INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT RATIONALE 1

This thesis investigates the geology and genesis of the Bulyanhulu quartz-sulphide-gold deposit
in northwest Tanzania, and considers the implications of this study for the understanding and
exploration of auriferous mineralization in the Archaean Sukumaland greenstone belt. Chapter
1 sets the scene of the deposit in the context of gold mining in Tanzania, summarises general
characteristics of gold deposit types in Archaean terranes, provides the background to the
project, and explains the rationale for the study and its principal objectives.

1.1 Introduction to Tanzania and Tanzanian gold mining

1.1.1 Tanzania

Forming the largest country in East Africa, and straddling the equator, Tanzania extends over an
area of 945,166 km2. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east and the countries of Kenya
and Uganda to the north; Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, formally
Zaire) to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south (Figure 1.1). Much of the
mainland is made up of a vast, flat plateau rising from a narrow coastal belt to an average height
of 1,500 m. This plateau is bisected by the Great Rift Valley, and a western branch of it forms
the Tanzania-DRC border. Numerous lakes are situated in the rifts, whilst Lake Victoria lies
within a basin on an elevated plateau between the two arms of the rift in the north of the
country. Prominent mountain ranges form arcs in the eastern and southern parts of Tanzania,
and a belt of volcanic peaks in the northeast include Mt Kilimanjaro (5896 m), the highest
mountain in Africa. The country has a tropical climate that varies from arid in the Serengeti
Plain to humid on the coast.

Tanzania's population, estimated to be 33.7 million (2000, Anon.), comprises about 120 tribal
groups, of which none exceed 10% of the total population. Amongst the most numerically
significant groups are the Sukuma of the Lake Victoria area (Briggs, 1996). Swahili is the
national language although English is the official language in high schools, universities,
government and business.

Introduction and project rationale 22

 Figure 1.1 Map of Tanzania. The Sukuma tribal region and the location of
the Bulyanhulu gold mine are also illustrated.

Tanzania was formed in April 1964 from the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which were
granted independence from Britain in 1961 and 1963, respectively. The country came to
independence with a severely underdeveloped economy and extremely limited infrastructure. In
an effort to create socially equitable and rapid development, it became an early proponent of
African socialism, with nationalisation of banking, finance, industry and large-scale trade.
Tanzania was able to record progress in education and health but, after an initial boom, the
formal economic base shrank. The Tanzanian-Ugandan war (1978-79), falls in commodity
prices and failures of the policy itself in economic terms, brought the country to the verge of
bankruptcy by the mid-1980s (Briggs, 1996). Since 1986, however, a new government, new
Introduction and project rationale 23
policy directions and International Monetary Fund-backed structural adjustment programmes
have helped integrate the parallel economy and stimulate growth. A new economic policy of
liberalisation was introduced resulting in a marked improvement in the investment climate.
Programs initiated at this time included exchange and trade liberalization, interest rate and price
deregulation and the reform of the country’s financial system (Fitzpatrick, 1999). These
programs have assisted in achieving annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth of
approximately 4% between 1992 and 2000, and a decrease in inflation from an annual average
of 30% in the 1980s to under 6% by 2001 (2000, Anon.).

Agriculture is the mainstay of the Tanzanian economy, accounting for 60% of GDP (Fitzpatrick,
1999). Coffee, tea, sisal, cotton, tobacco and cloves are the principal exports. Tourism, with an
annual growth rate of 8% is playing an increasingly important role in the economy, contributing
approximately 5% of GDP in 1997 (Fitzpatrick, 1999). Industry is mainly limited to processing
agricultural products and light consumer goods. The major constraint on faster growth within
these sectors is an underdeveloped transportation network. However, international funding has
allowed the rehabilitation of Tanzania's deteriorated economic and logistical infrastructure, and
this has resulted in recent growth characterised by a pickup in industrial production and a
substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Mining contributes 7% of GDP
(Fitzpatrick, 1999). Tanzania's widely scattered mineral resources include gold, nickel, iron,
coal, gemstones (e.g., Tanzanite), and diamonds. Additionally, natural gas, phosphates, tin,
mica, salt, lead, tungsten, pyrochlore, kaolin and magnesite occur (Hester, 1991); most of these
resources are currently unexploited.

1.1.2 Gold mining in Tanzania

The earliest organised prospecting and mining in Tanzania took place during the German
colonial period, beginning with the discovery of gold at Geita (Figure 1.2) in 1894 (Nilsen,
1980). By 1940, Tanzania was producing 4.5 t/y of gold (van Straaten, 1984). The Geita Mine
was once East Africa's largest gold producer with more than 900,000 oz gold produced between
1938 and 1966. Its closure was due to the absence of new investment in plant and exploration,
rather than a lack of ore; other mines (Kiabarkari, Golden Glory) followed for similar reasons
(Kuehn et al., 1990). By 1970, commercial production had ceased with the closure of Buhemba
Mine. Buck Reef Mine (Figure 1.2), operated by the State Mining Company, produced limited
gold between 1982-1991 (van Straaten, 1984).

Introduction and project rationale 24

The fact that the Archaean terranes of East Africa have produced insignificant amounts of gold
to date in comparison with other equivalent-aged greenstone belts is potentially due to a lack of
exploration and investment, rather than a dearth of economic deposits. The recent upgrading
and introduction of incentives in Tanzania’s mining and investment legislation has encouraged
exploration companies to invest in the country, developing known artisanal workings of oxide
zones, and defining new mineralized zones. Approximately 90% of the gold produced in
Tanzania over the last 85 years has come from Archaean rocks in the Lake Victoria region; this
area is where the majority of current gold exploration is centred (Figure 1.2). Gold is also
present in the Proterozoic Lupa and Mpanda Cu-Pb-Au fields of southwest Tanzania. New
discoveries have also been made in the Niassa area, adjacent to Lake Malawi, a strike extension
of the Niassa province in Mozambique (Nutt, 2000). Overall, mineral exploration has expanded
dramatically; for example a 500% increase in expenditure between 1991 and 1997 (US$80
million to US$413 million) was reported (Prast et al., 1997).

Tanzania’s first new gold mine, Golden Pride (13 Mt grading at 2.5 g/t gold), wholly owned and
operated by Resolute Mining, was officially opened in February 1999. AngloGold and Ashanti
Goldfields have been involved in exploration in the Geita area and defined reserves of 6.4 Moz
by the time mining re-commenced in 2000. Kahama Mining Corporation Ltd. (KMCL), a
subsidiary of Barrick Gold Corp., owns and operates Tanzania’s only underground mine,
Bulyanhulu (see section 1.2). Barrick has also acquired interests in several other advanced
projects, including: the Golden Ridge Project, which has a resource in excess of 1.5 Moz; a 30%
interest (AngloGold 70%) in the Kahama project, with reserves estimated at 26 Mt grading 2.3
g/t gold; a 70% interest in the Tulawaka deposit (Minieres du Nord 30%) with a resource of
1.67 Mt grading 19 g/t gold. Several projects in Tanzania are currently undergoing feasibility
studies, including the Nyabirama deposit, in the North Mara region (East Africa Gold Mines)
and the nearby Nyabigena deposit, where both have resources of 4.1 Moz gold; and the
Buckreef / Rwamagaza project and the high grade Nyakafuru deposit, which has an initial
resource estimated at 371 500 oz grading at 4.90 g/t gold (Spinifex Gold).

Tanzania's mineral potential is excellent and the aggressive exploration programs currently
being carried out are likely to lead to a number of significant discoveries (Nutt, 2000). The
focus of exploration in Tanzania has come about in recognition of the opportunities presented
by a country with a substantial untapped mineral wealth, along with positive political and
economic environments. Evaluation of geological criteria at new discoveries will provide ideal
case studies to formulate genetic models and exploration vectors, which can be fed back in to
exploration strategies.

Introduction and project rationale 25

 Geita

Buck Reef

Samena Hill

Aureole Bulyanhulu
Tulawaka
Itetemia
Golden Ridge

Nyakafuru Jubilee Reef

50 km

Figure 1.2 Location of key gold deposits and prospects in the Sukumaland
Greenstone Belt (from Barth, 1990). Simplified geology illustrated, whereby:
pink, gneissic basement and granites; green, greenstone mafic felsic and
metasediments; yellow, sedimentary cover.

1.2 The Bulyanhulu Mine

1.2.1 Location

The Bulyanhulu Mine Site is located 45 km south of Lake Victoria, in the Kahama District of
the Shinyanga Region, within the Sukuma tribal region of northern Tanzania (Figure 1.1).
Access to the 52 km2 property is by road from Mwanza, 127 km to the northeast, or from the
town of Kahama, 84 km to the south.

The area forms part of the main Central Tanzania Plateau at an average elevation of 1,200 m
above sea level, and is relatively flat and lightly vegetated (Figure 1.3). The principal river
(ephemeral) draining the project area is the Bulyanhulu. The river rises approximately 25 km
upstream of the site, and flows in an easterly and north-easterly direction where it eventually
joins Smith Sound, a narrow bay extending from Lake Victoria. The principal centre of
population in the area, the village of Kakola, is located in the southwest part of the licence and
has a population of approximately 1,000.

Introduction and project rationale 26

 Figure 1.3 Landscape near Bulyanhulu (mine site in centre photo, towards
south-east). Hills in background are BIF; evidence of artisanal workings in
foreground.

1.2.2 Exploration and development history

Gold was first discovered by a herdsman at Bulyanhulu in the roots of an uplifted tree in 1976.
This discovery quickly brought an influx of artisanal miners to the area, and at one time was the
site of an estimated 6,000 people, extracting gold from the oxide zone overlying sulphide
mineralization. Since 1977, the Tanzania Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, the State
Mining Company (STAMICO) in a joint venture with two Finnish companies, Outokumpu Oy
and Kone Engineering (OTK), and then OTK in a joint venture with Placer Dome Inc. (PDI) of
Vancouver undertook exploration at Bulyanhulu.

Sutton Resources Ltd., through their Tanzanian subsidiary (Kahama Mining Corporation Ltd.;
KMCL), gained an exploration licence for the property in September 1994. An aggressive
diamond-drill programme was undertaken by KMCL, and during 1998-1999 a ramp was driven
underground for test mining, bulk sampling and to allow for further underground development.

Barrick Gold Corporation acquired Sutton Resources, and therefore KMCL, in 1999. By 2002,
in excess of 700 diamond drill holes had now been completed within the licence, principally
concentrated on the main zone of mineralization, Reef 1. Current (2002) gold reserves and
resources at Bulyanhulu are summarised in Table 1.1; silver and copper are also extracted but
Introduction and project rationale 27
are not reported in resource information. Production began in late 2000, and the Bulyanhulu
mine was formally opened in July 2001 (Figure 1.4). Bulyanhulu is significant in that 10.5 Moz
Au are contained within Reef 1 (Barrick, 2000); this is the largest single mineralized horizon in
East Africa.

Tons Grade Grade Ounces

Gold reserves / resources
(000’s) (oz/ton) (g/t) (000’s)

Proven and probable 28,026 0.428 10.5 12,009

Mineral resource 9,255 0.465 11.2 4,308

Table 1.1 Summary of gold reserves and resources (for year ended
December 31, 2001; Barrick, 2002).

Figure 1.4 Entrance to Bulyanhulu underground mine (during construction

and early mining stages, January 2000).

Introduction and project rationale 28

1.2.3 Previous work

There are no publications specifically on the Bulyanhulu deposit prior to this study. The mine
has a limited number of consultants’ reports (e.g., Nanyaro, 1978, 1979; Mayes, 1982;
Thiboutot, 1991) and most date from the time of initial exploration when there was a poorer
understanding of the controls on mineralization. However, during the course of this study both
Barclay (2000) and Robert (2000) produced internal reports evaluating structural controls on
Reef 1 veining and mineralization.

1.3 Gold deposits in Archaean terranes

1.3.1 Granite-greenstone terranes

Typical Archaean granite-greenstone terranes show broadly similar morphological features.

They consist of metavolcanic rocks alternating with generally subordinate metasedimentary
rocks, and are typically metamorphosed to greenschist or lower amphibolite facies. Mafic
volcanic rocks dominate the stratigraphy of most districts, with locally significant ultramafic
units and minor volumes of felsic metavolcanic rocks. Syn-volcanic sills, dykes, and sub-
volcanic plutons intrude the metavolcanics. The greenstone belts form enclaves within
batholithic granite-gneiss areas. Such belts show large areas of low penetrative strain and a
broad synclinal aspect. They are often dislocated parallel to the main structural axis, with the
breaks being an important factor in their tectonic evolution. Metasedimentary successions
comprise older “flysh-like” graywacke-mudstone turbidite sequences, and younger “molasse-
like”, alluvial-fluvial accumulations of polymictic conglomerate, arenite and mudstones (e.g.
Card, 1992). The alluvial-fluvial sedimentary successions unconformably overly volcanic rocks
and the older turbidite sequences, and represent an important time marker in the evolution of
granite-greenstone belts (Card, 1992). The sedimentary successions are distributed along major
fault zones where they occur as tectonic slices or are preserved as/in synclinal keels. The
importance of these tectonic discontinuities for mineralization in the Canadian Shield was
recognised early on (Gunning & Ambrose, 1937), and they have been inferred to play a
fundamental role during sedimentation, volcanism and intrusive events (e.g. Jensen & Landford,
1983).

Mineral deposits hosted by Archaean granite-greenstone terrains have been classified from a
number of perspectives, including geological, geochemical, genetic, tectonic and economic
(Boyle, 1979; Cox & Singer, 1986). The majority of classifications are largely based on the
Introduction and project rationale 29
local environment, thereby characterising deposit types primarily by their host lithology,
alteration and structural style, temperature of formation, and ore mineralogy. Within Archaean
granite-greenstone terrains three principal primary classes of gold deposit occur, ranging in time
of formation from syn-volcanic to epigenetic: (1) gold-rich volcanic hosted massive sulphide
(VMS) deposits; (2) orogenic lode-gold deposits; and (3) granitoid-related gold deposits.
Inevitably, there remains debate as to the precise origins of these groups of gold deposits and
even the validity of the classifications themselves. Some show features of more than one style
of mineralization (e.g., overprinting of one deposit type by another) or display characteristics
that can be interpreted as being of multiple events. The distribution of Archaean world-class
gold deposits is illustrated in Figure 1.5, with those in the Abitibi subprovince of Canada and
Yilgarn Craton of Australia in Figure 1.6 and 1.7, respectively.

1 2

3 4

5-13,
Fig. 1.4
21

20 22
19
18
17 26
25
14 15 16 24
23
27-41,
Fig. 1.5

1 O Con-Giant 19 ? Bulyanhulu
2 O Lupin 20 O Geita
3 O Campbell-A.W.White 21 O Hutti
4 V/O Hemlo 22 O Kolar
14 O Morro Velho 23 G/O Boddington
15 P/O Witswatersrand 24 O Big Bell
16 O New Consort 25 O Hill 50
17 O Cam and Motor 26 O Plutonic
18 O Globe and Phoenix

Figure 1.5 Distribution of world-class (>100 t) Archaean gold deposits,

with symbols indicating the principal model of formation (modified after
Hagemann & Cassidy, 2000). V, VMS deposit; O, orogenic lode-gold; G,
granitoid-related; P, modified placer. Note that the mode of formation is the
author’s interpretation of the literature.

Introduction and project rationale 30

 5
7
6
10
8 9 11
12 13

5 G/O Hollinger-McIntyre 10 V/O Horne

6 O Dome 11 V/O Doyon-Bousquet
7 O Parmour 12 O Malartic
8 O Kirkland Lake 13 O Sigma-Lamaque
9 O Kerr Addison
Figure 1.6 Simplified geological map of the Abitibi subprovince showing
the distribution of the major faults and (●) world-class (>100 t) and (○) selected
significant Archaean gold deposits (modified after Hagemann & Cassidy,
2000). Letter key as in Figure 1.3.

27
28
27 O Jundee
28 O Wiluna
29
29 O Bronzewing
30 O Agnew Lawlers
31 G/O Tarmoola
30 32 O Sons of Gwalia
33 O Wallaby
34 O Sunrise
31 33 35 O Mt. Pleasant
32 36 O Kanowna-Belle
34 37 O Mt. Charlotte
38 O Kalgoorlie
39 O Golden Mile
40 O Victory-Defiance
36 41 O Norseman
35
37, 38
39

40 Figure 1.7 Simplified geological map of the

eastern Yilgarn Craton showing the distribution
of (●) world-class (>100 t) and (○) selected
41 significant Archaean gold deposits, with letters
(letter key as in Figure 1.3) in adjacent list
indicating the principal model of formation
(modified after Hagemann & Cassidy, 2000).
Introduction and project rationale 31
1.3.2 Gold-rich VMS deposits

Detailed reviews of the classification, origin and architecture of VMS deposits can be found in
Barrie & Hannington (1999) and Gibson et al. (1999), and references therein. Gold-rich VMS
deposits occur in Archaean and younger rocks of dominantly volcanic derivation and usually
within the same lithological units as other base metal deposits. Gold-rich and gold-poor
deposits occur within the same district. There are many base metal camps where gold-rich
deposits are not known and none may exist, whereas in other districts the deposits may be
uniformly gold-rich (e.g., Bousquet). This may indicate some regional (tectonic, magmatic, and
lithological) control of the formation of gold-rich VMS deposits, in addition to the influence of
local gold depositional processes (Hannington et al., 1999).

VMS deposits are a common feature of Archaean terranes (e.g. the Bousquet and Noranda
camps of Québec) and contain variable amounts of gold, from an average production grade of
~1 g/t to in excess of 10 g/t (Hannington et al., 1999). They include conventional base metal
massive sulphides with accessory gold as well as some deposits in which gold is a primary
commodity. Typically, the former group, where gold is recovered as a by-product, are
characterised by low gold to base metal ratios whilst those within the latter group are true gold
deposits in a strict economic sense (Hannington et al., 1999). Amongst the most significant
VMS deposits with unusually high gold grades and/or total gold contents are Horne (Noranda,
Québec), Eskay Creek (British Columbia), Bousquet (Dumagami, Québec), Mount Morgan
(Queensland) and Boliden (Sweden). Of these, only Horne and Eskay Creek are universally
accepted as VMS deposits, however only Horne and Bousquet are Archaean in age.

Controversial examples in the Archaean

Horne, located in the Abitibi belt, is considered to be an example of an Archaean Cu-Au VMS
deposit, where gold is interpreted to have co-precipitated with the massive sulphide (Kerr &
Mason, 1990; Kerr & Gibson, 1993). An alternative opinion, suggested by Huston (2000) cf.
Poulsen & Hannington (1995), is that at least some of the gold was introduced later, a factor
given weight by the abundance of orogenic gold deposits elsewhere in the Abitibi subprovince.
However, most geological evidence is against this concept (Kerr & Mason, 1990). In contrast,
at Bousquet there is a strong consensus that although massive pyrite bodies formed syn-
volcanically, the Au-Cu mineralization is clearly syn-tectonic and related to retrograde
metamorphism (e.g., Tourigny et al., 1989; Marquis et al., 1990a,b). Two interpretations have
been presented with respect to the timing of gold: (1) remobilisation of syn-volcanic gold into
structural sites during retrograde metamorphism (Tourigny et al., 1993), or syn-tectonic
Introduction and project rationale 32
introduction of gold during retrograde metamorphism (Marquis et al., 1990b). Although the
close association of gold and copper within pyritic orebodies probably favours remobilization,
the timing of gold mineralization has yet to be fully resolved. The Mount Gibson gold deposit
provides a Yilgarn example of such mineralization. Here, a gold-poor VMS deposit is
interpreted to have been overprinted by later lode-gold mineralization (Yeats et al., 1996).

In summary, Archaean examples of gold-rich VMS deposits are distinct from typical VMS
deposits in that the exact relationship between gold mineralization and the massive sulphides is
not clear, and the deposit origin is controversial. In many cases, the deposits have been
subjected to intense deformation and metamorphism, and a primary, syn-volcanic origin for
gold is not immediately apparent. Huston (2000) suggested that some of these deposits might
be hybrid deposits or that some may have been mis-classified.

1.3.3 Lode gold deposits

Deposit classification
Archaean lode gold deposits are generally defined as structurally controlled wall rock and/or
vein-hosted systems that occur in all rock types of Archaean granite-greenstone terrains and are
considered to be epigenetic with respect to host-rock formation (Groves et al., 1998; Hagemann
& Cassidy, 2000). These deposits are formed from broadly uniform hydrothermal fluids
transporting gold and other metals. The majority of lode gold deposits are interpreted to have
formed at mid-crustal depths (i.e. mesothermal deposits). However, based on a range of
structural, hydrothermal-alteration and ore-fluid characteristics, these deposits are interpreted to
have formed over a range of palaeocrustal levels from shallow (<5 km) to deep (20 km), with a
commensurately large range of P-T conditions, as a result of focussed fluid flow late during
active deformation and metamorphism in volcano-plutonic terranes – the “crustal continuum
scheme” of Groves and co-workers (Groves, 1993; Groves et al., 1998). Consequently, more
recent literature refers to such mineralization as “orogenic” deposits. Hydrothermal fluids are
potentially derived from a variety of processes, including metamorphic devolatilisation, fluid
release from felsic intrusive rocks, and mantle degassing.

Lode gold deposits are widespread in most Archaean granitoid-greenstone belts and account for
almost 20% of cumulative world gold production (Roberts, 1988). They include some of the
world’s largest gold deposits, including the giant Golden Mile (>2,000 t) deposits near
Kalgoorlie, Australia, and the Hollinger-McIntyre (>1,000 t) deposit near Timmins, Canada.
The Superior and Slave Cratons in Canada and the Yilgarn Craton in Australia are particularly
Introduction and project rationale 33
well endowed with orogenic lode gold deposits. Other Archaean cratons, such as the Dharwar
(southern India); the Sao Francisco (South America); and the Kaapvaal, Zimbabwe and
Tanzania Cratons of Africa, also contain significant orogenic lode gold deposits. Archaean
cratons in Finland and Russia (Karelian Craton), Greenland, and China also contain gold
deposits, although exploration in these terrains has not yet revealed the existence of world-class
Archaean gold deposits (Hagemann & Cassidy, 2000).

Characteristics of orogenic lode gold deposits

The majority of giant orogenic gold metallogenic provinces occur in volcanic-plutonic
(greenstone) terranes of Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic accretionary orogenic belts
(Groves & Phillips, 1987; Kerrich, 1987; Groves et al., 1989; Ho et al., 1992; McCuaig &
Kerrich, 1998). Studies of orogenic gold deposits of all ages have revealed a number of
common factors, as documented by Ridley & Diamond (2000) and references therein; their
principal characteristics are summarised below:

Regional tectonics: Rich gold metallogenic provinces are associated with accretionary
orogenic events, principally in external supercontinent cycles, or external sectors of internal
supercontinent aggregation cycles. Many of these provinces are sited proximal to major
translithospheric structures, or the tectonic boundaries of composite metamorphosed volcanic-
plutonic or sedimentary terranes. Gold deposits are distributed in belts of great geological
complexity, with gradients of lithology, strain, and metamorphic grade, reflecting an orogenic
environment.
Metamorphism: Mineralization is typically syn- to post-peak metamorphism, and late
tectonic, within the larger time frame of orogenic belts involving accretion of one or multiple
allochthonous terranes. Most supergiant metallogenic provinces are in greenschist facies
metamorphic terranes, and the deposits feature greenschist facies alteration assemblages. The
more recent recognition that Archaean orogenic lode gold deposits in amphibolite and granulite
facies terranes share similar characteristics, such as structural setting, metal suite, and ore fluid
properties and likely source, suggests a common origin with greenschist-hosted counterparts.
Structural regime: Deposits are structurally controlled, and associated with second or
higher order splays of translithospheric faults. The structures have high-angle oblique
displacement, commonly with reverse slip, but with some examples in dominantly transcurrent
fault regimes. Mineralization is generally thought to form in the brittle-ductile transition region
of the crust, with syn-kinematic gold precipitation, where fluid pressures can fluctuate from
supralithostatic to sublithostatic within brittle-ductile shear zones.

Introduction and project rationale 34

Alteration: Alteration mineral paragenesis in greenschist facies domains is
dominated by quartz, carbonate, mica (± albite), chlorite, and pyrite (± scheelite and
tourmaline).
Metal associations: There is a distinctive element association characterised by enrichment
in Au, Ag (± As, Sb, Te, W, Mo, Bi, B), with low enrichments of Cu, Pb, Zn, Hg, and Tl
relative to background abundances.
Ore fluids: Ore forming hydrothermal fluids are dilute aqueo-carbonic fluids, with
uniformly low fluid salinities (typically <6 wt % NaCl equiv.), and CO2 + CH4 contents of 5 to
30 mole %, with sporadic H2O-CO2 unmixing.
Zoning: Within a given deposit, vein systems may have vertical extent of more
than 2 km, with a lack of zoning or weak zoning, albeit with some zoning of metal content at the
scale of an entire mining district. There are strong lateral zoning of alteration assemblages, but
a general lack of zoning down-dip or along strike at a deposit-scale.

Within the orogenic lode-gold deposit category controversies remain concerning the source of
hydrothermal fluids and ore components. Some orogenic gold deposits are considered to
involve deep crustal fluids. However, the orogenic gold model does not rule out a relationship
between intrusions and gold mineralization and, based on spatial coincidence between
intrusions and gold deposits (e.g. Lamaque intrusions; Burrows & Spooner, 1989).

1.3.4 Granitoid-related gold deposits

On the basis of historical records and empirical observations, the majority of Archaean lode-
gold deposits are hosted in mafic and ultramafic rocks. Indeed, in many genetic and exploration
models, other rock types, such as granitoids and syenites, are deemed less prospective than the
mafic and ultramafic lithologies. However, recent discoveries, e.g. in the Yilgarn Craton of
Australia, of wholly and partly granitoid-hosted deposits, such as the Tarmoola, Chalice,
Golden Cities, Federal and Jupiter deposits, as well as established mines such as Granny Smith,
Boddington, Lawlers, and Westonia, suggest that gold mineralization in granitoids may have
been underestimated. The importance of granitoid-hosted deposits has been highlighted in other
Archaean terranes, including the Superior Province (e.g. Renabie: 5 Mt @ 6.6 g/t) and
Zimbabwe Craton (e.g. Eureka).

Introduction and project rationale 35

Genetic models
Studies of Archaean granitoid-hosted lode gold deposits have generally concluded that the
intrusion itself played no significant role in ore genesis, behaving as no more than a simple
rheological ‘trap’ for mineralizing fluids, which were principally metamorphic in origin
(Cassidy & Bennett, 1993; Ojala et al., 1993; Wang et al., 1993; Cassidy et al., 1998). In such
cases, intrusions are considered to play a passive role, being emplaced along structural or
stratigraphic weaknesses that are reactivated during deformation. Contemporaneously, or
subsequently, the shear zones are exploited by ore fluids, causing the intrusions to then serve as
host rocks (e.g. Woodcutters hornblende and biotite granodiorite; Phillips & Zhou, 1999).
Alternatively, intrusions may create structural traps for auriferous fluids (e.g. Hollinger-
McIntyre, North Pascalis; Burrows & Spooner, 1989).

However, some important exceptions exist where there is evidence of a direct link between
magmatic intrusion and gold mineralization, e.g. Mink Lake in the Uchi-Confederation Lakes
greenstone belt (Burrows & Spooner, 1987); the Lamaque intrusions (Burrows & Spooner,
1989); and Eureka in the Guruve greenstone belt, Zimbabwe (Höppner, 1994). In these
examples detailed stable isotope studies and petrochemical modelling have provided evidence
of the fundamental role of granitoid-derived fluids in gold and associated (W-Mo-Te)
mineralization. A relationship between 'low-Ca' granites and gold mineralization in the
Southern Cross Province has also been documented (Cassidy et al., 1998).

The role of granites

The exact relationship, between granitoids and gold mineralization is not fully understood.
Several scenarios are currently debated: there is no relationship between granitoids and gold;
there is a spatial-only relationship; there is a temporal-only relationship; there are both spatial
and temporal relationships; or gold mineralization is entirely orthomagmatic.

Controls on gold deposition in the Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt of the Yilgarn Craton have
been reviewed in light of the Canadian evidence for direct relationships between some felsic
intrusions and gold mineralization (Perring et al., 1991). A spatial coincidence of Yilgarn gold
deposits and felsic (often porphyritic) intrusions has long been noted (Jackson, 1905), although
few large deposits (>10 t Au) contain such intrusions specifically within their ore zones (Perring
et al., 1991). Recent studies of several large gold deposits in the Laverton and Leonora area
have concluded that, in each case, felsic plutons localize mineralization through rheological
contrasts with the surrounding rock units rather than through orthomagmatic processes (e.g.

Introduction and project rationale 36

Granny Smith: Ojala et al., 1993; Tarmoola: Duuring & Hagemann, 2000; Jupiter: Duuring et
al., 2000).

Recent studies at the Granny Smith (Ojala et al., 1993), Boddington (Stein et al., 2001;
McCuaig et al., 2001), Chalice (Bucci et al., 2002) and Jupiter gold deposits (Duuring et al.,
2000), all in the Yilgarn Craton, show that there is evidence for more than one hydrothermal
alteration and gold mineralizing event, and that both granitoid and greenstone rocks are
mineralized. For example, Stein et al. (2000) presented Re-Os geochronological evidence for
two temporally and therefore geologically and tectonically distinct periods for gold
mineralization at Boddington. The first is associated with an intermediate shallow level
intrusion considered to be part of an early arc sequence, providing support for an Archaean
analog to Phanerozoic porphyry-style Au-Cu mineralization (Roth, 1992; Barley et al., 1992).
The second Au-bearing event is associated with the development of late orogenic vein gold
throughout much of the Yilgarn Craton (Allibone et al., 1998). The genesis of the Hemlo gold
deposit (80 Mt @ 7.7 g/t Au), Ontario, has been the subject of a similar debate, consequently,
many genetic models have been proposed including syngenetic, metamorphic replacement,
porphyry and hot spring/epithermal. However, in a review of all the evidence, Pan & Fleet
(1995) concluded that ore formation is likely to have occurred during multistage late
replacement, when the host Hemlo Shear Zone was activated as a regional planar structure
during a regional episode of metamorphism, and became a conduit for fluids during periods of
dilatancy. The authors concluded that during protracted orogenic activity, fluids of variously
metamorphic or magmatic origin were focussed along the conduit at different stages in the
development of the system, with peak gold mineralization occurring late in the tectonic history.
Likewise, the Hollinger-McIntyre deposit, Abitibi, is considered to be the result of early
porphyry-style Au-Mo overprinted by gold-rich quartz-carbonate mineralization (Wood et al.,
1986; Burrows & Spooner, 1989).

1.3.5 Anomalous, base metal-rich gold orebodies in the Archaean

Five significant, but “anomalous”, Archaean gold deposits occur (Hagemann & Cassidy, 2000):
Hemlo, Hollinger-McIntyre and Bousquet in Canada, and Mount Gibson and Boddington in
Australia. These deposits are all interpreted to show more than one mineralization style (i.e.
early VMS or porphyry mineralization overprinted by later orogenic lode-gold style
mineralization), and are characterized by an unusual base-metal enrichment. Bulyanhulu has
the potential to be added to this enigmatic category. Here, gold mineralization is spatially
associated with a VMS-style pyritic event and with high-level felsic intrusions. Additionally,
Introduction and project rationale 37
unlike the Au-Ag association typical of orogenic lode-gold deposits, it has an unusually
elevated copper content.

Whilst evidence for multiple mineralization stages is now confirmed for some of these deposits
(Boddington: Stein et al., 2000; Bousquet: Marquis et al., 1990b), detailed case studies
emphasizing structural, alteration and fluid chemistry relationships on a mine-scale are needed
to better understand the protracted hydrothermal evolution and formation of these intriguing
systems. They may form a unique sub-set of deposits that display evidence of multiple gold
stages and/or styles, where precursor deposit characteristics presented ideal conditions for later,
typically orogenic-style, fluid focussing and deposition. The end result and the economic
outcome is the superposition of two stages, possibly widely spaced in time, where either or
both are gold bearing, that together produce an unusually large and base metal rich Au deposit.

1.4 Project rationale and objectives

1.4.1 Bulyanhulu

The Sukumaland Greenstone Belt forms part of the most important metallogenic province in
East Africa (Figure 1.2), and hosts numerous ‘large’ gold deposits of greater than 1 million
ounces (Moz) with the largest being Bulyanhulu, currently with 12 Moz reserves (Barrick,
2002). Additional resources and prospects include the Geita deposits, with collective reserves
of 12.5 Moz (Nutt, 2000); Tulawaka, 1.5 Moz; Kukuluma Hill, 1.2 Moz; Buck Reef, 1.2 Moz.
Although gold mineralization has been known in the region since the 1880's, only over the past
decade has there been recognition that the area represents an under-explored terrain with
considerable potential. Whilst an abundance of detailed literature exists on gold deposits in
Archaean terrains worldwide, documentation of the greenstone belts of East Africa is lacking.
Given the absence of detailed studies of the region, KMCL initiated and sponsored a geological
research project on Bulyanhulu offering the opportunity to undertake an integrated study based
on information from diamond drill core, and surface and underground exposure.

This thesis, therefore, will review information gained from the literature on the relationship
between the tectonic and lithostratigraphic setting of the Tanzania Craton and the geological
characteristics of the gold-bearing Sukumaland Greenstone Belt, in order to place this fertile
auriferous district within a wider geological framework. A study on Bulyanhulu will contribute
significantly to understanding local controls on gold mineralization in one of the world’s most
poorly understood gold provinces. Ultimately, a classification of Bulyanhulu and an assessment
Introduction and project rationale 38
of its significance both economically and genetically within the context of Archaean gold
deposits worldwide will be possible.

1.4.2 Project background

The principal mineralized zone at Bulyanhulu is termed Reef 1. It is hosted in an intensely

deformed sedimentary unit that separates mafic and felsic volcanic rocks. The country rocks
also host a series of quartz-feldspar porphyry intrusions; their relationship to the host
stratigraphy is not clear. Within the sediments and felsic volcanic rocks occurs a distinctive
pyritic unit, the Pyrite Zone. No gold is associated with this pyritic facies. Ore mineralization
is confined to a shear-controlled vein system, characterised by the presence of pyrite,
chalcopyrite and visible gold. Auriferous veins also occur within felsic volcanics associated
with an inferred splay structure from Reef 1, termed Reef 0, and within the mafic volcanics,
where they are termed Reef 2.

Consequently, on commencement of the study the exact nature of the Bulyanhulu gold deposit
was unclear. The structural control of auriferous veins suggested that it may be a lode-gold
deposit, the presence of pyrite clasts provided evidence of a VMS origin, and the significance (if
any) of the presence of quartz-feldspar porphyry bodies was unclear. The presence of
significant quantities of chalcopyrite in the ore assemblage, atypical of lode gold deposits, and
the relatively high grade of the orebody (Table 1.1) are also features that suggested the
hydrothermal system required investigation to fully understand the controls and origins of
mineralization. In order to generate evidence for the nature of mineralization at Bulyanhulu,
investigations of the lithological and structural framework, mineralization paragenesis,
alteration mineralogy and chemistry, nature and composition of vein fluids and the timing of
gold were carried out.

1.4.3 Principal objectives

The aim of the project is to develop a model for ore genesis at Bulyanhulu based on analysis of
the lithological, structural, petrogenetic and fluid controls of mineralization. The primary
objectives are:
1. to constrain the sources and nature of the components, local fluid-rock interactions and
the structural control of the Reef 1 orebody;

Introduction and project rationale 39

2. to determine the nature of the relationship between the Reef 1 vein system and its
genetic relationships with Reefs 0 and 2;
3. to evaluate the potential source(s) of fluids in mineralization; and
4. to place results of a study at Bulyanhulu within the context of the present understanding
of the geological evolution of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt in order to provide an
ore deposit model of use in local and regional exploration.

In summary, this thesis reports the results of a study designed to characterise the geology and
structure of the Bulyanhulu area, and the chemical, isotopic and thermal properties of fluids
associated with the development of economic gold mineralization at the Bulyanhulu deposit.
Increased knowledge of fluid characteristics and structural controls of the Bulyanhulu deposit
may also aid the discovery of further mineralized zones within the area and elsewhere in the
Sukumaland Greenstone Belt. Additionally, from an academic viewpoint, addressing some of
the anomalous characteristics present at Bulyanhulu may have wider implications for the
understanding of Archaean gold deposits.

1.4.4 Approach and methodology

Fieldwork has consisted of three field seasons spent on site at Bulyanhulu. The objectives of
the first trip were to become acquainted with the deposit and its setting, and to collect a
preliminary sample suite of host rocks, altered rocks and mineralized veins. Subsequent
laboratory work employed transmitted and reflected light microscopy to investigate
mineralogical and textural characteristics of samples. A fluid inclusion study of mineralized
quartz veins was undertaken with the preliminary results providing useful insights into the
evolving hydrothermal system.

The second field season involved more detailed drill core observation of textures in host rocks,
and the collection of detailed sample transects from underground crosscuts and drill core to
analyse the alteration zone developed around the main ore-bearing structure and individual
veins. Underground structural mapping was also undertaken in order to develop a working
structural model. Samples from mineralized intersections from the strike and dip extent of Reef
1, and a more limited suite from Reef 2, were also collected for further petrographic and fluid
inclusion work, and for isotope studies. During this period, KMCL made available a significant
lithogeochemical dataset from samples collected by the company (n = 1316). This represents a
valuable source of additional geochemical information.

Introduction and project rationale 40

A final short visit to Bulyanhulu in the latter stages of the study, when underground
development had increased significantly, allowed mapping to be carried out. Work focussed on
the structural controls of mineralization and the emplacement of quartz-feldspar porphyritic
intrusions was made, enabling a better understanding of the three-dimensional relations of
structural features, veining and intrusions in the Reef 1 shear zone.

Sampling within the Bulyanhulu Property was designed to provide a wide coverage of both
economic mineralization (Reefs 1, 0, and 2) and unmineralized areas. 320 samples were
collected from diamond drill core, supplemented by 21 samples collected from the 4820-level.
The suite includes examples of the full spectrum of mine lithologies, alteration phenomena, and
mineralized reefs covering as wide a spatial distribution as possible. These samples form the
basis for transmitted and reflected light petrographic studies and for geochemical analyses,
including fluid inclusion microthermometry, ICP-AES, XRD and analysis of stable isotopes.
Details of each analytical technique, including laboratory standards and quality of results, are
presented within the relevant Chapter.

1.5 Layout of thesis

Chapter 2 provides a review of literature describing the Nyanzian greenstone terranes of East
Africa and the present understanding of the stratigraphy, structure and geochronology of the
Sukumaland Greenstone Belt in particular. A summary of the major geological characteristics
of known gold deposits in the region is also presented.

The petrology and geochemistry of the Bulyanhulu host stratigraphy is presented in Chapter 3,
and includes the use of lithogeochemical data made available by KMCL. An interpretation of
the evolution of the local geology, together with an assessment of the effect of regional
metamorphism is made.

Structural investigations are presented in Chapter 4, based on landsat imagery and underground
structural analysis. The discrimination of multiple deformation and mineralization events
provides relative timing constraints on different assemblages in the ore and gangue paragenesis.

A description of the sulphide minerals and the mineral chemistry of each stage is given in
Chapter 5, together with a chronological and textural description of the host quartz veins.

Introduction and project rationale 41

Chapter 6 presents a review of the mineralogical and geochemical changes associated with
alteration adjacent to mineralization for each of the rock types that host mineralization, and
compared to a barren vein from the Bulyanhulu property. The study is complemented with a
statistical analysis of the geochemical data.

Chapter 7 presents a study of the characteristics and compositions of quartz-hosted fluid

inclusions from the vein assemblages defined by the paragenetic sequence given in Chapter 5.
A detailed analysis of the quartz directly associated with various sulphide stages allows the
evolution of hydrothermal fluids during the gold process to be resolved. A stable isotope study
of mineral phases from the various stages of the mineralization is presented, discussed within
the constraints on the fluid system imposed by the results of the fluid inclusion study.
Additionally, modelling of the carbon and oxygen isotope composition of altered wallrocks is
presented, in order to evaluate the roles of fluid mixing and bulk fluid addition during alteration.

Key findings of the study are brought together in Chapter 8 to develop a deposit model for
Bulyanhulu. Finally, conclusions are presented in Chapter 9, along with a list of issues that
have arisen during the study which warrant further work.

Introduction and project rationale 42