Organisation of American States National Council for Science & Technology Barbados Association of Professional Engineers Code of Practice for Wind Loads for Structural Design November 1981 Consultirlg Engineers Partnership Ltd Tony Gibbs, BSc, DCT (Leeds), CEng, FICE, FlStructB, MASCE H E Browne, MSc, BSc (Eng) and Caribbean Meteorological Institute BA Rocheford, MS, BScCONTENTS PAGE FOREWORD 1 THE CODE Scope 2, Definitions 3. Symbols 4. Qutline of procedure for calculating : wind Toads on structures 4 5. Design wind speed 6 6. Dynamic pressure of the wind 2 7. Pressure coefficients and force 2 coefficients 8. Wind loads on unclad’ structures 42 APPENDICES A. Ground roughness, building size and height above ground - the basis of a the Sz factors B. Explanatory notes on gusts and the wind-speed averaging time 51 C. Factor $3 - Explanatory note on build- ing life factor S3 6) D, The effective height H of a building near the edge of a cliff or escarpment 63 } £, The effect of internal pressures 65 F. Wind forces on circular sections 68 G. Dynamic response of buildings and other structures to wind loads 1 H. Derivation of pressure coefficients 80 I, Addresses of Meteorological Services 82 J. Metric/Imperial Conversions and Equiva- TABLES Tents 83 j. Basic wind speeds in m/s for some Conmon- wealth Caribbean countries 2. Topography factor S} 7 3. Ground roughness, building size and height above ground factor S2 1010. uu. We. 13. u. 15. 16. W. 18, 19. 20. 2. 22. 23. 24, Values of q Pressure coefficients Cpe for the walls of rectangular clad buildings Pressure coefficients Cpe for the roofs of rectangular clad buildings Pressure coefficients Cpe for monopitch roofs of rectangular clad buildings with h/w <.2 Force coefficients Cr for rectangular clad buildings Force coefficients C for clad buildings ‘of uniform section (acting in the direction of the wind) Pressure coefficients Cpe for clad rec- tangular building with 5aw-tooth roofs Pressure coefficients Cpe for clad rec- tangular buildings with multi-span saw- tooth roofs (all spans equal) with hw Pressure coefficients Cpe for pitch roofs of multispan buildings (all spans equal) with hw! Pressure coefficients for clad rectan- gular buildings with one long side open Pressure coefficients for clad rectan- gular buildings with one short side open Pressure coefficients for clad. rectan- gular buildings with both Tong sides open Pressure coefficients for clad rectan- gular buildings with both short sides open Pressure coefficients for grandstand with three sides open Pressure coefficients for shelter roof without walls (30° roof pitch) Pressure coefficients for shelter roof without walls (100 roof pitch) Pressure coefficients for shelter roof without walls (-100 roof pitch) Pressure coefficients Cp for canopy roofswith 3< b/w Pressure distribution around cylindrical structures Force coefficients Cf for wires and cables (e/D 100) Pressure coefficients and force coefficient for sphere PAGE 13 iv 18 1g 20 a 24 25 26 a 27 28 28 29 30 31 32 33 36 3725. 26. 27. 28, 23, 30. 31. 32, 33. Pressure coefficients for structures with arched roofs Values of reduction factor K for members of finite length and slenderness Force coefficients for individual structural members (flat sides) of infinite length Force coefficients Cy for individual structural members of circular section and infinite length Force coefficients Cp for a single frame Shielding factor ., Overall force coefficient Cf for towers with flatsided members Overall force coefficient Cf for square towers composed of rounded members Overall force coefficients C> for equiva- Jent triangular towers composed of rounded members PAGE 38 39 40 a 42 44 45 46 46The National Counci7 for Science & Technology, a body charged with advising the Government of Barbados on matters of science and technology, recommended that a revision should be made to the Code of Practice for Wind Loads for Structural Design, originally published by the Barbados Association of Professional Engineers in 1970. Consulting Engineers Partnership Ltd was commissioned to under- take this work. Funding was provided by the Organisation of merican States, from The "Science & Technology Planning for Energy and Other Priority Areas" Project which is administered by Council.FOREWORD During recent years techniques of structural design and construction have developed to such an extent that buildings and other structures have become more susceptible to the wind, There is a corresponding tendency to reduce the safety margins (often provided by "non-struc- tural" elements) that have enabled older buildings to survive. At the same time: there have been significant advances in the knowledge of wind and its effects on structures. Proper application of this knowledge is necessary to overcome economically the problems of the ‘inherently more wind-sensitive modern structures. In 1970, the Barbados Association of Professional Engineers sponsored a Code so as to promote a more serious, logical and uniform approach by engineers to the problem of designing and erécting structures resistant to wind forces. That Code was widely circulated and used throughout-the Commonwealth Caribbean and further afield. It has also been adopted by the University of the West Indies as a standard text book for their Civil Engineering degree programme. During the eleven years since the first edition of the. Barbados Association of Professional ‘Engineers Code of Practice for wind loads for Structural Design was published, sufficient additional informa- tion has become available to warrant revisions to that document. The range of building shapes for which pressure and force coefficients are provided has been extended. The concept of frictional drag has also been given greater prominence and additional appendices included ‘on wind forces on circular sections and the dynamic response of buildings to wind loads. Meteorological data for Barbados has been used to revise figure I significantly, which is a plot of the statistical factor $3 against’ building life and level of safety. Extensive use has been made of the British Standards Institution Code of Practice CP3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 Wind Loads in order to provide the extended range of pressure and force coefficients, The appendix on the dynamic response of buildings to wind loads is based on the American National Standard ANSI A58.1 ~ 1980/Draft with additional information from Supplement No.4 to the National Building Code of Canada (1970). In this code, numerical values have been given in SI units, however, an appendix is included in which there are equivalents in imperial units. Like all progressive codes, this is an interim Code. It is hoped that this Code would assist in continuing to stimulate interest in wind Toading among engineers of the region, NCST and BAPE would welcome comments and suqgestions from other engineers and meteoro- logists for consideration when revisions to this Code are being prepared.1d SCOPE This Code gives methods for calculating the wind loads which should be taken into account when designing buildings, structures and components thereof. It does not apply to buildings or structures which are of unusual shape or location for which special investigations may be necessary to determine the wind loads.and their effects. To take account of the fluctuating nature of wind, its interaction with buildings and the dynamic properties. of buildings in resisting wind Toads, the Code gives a procedure for calculating a gust effect factor. This factor. is multiplied by the wind force determined in accordance with the other provisions of the Code to give an equivalent static force which would produce the same peak load effect as the turbulent wind. Slender buildings and structures may be subject to serious wind induced oscillations and the design of these buildings and structures should include the effects of forces resulting from these oscillations. ‘The Code provides an approximate method. of evaluating these forces for circular. towers and chimneys, Other building shapes may require further ‘investigation. DEFINITIONS For the purposes of this Code, the following definitions apply: breadth The horizontal dimension of the. building normal to the direction of the wind, depth The horizontal dimension of the building measured in the direction of the wind. element of The area of surface over which the pressure surface area coefficient is taken to be constant. ) effective fron- The area normal to the direction of the wind or tal area ‘shadow area’. height above The vertical distance measured above the general ground level of the ground, height The greatest vertical dimension of a building above the ground adjacent to that building. length The greater horizontal dimension of a building above the ground adjacent to that building. width The lesser horizontal dimension of a building above the ground adjacent to that building. dynamic pressure The free stream dynamic pressure resultant from of wind the design wind speed. pressure The ratio of the pressure actina at a point on a coefficient surface to the dynamic pressure of the incident wind.force coefficient topography ground roughness flexible build- ‘ings and struc- tures ‘SYMBOLS* A non-dimensional coefficient such that the total wind force on a body is the product of the force coefficient multiplied by the dynamic pressure of the incident wind times an appropriate area, as defined in the Code. The nature of the earth's surface as influenced by the hill and valley configurations. The nature of the earth's surface as influenced by small scale obstructions such as trees and buildings. Slender buildings and other structures having a height exceeding five times the least horizontal dimension or a fundamental natural frequency of Tess than 1 Hz. Where the horizontal dimensions vary with height, the least horizontal dimension at mid-height shall be used. element of surface area effective frontal area breadth force coefficient normal force coefficient transverse force coefficient frictional drag coefficient pressure coefficient external pressure coefficient internal pressure coefficient depth diameter force normal force transverse force frictional force * Excluding those used in the appendices.4. 4a a S2 & 1 > a height height above ground a constant reduction factor Jength number of spans of multispan roof pressure on surface external pressure internal pressure total load intensity dynamic pressure of wind Reynolds Number topography factor ground roughness, building size and height above ground factor a statistical factor basic wind speed design wind speed width of building bay width in multi-bay buildings wind angle aerodynamic solidity shielding factor kinematic viscosity geometric solidity ratio OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING WIND LOADS ON STRUCTURES The wind load on a structure should be calculated for: a) (2) (3) the structure as a whole; individual structural elements such as roof and walls; individual cladding units and their fixings. 44.2 4.3 It is important to note that the wind load on a partially completed structure will be dependent on the method and sequence of construction and may be critical. It is reasonable to assume that the maximum designed wind speed Vs will not occur during a short construction period, and a reduced factor $3 can be used to calculate the probable maximum wind. The graphs of Figure 1 should not, however, be extrapolated to a period of less than two years. The assessment of wind load should be made as follows: (1) The basic wind speed V appropriate to the place where the structure is:to be erected is determined in accordance with 5.2 and Table 1: (2) The basic wind speed is multiplied by factors Sj Sp and Sg to give the design wind speed V, for the part under considera tion (see 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6) Vg = V5}S253 (3) The design wind speed is converted to dynamic pressure 'q' using the relationship: a= kg Table 4 gives corresponding values of q and V, in SI units. (2) The dynamic pressure q is then multiplied by an appropriate pressure coefficient’Cy to give the pressure p exerted at any point on the surface of a building. P= Cp.q If the value of the pressure coefficient Cp is negative, this indicates that p is a suction as distinct From a positive pressure. Since the resultant load on an element depends on the diff- erence of pressure between opposing faces, pressure coefficients may be given for external surfaces Cpe and internal surfaces Cpi. The resultant wind load on an element of surface acts in a’direction normal to that surface and then is: F = (Cpe - Cpi)a A where A is the area of the surface. A negative value for F indicates that the resultant force is outwards. The total wind load on a structure may be obtained by vectorial summation of the loads on all the surfaces.5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 (b) There is however, another and shorter method of finding the total wind load on the building as a whole by using a force coefficient Cp where such is available. The total wind load is then: F = Cr q Ae where A, is the effective frontal area of the. structure. The direction in which the force acts is specified in the tables for the force coefficients. Pressure coefficients and force coefficients are given in Section 7 for a limited range of building shapes. Force coefficients for unclad structures are given in Section 8. DESIGN WIND SPEED The design wind speed Vs should be calculated from: ) Vg = VS1S283 where V is the basic wind speed (see 5.2), and Sy, Sz, $3 are design wind speed factors (see 5.3 to 5.6 inclusive). Basic Wind Speed The basic wind speed V is the 3-second gust speed estimated to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years. This speed has been assessed for a number of: Commonwealth Caribbean countries and the values are given in Table 1.. They represent the 3-second gust speed at a height of 10 m above the ground in an open situation that is Tikely to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years. It should be assumed that the basic wind may blow from any hori- zontal direction. ‘An explanatory note (Appendix B) indicates how these speeds have } been estimated and gives the basis for selecting the 3-second gust speed. TABLE 1_- Basic Wind Speed for Some Commonwealth Caribbean Countries metres/sec Guyana 22 Trinidad 45 Tobago, Grenada 50 Barbados. St Vincent, St Lucia, Dominica 58 Based on studies for Barbad: Antigua, Leeward Islands, British Virgin Islands 64 Based on studies for Antigu Jamaica 565.3 5.3.1 5.4 Wind Speed Factors The basic wind speed given in Table 1 applies to flat coastal areas and must be adjusted to take account of variations from this standard, A topography factor, S;, described more fully in 5.4, takes account of large variations in the ground surface; it deals with the effects of hills and of sheltering in valleys. Variations in ground roughness and the effects of obstructions such as trees and buildings are combined in the factor Sp (5.5). Finally, the intended life-time of the building is considered iA nodifying the basic speed, and for this the factor $3 (5.6) may e-used. Topograpliy Factor Sy Study of wind speed records shows that height of the site above sea level is not by itself a factor which affects the value of the basic speed, so unless special local effects are present, the value of S} should be taken as 1.0, Exposed hills rising well above the general level of the surrounding terrain may give rise to accelerated winds. So may some valleys, particularly those that are so shaped that funnelling of the wind occurs with wind blowing along the valley. Sites so affected are often well known locally for their abnormal winds. For the above mentioned sites, values of S] of 1.1 should be used. On the other hand,.there are some steep sided, enclosed valleys where wind speeds may be less than normal, Caution is necessary in applying a reducing factor but for such cases a value of 0.9 may be used for S}. Values of the topography factor Sj are given in Table 2 to cover most conditions. Local knowledge may help the designer to select the Sj value, but if he is in doubt on the matter the advice of the appropriate meteorological service should be sought. Addresses of the relevant advisory offices are given in Appendix 1. TABLE 2 - Topography Factor $y Topography Value of Sq a AI] cases except those in b & c below 1.0 Very exposed hill slopes and crests where acceleration of the wind is known to occur i > Valleys shaped to produce a funnelling of the wind Sites that are known to be abnormally windy due to some local influence c Steep sided, enclosed valleys with a reputation for being sheltered from al1 winds 0.95.5 5.5.1 5.5.1.1 5.5.1.2 5.5.1.3 5.5.1.4 5.2 Ground roughness, building size and height above around-factor So. The factor Sp takes account of the combined effect of ground roughness, the variation of wind speed with height above ground and the size of the building or component part under considera~ tion, In conditions of strong wind, the wind speed usually increases with height above ground, The rate of increase depends on ground roughness, and also on whether short gusts or mean wind speeds are being considered. This is related to building size to take account of the fact that small buildings and elements of a build- jng are more effected by short gusts than are larger buildings, for which a longer wind-averaging period is more appropriate. For Code purposes, the ground roughness is divided into four categories and buildings and their elements are divided into three classes as follows: Ground Roughness Ground roughness 1 - long fetches of open, level or nearly level country with no shelter. Examples are flat coastal areas, swamps and rice paddies, airfields and grassland, farmland without hedges around the fields. Ground roughness 2 - flat or undulating country with obstructions such as hedges around fields, scattered windbreaks of trees and occasional buildings. Examples are most farmland and estates with the exception of ‘those parts that are well wooded. Ground roughness 3 - surfaces covered by numerous large obstruc- tions. Examples are well-wooded or forest areas and towns and their suburbs. The general level of roof-tops and obstructions is assumed at about 10 m, but the category will include built-up areas generally apart from those that qualify for category 4. Ground roughness 4 - surfaces covered by large numerous obstruc- tions with a general roof height of about 25m or more. This category covers only the centres of large towns and cities where the buildings are not only high, but are also not too widely spaced. As at 1981, it iS considered that no Commonwealth Caribbean city falls into this category, although several may do so by the end of the decade. further explanation of these ground roughness categories will be found in Appendix A. Cladding and Building Size The wind speed fluctuates from moment to moment and can be averaged over any chosen period of time. The shortest period over which wind speed is normally measured is about 3 seconds and it has been found that a 3-second gust is of such a size that it may envelop obstacles up to 20 m across. The longer the averaging time for the gust, the larger is the obstacle that may be fully enveloped. For this reason three classes have been selected.5.6 Class A - All_units of cladding, glazing and roofing and their immediate fixings, and individual members of unclad structures. Class B - All buildings and structures where neither the greatest horizontal nor the greatest vertical dimension exceeds 50 m. Class C - All buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal or greatest vertical dimension exceeds 50 m, The values of Sp for variation of wind speed with height above ground for the various ground roughness categories and the building size classes are given in Table 3. The height should be taken to the top of the structure or alternatively, the height of the structure may be divided into convenient parts and the wind load on each part should be cal- culated using a factor Sp which corresponds to the height above ground of the top of that part. The load should be applied at the mid-height of the structure or part respectively. This also applies to pitched roofs, Further explanation of the relationship between gusts and wind speed averaging times is given in Appendix 8, In the previous paragraphs, height above ground means the dimension above the general. level of the ground in the vicinity of the building, assuming there are no unusual conditions. Allow- ances should, however, be made for special conditions. For example, the height above ground of a building on a cliff top or a steeply- sloped escarpment should be taken as the dimension above the foot of the cliff or escarpment for winds from that direction. Details of the rule to be followed are given in Appendix D. The effect of turbulence on the pressure and force coefficients is dealt with in Section 7, Factor $3 53 is a factor based on statistical concepts, given in Appendix C; which takes account of the degree of security required and the period of time in years during which there will be exposure to wind, Whatever wind speed is adopted for design purposes, there is always a probability, however small, that it may be exceeded in a storm of exceptional violence; the greater the period of years over which there will be exposure to the wind, the greater is this probability, Figure 1 shows values of S3 plotted against this period of years for Barbados. Normally, wind loads on completed structures and buildings should be calculated at S3 = | with the following exceptions: (a) temporary structures; (b) structures where a shorter period of exposure to the wind may be expected;gut WL ark Bll Wt wet | wk Heh OAL | Tk beTL AzTLY 002 SUL lL oz" wh oz" eat | ottt -aztt att | oak eat 927k {OBL bt AG TeEe Lat SUL all tet f ttt «tak bak | GtTL | 2azk Sztk} oot aut Sis taeHeLt ELL wet gt Pots. Bik zk dt Lott gett Opt out elt Stk UL gut Bil | peck Bik = Wath | SUTL GL 227k} et o't OL ELL 60°L 2UL gut fo zit SLL LTE ELTL ETL O2"L} OL £0°L cL OWL 90°L alt elit | Bot: sere a YL SEL oattt] 0B 8670 20° 04 20°L 90"L ott | gore ort butt | gol auth ttt 09 60 86°0 —20°L 00"L v0"1 Bort fF potL BOL ZLTL | 9OTL OLE LL] 0S 680 s'0 © «6°0 96°0 lor sot f tot © got = OLTL J eOTL OTL att Ob 6L:0 seo 06"0 26°0 16°0 lot | g6'0 e0"L = zO"L_ | 00°L = SOL. GOL] OE 06:0 St:0 610 58°0 06°0 S6'0 | y60 860 OTL | 9670 LOL 9O"L] 08 #9°0 690 p70 azo £8°0 ge0 | i6'0 $60 = 00": | «HDHD EOTL| SL 8s'0 z'0 = _g"0 69°0 v0 slo | gO. 80 6° | 06°0 © $6°0 LOL 0s"0 $$'0 09"0 09°0 $9°0 04:0 | 020 = pet0 d'0 | B10 eB'0 BO] SF iro z'0 —-98°0 $s°0 09°0 p90 | €9'0 © £90) zz | £270 BLO EB*OIssal vO g 2 a v a a v 7 a v 3 ay see sseig $8219 seg se.) H a ‘sauquaa AVL9 “Ba $91}10 dbavl JO Syatysqno “suojy2n4q4sqo yuanbauy fsumoy [[pus fsyxe4q syeaugpuLm pa.iagqeas suotqoniysqo ou pue abe] U31M sadey.ns pups kuew yp 4s Aaqun09 ypem Aaqunos ued yay Aaqunoo ‘uado ZS wOLI¥s “ONNOUD INOW INOTIN ONY 3ZIS ONTOTING “SSANHONOY anno - € Fav 1022 U2 or% 6'b cms c L gL £5 uoqoey ast Surpling ph eh 2b uh ony 6 go £0 90 $°0 pO, Vos NBL Ul spp tity BATT SNIGTING Od YOL¥S = | TUNIS OL 02 0g 00 oz saea, - BULpLing Jo ay17 ubisag uv71 (c) structures where a longer period of exposure to the wind may be required; (d) structures where additional safety is required. For these special cases, both the period of exposure to the wind and the probability level may be varied according to circumstances. Some examples are given in Appendix C. DYNAMIC PRESSURE OF THE WIND From the value of the design wind speed Vz obtained from Section 5, the dynamic pressure of the wind q above atmospheric pressure i$ obtained from Table 4. This table has been derived from the equation: av q where e, _ the density of air at any point is taken as / the density of air at sea level in International Standard Atmospheric Conditions. Since 4 is constant, 3? may be replaced by @ constant k in the above equation. A = 1.2256 kg/m? k = 0.6128 kg/m The possibility of adopting a lower value of k, in view of the generally lower air densities prevailing in the Caribbean area, was considered, While it-is true that air density may be some 5 to 10 percent lower than in temperate latitudes, the effect of this will be, to some extent, cancelled out by the fact that tropical storms are almost always accompanied by heavy rain, moving almost horizontally and so increasing the pressure on any exposed surface. It was therefore considered conservative to accept the standard air density as applicable also to hurricane conditions. PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS General In the preceding sections, the method of assessing the dynamic pressure q is given. In order to determine the forces on a building or structure, or part thereof, the pressure has to be multiplied by a coefficient which is dependent on the shape of the building ‘or structure, and by the area of the building or structure, or part thereof, There are two types of coefficient. These are: (a) Pressure coefficients Cy (b) Force coefficients Cr 120008 0962 O62 OBB2 OEB2 06/2 OGL2 OLL2 OLIZ OF9Z O6G2 0992 OISZ OL—e UEPe O6EZ O9EZ OZez OBZZ Oee oIz Oclz OEL2 OOLZ 0902 OEO2 OE6L 0961 O21 OGBL OSBL OZBL OG/L OSLL OZLL O69L 0991 OSL O6SL O91 OEsI| OOSL OLvL OPPL OLbL OBEL OSEL GEEL OOEL OLZL OvZL OLZL OBLL OILL CELL OLLL OBOL 0901 OeOL OLOL i86 956 266 606 G88 298 GE LLB OL ELL ISL OFL GOL 889 899 Lp9 829 809 689 ols 28g fs SIS 86> Leb Hy coy Ov bly 66E E8e AoE ese GEE bee Ole eZ E82 OLZ BZ She fee 122 Ol2 66L BBL cet s9L ASL dot BEL GZL OL 2lL Ol 8°66 E88 ILS 2°bL 9°49 E°L9 (zu/n) > $6 06 se O's SZ O% S'9 09 "S's O'S Sth Oy Ge Of Sz OZ SL Ol SO Oo SLINn Is = B40 SanqWA - b FTavL 137.2 Values of these coefficients for some building shapes are given in tables in this section. These tables may be used for other buildings of generally similar shape. These coefficients are of necessity obtained from measurements on models in wind tunnels, and the great majority of data avail- able has been obtained in conditions of relatively smooth flow. Where sufficient field data exists as in the case of rectangular or circular buildings, values have been adjusted to allow for turbulent flow. Pressure Coefficients Pressure coefficients are always given for a particular surface or part of the surface of a building and when multiplied by: the area of that surface, or part of the surface, and by the dynamic pressure gq give the wind load acting in a direction normal to that particular surface or part thereof, The total wind load on a building is then obtained by vectorial summation of the loads acting on each of the surfaces or parts of the surfaces of the building. Average values of the pressure coefficients are given in the tables for critical wind directions in one or more quadrants. In order to determine the maximum wind load on the building, the total load should be calculated for each of the critical directions shown from all quadrants. Where considerable variation of pressure occurs over a surface, it has been sub-divided and mean pressure coefficients given for each of its several parts. In addition, areas of high local suction frequently occurring near the edges of walls and roofs, are separately shown. These coefficients for local effects should be used only to calculate the loads on individual cladding units and their fixings and should not be used for calculating the load on individual structural elements such as roofs and walls or the structure as a whole, Note: For the design of cladding on its fixings to a structural member Class A should be used with the pressure coeffic— tent applicable to the particular area in which the cladding lies. For the design of a structural member carrying the cladding, Class B or C should be used with the pressure coefficient applicable to the avea in which the menber Lies. Tn considering the design against high local pressures of the structurd! member carrying the cladding, the secondary effects euch as distribution due to the stiffness of the cladding should be taken into account. For main structural members, the design should be Class 3 or C using the normal coefficients for the whole area. 147.3 7.4 When calculating the wind load on an individual structural element such as roofs and walls, and individual cladding units and their fixings, it is essential to take account of the pressure difference between opposite faces of such elements or units. For clad structures, it is therefore necessary to know the internal pressure as well as the external pressure. The following distinguishing pressure coefficients are there- fore used: External pressure coefficient = Cpe . Internal pressure coefficient = Cpj The pressure on an individual structural element or cladding unit therefore is p = (Cpe - Cpi)a The load acting in a direction normal to the individual struc- tural clement of cladding unit therefore is: F = (Cpe ~ Cpi)aa where A is the surface area of the structural element or cladding unit. A negative value for F indicates that the resultant force is outwards. Values of Cpp are given in the tables in this section and a method of absessing the values of Cpj is given in Appendix E. Force Coefficients Force coefficients when given, apply to a building or structure as a whole, and when multiplied by the effective frontal area Ae of the building or structure, and by the dynamic pressure q give the total wind load on that particular building or structure thus: F = Ceafe where F is the force acting in a direction specified in the table, and Cf is the force coefficient for the wind. It should be noted that the value of the force coefficient differs for the wind acting on different faces of a building or structure, In order to determine the maximum load, the total wind load should be calculated for each wind direction. If the wind load is calculated by dividing the area into parts, the values of Cr applied to each part should be that for the building as a whole, Frictional Drag In certain buildings of special shape, a force due to frictional drag should be taken into account in addition to those loads determined from 7.2 and 7.3. For rectangular clad buildings, this addition is necessary only where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4. The frictional drag F' in the direction of the the wind is given by the following: 15if heb F' = Ce'gb(d ~ 4h) + Cp’q2h(d - 4h) or if h>b F' = Ce'qb(d - 4b) + Cetq2h(d - 4b) The first term in each case gives the drag on the roof and the second the drag on the walls, The terms are given separately to allow for the use of different values of Cr’ and q on the different surfaces, Cp' = 0.01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind direction Cp! = 0.02 for surfaces with corrugations across the wind direction Cp' = 0.04 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction. For other buildings, the frictional drag will be indicated where necessary in the tables of pressure coefficients and force coefficients which follow. Enclosed Rectangular Buildings Pressure coefficients for the walls of enclosed rectangular buildings are given in Table 5 covering a range of building heights. The pressure coefficients for the roofs of such buildings for a range of roof pitches are given in Table 6.TABLE 5 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR THE WALLS OF RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS Building] Building Wind] C,. for Surface Local Height | Plan Side Pian fAngle Coe Ratio |Ratio | Elevation = {alse fic |] o c A 0° | 0.7 | -0.2 | -0.5} -0.5 let g3 aed AT 8 a -0.8 Wo 2| 3K, D | 909 |-0.5 |-0.5 | 40.7 | -0.2 hel c bel * ial | 0° | 0.7 }-0.25] -0.6] -0.6 \ B8/4 HLIM SONTOTING GYIO BINDNYLOIY 40 S400N HILTAONOW YOs O"T SINaTOTaII00 SuNSSHd ~ 2 Fievi 19TABLE 8 - FORCE COEFFICIENTS C¢-FOR RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS WITH FLAT ROOFS {ACTING IN THE. DIRECTION OF THE WIND] Cp for height/breadth ratio: Plan Shape 1 | & [Upto wf] ataf,af 24 6 ge | and FA | | Wind P a4] 1.2)1.3} 1.4] 1.5 | 1.6 A. 24 | ad | | —- LZ. {<2 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.75} 0.75) 0.75 1 = [ =F 1 Ae | —-Y | | b 4+ 3) 11] 1.2] 1.25) 1.35) 1.4 beady 3} | | XZ | 1/3 | 0.7 | 0.75} 0.75] 0.75| 0.8 | | i i | i 1 2 [10 ) 1.08) 1.1] 1,15 1.2 | | 2 i | | | created i 3 | 0.75| 0.75] 0.8} 0.85] 0.9. | L 1 | | i | a 1 7 _ A. 1g} 0.95) 1.0 | 1.05) 1.1} 1,15 kal Wb — 2/3 | 0.8] 0.85 0.9; 0.95) 1.0 Ce for height/breadth ratio: Plan Shape 1}. : Ww a Up to 20 2 qo | 20 d tet YA |. = 1 | 1 0.9 |0.95| 1.0} 1.05} 1.1] 1.2 jit Note. is the dimension of the building normal to the wind, d is the dimension of the building measured in the direction of the wind, 1 is the greater horizontal dimension of a building and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building. 20TABLE 9 - FORCE COEFFICIENTS. C FOR CLAD BUILDINGS OF UNIFORM SECTION ACTING IN THE DIRECTION OF THE WIND) Plan Shape Vb Cr for height/breadth ratio lup to 2 {1 | 215 |10 [20 eee ns Ve All surfaces 4 6 Rough or with | projections >6 0.7 | 0.7] 0.7] 0.8! 0.9 1.0 1.2 See_also Appendix F__ Smooth >6 [0.5 | 0.5] 0,5} 0,510.5 eee zo |0.5 | 0.5| 0.5] 0.5/0.6 yp Ellipse i + bid = U2 st0 | 0.2 | 0.2) 0.2 0.2/0.2 : t reese <8 |0.8 | 0.8] 0.9) 1.0/1.1 E11 ipse —_— b b/d = 2 >8 fhe = b= 1/3 ri / >4 b/d = 1 ae tee r/b = 1/6 >10 2 2 = a a ° p b/d = 1/2 A r/b = 1/6 Values b/d = 2 All r/b = 1/12 Values [0.9 | 0.9/1.0] 1.1 1.2 |1.5 on , | 1 <6 (0.7 | 0.8/0.8 /0.9 1.0 |1.2 | 1.6 b/d = 2 | - r/b = 1/4 = ] 56 [0.5 | 0.5/0.5 |0.5 \0.5 10.6 | 0.6 2TABLE 9 (continued) Cy for height/breadth ratio Plan Shape vb Up tol Ty Ta by dy 2-|s ra “Thealaleahaluslaalu e | | we <10 }0.8 [0.8 |0.9 [1.0 | 1.1] 1.3 b ra = 1/3 | eae t S10 /0.5 10.5 }0.5 |0.5 | 0.5! 0.6 1.6 : , ot oy : an | ia O ria = V2 Vajues| 0.9 los 0.9 {1.1 | 1.2/1.3 Xo Al tee ici a. — r/e = 1/48 vetues|0.9 10,9 0.9 | n/p = 1/4 rf =e AU s all | ! (fess r/b = 1/48 Vatues|o.7 [0.7 0.8 |o.9 | 1 oti as Lot feeeea Cee aH 7 t 1 | <8 |o.7 |o.7 |o.8 Jo.9 [1.0/1.1 11.8 r/b = 1/4 1 1/48 < r/b AN] { + > 8 10.4 |o.4 |o.4 jo.4 [0.5 fo.s | os | | T | c¢ | a [| m | on | x Iz SEA | T rt i i 5°} 00 |-0,9) -0.6 | -0.4|-0.3 | -0.3 | -0.3 |-0.3 |-0.3, \ | 10° -1.1| -0.6 | -0.4|-0.3 | -0.3 | -0.3 0.3 |-0.4 200 -0.7/-0.6 | -0.4|-0.3 [-0.3 | -0.3 0.3 J-0.5 | /-2.0 -1.5 300 -0.2| -0.6 | -0.4| -0.3 | -0.2 | -0.3 [-0.2 |-0.5 45° 40,3} -0.6 | -0.6|-0.4 | -0.2 | -0.4 |-0.2 |-0.5 Roof Wind _ Distance Angie Angle & | ty i ty Degrees | Degrees Up to 45} 90 -0.8 -0.6 30.2 - drag are allowed for in the above values; when wind angle < = 90° allow for frictional drag in accor- dance with 7.4 when wind angle & = 0° horizontal forces due to frictional Evidence on these buildings is fragmentary and any departures from the cases given should be investigated separately. 267.8 Clad rectangular buildings with one or more sides open. These buildings represent extreme cases of unevenly distributed permeability and the loadings may vary greatly according to the direction of the wind in relation to the open side. coefficients for critical wind directions are given in Tables 13 to 17. TABLE 13 Pressure PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS WITH ONE LONG SIDE-OPEN, ROOF PITCH 300 - wax: 2h cA : T h Cy Pressure Coefficients, Long Wail Open 7; a A B c D E F G H J K oo | 0.8 |-0.5]-0.7/ 0.8] 0.8]-0.7]-0.31 0.8|-0.4] 0.8 . 450 | 0.7 |-0.6| 0.4] 0.6] 0.8|-0.4]-0.2| 0.61-0.7] 0.7 ell f 60° | 0.3 |-0.7] 0.7]'0.3] 0.4]-0.4]-0.3] 0.2]-0.6] 0.2 alle i j80° |-0.5| 0.9|-0.8|-9.5]-0.5|-0.8]+0,4|-0.5]-0.2 0.5 i (Cpe - Spida TABLE 14 ~ PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS SMITH: ONE SHORT STDE OPEN, ROOF’ PITCH 300° wie’ 2h cA ‘i In Cp Pressure Coefficients, End Wall Open af a | sfc fo Je |e Je Ju Jo |x 0° | 0.9 |-0.7|-0.7|-0.4|-0.7]-0.8|-0.2]-0.7|-0.4|-0.7 «| 45° [0.5 | 0.7] 0.8]-0.5] 0.7]-0.4]-0.3] 0.7|-0.6] 0.8 alls clo 60° | 0.1 | 0.9] 0.9|-0.6| 0.9]-0.4]-0.3] 0.9]-0.7| 0.9 € - ya0° |-0.5 | 0.8] 0.8|-0.5] 0.8/-0.3]-0.4] 0.8]-0.4] 0.8 P= (Cpe ~ Cpida 27TABLE 15 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS WITH BOTH LONG SIDES OPEN, ROOF PITCH 300 wat=2h ——— tt Cp Pressure Coefficients, Long Walls Open Peel x }eyofefele} rye] « 9 [0.2 |-0.7 |-0.7 |-0.2 | 0.4 |-0.9 |-0.5 |-0.8 ute 50 | 0.5 |-0.4 | 0.5 [-0.4 | 0 |-0.3 |-0.6 | 0 Here eereccaih 00 | 0.7 |-0.6 | 0.5 |-0.4 }-0.3 |-0.1 |-0.7 |-0.3 I ! “I | 1 i i P= (Cpe - Cpi)a Weel F TABLE 16 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR CLAD RECTANGULAR BUILDINGS WITH BOTH SHORT SIDES OPEN, ROOF PITCH 300 w= 2h Cp Pressure Coefficients, End Walls Open sa ee at « A syelo{lerufse |« 0° {0.9 |-0.7 |+0.7 |-0.4 |-0.2 |-0.7 ]-0.4] -0.7 ago 0.5 |-0.8 |-0.1 0.6 |-0.3 [0.4 ]-0.8] -0.3 60° [0.3 |-0.2 | 0.1 |-0.5 |-0.3 |-0.1 7-0.8] 0.1 aye eye it 609 | Gable section c = 0.7, d= -0.6 Gable section e = 0.6, f = -0.8 P= (Cpe - Chia 28TABLE 17 ~ PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR GRANDSTAND WITH THREE SIDES OPEN’ ROOF PITCH -5° he 0.8w Cp Pressure Coefficients for Top and Bottom on Roof x fA B cfofe} rl ae} x 0° |-1.0 [0.9 |-1.0 | 0.9|-0.7] 0.3]-0.7| 0.9 45°} -1,0 | 0.7 | -0.7 | 0.4]-0.5] 0.8]-0.5} 0.3 1350 |-0.4 [-1.1 [0.7 [=1.0{-0.9|-1.1]-0.9/-1.9 180° 6 |-0.3 | -0.6 |-0.3|-0.6 |-0,3]-0.6|-0.3 AC leg + . -— ) BOT) 45° |“mg" Cp Top = -2.0 h w 45° | "mp" Cp Bottom = 1.0 Cp Front & Back of Wall ajo K L M + opfo.9 [0.5 | 0.9 | -0.5 ase[o.8 |-0.6 | 0.4 |-0.4 7350|-1.1 | 0.6 |-1.0 | 0.4 180°|-0.3 | 0.9 |-0.3 | 0.9 | ia 60°] "my" Cp K 0 60°] "my" Cp J = 1.0 For & = 900 ' P = (Cpe - Cpila Frictional Drag F* = 0.05 q 1w on roof 297.9 Shelter roofs without walls. Wind loads on shelter roofs may be seriously altered by the presence or absence of obstructions such as stores or vehicles under or adjacent to the roof, It is therefore necessary to take account of the various conditions that may prevail. Some probable circumstances are covered in Tables 18 to 21 and pressure coefficients are given for the roofs under these conditions. Note that frictional drag of the wind on the roof surface may be significant in these cases and should be included jin the Toad calculation. The frictional coefficient used al Tows for one surface of the roof to be relatively smooth, and the other td be rough, such as with corrugated cladding and normal supporting members. Table 21 lists the resultant pressure coefficient on canopy roofs with varying angle of pitch. TABLE 18 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR SHELTER ROOF WITHOUT WALLS, ROOF PITCH 30° AS Ls h He0.8n Roof Slopes aya [a fc [o - ofo.1 | 0.8 |-0.7] 0.9 0 x Or eee af 450 -0.1 | 0.5 |-0.8] 0.5 3 : aPaeetls a 90° |-0.4 |-0.5 }-0.4| -0.5 bute laa alu [120° |-0.3 [-0.6 | 0.4[ -0.6 Gable Ends Gable_Ends «Jo |k Jeu alo [k jel.u g0°}0.8 [0.4 |o.3 |-0.3 90°| 0.8 |-0.4 [0.3 [-0.3 For « = 45° on surface n For & = 45° on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1.0 Cp (upper surface) = -1.5 Cp (lower surface) = -0.2 Cy (Tower surface) = 0.5 In both cases: For X = 0° and 450 apply values for A to D over whole, length 1 Forx = 909 apply values for A to D over the length 1’ Fore = 900 include frictional drag on roof F* = 0.05 q 1 w p= (Cpe - Cpida 30TABLE 19 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR SHELTER ROOF WITHOUT WALLS ROOF PITCH 10° we 2h e y. | Toe SS gee | _ 7 18 Roof Slopes x | a [8 c yo [Tala 8 c o oo} -1,0] 0.3] -0.5 |o.2 0 [-1.3 [0.8 |-0.6 | 0.7 450 | -0.3) 0.1 | -0.3 [0.1 450 ]-0.5 [0.4 |-0.3 | 0.3 90° | -0.3 | 0 | -0.3 oO 909 }-0.3 | 0 -0.3 0 ligoe j-0.4 |-o.3 [-0.6 | -0.3 Gable Ends Gable Ends x |o kK L " x) [ K t tom goefo.8 j-0.6 | 0.3 | -0.4 soo] 0.8 | -0.6 | 0.3 | -0.8 For x = 0° on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1,0 Cp (lower surface) = 0.4 In both cases: For % = 00 on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1.6 Cp (lower surface) = 0.9 For X = 00, 450 (and 1800) apply values for A to D over whole length 1 Fork = 908 apply values for A to D over length 1 For x = 09 and 90° include frictional drag on roof F' = 0.06 q lwTABLE 20 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR SHELTER ROOF WITHOUT WALLS ROOF PITCH -10° we 2h Roof Slopes Roof Slopes These values are valid only for a relatively smooth lower surface For & Cp (upper surface) Ch (lower surface) = 0° on surface m In both cases: (00, 450 (and 180°) apply values for A to D over whole length 1 908 apply values for A to D over length |’ 0° and 90° include frictional drag on roof Ft = 0.06 q 1 w For & For & For & P= (Cpe - Cpida x | A 8 c D iA 8 c D oo | 0.3 | -0.7 | 0.2 | -0.9 ol-o.7[ 0.8 | -0.6 | 0.6 aso | o | -0.2 | 0.1 | -0.3 450|-0.4) 0.3 | -0.2 | 0,2 90° |-0.1 | 0.7 | -0.9 | 0.1 90°|-0.7 [0.1 [0.7 ] 0.7 1809|-0.4|-0.2 | -0.6 }-0.3 For & = 0° on surface m Cp (upper surface) = -1.1 Cp (lower surface) = 0.9TABLE 21 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cp FOR CANOPY ROOFS WITH.2 S b/w S1 Section Roof Angle — Windward Slope Leeward Slope (degrees) 5 0.8 or 1.2 -1.0 ce 1o 0.6 or 1.4 -1.0 15 -0.4 or 1.6 “1.0 ? 20 0.2 or 1.8 -0.7 25 0 or 2.0 0.2 30 0 or 2.0 a 5 “1.2 0r 0.8 1.0 oe 10 -1.40r 0.6 1.0 15 1.6 or 0.4 1.0 / fs 20. -1.8 or 0.2 0.7 25 -2.0 or 0 0.2 30 -2.0 or 0 a Wind 00 wind 180° \ 0 “1.0 or 1.0 -1.0 or 1.0 a 5 “1.0 or 1.05 -1,05 or 1.0 cp 10 i) “ad 15 1.15 21.15 Wind 0° wind 180° 20 12 -1.2 — 25 1.25 21.25 30 1.3 -13 The coefficients take account of the combined effect of the wind on both upper and lower surfaces of the canopy. Where alternative coefficients are given, the canopy should be designed to accept both loading conditions. In addition to the uplift forces, there will be horizontal loads on the canopy due to the wind pressure on any fascia and to wind friction over the surface of the roof, For any wind direction, only one of these two, the more onerous, need be taken into account. Fascia loads should be calculated on the area of the surface facing the wind, using a force coefficient of 1.3. Frictional drag should be calculated using the coefficients given in 7.4 Cp for individual cladding panels should be taken at + 2.0. For monopitch canopies the centre of pressure should be taken as acting at 0.25 of the span from the windward edge. For double pitch canopies, the centre of pressure should be taken as acting at the mid-point of each slope. 337.10 7.10.1 Structures of nearly-circular cross-section. The pressure coefficients and force coefficients for structures or elements of rounded shape are dependent not only on the shape of the structure, but also on the flow conditions as expressed by Reynold's Number, which is a function of the size of the structure and the wind speed. In consequence, the force coeffic= jents and pressure coefficients apply only within certain limiting values of D Vg, The limits do, however, cover most of the circum— stances that are important in practice.’ It will be noted also that the roughness of the surface affects the coefficients for rounded bodies and the tables cover a limited but practical range of surface conditions. Cylinders, chimneys and tanks. The force coefficients for this group of structures are included . in Table 9. It will be noted that the values given apply only when D Vo> 6 mé/sec, but this will cover, in general, most ) structures with a diameter greater than 0.25 m. The pressure coefficients for these structures are given in Table 22. “The table is limited to two values of the ratio h/D, but coefficients for intermediate values may be obtained by inter- polation, The values of Cpe in Table 22 may be used to calculate the wind forces that act in such a way as to deform the cylindrical structure, They apply to supercritical flow only and should therefore only be used where D> 0.3m. They may be used for wind blowing normal to the axis of cylinders having their axis normal to the ground plane, ie. chimneys, silos and to cylinders having their axis parallel with the ground plane, ie, horizontal tanks, provided that the clearance between the tank and the ground is not less than D. h is the height of a vertical cylinder or length of a horizontal cylinder, Where there is a free flow of air around both ends, h is to be taken as half the length when calculating h/D. 34TABLE 22 - PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION “AROUND CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES Position on Pressure coefficient Cpe pariphany ect Reeeeeee cee ceeee tee cei eee eer rer reer eer eeereeeeeee Surface: rough or with Surface: smooth projections 10 h/OP 2.5 b/D 1.0 10 h/! at nr degrees h/D oO 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30 100 120 140 160 180 Pareypon woo Bre Ra oosso~n~s50000- e00cen-oD000~5 In the calculation of the load on the periphery of the cylinder, the value of Cpj shall be taken into account. For open ended cylinders where h/D> 0.3 Cy; may be taken as - 0.8. For open ended cylinders where h/D < 0.3 Chi may be taken as - 0.5. For the roof (or end) of closed cylinder of tank take Cpe as - 1.0. 357.10.2 Tubes, rods and wires of nearly circular cross-section. The important distinction between the subjects of this para- graph and the preceding one is that the diameter is generally small in relation to the length; and because of the small diameter involved, values of D Vs less than 6 mé/sec will frequently apply. In consequence alternative values of Cp are given for subjects of differing cross section, Border line cases will arise when a wind speed somewhat below the maximum will necessitate the use of the higher value of Cy. Care should be taken to cover the worst condition (aTtowing of course for an appropriate reduction in q consistent with the lower values of Vs). TABLE 23 - FORCE COEFFICIENTS Cp FOR WIRES AND CABLES (1/0 >100) Flow Regime Force Coefficient Cp for: Smooth Moderately Fine Thick surface smooth wire stranded stranded wire (galvanized cables cables or painted) DV, < 0.6 m2/s - - 1.2 1.3 DV, 2 0.6 me/s - ~ 0.9 ll Sy goes ener treat at a Pree pee Dv % 6 me/s 0.5 0.7 - - F = CeqiD7.10.3. Spheres. The pressure coefficients and force coefficient for spheres are given in Table 24, They apply only to spheres having a moderately smooth surface and in circumstances where DVs is greater than 30 m@/s, (See comment in 7.9:) TABLE 24 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS FOR SPHERE Force coefficient Cp = 0.2 rs > 1 direction ot the Wing x | 0°] 1597 30°] 450] 609] 750] 900 [i050] 1200 | 1350 ] 1509 | 1650 | 1800 Cpe 1.0] 0.9] 0.5]-0.1)-0.7]-1,1]-1.2 ]-1.0] -0.6] -0.2]0.1 [0.3 [os 1 The above coefficients apply to a moderately smooth sphere when DV,7 30 m2/s. 377.11 Structures with arched roofs. The pressure coefficients for a typical hangar-type structure are given in Table 25, Hith this type of building where there are normally large doors which may admit or extract air rapidly, depending on the direction of the wind, it is especially important to allow for extremes of internal pressure as indicated in Appendix E. TABLE 25 - PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR STRUCTURES WITH ARCHED ROOFS lewelen «x fafa [ce jo }e Jr fe jk fu tk 0° | 0,7|-0.2]-0.31-0.3]-0.1 | -0.5]-0.8]+0.8 |-0.4) -0.7 30° | 0.6]-0.3| 0.2]-0.4]-0.1 |-0,.4)~-0.7|-0.9}-0,7/-0.4 =2.0 x ja fe fc fo |e ju [wn lo |e fg 30° |-0.3|-0.3 |-0.1|-0.1 p= (Cpe - Cpila aR7.12 Individual structural members. ‘The force coefficients in Table 27 are given for two mutually- perpendicular directions relative to a reference axis on the structural member. They are designated Cry and Cr¢ and give the forces normal and transverse respectively to the reference plane, as will be apparent from the diagrams. The coefficients refer to members of infinite length, For. members of finite length, the coefficients shall be multiplied by a factor K which depends on the ratio I/hy where 1 is the length of the member and hy is the width across the direction of the wind. Values of K are given in Table 26. Where any member abuts on to 2 plate or wall in such a. way that free flow of air around the end of the member is obstructed, the ratio I/he shall be'doubled for the purpose of determining k- When both ends of a member are so obstructed, the ratio shall be taken as infinity. TABLE 26 - VALUES OF REDUCTION FACTOR K FOR MEMBERS OF FINITE LENGTH AND_SLENDERNESS Thy or 1/D 10 | 20 | 40 [50 .]100 | a Circular cylinder, subcritical flow Circular cylinder, supercritical flow Flat plate perpen- dicular to wind 0,68 | 0.74 | 0.82 | 0.87]0.98 11.0 0.82 | 0.90} 0.98| 0.9/7.0 |1.0 0,69 | 0.81 | 0.87 | 0.90}0.95 }1.0 3945°] 1.8 0.8 | 2.1] 1.8] 0.85] 0.85] 1.5 }-0.1 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.85] 0.6 | 900[ 2.0 | 1.7 [-1.9]-¥.0| 0.1 | 1.75/-0:95] 0.7°|-1.6 | 2.15) 0 0.6 735°|-1.8 }-0.1 |-2.0] 0.3]-0.75] 0.75/-0.5 | 1.051-1.1 | 2.4 |-1.6 | 0.4 180°|-2.0 | 0.1 |-1.4]-1.4]-1,75)-0.1 |-1.5 | 0 1.7 | 42.1 [-1.8 | 0 0° | 1.4 | 0 2.051 0 1.6/0 [2.0 }o | 21 }o0 |20]o a50 [1.2 [1.6 [t.95f0.6 [1.8/1.8] 1.8 [or] 1.4 | 0.7 [1.55 1.55 90° | 0 2.2 10.5 |0.9 Jo J1.9]o 0.1] 0 0.75} 0 20 | For slenderness hw is to be used: Fi Fros i A ial a Force coefficients are for wind normal to longitudinal axis of member. 1 = length of merber has indicated in diagram Hormal force Fy = Cyn qk 1A Tangential force Fe = Crrqk Vin7.13 Circular sections. For circular sections, the force coefficients Cy, which are dependent upon values of DVs, are given in Table 28. The values of Ce given in this table are suitable for all surfaces of evenly distributed roughness of height less than 1/100 diameter, that is, for all normal surface finishes and for members of infinite length. Force, F = CgkID, where K is given in Table 26. TABLE 28 - FORCE COEFFICIENTS Cy FOR INDIVIDUAL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF CIRCULAR SECTION AND INFINITE LENGTH Flow Regime Force Coefficient Cp Subcritical flow D¥s<6 m@/s 1.2 Re< 4.1 x 108 6S DVs<12 me2/s 0.6 4.1 x 108eRe<8.2 x 105 SFE te ea econo eee eee eer reer 12SDV5<.33 m2/s 0.7 Supercritical flow 8.2 x 1056 Re<22.6 x 105 Pre ree He eect eee eee et eee DVg333 m2/s Rex22.6 x 105 0.8 A description of supercritical flow and Reynolds Number (Re in above table) is given in Appendix F. 48 WIND LOADS ON UNCLAD STRUCTURES 8.1 General This Section applies to permanently unclad structures and structural frameworks whilst temporarily unclad. It does not apply to aerodynamically responsive structures, nor to structures of unusual shape. 8.2 Single frames The wind load ona single frame shall be calculated for the condition where the wind is at right angles to the frame. This joad shall bé assumed to apply for any other wind direction except when it can be shown that a lesser load is appropriate. The wind load F acting in the direction of the wind shall be taken as: F = Ceqhe where Ap is the effective area of the frame q is the pressure head of the wind (see Section 6) Cp is the force coefficient. The effective area Ag shall be the shadow area of the frame, projected on to the Wind front. The force coefficient for a single frame consisting of: (a) circular menbers, or (b) circular section members in which aJ1 the members of the frame have DV, values less than 6 mé/s or all members have DV; values greater than 6 m/s are given in Table 29. TABLE 29 - EFFECTIVE FORCE COEFFICIENTS Cp FOR SINGLE FRAMES Force Coefficient Ce for: Solidity ratio 9 | Flat-sided members Circular sections lsubcritical Supercritical Flow DV o< 6m2/s | Flow Dc? 6mé/s bilLinnn cand a0The solidity ratio P is equal to the effective area of a frame normal to the wind direction divided by the area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction. When single frames are composed of circular section members, it is possible that the larger members will be in the supercritical flow regime (je. DVc26 mé/s) and the smaller members will not (ie. DVg<6 mé/s), there may also be some details fabricated from flat-sided sections. In this situation, the wind force acting on the frame should be calculated using an effective force coefficient equal to Z.Cg(super) + (1 - Z) A(circ.sub).Cf(sub) + (1-Z)A(flat) .ce(Flat) A (sub) A(sub) where Cp(super) is the force coefficient of the supercritical circular sections from Table 28; Cr(sub) is the force coefficient of the subcritical circular sections from Table 28; Ce(flat) is the force coefficient of. the flat-sided members from Table 27; A(Girc.sub) is the effective area of the subcritical circular sections; A(flat) is the effective area of the flat-sided members; Alsub) = A(cire.sub) + A(flat); Z = Area of the frame in a supercritical flow Be 438.3 Multiple frame structures. This section applies to structures having two or more parallel frames where the windward frame may have a shielding effect on those frames to leeward. The windward frame, and any exposed parts of other frames, shall be catzulated in the normal manner, but the wind load onparts of frames which are sheltered shal] be taken as: F =Crqhe where yis a shielding factor dependent on the solidity ratio of the windward frame and the spacing ratio of the frames. Values of the shielding factor for frames with flat-sided members are given in Table 30. Where there are more than two frames the wind load on the third and subsequent frames shall be taken as equal to that’on the second frame. The spacing ratio is the distance between frames divided by the smaller overall dimension of the windward frame. TABLE 30 - SHIELDING FACTOR % TABLE 30 _- SHIELDING FACTOR 7 Spacing ratio | Value ofy for _an aerodynamic. solidity ratio’, of 0.1 Jo.2 Jo.3 [0.4 [0.5 [0.6 [0.7 fo.8 and over up to 1.0 1,0 |0.96 | 0.90 | 0,80} 0,68)0.54)0.44 0.37 2.0 1.0 [0.97 | 0.91} 0,82} 0.71/0.58]0.49} 0.43 3.0 1.0 | 0.97 | 0.92 | 0.84) 0.74/0.63}0.54 0.48 4.0 7.0 ]0.98 | 0.93 | 0.86 | 0.77/0.67|0.59 0.54 5.0 1.0 {0.98 |0.94 | 0.88] 0.80}0.71|0.64 0.60 6.0 and over 1.0 |0.99 |0.95| 0.90] 0.83|0.75|0.69| 0.66 The spacing ratio is equal to the distance, centre to centre, of the frames, beams or girders divided by the least overall dimension of the frame, beam or girder measured at right angles to the direction of the wind, For triangular framed structures or rectangular framed structures diagonal to the wind the spacing ratio should be calculated from the mean distance between the frames in the direction of the wind, The aerodynamic solidity ratio used in Table 39 enables all cross sections of single members to be incorporated. Aerodynamic solidity ratio 4 = solidity ratio (f) x a constant where the constant = 1,6 for flat-sided members; 1.2 for circular sections in the subcritical range and for flat-sided members in conjunction with such circular sections; 0.5 for circular sections in the supercritical range and for flat-sided members in conjunction with such circular sections.8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 Lattice towers. Lattice towers of square and triangular section constitute special cases for which it may be convenient to use an overall force coefficient in thecalculation of wind load. The wind Toad shall, for convenience, be calculated for the condition when the wind blows against any face. The wind load F acting in the direction of the wind shall be taken as: F = Cfheg where Ay is the effective area of the face (see 8.2) q is the dynamic pressure of the wind (see Section 6) and Cr is the overall force coefficient. For towers with flat-sided members, the values of the overall] force coefficient are given in Table 31. TABLE 31 - OVERALL FORCE COEFFICIENT C¢ FOR TOWERS WITH FLAT-SIDED MEMBERS 8.4.3 $$ Solidity Ratio Value of Ce for a Square Towers Equilateral Triangular Toners oT 3.8 3.1 0.2 3.3 2.7 0.3 2.8 2.3 0.4 213 1.9 0.5 a 15 For square lattice towers the maximum load occurs when the wind blows on to a corner. It may be taken as 1.2 times the load for the face-on wind. For triangular lattice towers the same wind load may be assumed for any inclination of the wind to a face. Since it is only in very few cases with lattice towers composed of members of circular cross section that all the members of a lattice tower are in the same flow regime, ie. either subcritical or supercritical, wind force calculations should be carried out as described in 8.2 for single frames, due account being taken of the shielding factors given in 8.3. When it can be shown that all members of the tower are wholly in the same flow regime, the overall force coefficients Cz given in Tables 32 and 33 may be used. These tables are based on actual measurements and give somewhat lower values than would be obtained using Tables 29 and 30, asTABLE 32 - OVERALL FORCE COEFFICIENT Cp FOR SQUARE TOWERS ‘COMPOSED QF ROUNDED MEMBERS Force Coefficient Cf for: Solidity ratio | Suberitigal flow Supercritical flow of front face DVs<6 mé/s DV,26 m/s a Onto face | Onto corner Qnto face | Onto corner 5 2.4 2.5 it 1.2 0.1 2.2 2.3 1.2 1.3 0.2 1.9 an 1.3 1.6 0.3 17 1,9 14 1.6 0.4 1.6 1.9 14 1.6 0.5 14 1.9 14 1.6 TABLE 33 - OVERALL FORCE COEFFICIENT Cp FOR EQUILATERAL TRIANGULAR TOWERS COMPOSED OF ROUNDED MEMBERS Force Coefficient Ce for: Solidity ratio of | Subcritigal flow Supercritical flow front face 9 DVg< 6 mé/s DVg>6 me/s Al] wind directions AI] wind directions Se ees RELL oe 8 7 6 15 4 eceesse L 8,5 Individual structural members, For individual structural members of unclad frames, use the force coefficient in 7.12 and 7.13.APPENDIX A Ground Roughness Building Size and‘Height ‘Above Ground - The Basis of the Sp Factors Roughness Near the ground, the wind encounters various obstacles in its path and the gustiness of the wind depends on the size, frequency and geometrical arrangement of these obstacles. If the obstructions are large and frequent, the surface over which the wind flows is said to be rough; if the ground surface itself is level and there are no obstructions, then the surface is said to be smooth. A rough surface will produce a wind flow with much gustiness whereas a smooth surface will not add appreciably to the gustiness already developed in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The gustiness can be defined numerically in a number of ways, but the one adopted for code purposes is the ratio of the maximum gust, V; to the maximum hourly mean wind speed, V, each at an effective height of 10 m and each having a probability of 0.02 of being exceeded in any one year. This ratio has been found to vary from about 1.2 over very smooth surfaces to about 2.4 over very rough surfaces. Site roughness may therefore be classified into four broad categories, each having an associated mean ratio V/V, as follows: Category 1 Open Tevel country wi = 1.8 2 Rolling country with few obstructions and isolated = _ smal] villages Wi = 1.7 3 Wooded country of small 2 towns vv = 1.9 4 City centres where the general level of roof- tops is as defined in z 5.5.1 vi 24 Averaging Time It is shown in Appendix B that maximum wind speeds of a stated return period and averaged over periods of time equal to 3 sec, 5 sec and 15 sec are required for design purposes. Because anemographs in wide- spread use do not provide records from which 5 and 15 sec maximum speeds can be extracted, the results of special measurements must be used to obtain relationship between the maximum 3 sec gust speed and maximum speeds averaged over 5 and 15 secs. It has been found that on the average at an effective height of 10 m these relationships are: 5 sec speed 15 sec speed x 3 sec speed x 3 sec speed 47Variation with Height ‘Above the 10 m level, it is sufficient to assume that both mean hourly wind speeds and gust speeds averaged over any selected interval of time between 1 hour and 3 sec vary with height according to a power law: va) = vOO En where V(Z) is the maximum speed averaged over a given interval of time at height Z V(X) 8 the maximum speed averaged over the same interval. of time at height X (usually X = 10 m) and « is the exponent for the power law which must be specified for each averaging time and roughness category. However, special experiments: using three anemoneters at the GPO Tower in London have also shown that the general level of the rooftops may be taken into consideration and the power law modified, If the general roof top level is x, the poner Taw becomes : x V(Z) = V(X) 4 where X- x = 10m Interaction Between Averaging Time, Height and Roughness It is easy to show that the relationship between the 3 sec gust and the required speed in any category at height levels above X are given by: v(Z,t) Teele k(t) vers) | 0 where V(Z,t) is the speed averaged over t sec at height Z v(xi3) is the speed averaged over 3 sec at height X e(c lt) is the exponent for roughness category.c and averaging time t k(t} is the ratio of the t sec speed to the 3 sec speed. Finally, whatever the terrain, it has been assumed that the wind speed averaged over any time interval at gradient wind level is the same. Allowances for the variation of gradient wind height with roughness of terrain cannot be made exactly but using the power law formula, it is possible to calculate speed ratios at different heights and the factor a(c) has been introduced such that at certain heights, different for each value of category c, the 3 sec gust speed is constant whatever the roughness of the underlying terrain, Because the basic wind speed refers to a standard level of 10-m in open level country, all the S2 factors have been adjusted by the use of the factor q(c) to convert this basic speed into the speed required at any height Z in any surface roughness category c and averaged over any time interval t. The final equation if Z>Z(c) is: Sg = W(Z.t,c) a(c)k(t)where V(Z,t,c) is the t sec speed at height Z in category c v(X(1},3,1) is the 3 sec speed at height X in category 1 (as given in'Table 1). Q(c)_ is @ factor which ensures that at near gradient wind level, all 3 sec speeds are the same whatever the surface roughness category. k(t) is the ratio of the t sec to the 3 sec speed X(c) is the standard datum level in category ¢ and ™ (c,t) is the selected power law exponent, The values adopted from experiments, measurements and trial and error methods are: Category | X(c) | ale) k(t) Tv e(e,t) metres te3 5 15.sec[ 3, 5, 15 1 10 1.00 1,00 0.95 0.90 .080 .090 .100 2 12 0.98 1.00 0.95 0.90 085 .095 £105 iz 20 0.95 1.00 0,95 0.90 .090 .100 .110 4 35 0.94 1.00 0.95 0.90 |.090 .105 .115 For heights below Xe in each category S» factors have been obtained by assuming 2 linear increase with height fron a selected value at 3m to the value at Xc. It should be noted that X(c)-10 represents a general obstruction level. In category 1 this is zero, in category 2, it is about 2m, in category 3 about 10 mand in category 4 about 25 m. Category 4 is thus seen to represent the centres of densely packed city centres only where the buildings are tall (25 m or so) and the streets relatively narrow, Influence of Fetch Although classification of ground roughness into ategories 1 to 4 has been made, it should be recognised that the change from one ground roughness to another is necessarily a gradual process. The wind must traverse 2 certain ground distance before equilibrium is established in a new velocity profile. The change starts first in the layers of wind nearest the ground and the new profile extends to an increasingly deep layer as the fetch increases. For practical purposes, it may be assumed that a fetch of a kilometre or more is necessary to establish a different roughness category, but that within the actual roughness layer, ie. below the general rooftop or obstruction level to windward, a lesser distance may apply as follows, depending on the density of buildings and other obstructions on the ground. 49Ground Coverage Required Fetch + 10z 500 m £158 250 m 30% 100 m Shelter due to an individual building or obstruction should not be considered without expert guidance. For a.site where the ground roughness is different from different directions, the most severe grading should be used, or, exceptionally, appropriate gradings may be used for different wind directions. For example, the sea-front of a coastal town would generally rank as ground roughness category 1 (see also Appendix D if cliffs are involved), 50APPENDIX B Explanatory Notes on Gusts and the Wind:Speed Averaging Time The natural period of oscillation of most structures is only a few seconds or less and, since impulsive forces lasting only about a half-period of oscillation are effective in deflecting @ structure, it follows that gusts of only a few seconds duration: would produce significant wind loads if they developed simultaneously over the whole structure. The incidence and spread of gusts over a building has been studied at the Building Research Station where it has been found that the gust loading on a tall rectangular office block is significantly greater than the mean load averaged. over one minute as used in the 1952 edition of the British Standard Code of Practice. Neasurements suggest that the time interval over which maximum wind speeds should be averaged will depend on the size of the building or part of a structure under consideration. This averaging time varies from about 15 sec for buildings of 50 m height or horizontal spread to.1 sec or less for small elements such as windows, cladding units and roof coverings. As a routine, meteorological stations equipped with anemographs of the type used by the UK Meteorological Office, extract from the records the mean hourly speeds and the maximum gust speed for each day.. Because of the characteristics of the anemometer, the maximum gust speed represents the mean wind speed ayeraged over about 3 secs. It is said to have an averaging time of 3 sec and is often called the 3 sec gust, Similarly the mean hourly wind speed has an averaging time of one hour. Relatively little is knownabout the incidence and intensity of gusts averaged over periods of time shorter than 3 secs, so that, although it is desirable to determine maximum wind loads on small units using gusts with shorter averaging time, it is not at present. possible. to Specify magnitudes in strong winds. The standards adopted in the Code are therefore the maximum 3 sec gust speeds for all units of glazing, cladding and roofing, whatever the size or proportion of the building concerned. A wind speed with 5 sec averaging time is used for the structural design of buildings and structures where neither the-greatest horizontal nor vertical dimension exceeds 50 m. For buildings and structures whose largest horizontal or vertical dimension exceeds 50m a wind speed of 15 sec averaging time is used. 51For each station equipped with an anemograph of the above-mentioned type, it is possible to analyse the series of annual maximum gust speeds statistically following the methods of Gumbel. A similar procedure may be adopted, for the analysis of a series of annual maximum mean hourly wind speeds. However, in order to prepare a map or table of extreme values, the data must be homogeneous and refer to a standard datum level in a standard site. The data for each station should also cover a period of at least 20 years. It has not been established that the Gumbel methods are applicable to extreme wind speeds in the Caribbean, which is a tropical storm area, and in any case sufficiently long, homogeneous, records are not yet available. The basic speeds given in Table 1 had to be obtained therefore by a different method, described in. the next paragraph. Nevertheless, they are maximum 3 sec gust speeds likely to be exceeded on the average only once in 50 years, chosen because: (a) of the case for selecting the 3 sec gust given above (b) the average lifetime of most buildings covered in this Code is near 50 years. Tt has been shown by HCS Thom of the US environmental Science Services Administration that the statistical distributions of extreme wind speeds jn tropical storms have quite a different shape characteristic from those for extra-tropical storms. In the tropical storm area of the North Atlantic, he has shown that a series of annual extreme winds is always a sample from a mixture of tropical and extra-tropical storms, which is fitted by a.mixed extreme value distribution, Thom also developed a method of computing such a distribution for any place in an area liable to tropical storms, provided that two factors are known or may be reasonably estimated. These are the mean, annual tropical storm frequency and the average wind speed in the most windy month. In 1970, HC Shellard applied the method to a number of stations in the Caribbean area for which these data were available, giving estimates of the "fastest mile" speeds’ in mph at 9m above the ground and having a 50 year return period, These fastest mile speeds were then converted to 3-second gust speeds at 10 m above the ground using experimental measured relationships between wind speeds averaged over periods of time varying from 3 seconds or less to 1 minute or more and applicable to open level ground, Using more recent data than that available to Shellard, BA Rocheford re-computed the maximum 3 second gust speed for Antigua and for Barbados, He found that the values calculated were higher than those presented by Shellard. The accompanying paper “Extreme Wind Speeds in Barbados and Antigua" sets out the details of the study. Using this information, the maximum 3 second gust speeds for: the other territories, except Guyana, were revised to produce Table 1, Shellard had stated that since Guyana was not affected by tropical storms, the maximum 3 second gust speed had been estimated from the highest gust speed on record,References: HCS Thom HC Shellard BA Rocheford - Toward a Universal Climatological Extreme Wind Distribution, Paper 24 of the Proceedings of the International Research Seminar on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Ottawa, Canada, 1967 (UTP) ~ Extreme Wind Speeds in the Commonwealth Caribbean. BAPE Journal, December 1972 = Extreme Wind Speeds in Barbados and Antigua. Caribbean Meteorological Institute, 1982. 53EXTREME WIND SPEEDS IN BARBADOS AND ANTIGUA Introduction HC Shellard (1970) produced estimates of Basic Design Wind Speeds for some Comiunwealth countries including Barbados and Antigua. These estimates were obtained from the Frechet Extreme Value Distribution. Fv) = expt = (w-® B with a shape parameter & and a scale parameter 4 . Thom (1968) has suggested that the population of annual extreme wind events in the southern north Atlantic and the Caribbean would be a mixture of extremes from tropical and extra-tropical storm populations giving a mixed Extreme Value distribution function G(v), the variable v being the fastest mile of wind of the form &(v) peFe (v) + pqFr (v) expL- vey? where Fe(v) Fr(v) = expL- wa y4§ be 1 or pr is the probability of an annual extreme wind being produced by a tropical storm, and which Thom showed can be estimated from f, the mean number of tropical storm passages per year through the area concerned. Thus, Pr =[1 + 99 exp (-3.0)F J-} Ay the scale parameter, has also been shown by Thom (1968) to be well correlated with the maximum mean monthly wind speed ¥ by the equation: A (320.5% + 248,7)8 - 15.7 Since, in the Caribbean the variable of interest is the maximum 3-second gust speed, estimates of this are obtained from the formula: g*1.09v + 8 where g is the 3-second maximum gust speed measured in mph. The data used by Shellard to estimate 7 for Barbados related to the period 1954-1960 and for Antigua to the period 1941-1948, and f was obtained from Thom's map in his 1968 publication. 54This paper presents estimates of G, the fastest mile speed, and g, maximum 3-second gust speed for Barbados and Antigua using more recent data. Methodology 1. Estimation of f, the mean number of tropical storms per year, and calculation of py. The number of hurricanes and tropical storms passing within a square centred on each island of sides 5 degrees of latitude, ie. approximately 350 miles, and in addition for Barbados only, within a square of side 23 degrees of latitude, ie. approximately 175 miles, were determined for the years 1886 to 1980. The year 1979 was excluded’ from the Antigua data. For the period 1886 to 1963, the'data were obtained from the publication “Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean", 1965, and for the period 1964 to 1980, from issues of the “Nonthiy Weather Review". Territory Barbados Antigua Square of Side 23050 50 No. of Hurricanes in 1886-1980 22 31 59 excluding '79 No. of Tropical Storms in 1886-1980 45 65 68 excluding '79 Total 67 96 127 ? 0.71 1.02 1.35 Pry 0.08 0,18 0.37 PE 0.92 0.82 0.63 2, Estimation of ¥, the maximum mean monthly wind speed and calculation of 4. Data for Grantley Adams (Seawell) Airport, Barbados, for the period 1951 to 1979 were examined and for Coolidge Airport, Antigua for the period 1969 to 1978, From the data was extracted the mean speed of the windiest month, Territory Barbados Antigua Windiest’ month May "51, '55, ‘61 January '74 Highest mean speed 9 18.4 mph 19.3 mph Scale parameter 5 62.7 64.55 Results The estimated Frechet Extreme Wind Distribution with logarithm of v plotted against probability is shown in figures 2 and 3 for Barbados, and in figure 4 for Antigua. From these graphs, the fastest mile speeds for various Return Periods are read off to give the values in Table 34 below. Maximum 3-second gust speeds are then computed from these by the relation g = 1.09v + 8 mph 55TABLE 34- FASTEST MILE SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS RETURN PERIODS Return Period (Years) Fastest Mile Speed (miles/hour) Barbados Antigua Square of Side 230 5° 50 10 85 a7 93 20 93 98 106 25 7 102 no 50 107 n2 124 100 v7 126 141 150 123 132 148 TABLE 35- MAXIMUM 3 SECOND GUST SPEED FOR VARIOUS RETURN PERIODS Return Period (Years) 3 Second Maximum Gust Speed Barbados Antigua Square of Side 230 50 5° mph m/s mph m/s mph m/s 10 ior 45 10346 10 4g 20 109 49-1551 12355 25 45111983 12857 50 125-56 130 5B 14464 100 13606114565 el 72 150 142 «63 «152 6B 169. 76 Discussion A comparison of the maximum gust speeds for various Return Periods obtained by Shellard (1970) and-in-this study are given below. Return Period (Years) Maximum Gust Speed (mph) Barbados Antigua Shellard Present Study Shellard Present Study 50 square 5° sq. 239 sq 59 square 5° square 10 94 103 Tol 93 10 20 104 15 109 104 123 50 7 130 125 120 144 100 128 145, 136 132 161 The estimates from the present study are higher than those presented in the Shellard Study. This arises from the higher value of V, the mean speed of the windiest month. For Barbados, this was 18.4 mph as against 16.5 mph in the Shellard Study and for Antigua 19,3 mph as against 15.0 mph. For the analysis of the Barbados gust speeds, a 29 year period of wind data was used to determine ¥ as against a 7 year period in the Shellard Study. The longer period would have a higher probability. of containing an extreme event than the shorter period, Two different sizes of square centred on Barbados were used to determine f, the niean number of the tropical storms per year and from it py, the probability of an annual extreme wind being produced by a tropical'storm. It is clear that the larger size of the square used, the larger would be the number of the tropical storms passing through that square. Consequently, the larger will be the values of f and prs_and finally the larger the maximum gust speed for a given Return Priod. This effect is shown in results of the study where the maximum gust speeds for all Return Periods are higher for the § degree square than the 23 degree square. 56The choice of size of square is somewhat arbitrary, but must in some degree be related to the area over which a tropical storm located at the square's centre will produce extreme winds, A square of side 23 degrees will cover a maximum distance from its centre of about 125 miles, which is about the maximum distance from the centre over which a hurricane or a tropical storm will produce very high winds. For this reason, a 24 degree square is preferred rather than a 5 degree square. However, further investigation into the relationship between pr and the size of the area used will be required before a firm choice may be made, References HCS Thom - New Distribution of Extreme Winds in the United States, Journal of the Structural Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Vol. 94, 1968, pp 1787-1801. US Weather Bureau - Technical Paper No.55 Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1965. HC Shellard - Extreme Wind Speeds in the Commonwealth Caribbean 1970, BAPE Journal, December 1972. 57AOL X (A) 27BLsEA Ree ~, 7 git 5'0 onicbert bert 4 (Eien) fool) AabLEgeGoad 666 8°65 166565 6, 16 96 96 oy 69 019 S's org gb Ope rtrriperety of ov 0s 7% BOL 09 OL 8 06 ore OL ot ost 002 sz 0 ds" abe obz * OOL 05 zt UL wrk t00"L (ste0n) poliod uand’a VilY RAVNDS TRUOIO €2 “SOGVELVE “UOAIY (TISAVES) SHVOY NFTINVED “WOTINGTSSTO ONIN BNRWLXa L3HISAS GZLVHILSA ~ @ ByNOTS udu us paads purm atew asaased (4) 58Qe so org ag 6°66 8°66 1°66 5"66 66 86 16 96 $6 OOL ¥ (a)9 aaeueA paonpey “ge ge gg oz gy oqo (Con) /uooL) Aas 06 1B 409 Os b_0F ol L Of l 3 a ; ® » Bot a eS 8 ydw ur paads puym altw asaases (4) oot ds" bE 62 OT 0 Z t $y ¢ (suea,) potdag uungay Soaveuve “1woddly (TSKV3S)/“Way ATTINVUD “NOTINGTWISIO GNIN nah 2 sz, st Ut to"k toot vay auvnDS 3aYDIG Ta A3HORU4 OLYWIIS] - € 3yNOTI 59Oot x 8, rietaeh Peony aiitigvecetteny tips 7 : ees pig eee A EREA BERG RAEA REARS Pith tlh tty /uoot) Bh varqoud 666__ 8°66 65 S66 6 L696 $6 6 Lo ov of oz ols ont poppe = ~ APTS f+ Beet oe eee eee 4-+—4 t Ht Z fd Z i ||| ff a bet tb | 4 Li.j | 44 ea | ——}—--} Ba See eect LT | + x 1 t $2 odor Obs aby “ode odz ot os Fd ot eritpeeeee ete UL t0°L 100°L (saeah) pojaag wanyay Wau ZuunDS 334030 ¢ “WNOTINY “LMOdUTY 39017009 “NOTIA@TWISTO ONIN SWSULKS L3AORUS OSLVNTISS - > SONDTd + Ost of ov 0g 09 od dw uy paads purm ayiw aseasey (A) 60APPENDIX ¢* Factor $3 Factor $3 is based on statistical concepts and this Appendix shows how the factor has been computed from the data and describes some of its uses. The wind speed having a return period, T, of 50 years should more properly be called that speed which has a probability p = 0.02 of being exceeded in any one year. Return period and probability are connected by the relation: Tp=1 Now the probability that a value less than or equal to wind speed x will occur in one year is q=1- p. Ina period of N years, the probability Q.that a value less than or equal to x will occur is: a= aN The probability P that a value greater than x will occur at least once in a period.of N years is: Pr1-Q =1- aN =1-(~ 5)" e1-qaahn 1-q 2 For N = 50 and T = 50, P = 0,63... Therefore, there is a probability of 0.63 that the once in 50 years. wind speed will be exceeded at least once in a period of 50 years. Factor $3 has been obtained by selecting values of P and N and solving the equation for T, and by calculating values of Xt the once in T year speed. The value of $3 for the given P and N is the ratio of Xq/X where X is the once in 50 year value of the speed. Figure 1 is a plot of $3 factors as a function of P and N. The data used to produce this Figure are for Barbados and Antigua. The value of the factor $3 may be read off for any pair of values of P, the probability level, and N, the exposure period of years, Normally S3 will be taken as 1.0 but Figure 1 which may be used in several different ways, provides the designer with greater flexibility in choice of wind sped than is provided by Table 1, or by several such tables. For the calculation of wind loads during construction or for calculation of wind loads on temporary structures whose probable life is short, wind speeds may be reduced using Factor $3. It is undersirable to consider an exposure period of less than 2 years in this context although the critical period may be only 2 weeks. As an exmaple with P = 0.63, the value of S3 = 0.64 for an exposure period of 2 years, Therefore there is a probability of 0.63 that a speed which is 0,64 times the once in 50 year wind speed will be exceeded at least once in a neriod of 2 years. 61Because normally a level of 0.63 will be used for all design work, the loads during construction may-be calculated using a wind speed equal to 0.64 times the speed in Table 1. The calculations for the completed structure of building should use an appropriate value of $3 (normally $3 = 1.0). The designer may also use Figure 1 to estimate wind loads which would result from choosing a different return period for the basic speed. For exposure periods greater than 10 years, with probability level equal to 0.63, the exposure period is roughly equal to the return period in years. the effect of multiplying a basic wind speed by any given factor can be estimated in terms of return period. | From Figure 1 the once in 100 years speed is roughly 1.12 times the once in 50 years speed. The effect of greater safety can also be assessed. Suppose that, exceptionally, a probability level of 0.01 had been selected then S3 = 2,03. Although it cannot be seen from the diagram, the application of this factor converts the’once in 50 years wind to a once in 4975 years wind, The probability that such a wind will be exceeded in any ‘one year is .0002. It must be remembered that wind speeds having such Jow values of probability associated with them cannot be estimated satisfactorily from a record of even 50 years data and that there may be other factors which affect the value of such an extreme. For these reasons, the use of probability levels other than 0.63 should be restricted to special cases. When the wind load for a selected wind speed has been calculated, it is common practice to apply a load or safety factor specified in other Codes of Practice. If it is assumed that the effect of this Joad factor is to increase the return period of the wind speed only, then the resulting change in the return period can be calculated from Figure 1.» Suppose a. load factor of 1.2 is applied. This would correspond to.an increase of wind of V1.2 (= 1.1} over the design wind speed. Reference to Figure 1 will show that such an increase of wind speed, which would have been brought about by the use of a factor of 1.1, corresponds: to the use of a return period of 90 years at the probability level of 0.63. * Information for the revision of this Appendix has been provided by HC Shellard and N Helliwell of the United Kingdom Meteorological office. 62APPENDIX D The Effective Height H ofa Building Near’ the Edge of a Cliff or Escarpment Z) is the general level of the ground at the foot of the escarpment. Zp is the general jevel of the top of the escarpment. The difference of level Zg - Zj =z. The artificial base from which H is measured is Zc. Q is the inclination of the mean slope of the cliff to the horizontal. Three cases are considered: (1) The average slope tan Qof the escarpment is $0.3. (2) 0.3 2. (1) The average slope tan of the escarpment is 0.3. Figure 5 The artificial base Zc is that of the ground immediately around the building. (2) 0.3 2. fr? Boe ° Figure 7 A, B, C and D are as defined in case (2). In front of A, Zc = 2) From A To C, Ze = 2} Beyond D, Ze = 22 Between C and D, Z¢ is obtained by linear interpolation. NOTE: This method of defining the effective height of a building is taken from the French Code of Practice Regles NV 65. BAAPPENDIX & The Effect of Internal Pressures The total wind force on a wall or roof depends on the difference of pressure between the outer and inner faces. Open doors,windows or ventilators on the windward side of a building will increase air pressure inside the building and this will increase the loading on those parts of the roof and walls which are subjected to external suction as shown in Figure 8. Figure 8 yueett yy rite? pressure note pressure beder the overhang wind ZA Conversely, openings at positions which are experiencing external suction will reduce the pressure inside the building, thus increasing total loads on a windward wall as shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 Most buildings have some degree of permeability on each face, througir windows, ventilation louvres, leakage gaps around doors and window: and to Some extent through the cladding itself; if there are chimneys, these can provide a low-resistance path for air flow. Permeability is expressed as the ratio of such openings to the total area of the face, 65The problem is to determine the resulting internal balance of all the contributing leakage points and, for design purposes, to assess the worst possible combination of circumstances that may arise, Normal Permeability With al] windows nominally closed, the normal permeability of @ house or office block is likely to be in the range of 0.01% to 0.05% of the face area depending on the degree of draught-proofing. Two Faces Uniformly Permeable For a rectangular building of which the two opposite faces are uniformly permeable and the other faces impermeable, the value of Cpj should be Gokena3.0.2 47 the wind direction ts normal to a permeable face, or -0.3 if the wind direction is normal to an impermeable face. Four Faces Uniformly Permeable If all four faces are uniformly permeable, Cpi should be taken as -0.3. Differing Permeability Where the permeability differs from face to face such as when one face contains a dominant opening like an open doorway or window, the value of Cpi will change depending on the size_and position of the opening jn relation to the other permeability. The following figures will serve for guidance: Windward face 3 times more permeable than any other face, Cpi = 0.1. Windward face 4 times more permeable than any other face, Cpj = 0.3. Windward face 6 times more permeable than any other face, Cpi = 0.5. Windward face 10 times more permeable than any other face Cpi = 0.6. Where it is not possible, or is not considered justified to estimate the range of Coi for a particular building, the coefficient should be assumed to be the more onerous of (a) or (b) for any determination of wall or roof loadings: (a) Where there is only a small probability of a dominant opening occurring during a severe storm, Cpj should be taken as the more onerous of 0.2 and -0.3. (b) For situations where a dominant opening is likely to occur, Cpi should be taken at 0.75 of the value of Cpe outside the opening. The extreme conditions should be determined for the various wind directions that give rise to critical loadings: and it should be noted that especially severe internal pressures may be developed if a dominant opening is located in a region of high local external pressure. 66Control of Internal Pressure The value of Cpj can-sometimes be limited or controlled to advantage by the deliberate distribution of permeability in the walls and roof or by the deliberate provision of a venting device which can serve as a dominant opening at a position having a suitable external pressure coefficient, An example of such an application is a ridge. ventilator ona low pitch roof which, under all direction of wind, will reduce the uplift force on the roof. The total wind load P on any flat wall or roof panel of area A i P= A Qq(Cpe - Cpi) There is a further complication in a wall or roof element that comprises several layers. “For example, a roof may be boarded and felted, and covered with tiles. The pressure difference between outside and inside will then be broken down into steps, across each layer; these steps will depend on the relative permeability of the various layers and the access of air to the spaces between them, Each case needs careful study: to ensure that the whole of the’ wind load is not accidentally transferred to a single membrane such as a thin metal sheet which may not be designed to carry it. Similarly, the pressure difference between windward and Jeeward faces of a building may be broken down in steps across internal partitions and impose loads on them. 67APPENDIX F Wind Forces on Circular Sections The wind force on any object is given by: F=Cp fea where Cp is the force coefficient Re. is the effective area of the object normal to the wind direction q is the dynamic pressure of the wind. For most shapes, the force. coefficient remains approximately constant over the whole range of wind speeds likely to be encountered. However, for objects of circular cross Section, it varies considerably. For a circular section, the force coefficient depends upon the way in which the wind flows around it,and is dependent upon the velocity and kinematic. viscosity of the wind and diameter of the section. The force coefficient is usually quoted: against a non-dimensional parameter, called the Reynolds Number, which takes account of the yelocity and viscosity of the flowing medium (in this case the wind) and the member. diameter. Reynolds Number, Re = DV where D is the diameter of the member V, is the design wind speed, and 2sis the kinematic viscosity of the air, which is 1.46 x 10°8 m2ys at 15°C and standard atmospheric pressure. Since in most natural environments the kinematic viscosity of the air is fairly constant, it is convenient to use DVs as the parameter instead of Reynolds Numbers and this has been done in this Code of Practice. The dependence of a circular section's force coefficient upon Reynolds Number is due to the change in the wake developed behind the body. At a low Reynolds Number, the wake is as shown in Figure 10 and the force coefficient is typically 1.2. As Reynolds Number is increased, the wake gradually changes to that shown in Figure 11, ie. the wake width dy decreases and the seperation point, s, moves from the front to the back of the body. Figure 10 - Wake in Subcritical Flos Figure 1] - Make in Supercritical Flow 68As a result, the force coefficient shows a sudden drop at a critical value of Reynolds Number, followed by a gradual rise as Reynolds Number is increased still further, The variation of C> with the parameter DV, is shown in Figure 12 for infinitely Tong circular cylinders having various values of relative surface roughness (€/D), when subjected to a wind having an intensity and scale of turbulence typical of built-up urban areas. The curve for a smooth cylinder (€/D = 1 x 10-5) in a steady airstream, as found in a low-turbulence wind tunnel, is shown for comparison. It can be seen that the main effect of free-stream turbulence is to decrease the critical value of the parameter DVs. For. subcritical Flows, turbulence can produce a considerable reduction in Cf below the steady airstream values. For supercritical flows, this effect becomes significantly smaller, 69SSauybroy SoeIING JO SoSsBaq SMOLARA BULAEH SaMpUL LAD Germany Buoy Maa;ujsuy Jos Shaq warm Jp yus}D}gsa0) Sodod JO VOLIELAEA ~ gL eunbiy GA) 5a0 Pace Teele tetera Try TT Nols yroows——— — Moly Jus [ngqunL ol si 70APPENDIX G Dynamic Response of Buildings and Other Structures to Wind Loads In order to take account of the turbulence of thewind, its interaction with buildings and the dynamic, properties of flexible buildings and structures, the wind loads determined. for these buildings by the other provisions of the Code shall be multiplied by a gust response factor G. The following procedure for calculating the gust response factor is based on the method of the American National Standard Institute Code ANSI AS8.1 - 1980/Draft, The equations in this section of the appendix are in imperial units and wind speeds are fastest mile speeds. The 3- second gust speeds used for the static analysis should therefore be converted to fastest mile speeds by the following equation, or by reference to Table 37. V = 1,09V¢ + 8 mph 1 where V is the 3-second gust speed in mph and Vg is the fastest mile speed in mph. Table 37 lists equivalent values of V¢ in mph for values of V in m/s, The gust response factor G is given by: & = 0,65 +[P/ + (3.32T})25/(1 + 0.002c)]3 2 for buildings and structures, and by: @ = 0.65 +[1.25 Pie + (3.32T7)25/(1 + 0.0016) J? 3 for open framework (latticed) structures, P= Ty 4 F = 10.5fh 5 sv Ty = 2.35(D,)2/(Z/30)* 6 where G ~ gust response factor ~ fundamental frequency of the building or structure in Hertz in a direction parallel to the wind : h = height of the structure in feet S - surface friction factor given in Table 36 Ve - design wind speed in mph (fastest-mile) J! = pressure profile factor given in Figure 13 as a function of the ratio & & - patio given in Table 36 Y = resonance factor given in Figure 14 as a func- tion of the ratio © and of the ratio c/n. Linear interpolation is permissible within this Figure nTABLE _36 =a NRowWe mean horizontal dimension in feet of a building or structure in a direction normal to the mean win exposure factor evaluated at two-thirds of the mean roof height of the structure using equation 6 structure size factor determine from Figure 15 structural damping coefficient surface drag coefficient as given in Table 36 power law coefficient as given in Table 36 height above ground in feet wround Roughness s x & Do 2q (ft) 1 Ren 0.85 0,02/h_ 10,0 0,003. 700 1,00 0.23/h 7.0 0.005 900 1.33 -3,28/h 4.5 0,010 1200 1.46 8,20/h 3.0 0.025 1500 TABLE 37~ 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS IN m/s CONVERTED TO FASTEST MILE SPEEDS IN mph Vv m/s OEP Hee Hee ese HeHia etre HH LHe etree eS Vg mph 10 1300-18 «171923 HBB BZ 20 34 «36-— 38 40s ZAC 30 54 86 5B GD ZAC ’_— 73 40 75 77 79 81 8 8 87 8 M9 9 50 95 97 99 101 103 106 108 110 112 114 60 116 -118-—«-120:«122,124- 126.128 «130«*132—«134 70 136 «138 «140-142-148 «147,:«149.«15T 153. 158 80 187 159-161 163 165-167 :169 171-173-175 90 177 -179—«(181«184-«186«18B_ «190 192 194 196 72e-0L A p-0L g-0L Looo"o 1t00"0 1o°o to 73Pee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee 0 = 0/2 fh udLzouny --(e) pL eunbiyOO" = U/o SauoLqound - (p)yL aanbry 0b°0 = 4/9 £4 UoLgouny - (9)pL aunbiy(aye Seas zig Sangonags = GL eanByy oo0e 0001 000 009 00s 00h ooc 002 col 08 09 Of ov of 08 a T z i L. [oeeettiorog prot I s HH =~ : th . SSH 76The gust response factor determined above does not include allowances for the effects of vortex shedding, instability due to galloping or flutter, or across wind deflections. An approximate method for deal- ing with vortex shedding of circular towers and chimneys is presented in the 1970 edition of Supplement No.4 to the National Building Code of Canada. The method is outlined below. The vortex shedding frequency n for slender structures is given by: n= 7 D S the Strouhal Number = 0.18 for Re< 2 x 109 x 108 V- thehourly mean wind speed in ft/s D = the diameter in feet { for structures of angular sections, $ = 0.15) 3-second gust speeds may be converted to hourly mean speeds by refer- ence to Table 380r the use of Figure 16, which defines the relation- ship between wind speeds averaged over ¢ seconds, V;, and the hourly speed, V3609- Figure 16 is based on statistical studies of wind speed records reported by Durst. The data for this graph was obtained for ground roughness condition 2. Hourly mean: speeds may be adjusted for ground roughness 1, 3 or 4 by equation 8: = 1,63 V2 (Z/Zq) 8 the gradient height in Table 36 the hourly mean speed at 30 ft for ground roughness 2 the power law parameter of Table 36 the height above ground in feet. “ase TABLE 38 - 3-SECOND GUST SPEEDS, V m/s, CONVERTED TO. HOURLY MEAN SPEEDS, V ft/ ¥ m/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 V ftis 10 eet aa ee 7 ag atta tH de thet ge 4g: 20 42 44 4642 ASC 30 6 65 67 69 1787579 40 84 86 BB CDs HHSC 102 50 104-107, 109389 60 125 127-«130«132,-—«134s«136«*138—=«1414z 14 70 146 148 150 153 155 157, 159° (161 163 165 80 167 169 171 1730176 178 «180-182 184 186 90 188 190 «192 194-196 «199 201-203-205 207 7Ve/¥ 3600 . 8 100 900 0000 Figure 16 - Ratio, V4/V3600 Of Probable Maximum Speed Averaged Over Period t to that Averaged Over One Hour (Ground Roughness 2) If the structure is free to oscillate in the plane normal to the wind, then large resonant oscillations will develop when the natural frequency ig within the range of vortex shedding frequency, The amplitude of the ascillation will depend_on. the structural. damping, and, the dynamic effects in the cross wind direction will be approximately equivalent to a Bad transverse force Ft acting in the direction of the oscillations, such that: where 4 critical damping ratio 0.02 for reinforced concrete 0.01 for steel structures 0.001 for welded steel chimneys. Crt - force coefficient = 0.2 for circular cylinders h - height of element D -~ diameter Gy, - dynamic pressure of mean wind ‘speed V at resonance. if The British Code of Practice for steel chimneys BS 4076 provides a Formula for calculating the critical velocity at which steel chimneys are likely to oscillate due to vortex shedding, This velacity, which may be less than the design wind speed, is given by: Vorit = #0 10 78References CS Durst - Wind Speeds over Short Periods of Time, The Meteorological Magazine, Vol. 89, July 1960. HC Shellard - Extreme Wind Speeds in the Commonwealth Caribbean, BAPE Journal, December 1972. E Simiu - Revised Procedure for Estimating Along-Wind Response, Journal of the Structural Division ASCE Vol. 106, January 1980. J Vellozzi and E Cohen - Gust Response Factors, Journal of the Structural Division ASCE, Vol. 94, June 1968. 79APPENDIX H Derivation of Pressure Coefficients The total or stagnation pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure. The stagnation pressure, ps, is the pressure due to the fluid at rest. The static pressure, po, is the undisturbed free stream pressure. The dynamic pressure is the pressure due to speed of the undisturbed stream and is defined by the equation: dynamic pressure = afv2 where V = speed of undisturbed stream density of undisturbed stream. Generally, if p is the static pressure at any point in the flow, then a pressure coefficient Cp may be defined by the equation: Cp = B= Po apye From Bernoulli's equation for incompressible flow: S3 + qv + gz = constant On integration, this reduces to v2 + pip + gz = constant where p - pressure (- density y - speed z - height above ground g - acceleration due to gravity From the above equation: p+ ape = ro + Ypv where p is static pressure at any point in the flow. Q is speed of flow at the point where p is measured and pp and V are as defined. above. apie - &) 1- fal? v Cp is positive if p> po and QV Cp is 2ero if p= po and Q = V cp is negative if pepo and Qov BD - Po op 80At the stagnation point, Q= 0 Ps ~ Po = anv? and "Cog * Ps = Po = 1 the stagnation pressure coefficient 3APPENDIX I Project Manager, Caribbean Meteorological Institute, Husbands, St James, Barbados Director, Meteorological Services, Coolidge International Airport, PO Box 1051, Antigua. Director, Meteorological Department, PO Box N8330, Nassau, Bahamas, Director, Meteorological Services, Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados. Director, National Meteorological Services, Belize International Airport, Belize. Chief Hydrometeorological Officer, Hydrometeorological Services, Ministry of Works and Transport, Fort 3, Kingston, Georgetown, Guyana. Director, Meteorological Services, Norman Manley International Airport, Jamaica. Director, Meteorological Service, Piarco International Airport, Trinidad. 82