CONCLUSIONS 9

Interpretations of data collected during this study allow the key features of the Bulyanhulu
deposit to be established, and these are summarised below. They provide an insight into the
nature of the host terrane of the Bulyanhulu gold deposit, and evidence of the controlling factors
and origin of gold mineralization. The chapter also considers how the results have helped to
resolve the original objectives, and suggests areas where future research should be focussed.

9.1 Conclusions

9.1.1 Geology of the host terrane

• Extrusive lavas dominate the Nyanzian-aged stratigraphy at Bulyanhulu, and are a
bimodal sequence dominated by tholeiitic basalts and calc-alkaline rhyodacites. The basalts
exhibit massive, breccia and pillow facies, have the same chemical affinity as co-volcanic
gabbroic sills, and host argillaceous interflow sedimentary units. The rhyodacites also show
evidence of sub-aqueous deposition and are subordinate to the basalts.
• Porphyritic intrusions are chemically continuous with the calc-alkaline felsic lavas and
may have been emplaced at relatively shallow crustal levels.
• The Bulyanhulu stratigraphy has been subjected to greenschist facies metamorphism,
tilting of stratigraphy, and possible thrusting resulting in stratigraphic repetition.
• A series of shear zones developed and are aligned sub-parallel to stratigraphy
(northwest-southeast strike). Reef 1, the principal mineralized zone, is hosted in the Bulyanhulu
Shear Zone, focussed within the Kisii Shale Unit.

9.1.2 Structural control of Reef 1

• Structural observations and interpretations suggest that Reef 1 formed after Kisii Shale
sedimentation, intrusion of porphyries and after the commencement of regional-scale shortening
of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt.

Conclusions 321
• The ideally oriented argillaceous sedimentary unit is mechanically weak and
anisotropic with respect to the relatively homogeneous and isotropic hangingwall and footwall
lithologies so that it localised strain and provided a focused conduit for mineralizing fluids
• Reef 1 formed as an extensional vein system within an active high-angle reverse shear
zone, during an inferred D2 shortening event, possibly reactivating an earlier low-angle thrust or
strike-slip structure.
• Vein formation occurred during progressive deformation within the shear zone,
leading to boudinage of the Reef where hosted by incompetent argillite.
• The boudinaged veins are bound by slickensided slip surfaces, with sub-horizontal
plunges indicative of late-stage, essentially strike-slip kinematics.

9.1.3 Mineralization
• The earliest sulphide stage present at Bulyanhulu is a VMS-style spongy and nodular
pyrite (pyrite 0) that is barren of gold. Re-crystallisation of pyrite 0 during metamorphism
and/or later deformation resulted in the formation of pyrite I.
• The earliest quartz to have formed in Reef 1 was precipitated from medium-high
salinity fluids (12-48wt.% NaClequiv. and CaCl2-bearing) at temperatures of >400°C. Together
with the fluid δD and δ18O compositions, these properties are indicative of a magmatic origin.
• The early veins were overprinted and deformed during infiltration by an aqueo-
carbonic-CH4-bearing fluid with relatively high homogenisation temperatures, mainly in excess
of 400°C, resulting in recrystallisation of early quartz and precipitation of stage II quartz. Phase
separation is interpreted to be a key process causing deposition of sulphides and gold. The
origin of stage II fluids, which are fairly typical of Archaean lode-gold deposits, is equivocal,
with metamorphic devolatilisation inferred as the most likely source.
• Early pyrite II, with microscopic gold and minor chalcopyrite hosted by stage IIa
black quartz was followed by stage IIb white quartz-carbonate occurring in orthogonal cracks
with abundant chalcopyrite and coarse gold. Sphalerite, galena, bismuthotellurides and
gersdorffite are accessory, together with minor opaques. A similar quartz and sulphide
paragenesis has been observed in Reef 2.

9.1.4 Alteration
• Regionally extensive carbonate and/or chlorite alteration is the product of a
combination of early sea-floor metasomatism and regional metamorphism, and is progressively

Conclusions 322
overprinted by successive syntectonic hydrothermal alteration zones, spatially associated with
the mineralized Bulyanhulu shear zone.
• Statistically, the most significant causes of lithogeochemical variation in rocks at
Bulyanhulu are, in decreasing order of significance: rock type, mineralization, alteration, and
primary igneous fractionation;
• Elements that can be considered to be immobile are TiO2 and Al2O3 in basaltic rocks,
and Al2O3 and Zr in rhyodacites and porphyry rocks, i.e. immobility is host rock dependent.
• Variations in intensity of alteration type are a function of the precursor mineralogy of
each rock type, i.e. basalts are dominated by carbonatisation and chloritisation, whilst felsic
lithotypes are intensely sericitised and carbonatised. This is reflected in mobile element trends,
where mobile elements in felsic rocks are SiO2, K2O and Ba, whilst MnO, LOI, CaO and Fe2O3
show significant mobility in mafic lithologies.
• During the hydrothermal evolution at Bulyanhulu, carbonate addition occurred
proximal to the shear-hosted Reef 1 vein. At distances of >2 m from Reef 1, the carbonate
isotopic composition is primarily controlled by isotope exchange with the wallrocks.
• A preliminary examination of geochemical trends adjacent to Reef 2 suggests that
similar processes have occurred, implying that the same fluids were responsible for
mineralization. In contrast, barren quartz veins, such as Blue Reef, are characterised by intense
silicification, depletion in carbonate, and show none of the metal enrichments that are
characteristic of the Bulyanhulu orebody.

9.1.5 Post- mineralization events at Bulyanhulu

• Offsetting, brittle structures cut across the Bulyanhulu stratigraphy and mineralization.
These are oriented northeast-southwest.
• Late stage quartz-carbonate veins are barren and formed from relatively low
temperature aqueous fluids.
• Mafic intrusions also cut across the stratigraphy, these are likely to be related to
Proterozoic dyke swarms.

9.2 Resolving objectives

Issues concerning the resolution of the original project objectives have largely been addressed in
Chapter 8.1. However, a brief summary is presented here.

Conclusions 323
In addressing the first three objectives of this research (Section 1.4.3), concerned with (1)
constraining the sources and nature of the mineralizing components, local fluid-rock interactions
and the structural control of the Reef 1 orebody; (2) determining the nature of the relationship
between the Reef 1 vein system and its genetic relationships with Reef 0 and Reef 2; and (3) to
evaluate the potential source(s) of fluids involved in mineralization, the following conclusions
have been reached:

• Bulyanhulu is a greenstone-hosted, shear zone-controlled lode gold deposit that is

similar in style to typical mesozonal orogenic vein gold deposits.
• In line with the general consensus in the literature, mineralizing carbonic fluids
observed at Bulyanhulu could be either magmatic, metamorphic or mantle derived, or any
combination of these, but the final composition is likely to have been modified locally due to
interaction with the argillaceous sediment and mafic host rocks.
• The similarity of Reef 1, Reef 0 and Reef 2 ore-stage mineralogy and structural
control suggests they formed during the same process; distinct textural differences are the result
of variations in host rock rheology.
• Additionally, the lack of any significant differences in the observed values of
δ18Oquartz, δ18Ofluid and δ13Ccarbonate in Reef 1 and Reef 2 suggests that they formed as a result of
the same process from similar fluids, although oxygen and CH4 concentration data imply more
extensive fluid-rock interaction and lower W/R ratios in Reef 2.
• The importance of CH4-N2 bearing fluids in mineralization at Bulyanhulu implies that
reduced fluids of metamorphic origin and/or local reduction within the argillaceous sediments
hosting the Reef 1 structure played a role in metal transport and deposition.
• Mineral deposition occurred when initially homogeneous fluids underwent phase
separation or unmixing, probably by expansion of the solvus due to changing fluid composition
by reaction with graphitic host rocks or mixing with CH4-rich fluids derived from these rocks.
• The reducing sediments and Fe-rich nature of the unit also provided an ideal chemical
trap for the ingressing gold-bearing metamorphic fluids, associated with the late stages of D2.

The final objective of this research (Section 1.4.3), concerned placing the results of the study at
Bulyanhulu within the context of the present understanding of the geological evolution of the
Sukumaland Greenstone Belt to provide an ore deposit model of use in local and regional
exploration, is addressed in Chapter 8.2.

Conclusions 324
9.3 Suggestions for further work

Several areas warrant further research:

There is a clear structural control to deposits and prospects known to date in the Sukumaland
Greenstone Belt. However, the regional-scale lithostratigraphy and structural and intrusive
history of the terrane is poorly constrained. Consequently, a combination of regional and
deposit-based structural analyses, investigations of hydrothermal evolution, and alteration
studies to constrain the chronology of events is imperative to gain an improved understanding of
the evolution of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt (and other Nyanzian terranes in the Tanzania
Craton).

A geochronology study of the precise timing of the felsic intrusions with respect to stratigraphy,
and establishing age constraints on the greenstones and granitoids in the inner versus outer belt
will aid the understanding of the structural evolution of the Sukumaland Greenstone Belt and
provide better constraints on the timing of gold mineralization.

A more detailed study of the porphyritic intrusives would enable their role in a precursor
magmatic-hydrothermal system to be better constrained. Identification and investigation of
related intrusives in the footwall sequence would assist with this.

Establishing the exact age of hydrothermal mineralization would provide a key constraint on
genetic models. The presence of monazite associated with pyrite II allows the potential to date
mineralization (U/Pb), and the possibility of employing the Re-Os technique (subject to
improved precision and error margins) to the ore stages to date the mineralization events could
be considered.

The timing of gold reported at the MacCalder Deposit in Kenya needs to be resolved. It is not
clear whether gold is directly related to VMS mineralization or if it was introduced as a later
(structural) overprint. In the event that gold is primary, the potential for gold-bearing VMS
deposits within Nyanzian terranes is enhanced.

Conclusions 325