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Consideration of Size Effects in Micro Forming Processes

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Jens Peter Wulfsberg Tobias Redlich

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 Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Nanomanufacturing (nanoMan2014)
8 – 10 July, 2014，Germany

Consideration of Size Effects in Micro Forming Processes

Jens P. Wulfsberg, Tobias Redlich*
Helmut Schmidt University /
University of the Federal Armed Forces
Hamburg, Germany
*corresponding author (tobias.redlich@hsu-hh.de)

ABSTRACT:
Miniaturization of workpieces in the range of one millimetre or less leads to structural, physical or thermal
size effects, which have to be considered or utilized for the dimensioning of input and process variables in
production processes. Especially in micro forming processes an adequate control of the workpiece temperature
and forming force is difficult. Therefore, a micro forming process with a hybrid application of mechanical energy
and thermal energy is introduced. The thermal energy is coupled in by laser radiation through a transparent contact
optics made of sapphire. This sapphire element is working as well as forming mould carrying the geometry of the
workpiece. The combined process has been realized in a novel hybrid forming machine. For validation purposes,
forming experiments were carried out with micro geometries in stainless steel. As a second application the
sintering of powder of amorphous metal to solid workpieces without recrystallization of the material is shown.
Keywords: Forming, Miniaturization, Size Effects, Hybrid Processes, Amorphous Metals

1 Introduction
The general trend towards greater
miniaturization and functional integration results in
an increasing demand for metallic parts or structures
of smallest dimensions (down to 100 µm) like
miniature springs and screws, connector pins, shafts
or gears. Industrial realization of these parts and the
further breakthrough of products containing
microparts require suitable production technologies
regarding accuracy, productivity, efficiency and
reliability. This aspect is still a significant limitation
[1,2].
The production processes of microsystem
technology like LIGA and etching are also not
suitable for processing metals like steel or the
productivity is too low. Despite the advances in the
downscaling of several classical production
technologies like cutting or laser machining these Figure 1: Fields influenced by size effects
are still far from being established in the production
of microparts [3,4]. The following section describes the various
Metal forming offers the advantages of high phenomena, which are referred to as size effects and
production rates, minimal to zero material loss, need to be considered in the field of micro
excellent mechanical properties of the product and fabrication. Then it is shown how these size effects
small tolerances making it suitable for mass can be compensated by a specially developed
production and near net shape technology. However, manufacturing process of laser-assisted micro
the application of metal forming technologies to the forming [5]. Finally, results are presented from
production of microparts is still limited as a series of preliminary experiments with which the
problems arise in down scaling this technology to fundamental transferability of this method has
the micro size. Figure 1 illustrates these problematic already been shown on the sintering of amorphous
fields for the transfer process. metals also known as metallic glasses. The
qualification and control of a hybrid laser contact
 Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Nanomanufacturing (nanoMan2014)
8 – 10 July, 2014，Germany

sintering process applied to powders of metallic scaling of the grain size is conducted, the material
glasses is the subject of a current DFG-research strength will increase [7].
project. Within the Priority Program 1138 the influence
of size effects has been examined with regard to
2 Size Effects different manufacturing processes for the production
of workpieces in the micro- and mesoscopic range
The occurrence of unpredictable changes in [5,6,7,8,14,15]. Occurring size effects were
process variables, while machining similar scaled described and analyzed. Hence, approaches have
workpieces, is called size effect [6]. For example, in already been developed to account for the size
the tensile test results of round bars with a reduction effects in process design followingthe aim of
in bar diameter an increase in the mean variation of increasing the predictability and controllability of
the measured yield stress occurs, which can be the production process.
interpreted as size effect [5].
Since there is no common understanding of the
concept [6,7,8] the authors follow the definition of
size effects that was established at the Helmut
Schmidt University [9]:
“A size effect is a significant increase in
influence of an effect (in a specific scope) on a
system that results from the change in the relation
between two factors due to scaling.”
A different approach to the description of size
effects was elected in the DFG Priority Program
1138, "Modelling of size effects in manufacturing
processes". According to this approach, first and
second order size effects can be distinguished. First
order size effects are attributed to non-linear
variation of process parameters or their relationship
with each other and can therefore be predicted by
using analytical or numerical models. Second order
size effects, however, cannot be described correctly
by means of the above models a priori, because the
relevant variables have not been identified in the
existing models [5,6,10,11].
Vollertsen distinguishes size effects by their
causes [12,13]. Geißdörfer [14] and Terzi [5] refer
to a systematic classification of size effects in the
three main categories of density effects, shape
effects and structural effects. While size effects are
called density effects when density is kept constant
during the scaling, shape effects occur when the
dimensions of the samples vary isogonally, whereas
the shape of the workpiece remains constant.
Structure effects describe those phenomena
resulting in size effects, while certain structural
features are kept constant [5]. This classification and
a further differentiation into categories are
illustrated in Figure 2.
These phenomena occur especially in areas
where the basic physical proportions (e.g. size of the
workpiece) and the structural lengths of material
(e.g. grain size) achieve a similar dimension [7].
Using the example of forming processes, the strain
hardening mechanisms in metals can be used to
explain this relationship, when the grain diameter is
so small that dislocation loops can be formed only
inadequate. If, however, in addition to the
geometrical scaling of the process dimensions
Figure 2: Categories of size effects [5]
 Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Nanomanufacturing (nanoMan2014)
8 – 10 July, 2014，Germany

3 Laser-assisted micro forming • The absorption of laser radiation allows short

process times, which cannot be accomplished
The importance of knowledge about the thermal with heat transfer from pre-heated tools.
behavior in micro forming has been pointed out. • Material properties can be manipulated by
Lower forming temperatures in smaller workpieces controlling the down cooling time via laser
can be expected, as the surface-volume-ratio power.
increases the enhancement of the heat transfer to the
environment (Figure 4). The dissipation energy Edisp
(heat energy released during the forming process)
diminishes with decreasing scale factor λ. This
thermal size effect is shown in Figure 3. The
temperature and its distribution within the
workpieces at the end of the deformation process
changes with varying workpiece size, although the
initial temperature and the deformation degree of 50
% remain constant.
An approach to compensate or reduce the impact
of size effects is to influence the temperature during
the forming process. This can be accomplished by
heating the workpiece. At high temperatures an
increased formability is achieved while reducing Figure 4: Impact of the workpiece size on the
flow stress and thus process forces as more slip forming temperature
systems are activated. This reduces the anisotropic
material behavior resulting in a more homogeneous The proposed method (Figure 5) requires
forming with improved reproducibility [16,17]. transparent tools in order to allow the transmittance
of the laser light to the forming region. Sapphire
combines the required transparency to laser
dissipation energy in

radiation (at wavelengths λ > UV) with excellent

workpiece

≈λ-3
mechanical properties like high hardness,
compressive strength and Young’s Modulus,
large small
making it suitable for metal forming. In addition its
forming temperature in

scale melting temperature of 2050 °C allows warm and

hot forming of steel without destroying the tool.
workpiece

large small
cool down velocity of

scale
≈λ2
workpiece

initial temperature = const.

large small deformation degree = const.
scale

Figure 3: Impact of the workpiece size on the

forming temperature and its distribution.
Laser radiation seems the most suitable choice
for the purpose of heating the material during the
microforming process as it offers several advantages
in comparison to other methods:
• The laser energy input and thus the resulting
temperature in the workpiece can easily be
controlled via the current of a diode laser.
• Local heating of selected areas of the workpiece Figure 5: Principle of laser-assisted micro forming
is possible allowing the limitation of the heating
to the forming zone.
• Required temperature gradients can be achieved
by control of laser power.
 Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Nanomanufacturing (nanoMan2014)
4 Hybrid contact laser sintering of
metallic glass
4.1 Metallic glass
Usually metals are considered as crystalline
materials whose atoms are arranged in a regular and
recurring manner [18,19]. If the process of
crystallization is suppressed during the
solidification of the metals from the melt, for
example by very high cooling rates [20,21], or by
the composition of the alloy [18,22] metallic solids
can form with a glass-like structure and no crystal
lattice [23]. Consequently, these materials are
referred to as amorphous metals or metallic glasses
[21].
The possibility of producing these materials has
been demonstrated by Duwez in 1960, who
succeeded in quench cooling an Au-Si alloy with a
rate of ~ 106 K/s, which prevented crystallization of
the material [24]. These cooling rates were initially
only achieved for very thin samples of a few microns
thickness [25]. In the following years various
research groups succeeded by the development of
new alloys to increase the diameter of the produced
metallic glasses [26,27].
An alloy is now referred to as massive metallic
glass, if solids with a diameter of 1 mm and more
can be formed from it [25,28].
More than a thousand different alloys Zr, Fe, Pd,
Ni, Cu, Mg or Ti-based materials are assigned to the
class of the massive metallic glasses already [25]. It
is one of the most intensively studied classes of
materials in the field of materials science [22,29].
The special properties of these materials are the
reason for this scientific interest. Depending on the
composition of the alloys materials with
exceptionally high:
- tensile strength,
- hardness,
- ductility,
- wear resistance,
- corrosion resistance and/or
- biological compatibility
can be formed [19,28,29,30,31]. These properties
are attributed to the lack short-range order of the
atoms, the resulting homogeneous material
structure, and the absence of grain boundaries, line
defect and precipitation [19].
Currently, there are intensive efforts to transfer
the results of research on applications of metallic
glasses [21,32]. Metallic glasses, for example, are
used in current transformers, as they have a lower
electrical conductivity and thus help to reduce the
eddy current losses in comparison to crystalline
metals [20,28]. In addition, components made of
metallic glasses are used in gears for micromotors,
as these achieve much higher lifetimes than
comparable steel components [21,25]. Further also
biomedical components, anti-allergic jewelry, sports
8 – 10 July, 2014，Germany
equipment, knives, razors and components for
printers are made from various metallic glass alloys
[21,23,25].
To manufacture these products forming
processes are predestined [33]. Semimanufactured
metallic glass is heated to a temperature below
crystallization temperature Tx but above the glass
transition temperature Tg [29]. In this temperature
range the alloys present supercooled melts with high
viscosity that can be formed under pressure [23]
(Figure 6). Compared to moulding, lower
temperature gradients and thus longer process times
result, which must be adhered to in order to prevent
crystallization of the materials [33].
By this means even micro components can be
produced with minimum feature sizes in the
submicron range [31]. A post-processing is usually
not necessary, since the shrinkage during the
solidification is of an order of magnitude lower than
that of crystalline metals [21,28]. Particularly alloys
from zirconium and platinum are suitable for this
manufacturing process, as these are characterized by
a low glass transition temperature Tg and a large
temperature difference ∆T = Tx - Tg [29,33].
Figure 6: schematic TTT-diagram of metallic
glass [23]
For this research the preliminary work on
heating and melting of metallic glasses by laser
radiation is particularly relevant [19,34]. Studies by
Fischer et al. [34] show, that the laser sintering of
metallic glasses is possible, while retaining the
amorphous structure. A powder of Pt-Cu-Ni-P alloy
was melted by means of a Nd:YAG-laser. Due to the
low glass transition temperature of the alloy, the
process was already initiated with low laser powers.
Examination of the samples shows that the powder
melts, but only fine interconnections are formed
between the grains. Higher laser power resulted in a
better sintering of the individual powder grains and
a reduction in the number of pores between grains,
but a crystallization of the material already occurred.
 Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Nanomanufacturing (nanoMan2014)
4.2 Preliminary tests for the processing of
powdered metallic glasses
Based on the previously introduced process of
laser-assisted micro forming, first experiments to
establish the basic feasibility of the processing of
powdered metallic glasses have been performed.
Two matching sapphire tools were positioned in a
carrier with a cylindrical recess for guidance. The
material powder within the tool was biased and
charged with pretension by a mass of F=20N.
Through a bore in the top sapphire tool holder the
powder of the metallic glass being heated through
the upper sapphire tool by laser beam. The setup is
depicted in Figure 7. The goal was to determine in
principle, whether the available laser power source
and applied mass is adequate for sintering the
metallic glass and manufacture a solid workpiece.
The metallic glass alloy Fe44Co6Cr15Mo14C15B6
was used, which has a glass transition temperature
Tg of about 600°C and a crystallization temperature
Tx of approximately 1150°C.
After exposure to the laser radiation (Figure 7c)
and removal of the excess powder it can be
determined that disk-shaped circular solid
workpieces could be produced. Within a series of
tests the exposure of the laser and the laser power
was varied. Geometric sizes, the amount of the
powder and the biasing force F were held constant.
An exemplary micrograph of a workpiece
produced in this way is shown in Figure 7d. In this
particular case, the powder was heated for a period
of t=3 sec with a laser power of P=40W. Since the
focus of the laser beam is significantly less than the
diameter of the sapphire tool of D=10mm, it was
found that boundary areas of the work piece were
not heated sufficiently to completely melt the
powder. Thus some of the original powder particles
were still visible.
Figure 7: Preliminary study: setup and result
These results confirm the assumption that it is
possible to generate massive micro parts of
powdered metallic glass with the basic approach and
the sapphire tools of the laser-assisted micro
forming. However, only the general feasibility of
sintering of powdery metallic glass has been
considered while the shape has not been taken into
account yet.
The development of this hybrid process towards
a full-fledged manufacturing process for the
production of micro parts with complex geometry of
metallic glass is the subject of a current DFG
8 – 10 July, 2014，Germany
Research Project at the Institute of Production
Engineering at the Helmut Schmidt University.
5 Summary
The laser-assisted forming is an appropriate
method of micro manufacturing considering size
effects and their compensation. The aim of the
described research project is the qualification and
control of a hybrid laser contact sintering process
that can be derived from that process. This sintering
process encompasses the application of thermal and
mechanical energy to powders of metallic glasses, in
order to manufacture micro workpieces with
complex geometries.
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