, Pueblo Nuevo,
Cristales and Nariño, between the Tolima,
Antioquia and Caldas departments in the 7.3.1.1. DISTRICT GEOLOGY
Central Cordillera).
There is not much geological information The Rio Dulce region is a complex area
published on this important young gold-silver from a geological point of view. It is located
mineralization. However, detailed descriptions to the west of the Palestina Fault and Suture
of the geological features and ore System, where several Pleistocene hypabyssal
mineralization types and styles are described intrusives and diatreme breccias intrude the
in internal reports of AngloGold Ashanti early Paleozoic low-grade metamorphic
Colombia which summarizes exploration field basement (Figure 7.3.1.1).
works in the area between 2007 and 2010 Those hypabyssal intrusives and diatreme
(Sillitoe, 2008; Vargas, 2010). breccias are considered to be part of a volcanic
Figure 7.3.1.1. Location map of the Rio Dulce gold deposits.

936 SECTION 7.3.- PORPHYRY-ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSITS IN THE RIO DULCE REGION
dome-diatreme complex which constitutes the

northern extension of the active volcanic chain
over the axial portion of the Central Cordillera
associated to the Pleistocene to present
magmatism in the Colombian Andes.
The early Paleozoic metamorphic
basement comprises quartzites and graphite
mica schists intercalated and metamorphosed
up to green schist and low amphibolite facies
(i.e. the Cjamarca and Valdivia groups). It
constitutes the ‘metamorphic core’ of the
Central Cordillera which hosts several intrusive
rocks of different ages from the Triassic to the
present with local development of thermal Figure 7.3.1.2. Morphological expression
aureoles (e.g. hornfels). associated to the diatreme breccias, La
The oldest intrusive rocks in the area are Torre Sector, SSW Arboledas. Courtesy:
the Triassic rocks of the informal ‘Nariño Hector Vargas.
Batholith’, the southern portion of the
composite intrusive known in the geological
literature as the ‘Sonsón Batholith’ (e.g. Cediel
and Caceres, 2000; Gonzalez, 2001; Gomez,
2007) which crop out to the west of the area
and returned Permian zircon U-Pb magmatic
crystallization age (Section 3.2.3.4). These
rocks are coarse-grained massive
granodiorites to quartz-diorites of mottled
aspect composed by quartz, plagioclase,
biotite and muscovite.
Paleocene intrusive rocks of the Sonsón
Batholith (Section 5.2) also crop out to the
west of the Rio Dulce area. These rocks are Figure 7.3.1.3. Dacite porphyry rock of the
medium-grained massive granodiorites and Espiritu Santo area. Courtesy: Hector
tonalites composed by plagioclase, quartz, Vargas.
hornblende and biotite.
The Pleistocene to present igneous rocks
comprise hypabyssal dacite to andesite
intrusives with characteristic porphyry texture
and associated diatreme breccias with
remarked morphological expression (Figure
7.3.1.2).
The dacite porphyry rocks constitute the
most abundant lithology in the area. They are
present as dikes or stocks, whereas the
andesite porphyries are only locally observed
and have associated mineralization (Figure
7.3.1.3).
On the other hand, the diatreme breccias
Figure 7.3.1.4. Mineralized diatreme breccia
crop out as extensive large round-shaped
aspect at El Arroyo, Rio Dulce region.
bodies up to 2km in diameter or elongated
Courtesy: Hector Vargas.
bodies following a preferred NNW direction.
7.3.1. - The Rio Dulce gold deposits 937
They seem to be coeval with the andesite sub-angular to sub-rounded clasts of
porphyries, as they contain schist and diorite metamorphic rocks (graphite schists), pumice
porphyry fragments but not andesite porphyry tuff material, and ‘juvenile material’ with minor
fragments, and there are some porphyry dikes dacite hypabyssal rock fragments crops out,
cutting some of the diatreme bodies (e.g. the intruding the metamorphic basement of the
Rio Dulce-Arboledas diatreme) (Figure Cajamarca and Valdivia groups.
7.3.1.4). In the diatreme breccia there is an
The most important breccias identified in extensive zone of strong pervasive
the area are the Rio Dulce-Arboledas, Espiritu hydrothermal alteration (350x150m), with
Santo, Santa Rita, La Cabaña, La Torre and silicification as the principle alteration type.
La Morena-Guayaquil. Subordinated argillic alteration is also
The principle structural feature in the area recognized. Illite is present in low proportions
is the Palestina Fault and Suture System (Vargas, 2010) (Figure 7.3.1.5).
located to the west following a N10º-20ºE Abundant disseminated fine-grained pyrite
direction. crystals are common all over the diatreme
The Pleistocene to present magmatic breccia in both, the rock fragments and the
activity is associated with fissure volcanism matrix. Sometimes they are clustered in ‘nests’
following the conjugated fault traces to the or form discontinuous veinlets up to 2cm wide
Palestina Fault and Suture System. following a N-S preferred trend.
The geochronological data (Section The hypabyssal andesite intrusives, where
7.2.3.1) show a progressive migration of the present, exhibit the same hydrothermal
volcanism focus following a NE direction in the alteration observed in the diatreme breccia,
area, from the Rio Dulce-Arboledas diatreme characterized by strongly pervasive
area (ca. 2.4Ma) up to the La Cabaña Hill area silicification, subordinated argillic alteration
(ca. 0.4Ma) (Figure 7.3.1.1). and abundant disseminated pyrite.
Effects of the hydrothermal alteration are
also recognized in the contact of the diatreme
7.3.1.2. MINERAL ASSOCIATIONS breccia with the host rock (i.e. the graphite
AND TEXTURES schists and quartzites of the Cajamarca and
Valdivia groups), where strong argillic
AngloGold Ashanti Colombia exploration alteration accompanied by abundant fine-
works in the Rio Dulce region describe grained pyrite disseminated and following
mineralization spatially related to the foliation and fractures is observed.
Pleistocene to present magmatism in three
sectors: Rio Dulce-Arboledas, Espiritu Santo
and Santa Rita (Figure 7.3.1.1) (Vargas,
2010).
The mineralization and associated
hydrothermal alteration in these three sectors
are similar, mostly disseminated fine pyrite
crystals with traces of sphalerite, chalcopyrite
and molybdenite, accompanied by highly
pervasive hydrothermal alteration in the
diatreme breccias and the andesite hypabyssal
intrusives (Vargas, 2010).
The Rio Dulce-Arboledas sector
At the Rio Dulce-Arboledas sector, a Figure 7.3.1.5. Strongly silicified and

coarse-grained diatreme breccia composed by mineralized breccia in the Rio Dulce area.
Courtesy: Hector Vargas.
938 SECTION 7.3.- PORPHYRY-ASSOCIATED AND RELATED GOLD DEPOSITS IN THE RIO DULCE REGION
The Espiritu Santo sector features have been observed in andesite

porphyries, where strong pervasive quartz-
At the Espiritu Santo sector, a large sericite and quartz-pyrite hydrothermal
coarse-grained dacite/andesite porphyry stock alteration associations are associated with best
intrudes the low-grade metamorphic basement gold anomalous values (Vargas, 2010).
of the schists of the Cajamarca and Valdivia Pyrite contents in these porphyry rocks
groups and also the Triassic and paelocene vary from 0.5 to 3%, and it is disposed into
granodioirtes of the Nariño and Sonsón thin parallel bands. Scarce disseminate pyrite
Batholiths. appears also in the matrix, sometimes in thin
Diatreme and polymictic breccias and veinlets of 1mm wide.
associated fine-grained dacite/andesite Geochemical signature in the Espiritu
porphyry intrusive injected in the contact of Santo sector is Au-Ag-As-Pb-Sb (Vargas,
the large coarse-grained porphyry stock and 2010).
the ‘Nariño Batholith’ granodiorite are
recognized. This fine-grained intrusive have The Santa Rita sector
gold mineralization associated.
Mineralization comprises disseminated In the Santa Rita sector, low-grade
fine-grained pyrite in amounts between 0.2 and metamorphic rocks, including quartzites and
3.0%, averaging 1%. Traces of chalcopyrite graphite schists of the Cajamarca and Valdivia
and molybdenite are also observed (Figure groups crop out. These metamorphic rocks
7.3.1.6). develop wide hornfels zones close to the
In the higher parts, local occurrences of contact with the intrusive rocks where quartz-
dense pyrite-quartz veinlets arrangements pyrite veinlets are not uncommon, and
(about 30 veinlets/m) are recognized. disseminated pyrite in amounts from 0.2 to
Intensive quartz-sericie hydrothermal 1.0%.
alteration affects the diatreme breccias, almost Dikes and stocks of dacite porphyries and
erasing the original texture. Subordinated illite- polymictic breccias with pyrite traces, intrude
silica-carbonate hydrothermal alteration of the metamorphic rocks (Figure 7.3.1.7).
variable intensity is also observed. Hydrothermal alteration in the
Dacite/andesite porphyry rocks exhibit metamorphic rocks is moderate to weak,
local propylitic and chloritic alteration zones including silicification, chlorite and biotite
(e.g. chlorite, pyrite, carbonates, epidote and hydrothermal alteration.
patchy illite). Silica alteration is scarce but can Pyrite mineralization occurs from trace
be recognized in some areas.Best quantities up to 3%, with traces of
hydrothermal alteration and mineralization chalcopyrite, bornite and galena.
Figure 7.3.1.6. Disseminated pyrite in Figure 7.3.1.7. Diatreme breccia cut dacite
ineralized diatreme breccia at El Arroyo, Río porphyry rocks at the Santa Rita area.
Dulce region. Courtesy: Hector Vargas. Courtesy: Hector Vargas.
SECTION 7.4
Synthesis of the Neogene

Magmatism vs. Au Metallogeny
7.4.1. - Synthesis of Neogene magmatism vs. Au metallogeny 941
7.4.1. SYNTHESIS OF NEOGENE MAGMATISM Vs. Au

METALLOGENY
Miocene and Pliocene calc-alkaline Additional, important but isolated Miocene and
magmatic rocks are widely but irregularly Pliocene hypabyssal porphyry clusters are
distributed throughout the Colombian Andes. observed within the Central Cordillera, the
As with the Cretaceous to Eocene, Miocene - Santander Massif and Eastern Cordillera
Pliocene magmatism manifests as a complex (Quetame Massif).
distribution of plutonic and hypabyssal intrusive Published U-Pb (zircon) data or
and volcanic rocks. Unlike the Cretaceous- information regarding the precise age and/or
Eocene intrusions however, all Miocene and petrochemistry of Miocene – Pliocene
Pliocene magmatic rocks are considered to magmatism in the Colombia Andes is
have been emplaced broadly in situ, into con- exceedingly limited (e.g. Alvarez, 1983; Maya,
tinental margin metamorphic and accreted 1992; Frantz et al., 2007; Tassinari et al.,
oceanic basement rocks juxtaposed during 2008; Mantilla et al., 2009). Previous work
previous phases of the Northern Andean and published geological maps generally refer
Orogeny. Miocene – Pliocene magmatic rocks to inferred Miocene-aged magmatic rocks as
represent subduction-related calc-alkaline being ‘Neogene’ in age, precluding a detailed
magmatism generated during the NNE-directed analysis of the appearance and nature of
to orthogonal subduction of the Nazca plate Miocene magmatic rocks with time.
beneath the essentially modern-day tectonic Within the context of the present study,
configuration of the northern Andean region, twenty-four new U-Pb (zircon) age
beginning in the early Miocene. Subduction of determinations of Miocene – Pliocene
the Nazca plate continues today, as recorded holocrystalline intrusions and hypabyssal
in the geometrically and petrochemically porphyritic stocks, backed by 89 detailed
complex array of volcanoes extending from petrochemical analyses and additional
central Ecuador through central Colombia, geochemical/isotopic studies (i.e. Pb-Pb, Rb-
marking the present-day manifestation of the Sr) of Miocene intrusive and volcanic rocks,
Northern Andean Volcanic Arc (Cediel et al;, permit a much more precise time-space analysis
2003; Stern, 2004) and understanding of the evolution of Miocene
With respect to distribution, Miocene and Pliocene calc-alkaline magmatism
holocrystalline plutons are well exposed along throughout the Colombian Andes.
the Western Cordillera whilst hypabyssal The basic whole-rock petrochemical data
stocks and dikes and associated volcanic rocks for the entire Miocene-Pliocene magmatic suite
are particularly well exposed along the eastern indicate that all samples, including
margin of the Western Cordillera and the holocrystalline and porphyritic intrusions and
western margin of the Central Cordillera, coeval volcanic rocks from the Western and
within the Cauca and Patia drainage basins. Central Cordilleras and along the Cauca and
942 SECTION 7.4. - NEOGENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - SYNTHESIS
Figure 7.4.1.1. Miocene to Pleistocene magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the

Colombian Andes. Tectonic base map adapted from Cediel et al. (2003).
7.4.1. - Synthesis of Neogene magmatism vs. Au metallogeny
943
Figure 7.4.1.2. Time-space chart for Miocene to Pleistocene magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
Patia drainage basins, are of metaluminous (I- Contrary to the data from southwestern
type), medium-to high-K calc-alkaline affinity. Colombia, in the northwest, the oldest ages
The data are herein interpreted to represent associated with Miocene calc-alkaline
magmas derived through subduction-related magmatism appear at ca. 11-12 Ma (Section
arc magmatism. 6.2.3.2), and include holocrystalline plutons,
Based upon the time-space analysis of such as the Farallones Batholith and El Cerro
Miocene and Pliocene magmatism in the (K-Ar, Biotite) and Morrogacho stocks, and
present study it can now be demonstrated that clusters of porphyritic stocks as seen at the
the extensive, composite ‘Neogene’ magmatic Paramo de Frontino and Buritica (K-Ar,
arc of Colombia is in fact composed of a se- Hornblende), all emplaced into the eastern,
ries of more aerially limited arc segments. Canas Gordas segment, of the Choco Arc.
Manifestations of magmatism within the As in the southwest, the calc-alkaline arc
composite arc are observed to migrate in time axis migrated eastward, in this case between
and space, shifting in both a south-to-north and 8.0 and 6.5 Ma, with the appearance of
west-to-east sense (Figures 7.4.1.1 and numerous clusters of poly-phase porphyry
7.4.1.2). stocks intruding Romeral Terrane basement
The first manifestations of Miocene calc- along the ca. 100 kilometre m long north-south
alkaline magmatism in Colombia appear in the oriented Middle Cauca trend. These stocks out
southwestern-most Western Cordillera where crop from near Marsella in the south, through
23-22 Ma holocrystalline hornblende and Quinchia, Supia- Rio Sucio -Marmato,
biotite tonalite of the Piedrancha Batholith and Caramanta-Tamesis, Jerico (Quebradona) and
Cuembí Batholiths and associated stocks Fredonia-Venecia to Titiribi in the north. Unlike
(Section 6.9) intrude the oceanic Dagua- the southwestern and elsewhere Miocene
Diabasico Groups (Dagua Terrane) basement porphyry trends however, the Middle Cauca
(Section 6.9.1.1). The lack age dating does belt is accompanied by a spatially coincident,
not permit the clear definition of the northern well developed and/or preserved volcanic pile,
limit of the Piedrancha – Cuembi arc. It’s as recorded in the coeval Combia Formation,
presence can be inferred into the region to the which is also of late Miocene age (Section
west of Cali (Figure 6.9.1.1), where similar 6.2.3.2; Figures 7.4.1.1 and 7.4.1.2).
holocrystalline intrusive bodies appear on re- Farther to the east, two additional
gional map sheets but neither precise age data clusters of Miocene poly-phase hypabyssal
nor petrochemistry are available for these porphyrtic rocks are well-documented by the
intrusives. present study, including in the Cajamarca –
The calc-alkaline magmatic arc axis Salento area of the central Central Cordillera,
migrated eastward during the middle Miocene and in the Vetas-California area of the
with the appearance of ca. 18 to 9 Ma intrusive Santander Massif (Figures 7.4.1.1 and
centers including Buenos Aires-Suarez- 7.4.1.2).
Santander de Quilichao and the Betulia At Cajamarca-Salento area, a poly-
Igneous Complex, and numerous additional phase cluster of 8.3 and 6.3 Ma porphyritic
clusters of porphyry stocks around Arboledas diorite and granodiorite are contained within a
(Berruecos), Mercaderes and La Vega – broad circular structure interpreted to extend
Altamira – La Sierra, including Cerro Gordo, over an area of of ca. 100 square kilometers.
Cerro Negro and Cerro Bolivar (Section 6.6; The full extent of the cluster is difficult to defi-
Figure 7.4.1.1). The great majority of these ne due to a general lack of age dates and the
intrusive centers are comprised of poly-phase presence of modern volcanic cover, especially
hypabyssal porphyritic diorite to tonalite to the north. The porphyries intrude low-grade
stocks and dikes emplaced into Romeral metamorphic rocks of the Cajamarca Group,
assemblage basement. Holocrystalline diorite to the east of the Romeral Fault. Individual
to granodiorite is exposed in the core of the composite stocks within the cluster are
Betulia Complex. o b s e r v e d a t L a C o l o s a , Ti e r r a d e n t r o ,
Montecristo, La Morena, Salento and Good examples of these rocks include
elsewhere (Section 6.4). Unlike the porphyries unaltered samples dated by Mantilla et al.
of the Middle Cauca, no coeval Miocene (2009) from the Mongora Creek section, which
volcanic rocks are seen at Cajamarca – are rich in centimeter-scale euhedral potassium
Salento. feldspar phenocrysts of magmatic affinity. No
Much farther to the north and east, in the petrochemical analyses were provided by this
Santander Massif at Vetas-California, a clus- author for their samples. Notwithstanding, the
ter of porphyritic stocks return U-Pb (zircon) highly isolated, clustered as opposed to belt-
ages ranging from ca. 8.2 to 10.4 Ma (this like nature of the Vetas-California porphyries
study; Mantilla et al., 2009). In this region the combined with evidence of per-potassic
stocks intrude Mesoproterozoic high-grade affinity, suggest these rocks may be assigned
metamorphic rocks, early Paleozoic intrusive a ‘(alkaline?) outlier’ status, and do not form
rocks and latest Triassic - Jurassic plutonic part of the general calc-alkaline axis marking
rocks of the Santander Massif. Individual Miocene subduction-related magmatism in the
porphyry bodies include those exposed at San Colombian Andes.
Celestino and along the La Laja and Mongora Following the Miocene, consolidation of
creeks. the axis of calc-alkaline magmatism into the
With respect to Miocene magmatism, the generally north-northeast oriented present day
relatively isolated nature of the Cajamarca – Northern Andean trend is observed. In the
Salento and Vetas-California porphyry clusters Pliocene, 2.4 Ma and 0.4 Ma porphyritic
is noteworthy. Based upon presently available magmatism with coeval volcanism was
age date and petrochemical data, these areas emplaced into Cajamarca Group metamorphic
do not appear to form parts of contiguous li- basement in the Rio Dulce area, whilst volcanic
near trends or belts of porphyric rocks of si- sequences are recorded elsewhere in the Cen-
milar age. The Cajamarca – Salento cluster tral Cordillera and throughout the Colombian
could continue northward under thick modern- Massif to the southwest. Petrochemical data
day volcanic cover, and the area is notably for the Rio Dulce porphyries indicate they are
coaxial with the present day volcanic arc of metaluminous medium K calc-alkaline in
the Central Cordillera. The limits of the Vetas nature.
– California cluster however are well- The nature, geometry and timing of
constrained, and no belt-like geometries can magmatism within the Pliocene to recent
be inferred. northern Andean calc-alkaline arc remains
Whole-rock petrochemical data for the complex, influenced by various basement
Cajamarca-Salento cluster indicate the complexes and paleo-fault and suture systems
porphyries are typical metaluminous (I-type), (e.g. Cediel et al., 2003). Regardless, within
medium- K calc-alkaline rocks, similar to those Colombia, based upon the occurrence of
of the southwestern Colombia and Middle Pliocene to recent calc-alkaline intrusive and
Cauca trends. volcanic rocks, the arc can be traced in a
Analyses for the Vetas-California area continuous belt from the southwestern border
however are quite distinct from the rest. with Ecuador to the north-central portion of
Samples of the La Araña granodiorite porphyry the Central Cordillera.
near Vetas (Section 6.8) and the Barbacoas Additional ‘alkaline outlier ’-type
granodiorite porphyry (Mongora Creek), magmatism is also recorded in the Pliocene.,
collected during the current study, are visually in the Eastern Cordillera, isolated volcanic
affected by hydrothermal alteration. Whole- centers at Iza-Paipa and Quetame. The rocks
rock analytical data suggest possible at Paipa are of a silica-undersaturated (leucite-
enrichments in SiO 2, Al 2O 3 and K 2O, with bearing) peralkaline nature (Garzon, 2003;
depletion in CaO and Na2O. However, various Pardo et al., 2005a,b).
porphyry stocks out cropping in the Vetas- Sr-Nd isotope geochemistry data for
California area display a per-potassic nature. Miocene to Pliocene intrusives and volcanic
rocks throughout the Western and Central of significance is located within the Santander
Cordilleras show a clear mantle-derived source Massif, associated with Miocene magmatism
for all magmas with only minor crustal at Vetas-California (including Angostura). The
contribution. Similarly, data for recent volcanic young age of Miocene-Pliocene magmatism
rocks published by Ordoñez and Pimentel and nature of it’s spatially-related gold
(2001b), plot within the Mantle Array field mineralization permit the establishment of a
(Figure 7.4.1.3). clear genetic link between magmatism and
Lead isotope data of the Miocene- mineralization during this time period (Figure
Pliocene intrusive rocks in general indicate 7.4.1.2).
radiogenic values and cluster in narrow ranges Based upon the results of gold
(Figure 7.4.1.4). Most of the samples plot exploration activities in Colombia over the last
between the Orogene and Upper Crust lead ten years, gold mineralization spatially and
evolution curves of the Plumbotectonics model genetically related to Miocene magmatic rocks
by Zartman and Doe (1981), indicating mixing represent by far the largest quantified gold
between two distinct Pb sources including a resources, with the appearance/preservation of
less radiogenic (mantle-derived?) source and large tonnage – low grade, potentially bulk-
a more radiogenic (upper crust? continent- mineable, porphyry-related deposits such as
derived pelitic sediments??) source. at La Colosa (Cajamarca-Salento) and An-
Gold mineralization spatially associated gostura (Vetas-California).
to the Miocene and Pliocene holocrystalline Gold mineralization related to Miocene
and porphyritic intrusions and volcanic – Pliocene magmatic rocks in Colombia
sequences is widespread, being observed manifests in two broad forms including, 1)
throughout Colombia’s Western and Central mineralization hosted within or peripheral to
Cordilleras. Within the Eastern Cordilleran holocrystalline batholiths, stocks and dikes,
system the only known Au (Ag) mineralization and 2) mineralization hosted within or
Figure 7.4.1.3.  Nd vs. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr plot for some of the Miocene to Pleistocene intrusives of
the Colombian Andes.
Figure 7.4.1.4. Uranogenic ( 207 Pb/ 204 Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb) and thorogenic (208 Pb/ 204 Pb vs.
206
Pb/ 204Pb) and plots for rocks of some Miocene to Pleistocene intrusives of the Colombian
Andes. Lead isotope evolution curves from Plumbotectonics model after Zartman and
Doe (1981).
peripheral to clusters of polyphase hypabyssal holocrystalline plutons including the Farallones

porphyry stocks. Batholith, the Paramo de Frontino and the El
Mineralization hosted within and Cerro and Morrogacho stocks. Large (metre-
peripheral to Miocene holocrystalline plutons scale) veins containing occasional course
is generally structurally controlled, occurring molybdenite crystals are hosted within the
as large veins or sheeted vein complexes within Farallones Batholith. Veins and breccias
the intrusives, within horfels zones surrounding associated with holocrystalline diorite dikes cut
the intrusive, and as sill-like bodies or in fault Canas Gordas Group carbonaceous sediments
and fracture zones within the host rocks more on the east side of the batholiths near the town
distal to the intrusives. of Andes. To the north near the towns of
Examples of this style of mineralization Frontino and Canas Gordas, sheeted veins cut
are observed in southwestern Colombia the El Cerro and Morrogacho stocks, and
associated with the Piedrancha – El Vergel – similarly extend into Canas Gordas Group
Cuembi plutons, in numerous mineralized zones sedimentary rocks. An auriferous hornfels
extending from Piedrancha in the south to north aureole extends for up to ten meters around
to Cumbitra in the north. All of the main plutons the El Cerro stock.
and associated smaller stocks host vein-type To the west of El Cerro – Morrogacho,
Au mineralization, commonly associated with the Buritica Ag-Au (Zn, Pb, Cu) vein and
arsenopyrite pyrrhotite in the vein assemblages. breccias system is of intermediate sulfidation
Occurrences within the Piedrancha Batholith epithermal affinity, very similar to the younger
and at La Llanada and Sotomayor provide occurrences at Marmato, to the south (see
good examples. below).
Numerous structurally-controlled vein Although not included during this study,
systems extend into the surrounding Dagua the Paramo de Frontino stock and volcanic
Group host rocks, including occurrences at El complex (ca. 11 Ma K-Ar/Bt; Maya, 1992),
Diamante, Guachavez, La Concordia, La Vic- is known to host porphyry-related Au-Cu
toria-La Esperanza (Sotomayor), La Golon- occurrences and a kilometer-scale intermediate
drina, La Perla, El Urano and El Granito, which sulfidation epithermal Ag-Au (Zn-Cu) vein
are considered to be associated with the system known as Lunareja.
cooling history of the ca. 23-22 Ma intrusives. With respect to mineralization hosted
To the north, Au mineralization is within or peripheral to clusters of polyphase
observed within and surrounding the ca. 11 Ma hypabyssal porphyry stocks of Miocene age,
mineralization styles include porphyry-type Au Quinchia, epithermal Au (Ag, Zn, Cu;

(+/-Cu+/-Mo) and epithermal Au (Ag, As, Sb, tetrahedrite) veins and breccias with strong
Pb, Zn,) occurrences in many respects typical sericite-illite alteration are observed at Loma
of the near porphyry environment (Sillitoe, G u e r r e r o ( G u a y a c a n – Tr e s C u e v a s ) ,
2008). developed within and along the contacts
Within the southwestern Colombia ca. between Miocene diorite porphyry and the late
18-9 Ma hypabyssal porphyry trend, good Cretaceous felsic Irra Stock.
examples of porphyry-Au (+Cu) mineralization At Titiribi, intermediate sulphidation Au-
are seen at Arboledas (Berruecos), La Vega, Zn-As + Ag-Pb-Cu sulfosalt-rich veins
Dominical – Piedrasentada, and in the north at dominate the lower sectors of the Titiribi
Buenos Aires – Suarez (La Toma) – Santander District (La Independencia, El Porvenir, Otra
de Quilichao. Epithermal mineralization Mina), hosted within Romeral mélange
developed as veins and disseminations within metamorphic basement rocks. The veins are
broad-scale alteration haloes surrounding the tightly structurally controlled, contained within
porphyries are well developed at La Vega – west-verging high angle reverse faults. Wall
Almaguer, Dominical – La Sierra and Buenos rock alteration including adularia, sericite and
Aires-Suarez. carbonate is restricted by the structural zones.
To the north, in the 8.0 and 6.5 Ma Based upon field observations and
Middle Cauca trend, porphyry-type Au+Cu limited radiometric age dating (e.g. Tassinari
mineralization is associated with biotite-altered et al., 2008), the epithermal deposits of the
diorite porphyry stocks distributed along a Middle Cauca post-date the crystallization age
north-south axis. They pass from near Marse- of the main porphyry phase by on the order of
lla (Cu+Au) in the south through Quinchia, 1.5 to 2 million years.
Jerico-La Quebradona (La Aurora) and La In the Central Cordillera, to the south and
Mina (Venecia-Fredonia), terminating at Titiribi east of the Middle Cauca trend, world-class
some 130km to the north. Based upon their Au-porphyry mineralization is contained within
contained alteration and veinlet assemblages, the ca. 8.4-6.3Ma porphyry cluster of the
these occurrences can be considered to be Cajamarca-Salento area. Various Au (only)
classic examples of Au-Cu porphyry systems porphyry occurrences are confirmed within this
(Sillitoe, 2008; see Section 6.3.3). cluster, including at La Colosa (>12Moz Au;
Strong expressions of porphyry-related L o d d e r e t a l . , 2 0 1 0 ) , C e r r o B o l i v a r,
epithermal mineralization are also recorded Tierradentro and Montecristo. As of this
along the Middle Cauca. Various styles of writing, these occurrences are actively being
mineralization are indicated. At Marmato, Rio explored. Numerous peripheral vein and
Sucio, Supia and Caramanta, epithermal to breccia systems spatially associated with these
sub-epithermal mineralization is developed as porphyry-type deposits are assumed to be of
intermediate sulfidation Ag-Au (Zn, Pb, As) an epithermal nature e.g. (La Colosa south, the
vein systems hosted within diorite and San Antonio breccias), but no technical
granodiorite porphyry stocks. Extensive illite- information is yet available regarding the nature
sericite alteration haloes surround the veins. of these occurrences.
The absence of nearby porphyry-type Au+Cu Numerous geological and geochemical
mineralization is notable. parameters distinguish the world-class La
At Quinchia, the Miraflores hydrothermal Colosa Au-porphyry deposit from the
breccia, developed within mafic volcanic of the temporally coeval but much smaller
Romeral Terrane, is characterized by a strongly occurrences of the Middle Cauca trend. Some
calcic assemblage of calcite-dolomite and or all of these parameters may help account
epidote. The breccias display well-developed for the observation that the La Colosa
comb and cockade open-space filling textures deposit(s) is far larger and of higher grade than
with quartz-chalcedony, bladed calcite and any of the deposits presently known along the
zeolites common as late infillings. Also at Middle Cauca trend.
The first clear difference involves the the upper California area, where the northeast-
nature of the basement rocks into which these striking La Mascota high sulfidation vein system
two districts are emplaced. The Cajamarca- can be traced along the margin of the San
Salento porphyries intrude schistose, low- Celestino stock, to the northeast into the La
grade metamorphic rocks of the Cajamarca Bodga and finally Angostura areas, where it
Group. The impermeable nature of these takes on a strongly structurally-controlled,
schists may have provided a strong physical sericite-pyrite-dominated intermediate
barrier which contained the mineralizing fluids sulfidation aspect.
within and proximal to the porphyry complex. Fine white (chalky) alunite in veinlets,
In addition, the Cajamarca schists are strongly dated during the present study (3.4±0.3Ma,
carbonaceous to graphitic, and hence provide K-Ar), is considered to be late or post-mine-
a strongly reducing chemical environment ral (supergene) in nature.
conducive to the rapid precipitation of sulfides At Vetas, veinlets cutting Mesoproterozoic
and gold from the generally oxidizing basement rocks peripheral to the La Araña stock
(magnetite-normative) porphyry solutions. are comprised of fine comb-textured colloidal
In addition, the location of the silica and contain abundant fine sulfosalts,
Cajamarca – Salento porphyry cluster near the electrum and wires of native silver, reflecting their
bifurcation of two crustal-scale fault and suture clear epithermal nature.
systems (i.e. Palestina and Romeral; Figure As at Cajamarca – Salento, the Vetas-
7.4.1.1) Dextral strike-slip reactivation of these California porphyry cluster and it’s associated
faults during the late Miocene would generate Au mineralization, demonstrate a
an extensional structural regime favorable to geographically isolated aspect, and a clearly
the rapid ascent of fertile magma from the distinct set of geological, petrochemical and
mantle with limited or minimal crustal mineralogical parameters, with respect to time-
ineteracion. This possibility is supported by equivalent (late Miocene) porphyry-related
lead isotopic data presented herein (Sections mineralzation elsewhere, including that of the
6.2 and 6.4), which indicates that sulphides Middle Cauca trend.
from the Colosa Au-porphyry are less It was highlighted above for the Middle
radiogenic than those from the Middle Cauca, Cauca vs. Cajamarca – Salento areas, that
including for example the Marmato and Titiribí essentially time-equivalent late Miocene
districts. districts exhibit a wide range of differences with
Finally in the Miocene, to the north and respect to their fundamental geological
east, the ca. 8.2 to 10.4 Ma ‘outlier’ porphyry (basement complex, structural regime),
stocks of Vetas – California District in the petrochemical and mineralogical parameters,
Santander Massif, host significant not the least of which is the resulting size of
mineralization both within the stocks and the contained mineral occurrences.
extending into the regional metamorphic and These differences highlight the
plutonic country rocks. complexities of magmatism and porphyry-
Based upon exploration to date, Au (Cu- related metallogenesis in tectono-magmatic
Mo) porphyry-type mineralization within the settings, and provide a warning against the sim-
porphyries themselves is only weakly (sub- ple “grouping” of textually similar (e.g.
economically) developed or has been strongly ‘neogene porphyry’) rocks in a regional
overprinted by lower-temperature alteration context.
and mineralization types. All of these parameters, for example,
Thus the strongest expression of support the observation that the Cajamarca–
mineralization at Vetas-California is of a high- Salento and Vetas-California districts and their
to-intermediate sulfidation epithermal nature contained Au-porphyry and related deposits
(e.g. Felder et al, 2005). The largest are justifiably excluded from classification
concentration of Au-Ag (+/-Cu) mineralization within the general deposits of the Middle
explored to date (>10Moz Au) is located in Cauca trend.
Based upon the present study, the utility rich epithermal veins and phreato-magmatic
of detailed radiometric age dating, and diatreme breccias which cut the porphyritic
petrochemical and geochemical - isotopic stocks and coeval volcanoclastic sequence and
studies at the district-scale in the understanding the surrounding Cajamarca Group basement
of Colombia’s regional porphyry-related which hostes the district.
metallogenesis is evident. Notably a lithological and structural setting
The youngest porphyry-related similar to that observed at Cajamarca-Salento can
mineralization documented in Colombia during be observed at Rio Dulce. Based upon the young
the present study is spatially-temporally related age of the Rio Dulce magmatism, it may be
to the ca. 2.4 – 0.4 Ma hypabyssal intrusives speculated that erosion has not yet exposed the
and associated magmatic and hydrothermal deeper-seat (higher-temperature) porphyry cores
breccias is found at the Rio Dulce area. which may contain Cajamarca-Salento-like Au-
Mineralization includes Au-Ag (Pb, Zn, As)- porphyry (sensu stricto) deposits.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 8
REGIONAL
SYNTHESIS OF
GRANITOID
MAGMATISM VS. Au
METALLOGENY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECTION 8.1.
Regional synthesis of granitoid

magmatism vs. Au metallogeny in
the Colombian Andes
8.1.1. - Regional synthesis of granitoid magmatism vs. Au metallogeny in the Colombian Andes 955
8.1.1. REGIONAL SYNTHESIS OF GRANITOID MAGMATISM Vs.

Au METALLOGENY IN THE COLOMBIAN ANDES
Aspden et al. (1987), based upon the published by various authors since 1995. The
compilation of published K-Ar and Rb-Sr composite data set provides a precise
radiometric age dates of intrusive rocks in the framework upon which to reconstruct the
Colombian Andes, presented a temporal – temporal-spatial development of Phanerozoic
spatial analysis of Colombian magmatism. They arc-related magmatism, and within which to
defined five episodes of arc-related integrate the most important historic to modern-
magmatism, including during the Triassic, day gold districts in the Colombian Andes.
Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene, The results of this process confirm a
and offered an interpretation of the tectonic spatial – temporal relationship between
framework for each period. magmatism and Au mineralization for all of the
Shaw (2000; 2003), based primarily upon Colombian Au occurrences studied herein, and
empirical field observations, radiometric age indicate a clear genetic relationship between
data (e.g Maya, 1992), and a more recent arc-related calc-alkaline magmatism and Au
tectonic analysis for the northern Andes (Cediel (Ag +/- Cu, Zn, Pb, Mo) mineralization in
et al., 2003), presented an interpretation of general.
gold metallogeny in Colombia, in which the Detailed time-space analyses of
spatial and potential genetic relationships magmatism vs. gold occurrences, within the
between gold mineralization and arc-related tectonic framework of the Colombian Andes,
calc-alkaline magmatism of different ages were were presented in figures 3.4.1.2, 4.5.1.5,
tentatively established. The interpretation 5.6.1.2 and 7.4.1.2. On the basis of the U-Pb
lacked the support of modern radiomentric age (zircon) crystallization ages summarized in
dates for numerous plutonic and volcanic these figures, seven major periods of
r o c k s a n d t h e i r s p a t i a l l y - r e l a t e d Au Phanerozoic granitoid magmatism can be
occurrences, as well as technical studies for defined (Figures 8.1.1.1 and 8.1.1.2),
many of the numerous gold occurrences including: early Paleozoic (ca. 485-445 Ma),
distributed throughout the Colombian Andes. Carboniferous (ca. 333-310 Ma), Permo-
The present synthesis of arc-related Triassic (ca. 288 - 235 Ma), Jurassic (ca. 210-
magmatism and gold occurrences in Colombia 149 Ma), late Cretaceous - Paleocene (ca. 96-
is based upon 148 new U-Pb, K-Ar/Ar-Ar 58 Ma), Eocene (ca. 56 - 44 Ma) and
and Re-Os age dates and 282 new major- Neogene (ca. 23 – 0.4 Ma).
minor-trace element petrochemical analyses for As outlined within the individual chapters
intrusive and volcanic rocks throughout the and summarized in Figures 8.1.1.1 and 8.1.1.2,
Colombian Andes. This new data is supported the resolution of the U-Pb (zircon) age dates
by petrographic, mineralogic and geochemical and additional geochemical data permits the
- isotopic studies (Pb, Sr, S), and updated definition of individual phases or magmatic
regional tectonic analysis. pulses within each of the major periods of
About 80 high quality U-Pb age dates for granitoid magmatism, which in turn permit
Colombian Andes intrusive rocks have been detailed analysis of the spatial migration of
956 SECTION 8.1. - GRANITOID MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY - REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
Figure 8.1.1.1. Intrusive magmatism vs. gold occurrences in the Colombian Andes.
8.1.1. - Regional synthesis of granitoid magmatism vs. Au metallogeny in the Colombian Andes
957
Figure 8.1.1.2. Regional synthesis of Phanerozoic granitoid magmatism and metallogenic events in the Colombian Andes
Phanerozoic granitoid magmatism throughout at ca. 280Ma, ca. 250Ma, and ca. 230Ma.
the region. Zircons from the gneissic samples produced
Early Paleozoic magmatism (ca. 485–445 various inheritance ages. They noted that the
Ma) is mostly recorded in the Santander, petrochemistry of the rocks is variable. Some
Quetame and Florseta massifs of the eastern appear to represent calc-alkaline magmas,
Colombian Andes. Overall, early Paleozoic however most display a strongly peraluminous
magmatism in general in Colombia is character, and in all cases geochemical –
volumetrically minor and/or poorly preserved. isotopic data indicate a significant degree of
No detailed petrochemical analyses for these interaction or derivation by partial fusion of the
rocks have been published. The mineralogy magmas with/from crustal sources. Vinasco et
and major element chemistry of samples al. (2006) conclude that the granitoids and
analysed herein indicates they are gneisses are the products of regional Permo-
hydrothermally altered, however trace element Triassic tectono-thermal orogenesis associated
chemistry suggests a calc-alkaline, subduction- with the assembly and break-up of the Pangea
r e l a t e d o r i g i n . Wi t h r e s p e c t t o g o l d , supercontinent.
mineralization is hosted within 463-460 Ma Data for various Permo-Triassic granitoids
granitoids in the Vetas – California district of and granitoid gneisses which were previously
the Santander Massif, however these rocks undocumented in the Colombia Andes, were
serve as simple hosts to Miocene-aged produced during the present study. Previously
mineralization. No temporal - genetic link undocumented locations include at Nechi, in
between early Paleozoic magmatism and gold the southern Guamoco and Puerto Nare areas,
mineralization is observed. in the southern Sonson Batholith, and in the
Carboniferous-aged (ca. 330 - 310 Ma) La Plata gneiss of the southern Central
magmatism as established herein, represents a Cordillera. New U-Pb (zircon) age dates and
previously undocumented period of magmatic petrochemical data coincide with and support
activity in Colombia. It is of a metaluminous the conclusions of Vinasco et al. (2006).
calc-alkaline, subduction-related nature. At The new data suggests that occurrences
present it is volumetrically minor, restricted to of Permo-Triassic granitoids and gneisses may
the El Carmen – El Cordero Stock near El be more extensive than presently recorded on
Bagre in the lower Nechi River basin. regional geological maps, and particularly, that
Regardless, this stock hosts an important in some instances, gneissic granitoids
spatially-associated auriferous vein system, El previously mapped as ‘Precambrian’ may be
Carmen – La Ye. The age of Au mineralization of Permo-Triassic age.
at El Carmen – La Ye has not be precisely Gold mineralization spatially associated
established. Vein-associated alteration with Permo-Triassic rocks is scarce (e.g.
suggests a minimum age of ca. 280±6 Ma (K- Nechi, Guamoco). In the cases where Permo-
Ar, sericite). This age could however represent Triassic rocks are cut by gold mineralization,
resetting by a regional Permo-Triassic tectono- field relationship demonstrate that the same
thermal event (Vinasco et al., 2006, see mineralization also cuts significantly younger
below). A Carboniferous age is thus tentatively rocks (middle Jurassic), precluding a temporal-
a s s i g n e d t o t h e E l C a r m e n – L a Ye genetic relationship. In this context, Permo-
mineralization. Triassic orogenesis and associated magmatism
Permo-Triassic granitoid and granitic in the Colombia Andes appears devoid of
gneiss are volumetrically significant in the significant Au mineralization.
Colombian Andes, especially along the western Jurassic-aged plutonic rocks represent by
and eastern margins of the Central Cordillera far the largest expression of metaluminous,
and in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. calc-alkaline, subduction-related magmatism in
Various occurrences of these rocks were the Colombian Andes, with major batholiths
studied in detail by Vinasco et al. (2006), who out cropping over extensive areas in the
concluded they were emplaced in three phases Garzon and Santander Massifs, Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta, Central Cordillera and gold mineralization in various districts including
Segovia Region and the Serrania de San Lucas. San Martin de Loba – Juana Sanchez, Santa
U-Pb (zircon) age dates generated herein, Cruz and Cerro San Carlos, and the
in combination with high quality U-Pb (zircon) emplacement and cooling history of the Norosí
dates published in recent years permit the - San Martín de Loba Batholith.
recognition of three principal magmatic pluses Mineralization of a similar style but lesser
during the Jurassic: 1) ca. 210 to 200 Ma, scale to that observed in the Serranía de San
dominating the Mocoa Batholith (Garzon Lucas is recorded in the Pacarní and San Luis
Massif) and the ‘Santander Plutonic Group’ in Districts located within and peripheral to the
the Santander Massif of the eastern Colombian ca. 189-182 Ma southern Ibagué Batholith.
Andes, 2) ca.194 to 182 Ma, observed in the District-scale Au mineralization at Segovia
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Serranía de - Remedios is hosted with the ca. 167 to 154
San Lucas and southern Ibagué Batholith, and Ma Segovia Batholith. Mineralization in this
3) ca. 167 to 149 Ma, in the Segovia Batholith district however is shown in the present study
and northern Ibagué Batholith. to be of Cretaceous age, temporally unrelated
Temporal-spatial analysis of Jurassic to the emplacement of the Segovia Batholith.
magmatism reveals a broad westward Lesser vein-style mineralization hosted
migration of the magmatic arc axis between the elsewhere in the Segovia Batholith was not
period ca. 210 to 149 Ma, from the Garzon- dated during this study.
Santander Massifs, through the Sierra Nevada Following a hiatus of some 50 million
de Santa Marta – Serrania de San Lucas – years (Figure 8.1.1.2), volumetrically significant
southern Ibague batholiths, into the Segovia metaluminous, calc-alkaline, subduction-
and northern Ibague batholiths. The abrupt related magmatism reappears in the Colombian
termination of significant arc-related calc- Andes with the emplacement of the Cretaceous
alkaline magmatism is observed after ca. 150 to Paleocene Antioquia Batholith and various
Ma. Slab rollback in the Farallon Plate to the satellite stocks. This major plutonic complex
west is considered the principal cause of arc is shown herein to be composed of at least four
axis migration. temporally distinct magmatic pulses beginning
Based upon the significant volume of at ca. 96 Ma and terminating at ca. 58 Ma.
preserved coeval volcanic rocks associated with The “main phase” of batholith emplacement
the ca. 201 to 174 Ma magmatism of the southern took place in two pulses from ca. 89 to 82
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Guatapuri Fm.), Ma and from ca. 81 to 72 Ma, accounting for
Serrania de San Lucas (Norean Fm.) and southern greater than 80% of the volume of the
Ibague Batholith (Saldana Fm.), this phase of batholith.
Jurassic arc evolution at least, was highly Calc-alkaline magmatism continues in the
extensional, and developed in an environment Central Cordillera to the south of the Antioquia
permissive to the generation and preservation of Batholith from the Paleocene to the early
large volumes of extrusive rocks. Eocene, demonstrating a general southward
With respect to gold mineralization, the migration of magmatic centers and significant
most important and regionally extensive reduction in magma volume.
mineralization occurs as intrusion-related and Shutdown of the Antioquia Batholith
epithermal veins and breccias hosted within and magma chamber is related to the oblique
peripheral to the ca. 194 to 182 Ma Norosí – collision and accretion of the Dagua Terrane
San Martín de Loba Batholith of the Serrania at ca. 70 to 65 Ma.
de San Lucas. Modern exploration is only Calc-alkaline magmatism resumes in the
beginning to reveal the significant gold Central Cordillera to the south of the Antioquia
endowment of this historic producing region. Batholith from the Paleocene to the middle
Radiometric age dating and geochemical Eocene (Sonsón, Manzales, El Hatillo, El
studies presented herein reveal a close Bosque plutons), demonstrating the general
temporal-spatial (genetic) relationship between southward migration of autochthonous
magmatic centers with significantly reduced the batholith (Sillitoe et al., 1982). A direct
volumes of magma. temporal-spatial relationship between arc-
At least three important phases of gold related magmatism and mineralization is
mineralization are documented for the indicated. As with the Mandé-Acandí
Antioquia Batholith and it’s satellite plutons. Batholith, this porphyry-style mineralization
An intimate temporal-spatial relationship formed in an intra-oceanic environment and
between Au-Ag (Zn-Pb-Cu) veins at Segovia was accreted to the northern Andean margin
– Remedios and ca. 88 to 85 Ma magmatism beginning in the Miocene.
is demonstrated. Numerous new U-Pb (zircon) age dates
Gold (Ag-Pb-Zn-As-Sb) vein systems at and petrochemical-geochemical-isotopic
Santa Rosa de Osos, Guadalupe, La Floresta analyses generated herein permit the detailed
de Yali and La Bramadora-Amalfi hosted temporal-spatial analysis of widespread
within and peripheral to ca. 81 to 72 Ma Miocene-Pliocene holocrystalline, porphyritic
phases of the batholith are inferred to be coeval hypabyssal and volcanic rocks located
with this phase. throughout the Colombian Andes which have
Along the ‘Nus River Trend’ at Cerro previously been recorded as being “Neogene”
Gramalote Au (Ag-Cu-Mo) mineralization is in age.
temporally and spatially related to ca. 60 to Based upon presently available data, a
58 Ma magmatism. Additional mineralization general hiatus in significant arc-related
of inferred Paleocene age is observed to the magmatism is observed from the late Eocene
south, spatially related to the Sonson Batholith through earliest Miocene. For the Miocene-
and Manizales stock, coincident with the Pliocene, numerous new U-Pb (zircon) age
overall southward migration of magmatic dates and petrochemical-geochemical-isotopic
centres during this time. analyses have been generated herein. The data
Cretaceous to Eocene magmatism is also permit the detailed temporal-spatial analysis of
observed in stocks and batholiths within or to widespread Miocene-Pliocene, holocrystalline,
the west of the Romeral fault and suture zone. porphyritic and volcanic rocks located
Plutons including the Buga, Mistrato and throughout the Colombian Andes. Available
Mandé-Acandi batholiths and the Jejenes and regional mapping generally records these rocks
Irra stocks mark arc-related calc-alkaline as being of “Neogene” in age.
magmatism generated in peri-cratonic or intra- From a petrochemical standpoint, all of
oceanic environments. They are allochthonous the Miocene intrusive and volcanic rocks
to per-autochthonous with respect to the analysed herein are of a metalumious, calc-
Colombian continental margin and were alkaline nature, and are considered to reflect
accreted during various phases of the Northern subduction-related magmatism associated with
Andean Orogeny. They do not reflect the subduction of the Nazca plate along the
sudden or rapid westward migration of the Colombian Pacific margin (Ecuador-Colombia
autochthonous magmatic arc axis. trench). A singular exception to this conclusion
Vein-type Au mineralization is spatially is seen in the Vetas–California area of the
related to the Jejenes and Buga plutons but a Santander Massif where, although unaltered
temporal relationship between magmatism and petrochemical information are lacking, available
mineralization has not been established. mineralogical and analytical data suggest a
The Mandé-Acandí Batholith is the largest potential per-alkaline affinity, with a significant
expression of Paleocene-Eocene, degree of crustal contamination, in some of the
metaluminous, calc-alkaline, subduction- hypabyssal porphyries.
related magmatism in the Western Cordillera. Overall, the Miocene-Pliocene U-Pb
Significant porphyry-style Cu (Au, Mo) (zircon) ages produced herein demonstrate the
mineralization of Paleocene – Eocene age has complex geometry and spatial migration of arc-
long been recognized associated with related magmatism in Colombia during this time
hypabyssal stocks along the western margin of period. The earliest phases of magmatism are
associated with the emplacement of (e.g. La Vega – Berruecos or Middle Cauca
holocrystalline batholiths and stocks, in the trends) mineralization. The Au (Cu) mineral
southwest (Piedrancha – Cuembi) at ca. 23 Ma centers are often overprinted by or contain
and in the northwest (Farallones – Paramo de nearby, epithermal, intermediate sulfidation
Frontino – Frontino) at ca. 11 Ma. In both mineralization, such as the vein-style Au (Ag-
cases, the emplacement of porphyritic stocks Zn-Pb-Cu-sulfosalt) mineralization at Titiribi or
to the east of the holocrystalline arcs followed, Marmato or Au (Ag-Zn-Pb)-bearing breccias
in the southwest at ca. 17 to 12 Ma (Buenos as at Miraflores, Quinchia. Phreato-magmatic
Aires-Dominical-Betulia) and in the northwest diatreme breccias are seen at Rio Dulce.
at ca. 8 to 6 Ma. (Middle Cauca). Mineralization related to the Vetas-California
To explain the above observations, Cediel porphyries is developed peripheral to the
et al. (2003) invoked a model involving porphyry stocks, and no economic ‘porphyry-
independent plate movements to the north and style’ mineralization has been discovered to
south of the Garapatas (transform) Fault. The date. Economic mineralization recognized to
shallowing of subduction angle of the Nazca date is of a structurally-controlled, high to
Plate during the Miocene tectonic assembly of intermediate sulfidation, epithermal nature (e.g.
the region caused the eastward migration of La Mascota-La Bodega-Angostura).
the magmatic arc axis. In either case In summary, when gold mineralization is
porphyritic magmatism intruded the Romeral considered in terms of the seven major periods
basement, a structurally and lithologically of Phanerozoic-aged granitoid magmatism
complex tectonic mélange and suture system defined in Colombian Andes during the course
which provided a first-order structural control of this study, the following conclusions may be
on the emplacement porphyry bodies. drawn:
In addition to the Middle Cauca trend, late
Miocene porphyry clusters are observed in the - All significant gold mineralization
Cajamarca-Salento (ca. 8.2 – 6.8 Ma) and presently known in the Colombian Andes
Vetas-California (ca. 10.2 – 8.4 Ma) areas. is spatially related to metaluminous, calc-
As in the Middle Cauca, in both of these alkaline, subduction-related magmatic
instances, deep crustal structures (paleo- rocks, including holocrystalline and
sutures) have played an important role in the porphyritic batholiths and stocks, and
localization of the porphyry centers. where present, their
During the Pliocene porphyritic penecontemporaneous volcanic
magmatism and coeval volcanism is recorded sequences. Although radiometric dating
in the Rio Dulce area and elsewhere (e.g. which temporally links mineralization with
Galeon Formation in the Cauca-Patia basin), magmatism is lacking in some cases, where
indicating broad alignment of the calc-alkaline dates are available, a direct temporal –
arc axis with the modern-day northern Andean genetic link between mineralization and
volcanic arc (Cediel et al., 2003). magmatism can be established. In other
With respect to gold mineralization, the cases the relationship can be inferred
spatial and temporal coincidence of Au based upon observable field relationships.
occurrences with intrusive, porphyritic and
volcanic rocks of Miocene-Pliocene age and - Gold deposits associated with pre-
calc-alkaline, subduction-related affinity is Jurassic magmatic rocks are considered
widely observed. Mineralization styles within to be minor in comparison with those
and peripheral to the holocrystalline plutons associated with middle Jurassic to
include structurally-controlled veins and Miocene magmatism. The majority of pre-
sheeted vein systems and contact zone Jurassic magmatic rocks include granitoids
(hornfels) mineralization. and granitoid gneiss of early Paleozoic and
The porphyry intrusive centres host Au Permo-Triassic age. The early Paleozoic
porphyry (e.g. La Colosa) or Au-Cu porphyry magmatic rocks are of very limited spatial
distribution and only locally form the hosts 3) In the Paleocene-Eocene with the
to mineralization known to be of Miocene intra-oceanic development of porphyry
age at Angostura. The Permo-Triassic Cu (Au, Mo) occurrences within and
granitoids are volumetrically significant but peripheral to the Mande-Acandi
have not been demonstrated to host Batholith.
significant mineralization anywhere. The
lack of any genetic relationship between 4) In the early Miocene within and
gold mineralization and the Permo-Triassic peripheral to the holocrystalline
granitoids is attributed to the dominantly batholiths and stocks of the Piedrancha
per-aluminous nature and crustal – Cuembi arc.
provenance of these rocks compared with
the dominantly mantle-derived, 5) In the late mid Miocene within and
metaluminous, subduction-related nature peripheral to the holocrystalline
of the post-Triassic magmas. batholiths and stocks of the Farallones
- Frontino arc.
- With respect to mineralization
hosted within the Carboniferous El 6) In the middle and late Miocene with
Carmen stock at El Bagre, in relative the emplacement of numerous Au- and
terms, the extent of mineralization and of Au (Cu) porphyry and associated
known Carboniferous-age intrusive rocks, epithermal, intermediate and high
are limited. It is noteworthy however that sulfidation deposits, along the Cauca-
these rocks are of clearly calc-alkaline Patia drainage of southwestern
affinity, in contrast to the other pre- Colombia, along the Middle Cauca, at
Jurassic magmatic rocks. Cajamarca-Salento and at Vetas-
California. Based upon modern
- With respect to post-Triassic exploration, the greatest gold
magmatic rocks and their associated endowment presently documented in
mineralization, the major gold metallogenetic Colombia is contained within large-
pulses in the Colombian Andes documented t o n n a g e , l o w - g r a d e A u ( ±C u , A g )
during this study include: deposits hosted within or peripheral to
late Miocene porphyry clusters.
1) In the middle Jurassic within and
peripheral to the Norosi-San Martin de 7) Mineralization related to Pliocene
Loba (San Lucas) and southern Ibague magmatism at Rio Dulce is restricted
batholiths. and has yet to be proven important with
respect to it’s overall gold content. A
2) The Cretaceous (three separate direct relationship between Pliocene
events between ca. 89 and 58 Ma), magmatism and mineralization however
mostly within and peripherial to the is herein established. It is suggested that
Antioquia Batholith and it’s satellite the shallow erosional level of these
plutons (e.g. La Culebra Stock at rocks has yet to expose their full gold
Segovia-Remedios). potential.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.1.1.- Conclusions 965
9.1.1. CONCLUSIONS
- Based on the results presented in this - At least three well-recognized calc-

research, along with historic references on alkaline magmatic arcs defining an east-to-
Colombian gold deposits, it is possible to west migration trend can be established
establish at least seven well-defined during Jurassic times. The second Jurassic
metallogenic events in the Colombian magmatic arc (ca. 194-182Ma) is the most
Andes during Phanerozoic times: 1) pre- i n t e re s t i n g m e t a l l o g e n e t i c a l l y, w i t h
Jurassic, 2) Jurassic, 3) Cretaceous, 4) associated important gold mineralization at
Paleocene-early Eocene, 5) middle Eocene, the Serranía de San Lucas area and the
6) early Miocene, and 7) late Miocene- southern Ibagué Batholith.
Pleistocene.
- Cretaceous intrusion-related gold
- In addition to the previously identified deposits are found in two main groups of
p re - J u r a s s i c m a g m a t i s m a t t h e e a r l y intrusives: 1) three late Cretaceous calc-
Paleozoic (ca. 480Ma-460Ma) and Permo- alkaline pulses of the Antioquia Batholith
Triassic (ca. 280-230Ma), a well-defined (ca. 96-72Ma) in the northern Central
Carboniferous magmatism (ca. 330-310Ma) Cordillera; and 2) low-K calc-alkaline
at El Bagre sector is recorded by the biotite intrusives of the Buga Batholith (ca. 92-
leucotonalite of the El Carmen Stock. Gold 90Ma) and the Jejenes Stock (ca. 85Ma) in
veins hosted within the El Carmen Stock t h e We s t e r n C o rd i l l e r a . T h e S e g o v i a -
clearly pre-dates the intrusion of the middle Remedios deposits are temporally and
to late Jurassic Segovia Batholith magmatic probably genetically related to the second
suite (ca. 167-154Ma), which hosts magmatic pulse of the Antioquia Batholith
mineralization at the Segovia-Remedios (ca. 89-82Ma). Age of mineralization for
M i n i n g D istrict. A t the N echí M ining other districts within or peripheral to the
Distirct, auriferous vein-type mineralization Antioquia Batholith are not well constrained
cuts Permo-Triassic granitoids/granitic but are inferred to be genetically related to
gneisses and middle to late Jurassic rocks the third magmatic pulse (ca. 81-72Ma). The
of the Segovia Batholith magmatic suite. age of mineralization is not so well-
Thus, the gold districts of Segovia- constrained in the Buga and Jejenes
Remedios, El Bagre and Nechí, which have intrusions but a maximum age for ore
long been considered to form a genetically- deposition is extrapolated from the age of
related regional trend, are temporally and these granitoids.
genetically unrelated, and the suggested
structural control for the mineralization - The Paleocene Na-rich 'adakite-like'
among the districts along the Out fault pulse of the 'Nus River Trend' (ca. 60-58Ma)
corridor must be carefully reconsidered. is the most important metallotect within the
966 CHAPTER 9.- CONCLUSIONS
Paleocene-early Eocene metallogenic in the southern Western Cordillera. Spatially-

event. The age of mineralization along the related vein-type mineralization hosted within
Nus River Trend is well-constrained and or peripheral to these intrusives was not well-
clearly coincides with the age of the hosting constrained in this study, so a maximum age
intrusive. Other important vein-type gold for ore deposition is extrapolated from the age
mineralization hosted within or peripheral to of the hosting intrusive.
the Paleocene to early Eocene intrusives like
the Sonsón Batholith (ca. 61-57Ma), the - Middle Miocene to Pleistocene
Manizales (ca. 60Ma) and the El Hatillo (ca. hypabyssal intrusives and associated
55Ma) stocks were not well constrained during porphyry-type and vein-type low- to
this study, but in all three cases the spatial intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
relationship of the mineralization with the mineralization are widely distributed in
hosting intrusives is well established. different areas within the Colombian Andes
intruding different basement assemblages
- Middle Eocene magmatism is spatially within distinct tectonic units separated by
restricted to the Mandé-Acandí magmatic m a j o r c r u s t a l - s c a l e f a u l t s a n d s u t u re
arc (ca. 46-44Ma) in the northern Western systems. Most of these intrusives cluster in
C o rd i l l e r a . P o r p h y ry - t y p e C u ( A u , M o ) small areas defining composite suites and
mineralization associated with this to a broader regional scale trends (e.g. the
magmatic suite would be formed in an intra- La Vega and Middle Cauca trends).
oceanic environment prior to the accretion Mineralization is present in all of these
of the Chocó Arc to the northwestern porphyry suites and is broadly
continental margin in the Miocene. contemporaneous with the intrusion of the
related intrusive. From a metallogenic point
- Early Miocene magmatism is also of view this gold metallogenic event is the
restricted to the Piedrancha Batholith and most important as majority of the presently
related stocks (e.g. El Vergel and Cuembí) known gold resources in Colombia are
(ca. 23-22Ma) intruding the oceanic affinity related to it (e.g. Angostura, La Colosa,
basement of the Dagua-Diabásico assemblage Marmato, Buriticá).
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PHANEROZOIC GOLD

Departament de Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i

Programa de Modelització de Processos Geològics

Barcelona, 31 de maig de 2011

Tesis realizada en el Grupo Consolidado de Recursos Minerales del

El doctorando: El director de tesis:

Firma: Hildebrando Leal-Mejía Firma: Joan Carles Melgarejo Draper

Firma: Umberto Cordani

Barcelona, Mayo de 2011

1.1. OVERVIEW OF GOLD DEPOSITS VS. TIME IN COLOMBIA:

CHAPTER 2. GEOTECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF THE NORTHEN ANDES

2.1. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES ............................ 125

CHAPTER 3. PRE-JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY

3.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 157

CHAPTER 4. JURASSIC MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY

4.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 223

CHAPTER 5. CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY

5.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 383

CHAPTER 6. MIOCENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY

6.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 665

CHAPTER 7. PLIO-PLEISTOCENE MAGMATISM vs. Au METALLOGENY

7. 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 905

CHAPTER 8. REGIONAL SYNTHESIS OF GRANITOID MAGMATISM vs. Au

8.1. REGIONAL SYNTHESIS OF GRANITOID MAGMATISM vs. Au

REFERENCES.... .............................................................................................................................. 969

I am indebted with the Departament de Cristal·lografia, Mineralogia i Dipòsits Minerals

In a similar way I am greatful with the Serveis Cientifico-tecnics de la Universitat de Barcelona

Históricamente, Colombia es reconocida como un país productor de oro por excelencia,

En este orden de ideas, la caracterización detallada de las rocas magmáticas hospedantes

Como se mencionó anteriormente, varias culturas indigenas extraían y trabajaban el oro

principales distritos auríferos, tanto aluviales como vetiformes, actualmente reconocidos en el

1) los depósitos minerales de tipo pórfido,

En base a los anteriores antecedentes, la presente investigación tiene como objetivo

Como objetivos específicos del presente trabajo de investigación se plantearon los

1) Caracterizar las rocas magmáticas asociadas espacialmente con las

Para el cumplimiento de este objetivo, se realizó el análisis petrográfico de secciones

2) Determinar edades de cristalización magmática para asociaciones de rocas

3) Caracterizar algunos depósitos auriferos representativos relacionados

Para el cumplimiento de este objetivo se seleccionaron depósitos de oro que fueran a la

Dentro de los depósitos minerales asociados al arco Jurásico, se tomaron como

4) Determinar edades de mineralización y/o alteración hidrotermal para diferentes

La determinación de la edad de la mineralización es un aspecto crítico en los estudios

Durante el desarrollo de la investigación, se obtuvieron resultados no sólo sobre la

Naturaleza del magmatismo Fanerozoico

El evento magmático del Carbonífero

Los arcos magmáticos del Jurásico

Finalmente, un tercer arco magmático (Jurásico medio a tardío) ha quedado registrado en

Diferencias en el magmatismo Cretácico a ambos lados del Sistema de Fallas de

En relación al magmatismo Cretácico, los análisis geoquímicos indican una marcada

El magmatismo asociado al Batolito Antioqueño

Los resultados petrográficos, mineralógicos, geoquímicos y geocronológicos de diferentes

Durante el tercer estadio intruyen nuevamente tonalitas biotítico-hornbléndicas y

Carácter compuesto del 'Batolito de Sonsón'

Respecto al Batolito de Sonsón, los resultados de dataciones mediante U-Pb en circón

Potencial metalogenético del magmatismo pre-Jurásico

En relación a los depósitos auríferos, no existen evidencias de mineralización importante

Potencial metalogenético del magmatismo Jurásico

El magmatismo Jurásico presenta asociadas algunas mineralizaciones de oro importantes,

Edad de mineralización en el Distrito Minero de Segovia-Remedios

Otro aporte importante de este trabajo es la determinación de la edad de mineralización

Potencial metalogenético del Batolito Antioqueño

Respecto a los depósitos hospedados dentro del Batolito Antioqueño o en su periferia