Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1985
(Reprinted,
incorporating
Amendment No. 1)
Use of masonry —
Part 3: Materials and components,
design and workmanship —
(formerly CP 121-1)
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UDC 624.012:693.1/.3
BS 5628-3:1985
The following bodies were also represented in the drafting of the standard,
through sub-committees and panels:
Contents
Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword iii
Section 1. General
1 Scope 1
2 Definitions 1
3 Related British Standards 3
4 Alternative materials, components and methods of design and
construction 3
Section 2. Materials and components
5 Masonry units 4
6 Materials for mortar 4
7 Wall ties 4
8 Anchorages, dowels and fixings 4
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9 Reinforcement 6
10 Damp-proof courses 6
11 Sealants 6
12 Airbricks, gratings and flues 6
13 Sills 6
14 Lintels 7
15 Copings 7
16 Flashings and weatherings 8
Section 3. Design
17 General 9
18 Design for stability 10
19 Structural detailing for stability 19
20 Movement in masonry 31
21 Exclusion of moisture 36
22 Durability 56
23 Selection of mortars 67
24 Fire resistance 68
25 Thermal properties 73
26 Sound absorption and noise reduction 73
27 Masonry bonds and other constructional details 74
Section 4. Workmanship
28 Setting out 83
29 Scaffolding 83
30 Storage on site 83
31 Batching, mixing and use of mortars 84
32 Laying of masonry units 86
33 Constructional details 90
34 Provision of services, including fixings and chases 91
35 Protection against damage during construction 91
36 Supervision 92
Appendix A Determination of movement in masonry 93
Appendix B Masonry bonds and joint finishes 98
Index 102
Figure 1 — Wind zones 12
Figure 2 — Walls with edge restraint 14
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BS 5628-3:1985
Page
Figure 3 — Fixed support conditions in solid walls 15
Figure 4 — Fixed support conditions in cavity walls 16
Figure 5 — Fixed and simple supports 17
Figure 6 — Limiting dimensions of internal walls for stability 18
Figure 7 — Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs 20
Figure 8 — Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings 26
Figure 9 — Typical chimney details 29
Figure 10 — Movement joints 35
Figure 11 — Overlap between exposure categories 38
Figure 12 — Damp-proof systems 47
Figure 13 — Matching facing masonry 77
Figure 14 — Brick arches 81
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ii © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Foreword
This Part of BS 5628, prepared under the direction of the Civil Engineering and
Building Structures Standards Committee, is a new code of practice for the design
and construction of brick and block masonry. It supersedes CP 121-1:1973, which
is therefore withdrawn.
The recommendations of this code are based on experience of single-leaf and
unfilled cavity walls. Filling the complete cavity of a wall with thermal insulation
will increase the risk of rain penetration through the wall. (See BRE Digest 236
“Cavity Insulation” 19801).)
Accordingly, a number of recommendations have been made for design detailing
and workmanship to minimize this effect of cavity insulation on the performance
of the wall.
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.
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Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv,
pages 1 to 108, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on the
inside front cover.
1) Available from the Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.
iv
blank
BS 5628-3:1985
Section 1. General
1 Scope 2.7
datum
This Part of BS 5628 gives general
recommendations for the design and construction of defined level to which other levels may be related
brick and block masonry, including materials and 2.8
components, the main aspects of design, other than efflorescence
structural, which is covered by BS 5628-1 and
salts on the surface of the wall left by evaporation
BS 5628-2, and workmanship.
(see clause 22)
This code does not cover natural stone masonry.
2.9
Reference should be made to BS 5390.
fair faced
NOTE The publications referred to in this standard are listed
on page 107. work built with particular care, both to line and
with even joints, where the finished work is to be
2 Definitions visible
For the purposes of this standard the definitions 2.10
given in BS 6100-5 or in the British Standard for the frog
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given material or component apply together with purpose-made indentation in either or both of the
the following. bed faces of a brick
2.1 2.11
bat indenting
portion of a brick either specially manufactured or recesses formed in masonry to receive future work
cut on site
2.12
2.2 jamb
capping
part of a wall at the side of an opening
unit or assemblage placed at the head of a wall that
does not shed rainwater from the top of the wall 2.13
clear of all exposed surfaces of the walling beneath jointing
NOTE Examples of cappings are brick-on-edge and other finishing of a mortar joint as the work proceeds
cappings that may be flush or overhanging but that do not (see B.3)
incorporate a throating or other device designed to shed
rainwater clear of the walling beneath. 2.14
2.3 lime bloom
cavity tray particular kind of efflorescence (see 2.8)
component provided to divert water that has 2.15
entered a cavity to the outside of the building masonry
2.4 assemblage of units jointed with mortar
closer 2.16
portion of a masonry unit used to maintain masonry masonry bond
bond, either specially manufactured or cut disposition of units in masonry (for examples,
[see Figure 17(a)] see B.1 and B.2)
2.5 2.17
coping masonry unit
unit or assemblage placed at the head of a wall and brick or block
designed to shed rainwater from the top of the wall
clear of all exposed faces of the walling it is intended 2.18
to protect panel
NOTE Examples of copings are copings complying with area of masonry with defined boundaries, that may
BS 5642-2, some types of continuous sheet metal or extruded contain openings
plastic copings and built up details, such as tile creasing.
2.19
2.6
pier
course
member that forms an integral part of a wall, in the
layer of masonry that includes a layer of mortar as
form of thickened sections placed at intervals along
well as a layer of units
the wall
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BS 5628-3:1985
2.20 2.26.2
pointing header
filling and finishing of raked-out joints masonry unit laid on its bed face with its longer
2.21 face perpendicular to the face of the wall
quoin [see Figure 17(a)]
external corner 2.26.3
pistol brick
2.22
string course brick, purpose made or sawn from whole brick on
site to form an accurate sized rebated shape to fit
distinctive course in a wall, usually horizontal, and over and face the nibs [see Figure 13(b)]
projecting
2.26.4
2.23 slip
toothing
masonry unit, either specially manufactured or cut,
masonry units left projecting to bond with future of the same height and length as a header
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2 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999 3
BS 5628-3:1985
Reconstructed stone masonry units BS 6457 ready-to-use retarded cement : lime : sand and
retarded cement : sand mortars, which are all
6 Materials for mortar delivered wet to the site, should comply with
BS 4721.
6.1 Cement Dry-packaged cementitious mixes should comply
Cement should comply with the relevant British with BS 5838-2.
Standard. NOTE 1 The term sand is used here to include all permitted
aggregates.
Portland cement (ordinary and
NOTE 2 Ready-mixed lime : sand for mortar is produced by
rapid hardening) BS 12 adding damp sand to lime in the form of lime putty or dry
hydrated lime. This process is normally undertaken in a factory
Portland blastfurnace cement BS 146-2 away from the building site.
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement BS 4027 NOTE 3 Ready-to-use building mortars are factory made
mortars (cement : lime : sand and cement : sand) which contain a
Masonry cement BS 5224 cement-set retarding admixture and require no further
treatment before use. The cement is normally ordinary Portland
6.2 Lime cement but may be sulphate-resisting Portland cement or
Portland-blastfurnace cement or, for non-lime mortars, masonry
Limes should comply with BS 890. cement.
6.3 Aggregate
7 Wall ties
6.3.1 Natural aggregates. When specifying
aggregates from natural sources designers should Wall ties should comply with BS 1243. For guidance
refer to BS 882 or BS 1200. For guidance, on selection and use of wall ties, see 19.5.
see clause 23.
8 Anchorages, dowels and fixings
6.3.2 Lightweight aggregates. Lightweight
aggregates should comply with BS 877-2 or Materials for anchorages, dowels and fixings,
BS 3797-2. including bonding ties, joist hangers and lateral
restraint straps, are given in Table 1.
6.4 Admixtures
For guidance on selection of materials for
6.4.1 General. Admixtures may affect the strength anchorages, dowels and fixings, see 22.7.1.
and adhesion of mortars and care should be
exercised in their use. For guidance, see clause 23. Typical fixings are illustrated in Figure 8.
6.4.2 Calcium chloride. Calcium chloride and Joist hangers required only for vertical support
admixtures containing calcium chloride should should comply with BS 6178-1. Joist hangers
never be added to mortars (see 23.3). required both for vertical support and lateral
support, as shown in Appendix C of BS 5628-1:1978,
6.4.3 Plasticizers. Mortar plasticizers should comply should be purpose made.
with BS 4887. For guidance on use, see 23.2.5
and 31.3.
6.4.4 Colouring agents. Colouring agents (pigments)
should comply with BS 1014. For guidance on use,
see 31.3.
4 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
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BS 5628-3:1985
9 Reinforcement 11 Sealants
Reinforcement for structural use should follow the Sealants should comply with the relevant British
recommendations of BS 5628-2. Reinforcement for Standard.
non-structural use, e.g. crack control (see 20.5), One-part polysulphide sealants BS 5215
should be of a type approved by the designer.
Two-part polysulphide sealants BS 4254
Stainless steel reinforcement should be fabricated
from austenitic stainless steel complying with Silicone-based building sealants BS 5889
grades 3042S15, 316S31 or 316S33 of BS 970-1.
Other types of steel reinforcement should be For guidance on choice and application of sealants
protected against corrosion (see 22.7). and back up materials, see 20.4.
Bitumen BS 6398
Brick BS 3921 13 Sills
Polyethylene BS 6515 Sills should comply with the relevant
All others BS 743 British Standard given in Table 2. For guidance on
d.p.cs below sills, see 21.5.3.
The criteria for suitability of materials for d.p.cs are
set out in 21.4 and Table 12.
Table 2 — Sills
Material Standard to be complied with Other recommendations
Brick and block BS 187, BS 3921 or Sills formed from bricks or blocks should be in
BS 6073-1 accordance with Table 13 (I)
Cast stone BS 5642-1
Clay tile BS 402
Clayware BS 5642-1
Concrete BS 5642-1
Natural stone BS 5642-1
Slate BS 5642-1
Steel BS 6510
Timber BS 1186-1 and BS 1186-2 Timber sills should comply with the requirements
and BS 5642-1 for coordinating dimensions and performance given
in BS 5642-1 and the requirements for quality given
in BS 1186-1 and BS 1186-2
6 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
14 Lintels 15 Copings
Lintels should comply with the relevant British Copings should comply with the relevant British
Standard given in Table 3. For guidance on use, Standard given in Table 4. For guidance on use,
see 19.3 and on workmanship, see 33.4. see 21.6.
Copper copings may cause staining of external
walls. To avoid electrolytic action between metallic
copings and metal roofing where dissimilar metals
are to be used, consideration should be given to the
use of non-metallic copings.
Table 3 — Lintels
Standard to
Material Other recommendations
be complied with
Reinforced concrete
Pressed steel
BS 5977-2
Rolled low carbon steel
Prestressed concrete plank BS 5977-2
Reinforced masonry BS 5628-2 Bricks and blocks used for lintels should be of the
appropriate quality recommended in Table 13.
Timber BS 5977-2
Table 4 — Copings
Standard to be complied Recommended
Material Other recommendations
with thickness
mm
© BSI 11-1999 7
BS 5628-3:1985
mm
(semi-rigid)
Bituminous felt BS 747 For guidance on installation,
see CP 144
Copper BS 2870 grades C 104 and 0.4 to 0.7
C 106 in the O condition
Lead BS 1178 1.8 min.
(code no. 4)
Zinc BS 849
8 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Section 3. Design
Other factors, not dealt with in detail in this code, harsh and insufficiently plastic to allow
may also need to be considered: repositioning of the unit during laying and levelling
and it is possible that no adhesion between the unit
1) whether there is an applied facing or finish to and the mortar will be obtained.
provide characteristics not inherent in the basic
construction, and the compatibility of this facing Experience has shown that adhesion will be
or finish with the masonry; adversely affected when masonry is allowed to dry
out rapidly in warm, dry conditions. Laying mortar
2) the effect of the weight of the wall, including beds in shorter lengths, thus limiting water loss
finishes, on the strength of the supporting from the mortar before the next course is laid, is
structure; advantageous in such conditions.
3) the effect of the thickness of the wall, including Wetting may assist in removing dust from bricks
finishes, on the useable floor area; and thus further improve adhesion. However, the
4) speed of construction; bricks should not be over wetted, as this may lead to
5) accuracy of construction. “floating” on the mortar bed and also to excessive
efflorescence and staining of the brick face.
17.2 Loading
In fired-clay brickwork, optimum adhesion is
The loading requirements for masonry and likely to be achieved when the suction rate of
the lateral wind pressures that should be the bricks at the time of laying is not greater
allowed for in design are given in BS 6399-1 and than 1.5 kg/(m2.min). A suitable test for suction
CP 3:Chapter V-2. Masonry should also be designed rate of fired-clay bricks is given in Appendix H of
to withstand any additional loads which may arise, BS 3921:1985. Where the achievement of maximum
e.g. if materials are to be stacked or heaped against flexural strength is critical, e.g. in infill panels, and
walls. bricks of higher suction rate are used, the
17.3 Impact resistance consistency of the mortar should be adjusted or the
Impact damage may be caused to walls in various bricks should be wetted (docked) just before use.
ways. Where there is an applied finish, resistance to In very dry conditions, easier laying and better
light impacts is largely a matter of the resistance of adhesion of calcium silicate bricks may be achieved
this finish. Where the wall is likely to be subject to by adjusting the consistency of the mortar or
heavier impact loads, either the structure of the dipping the bricks briefly in water just before use.
wall and the applied finish should be sufficiently The bricks should not be soaked in water.
strong and stable to withstand the impact without Concrete masonry units should not be wetted.
undue damage, or the wall should be protected, Instead, the consistency of the mortar should be
e.g. by positioning of bollards where there is danger adjusted to suit the suction, if necessary using
of damage from motor vehicles. water-retaining admixtures.
17.4 Foundations For guidance on the characteristics of particular
Masonry walls should be built on adequate masonry units and appropriate wetting procedures,
foundations. For guidance, see CP 101 and CP 2004. the manufacturer should be consulted.
© BSI 11-1999 9
BS 5628-3:1985
17.6 Selection of masonry units and materials 18.3 Walls subjected to concentrated loads
The selection of masonry units and associated Where a concentrated load occurs in a wall, e.g. at a
materials should be made bearing in mind the lintel or beam bearing, due regard should be given
criteria listed in Table 6. to the local bearing stress (see clause 34 of
Table 6 — Selection of materials for masonry BS 5628-1:1978) and, where necessary, suitable
bearing plates, spreader beams, padstones, piers or
Clause
Criterion
reference
columns should be provided.
Lintels or beams should not bear on a short length
Durability 22 of cut block. Where possible, the masonry should be
Strength 18, 23 set out to provide a full block under a bearing.
Adhesion 17.5 Certain types of cellular, frogged or hollow unit
which are normally suitable for the construction of
Fire resistance 24
the wall may not provide sufficient bearing strength
Thermal and acoustic properties 25, 26 at points of concentrated load and may need to be
Handling, including weight of blocks 35 filled.
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10 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Table 7 — Height to thickness ratio for 2) the total area of such openings is not greater
freestanding single-leaf walls without piers than 10 % of the appropriate maximum area
Wind zone Maximum permitted height
given in Table 8 or 25 % of the actual area of
(see Figure 1) to thickness ratio, R the wall, whichever is the less, and no opening
is less than half its maximum dimension from
1 8.5 the edge of the wall, other than its base, or
2 7.5 from any other opening [see Figure 2(b)].
3 6.5
4 6.0 d) In a single-leaf, double-leaf or grouted-cavity
wall, the distance between supports should not
A horizontal d.p.c. which cannot resist flexure will exceed 40 times the total thickness of the wall.
reduce the stability of the wall. If such a d.p.c. is e) In a cavity wall:
used, the wall thickness should be taken to be the 1) the distance between supports should not
greater of: exceed 30 times the total thickness of the
1.33hd/R, masonry in the wall;
or 2) the thickness of each leaf should be not less
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BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999
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Wind Height
zone
A B C D E F G H I
Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm Cavity 190 mm
wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid wall solid
wall wall wall wall wall wall wall wall wall
m m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2
5.4 11.0 13.5 17.5 19.0 26.5 28.5 20.5 29.0 32.0 41.0 32.0 41.0 8.5 10.0 14.0 19.0 19.5 30.5
1
10.8 9.0 11.5 13.0 15.5 17.5 21.5 15.5 23.5 24.0 32.5 32.0 41.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 14.5 15.5 21.5
5.4 9.5 12.0 14.0 17.0 21.0 24.0 17.5 25.5 27.0 35.5 32.0 41.0 7.5 8.5 10.5 16.5 17.0 24.5
2
10.8 8.0 9.5 11.5 14.0 13.5 17.5 13.0 20.5 19.0 28.5 28.0 36.5 6.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 17.5
5.4 8.5 10.5 12.5 15.0 15.5 20.0 14.5 22.5 22.0 31.0 30.5 40.5 6.5 7.5 9.5 13.5 14.5 20.0
3
10.8 7.0 8.5 10.0 12.0 11.5 15.5 11.0 17.5 14.5 24.5 24.5 31.5 5.0 6.0 7.5 9.0 11.5 15.0
5.4 8.0 9.5 11.0 13.5 13.0 17.0 12.5 19.5 18.0 27.5 27.0 35.0 6.0 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 17.0
4
10.8 6.5 7.5 9.0 11.0 10.5 13.5 9.5 14.5 12.5 21.0 21.5 27.5 4.0 5.5 6.5 7.5 10.0 12.5
NOTE 1 Key to support conditions. Types of support are described in 18.4.2.2.
Free edge shown thus
Simple support shown thus
Fixed support shown thus
NOTE 2 The term solid is used in this table to denote single-leaf walls, collar-jointed walls (see 2.28.3) or grouted-cavity walls (see 2.28.5). The 190 mm solid walls are of
any brick, or blocks of compressive strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2.
NOTE 3 Cavity walls consist of the following:
a) an outer leaf, 100 mm minimum thickness, of any brick or blocks of compressive strength not less than 14.0 N/mm2.
b) an inner, leaf, 100 mm minimum thickness, of any brick, or blocks of compressive strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2.
If either leaf of a cavity wall is increased to 140 mm using blocks of the respective strength, the areas given in the table may be increased by 20 %.
BS 5628-3:1985
13
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14 © BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 5 — Fixed and simple supports
17
BS 5628-3:1985
BS 5628-3:1985
18.5 Internal walls or partitions not designed Where it is known that an internal wall or partition
for imposed loading is to be plastered, a maximum thickness of 13 mm of
Unless it is designed as a freestanding wall plaster to one side or both sides of the partition may
(see 18.4.1), an internal wall or partition should be be included when determining the thickness of the
laterally restrained by horizontal or vertical wall for design in accordance with Figure 6. In such
continuous or intermittent supports, similar to a case, the wall may require temporary bracing
those given in Table 8. The length or height of the prior to plastering.
wall in relation to its thickness should be within the NOTE The graphs in Figure 6 are derived from the following
empirical formulae:
limits given in Figure 6.
i) wall restrained at both ends but not at the top
Consideration should also be given to the following t W L/40 and t W H/90 or t W H/15 with no restriction on
factors which may affect stability: the value of L or t < L/40 and t > L/59 and
t W H + 2 L)/133;
a) accommodation for movement (see clause 20); ii) wall restrained at both ends and at the top
b) openings; t W L/50 and t W H/90 or t W H/30 with no restriction on
the value of L or t < L/40 and t W L/110 and
c) chasing (see 19.6); t W (3H + L)/200;
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d) the likelihood of exceptional lateral loading, iii) wall restrained at the top but not at the ends
t W H/30;
arising from the nature of use of the building;
where
e) wind load (see CP 3:Ch V-2). t is the thickness (in mm);
H is the height (in mm);
L is the length (in mm).
18 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
19 Structural detailing for stability Timber joists and joist hangers should have a
minimum bearing of 75 mm on walls. The frogs of
19.1 Floors
bricks should be filled to provide an even bearing. It
Typical ways of connecting floors with walls are may be desirable to provide a wall plate in certain
shown in Figure 7(a) to Figure 7(c). Where floors are cases.
required to provide lateral restraint, reference Concrete roofs should normally have a bearing of
should be made to Appendix C of BS 5628-1:1978. not less than 90 mm. However, this bearing may be
Suspended timber floors near to the ground should reduced at the discretion of the designer, taking into
preferably be supported independently by sleeper account relevant factors such as loading, span,
walls. Where this is not practicable, offsets or tolerances, height of support and the provision of
corbels from external walls may be used. Suspended continuity reinforcement.
timber floors elsewhere may be built into the walls Binders or other beams giving rise to concentrated
or supported by offsets, corbels or joist hangers. loads on the wall may need to be provided with a
Timber wall plates should not be built into any wall. padstone or spreader beam (see 18.3).
Unreinforced concrete floors laid on the ground or 19.3 Support over openings
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BS 5628-3:1985
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NOTE 1 Boards should span at least two rafters and be butted up to the wall.
NOTE 2 The soffit board should be securely fixed to the ladder bracket and should also be a close fit to the wall.
(e) Truss roof without straps
Figure 7 — Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (continued)
© BSI 11-1999 23
BS 5628-3:1985
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© BSI 11-1999 25
BS 5628-3:1985
19.4 Anchorages, dowels and fixings It is essential to select the correct materials for
Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings are shown these components to ensure adequate resistance to
in Figure 8. corrosion (see clause 8).
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26 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
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© BSI 11-1999 27
BS 5628-3:1985
19.5 Wall ties The designer should consider the effects of chasing
The leaves of a cavity wall should be tied together by on stability, bearing in mind the recommendations
wall ties embedded in the horizontal mortar joints of BS 5628-1, particularly where walls or leaves are
at the time the course is laid, to a minimum depth constructed of hollow units. In walls or leaves
of 50 mm. The length of the wall tie should be constructed of solid units, the depth of horizontal
chosen to suit the width between the two leaves. The chases should not normally exceed one-sixth of the
ties should be placed at a frequency of not less than thickness of the single leaf at any point, whilst the
the values given in Table 9(A) and they should be depth of vertical chases should not normally exceed
staggered and evenly distributed. Additional ties one-third of the thickness of the single leaf at any
should be provided within 225 mm of all openings so point.
that there is one for each 300 mm of height of the The cutting of holes up to approximately 300 mm
opening. Consideration should be given to providing square in the wall to accommodate items of
additional flexible ties across the cavity adjacent to equipment may be permitted.
movement joints. Where heavy fittings are to be fixed to a wall, the
The choice of the type of tie depends on the cavity effect on the stability of the masonry should be
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mm mm mm mm
mm
28 © BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 9 — Typical chimney details
29
BS 5628-3:1985
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30 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
f) Ground movement and differential settlement. 20.2.3 Panel walls in frame structures
To guard against dimensional changes occurring as 20.2.3.1 General. Panel walls in steel frame and
a result of sulphate attack, the recommendations concrete frame buildings should be designed to
of 22.4 should be followed. prevent cracking as a result of stresses generated by
differential movement between the panel and the
In general, because restraints are often present,
frame.
masonry is not completely free to expand or contract
and compressive or tensile forces may develop, and All panels, irrespective of the type of masonry units
these may lead to bowing or cracking. from which they are built, should be provided with
adequate lateral edge restraint (see 18.4).
The risk of bowing is greater where the compressive
forces are applied eccentrically, e.g. where panel Some particular cases of design to limit the effect of
walls are not supported across their whole differential movement and yet provide stability of
thickness. the panel are described in 20.2.3.2 to 20.2.3.4.
The risk of cracking is increased where there are 20.2.3.2 Panel walls in reinforced concrete frame
stress concentrations, for example at openings or at structures. In external infill panel walls of fired-clay
changes in height, thickness or direction of walls, masonry, any expansion will be opposed in the
and where stronger mortars than those vertical direction to the shrinkage and creep of
recommended in clause 22 are used. Masonry units reinforced concrete columns. Where the panels are
of markedly different characteristics, for example built in tightly between horizontal beams and slabs,
fired-clay and concrete masonry units, should not be these opposing movements, if restrained, can cause
bonded, but should be effectively separated by excessive stresses in the masonry, particularly
either a vertical or horizontal movement joint or by where they are eccentric, e.g. where the panel
a slip plane, since their movements are different in overhangs a floor slab. Hence horizontal
magnitude and in kind (see Appendix A). compressible joints should be provided at each level
of intersection of the panel and horizontal elements
It is essential to consider provision for movement at
of the structure.
the design stage.
Similar considerations apply to external infill panel
20.2 Accommodation for movement of walls of calcium silicate or concrete masonry, except
adjoining structural members that differential movement between the concrete
20.2.1 Walls supported by structural members. frame and the infill is less, since the long term
Where a wall is built on a suspended floor or beam movement of both will be in the same direction.
and is not designed for composite action, it may be Provision of movement joints between a panel and a
necessary to make provision for deflection of the frame may alter the support conditions
supporting member by providing vertical movement (see 18.4.2.2) and an alternative means of providing
joints or a separation joint at the base of the wall. In restraint may be necessary. Some forms of suitable
the latter case it may be necessary to reinforce the restraint are given in 19.4.
bed joints where tension may occur.
Vertical movement joints may also be necessary to
absorb horizontal movements of panel walls, for
example where they pass in front of columns.
© BSI 11-1999 31
BS 5628-3:1985
20.2.3.3 Panel walls in steel frame structures. Slip planes should be designed to allow parts of the
Providing eccentric loads and short returns are construction to slide, one in relation to the other,
avoided, panel walls of fired-clay masonry in thus reducing shear stresses in the adjacent
multi-storey steel structures can usually be built materials. The slip plane should contain two layers
into, and tied rigidly to, the frame. Concrete and of smooth incompressible sheet material or an
calcium silicate masonry should not be tied rigidly applied coating to form a separating membrane.
to the frame but it is essential to provide adequate This membrane can often be positioned and formed
lateral restraint. so as to function also as a flexible d.p.c.
In frame structures, masonry infill panels which are The design and positioning of movement joints and
attached to the frame should be designed to take slip planes should be carefully considered, making
into account the sway of the structure. This is sure that in addition to accommodating movements,
particularly important in single-storey frame such joints or planes do not impair the stability of
buildings. the wall or any of its functions.
20.2.3.4 Panel walls for wind bracing. Where Where necessary, dowels strong enough to provide
masonry panel walls are provided to form wind lateral stability should be incorporated. The dowels,
Licensed copy:Scott Wilson Holdings, 07/03/2005, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
bracing in a frame structure, it is essential that they which are usually of metal rod or flat strip, should
should be built in rigidly to the surrounding be anchored into the masonry in such a way that
framework. The panel should be designed not only longitudinal movement is not restrained
to resist the stresses due to the imposed load, but [see Figure 8(c)].
also the stresses which may arise from differential Particular care should be taken with the design of
movement between the panel and the frame. movement joints in separating walls, party walls or
20.2.4 Fired-clay brick slips. When fired-clay brick compartment walls where the efficiency of the wall
slips are fixed to the nib or toe of a concrete slab or for sound insulation or as a fire barrier
beam, there is the possibility of vertical stresses (see clause 24) might be reduced.
acting on the courses of brick slips as a result of both In external walls, movement joints and slip planes
creep and drying shrinkage of the concrete as well should be sealed, protected or otherwise designed to
as long term vertical expansion of the clay brick prevent water penetration (see 20.4).
infill. Consequently, a compressible flexible joint
Care should be taken to ensure that fixings and
should be provided between the first course of brick
services do not interfere with the performance of the
slips and the brickwork beneath, whilst the top
joints or planes. Finishes should be discontinuous at
course should be protected by a damp-proof
movement joints and slip planes, and fixings and
membrane in the form of a cavity tray. Similarly,
fittings should not tie across the joint.
there is some likelihood of horizontal stresses
arising as a result of differential movement between 20.3.2 Provision of movement joints
the concrete substrate and the brick slips. 20.3.2.1 General. The empirical recommendations
Accordingly, vertical movement joints should be given in this subclause are applicable to the
considered and these should be spaced more majority of situations.
frequently than the centres recommended for
Movement joints will not normally be required in
normal brickwork in 20.3.2 and provided wherever
internal walls in dwellings.
the brick slips join the main structure at piers or
columns. The horizontal and vertical movement The spacing of the first movement joint from an
joints should be formed by a compressible filler and external or internal angle should be not more than
sealed at the face with a suitable sealant half the general spacing and preferably less where
(see Figure 13). The width of the joint should the masonry is continuous at the angle, due to the
normally be 10 mm. effect of end restraint of the wall panel.
20.3 Accommodation of movement in masonry For information on basic data and design to
accommodate movement, see Appendix A and
20.3.1 Movement joints and slip planes. Movement consult the manufacturers.
joints should be designed to accommodate
expansion and/or contraction [see Figure 10(a)].
Expansion joints should be filled with easily
compressible and resilient material. Joints should
be designed so as to be built in as work proceeds and
not to be cut into completed work.
32 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
20.3.2.2 Spacing and width of movement joints in In external walls containing openings, movement
fired-clay masonry. In general, unrestrained or joints may need to be provided at more frequent
lightly restrained unreinforced walls, e.g. parapets intervals or the masonry above and below the
and non loaded spandrels built off membrane-type opening may need to be reinforced to restrain
d.p.cs, will expand 1 mm/m during the life of the movement (see 20.5). Particular attention should be
building, due to thermal and moisture movement paid to low horizontal panels of masonry, for
changes. The spacing and thickness of movement example under windows.
joints in such walls is governed by the allowable 20.3.2.4 Spacing of movement joints in concrete
compressibility of fillers and the performance of masonry. Where possible, concrete masonry should
appropriate sealants. Designers are recommended be designed as a series of panels separated by
to consult sealant manufacturers wherever possible, movement joints. As a general rule, vertical joints to
but as a general guide, the width of the joint in accommodate horizontal movement should be
millimetres should be about 30 % more than the provided at intervals of 6 m. Since there are wide
distance between joints in metres. Thus movement variations in physical properties between different
joints at 12 m centres will need to be about 16 mm concrete masonry units, some variation in joint
wide.
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© BSI 11-1999 33
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34
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 10 — Movement joints (concluded)
35
BS 5628-3:1985
BS 5628-3:1985
joint under sufficient pressure to ensure good Using the guidance on resistance to rain
adhesion. The back-up material should be resilient penetration of different forms of construction and
and not adhere to or react with the sealant. The the factors affecting rain resistance given in 21.3,
compressibility of the sealant back-up/joint filler is the designer should select a construction
possibly the most critical factor in the design of an appropriate to the local wind-driven rain index,
adequate joint for fired-clay brickwork. A pressure paying due regard to the importance of correct
of about 0.1 N/mm2 should be sufficient to compress detailing and workmanship.
the material to 50 % of its original thickness. In cavity walls, some water will inevitably penetrate
Flexible cellular polyethylene, cellular the outer masonry leaf in prolonged periods of
polyurethane or foam rubbers are the most wind-driven rain but proper design and positioning
satisfactory materials. Hemp, fibreboard, cork and of the damp-proof systems (see 21.4) will minimize
similar materials should not be used for expansion the risk of penetration further into the building.
joints in fired-clay brickwork.
21.2 Classification of exposure to local
The width of the joint should be sufficient to wind-driven rain
accommodate the movements, both reversible and
The quantity of rain falling on a vertical surface,
irreversible, without damage to the seal. Hence the
such as a wall, at any point depends on both the
width of the joints should be related to the spacing
intensity of the rainfall and the wind speed. The
of the joints.
BRE Report “Driving Rain Index” 19762) postulated
Further guidance on the selection of sealants is that the quantity of rain falling on a vertical surface,
given in BS 6213. such as a wall, was proportional to the quantity
20.5 Reinforcement falling on a horizontal surface and to the local wind
Reinforcement may be used to control cracking, speed, and incorporated maps of an annual
which may occur in areas of masonry above or below wind-driven rain index, which is the product of the
annual local rainfall and the annual average airfield
openings where the vertical cross-sectional area of
wind speed.
the masonry is much less than that of the masonry
on either side. The reinforcement should be long Rainfall varies considerably across the country but
enough to distribute the stress to a position where is largely unaffected by local features. Conversely,
the vertical cross-sectional area is able to the general wind speed does not change so much
accommodate it, and should be adequately protected across the country but is very much affected by local
against corrosion (see 22.7.2). features, such as the spacing and height of
surrounding trees and buildings and whether the
ground is flat or steeply rising. Appropriate
correction factors to convert the annual wind-driven
rain index to the local annual index were computed
by the Building Research Establishment (BRE).
2) Available from the Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.
36 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999 37
BS 5628-3:1985
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38 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
Complete cavity fill may inhibit the drying out of 21.3.2.4 Joint finish and profile. Whatever the type
any moisture which penetrates the external finish. of masonry, it is essential to fill all the joints to
The presence of moisture could lead to sulphate minimize the risk of rain penetration. Tooled mortar
and/or frost action (see 22.1) on the mortar and/or joints are more resistant to rain penetration than
finish with some fired-clay masonry backing joints which have not been tooled. Recessed joints
materials. increase the risk of water penetration.
21.3.2.2 Quality of workmanship. The quality of 21.3.2.5 Single-leaf walls. The resistance to rain
workmanship achieved on site is an important penetration of single-leaf walls of calcium silicate
factor affecting rain penetration. Some masonry and fired-clay masonry without rendering or
external leaves require more care in construction cladding is dependent upon both the thickness and
than others. For example, consider lower and higher absorptive capacity of the masonry units, whereas
absorption fired-clay masonry units. For fired-clay the rain resistance of dense concrete masonry is
masonry units of lower absorption, e.g. absorption dependent more on thickness. Table 11(A) shows the
by mass of 5 % (m/m)3), the water is shed by the recommended minimum thicknesses for both
glass-like surface (the “raincoat effect”). Where rendered and unrendered walls.
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joints have not been completely filled, the film of NOTE The thickness of the outer leaf of a cavity wall will
water on the surface will rapidly penetrate the wall. similarly affect its rain resistance but Table 11(A) does not apply
For fired-clay masonry units of higher absorption, to cavity constructions, since it takes no account of the cavity.
e.g. 25 % (m/m)3), the wall acts like a sponge and Where hollow blocks are used in external walls, the
absorbs the water falling on it (the “overcoat effect”). use of shell bedding (see 2.25) may reduce rain
Whilst all mortar joints should always be filled penetration to the inner surface and so give some of
(see 21.3.2.4), minor imperfections which can occur the advantages of cavity wall construction.
are not so critical, except in conditions of Very 21.3.2.6 Unfilled cavity walls. In unfilled cavity
Severe exposure, because most periods of walls, it is the air space between the two leaves,
wind-driven rain are not long enough for the wall to i.e. the clear cavity, which is intended to prevent
become saturated, and thus permit rain water passing from the outer leaf to the inner leaf.
penetration, before the intervention of a dry period. In most situations, a 50 mm air space is satisfactory
21.3.2.3 Mortar composition. For lower absorption but where there is an increased risk of rain
fired-clay masonry units, the designer should penetration, consideration should be given to the
consider using one of the less permeable mortars use of wider cavities. Where the cavity is
such as designation i) and ii). For other types of unavoidably bridged, e.g. at window and door
masonry unit, the selection of mortar is governed by openings, special precautions are necessary
other factors such as accommodation of movement, (see 21.4). For filled cavity walls see 21.3.2.8.
durability and strength.
Table 11 — Assessment of resistance to rain penetration
(A) Thickness of single-leaf walls with or without rendering
Exposure Minimum thickness of masonry (excluding rendering and finishes) (see note 1)
category
Clay and calcium silicate masonry Concrete masonry
Rendered Unrendered Rendered Rendered Unrendered
(see note 2) (dense (lightweight aggregate (see note 2)
concrete) or autoclaved aerated
concrete)
Very Severe Not recommended. Cladding should be used
mm mm mm mm mm
Severe 328 Not 250 215 Not
recommended recommended
Moderate/Severe 215 Not 215 190 Not
recommended recommended
Sheltered/Moderate 190 440 190 140 440
Sheltered 90 328 90 90 328
Very Sheltered 90 190 90 90 190
NOTE 1 Thickness of masonry is based on work sizes of masonry units i.e. tolerances are not included.
NOTE 2 Thicknesses of unrendered walls are based on the use of tooled joints filled completely with cement : lime : sand mortar.
NOTE 3 This table is intended to give guidance on the selection of forms of construction from the point of view of resistance to
rain penetration only but other factors such as durability should be considered.
© BSI 11-1999 39
BS 5628-3:1985
At present there is insufficient information 21.3.2.8 Filled cavity walls. Filling the complete
available to enable recommendations to be made cavity of a cavity wall with thermal insulation will
regarding the effectiveness of the inner leaf of a increase the risk of rain penetration through the
cavity wall in resisting water penetration. wall (see BRE Digest 236 19804)). In Table 11(B)
Therefore, in general, designers should not rely on insulants are divided into:
the inner leaf of a cavity wall to resist rain a) type A insulants, such as mineral fibre
penetration. (see BS 6232) or polystyrene beads, which should
The principal factors affecting rain penetration of not be subjected to exposure conditions more
cavity walls are given in Table 11(B). severe than those recommended for the
21.3.2.7 Architectural features. Architectural equivalent unfilled wall;
features can play an important part in reducing the b) type B insulants, such as urea formaldehyde
risk of rain penetration. The designer should always foam (see BS 5618) and granular plastics fills,
consider the effects that his design will have on the which are subject to various additional
tendency for the external masonry to be wetted restrictions related to the local exposure
more than by the incident rainfall (see 22.5). He can conditions and the type of construction.
Licensed copy:Scott Wilson Holdings, 07/03/2005, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
reduce the degree of wetting by ensuring that water NOTE The risk of rain penetration for all insulants will be
is thrown clear of the walls by adequate overhangs reduced by using a cavity wider than 50 mm.
and drips and by providing drainage to take the Partial filling of a cavity wall (i.e. filling part of
water away from the masonry. Large areas of the width of a cavity with insulant placed against
glazing or cladding give rise to very large amounts the inner leaf) does not affect the resistance to
of surface run-off water which can cause excessive wind-driven rain of the wall, providing the width of
wetting of the masonry below and possible water the remaining air space is not less than 50 mm. The
penetration problems. use of widths less than this increases the risk of rain
penetration and should therefore be subject to
various restrictions related to the local exposure
conditions and type of construction.
21.3.3 Examples of cavity wall external leaf
constructions suitable for particular exposure
categories. When choosing a cavity wall external leaf
construction suitable for a particular exposure
category, Table 11(B) may be used with discretion as
a starting point for the designer.
Table 11 — Assessment of resistance to rain penetration
(B) Factors affecting rain penetration of cavity walls
Factor affecting Increasing probability of rain penetration in the direction of the arrow
rain penetration
4) Available from the Building Research Station, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.
40 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
In general, the more severe the exposure category, Example 7. Concrete brickwork.
the more items from the left-hand side of the table Cement : sand mortar plus plasticiser,
should be selected. Conversely, the more items from designation i), ii) or iii).
the right-hand side of the table the designer wishes
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
to use, the less severe the exposure category in
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
which the building construction will be satisfactory.
Local experience and conditions should always be Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe.
taken into account when making a decision on the Example 8. Calcium silicate brickwork.
suitability of a particular construction. Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii).
Some examples of cavity wall external leaf Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
constructions suitable for particular exposure 50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
categories are as follows.
Maximum exposure category: Severe.
Example 1. Clay brickwork.
Example 9. Dense concrete blockwork.
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation i), ii) or iii).
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
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50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation. Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints.
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation.
Maximum exposure category: Severe5).
Example 2. Clay brickwork. Rendered. Joint finish and profile as required for
rendering.
Cement : sand mortar plus plasticiser,
Maximum exposure category: Severe.
designation i), ii) or iii).
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints. 21.4 Damp-proof courses and cavity trays
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation. 21.4.1 A damp-proof course (d.p.c.) in a building is
Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe5). intended to provide a barrier to the passage of water
from the exterior of the building to the interior, or
Example 3. Clay brickwork.
from the ground to the structure, or from one part of
Cement : sand mortar plus plasticiser, the structure to another. The passage of water may
designation i), ii) or iii). be horizontal, upwards, or downwards. Where the
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints. d.p.c. is intended to prevent the upward movement
50 mm clear cavity, cavity filled with type B of water due to capillary action, joints may be lapped
insulant. without sealing. However, where water is moving in
Maximum exposure category: Sheltered/Moderate5). a downwards direction, the joints in the
d.p.c. should be sealed.
Example 4. Clay brickwork.
21.4.2 In cavity walls, d.p.c. design should be based
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation ii) or iii).
on the assumption that rain will penetrate the outer
Raked and untooled joints.
leaf of the wall and run down the inside of the outer
50 mm cavity filled with type B insulant. leaf. Where the cavity is bridged, e.g. by cavity fill,
Maximum exposure category: Sheltered5). lintels, structural beams, floor slabs or pipes, there
Example 5. Dense concrete blockwork. is a danger that water will be conducted across it to
cause dampness inside the building. To avoid this
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii). problem, it is essential that watertight cavity trays
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints. are provided above all bridges of the cavity (other
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation. than wall ties), so that water is diverted to the outer
Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe. leaf or clear of the bridges.
NOTE Certain types of dense concrete blocks may be suitable 21.4.3 To ensure adequate performance, d.p.cs and
for Severe exposure category. The manufacturer should be cavity trays should have the following material
consulted.
properties:
Example 6. Concrete brickwork.
a) an expected life at least equal to that of the
Cement : lime : sand mortar, designation iii). building;
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints. b) resistance to compression without extrusion;
50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation. c) resistance to sliding where necessary;
Maximum exposure category: Severe. d) adhesion to units and mortar where necessary;
5) For
clay brickwork built to the quality of workmanship recommended in this code, the maximum exposure category will be
comparable for all absorption levels of brick. However, the mechanism of resistance to rain penetration may differ (see 21.3.2.2)
© BSI 11-1999 41
Table 12 — Physical properties and performance of materials for d.p.cs
42
BS 5628-3:1985
Joint treatment to prevent
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BS 5628-3:1985
with BS 743 laid to break problems
joint, bedded
in 1 : 3
Portland
cement : sand
43
BS 5628-3:1985
e) resistance to accidental damage during 21.5.2 Immediately above ground level. In every
installation and subsequent building operations; external wall, a d.p.c. should be provided at
f) workability at temperatures normally least 150 mm above the finished level of the
encountered during building operations, with external ground or paving. To prevent the
particular regard to ease of forming and sealing transference of moisture from external walls into
joints, fabricating junctions, steps and stop ends, solid floors, the damp-proof membrane in the floor,
and ability to retain shape. and the d.p.c. in the wall, should overlap and be
sealed. In cavity work, the cavity should be filled to
Table 12 gives information on performance of
ground level with fine concrete, and weepholes
individual materials currently used for d.p.cs.
should be left in the perpends of the outer leaf at not
21.4.4 Wherever possible, the part of the cavity tray greater than 1 m intervals immediately above the
which bridges the cavity should be continuously top of this fine concrete.
supported. It is particularly important to provide
21.5.3 Under sills. All pervious or jointed sills or
support at joints so as to facilitate their formation.
sub-sills should be provided with a d.p.c. for the full
21.4.5 Detailed three-dimensional drawings should length and width of the sill bed. The d.p.c. should
be made of all junctions, steps, angles and stop ends,
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44 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
21.5.5 Over openings. In cavity walls, cavity trays 21.5.8 Chimneys. Chimneys should preferably be
with stop ends should be provided over all openings built in cavity wall construction from the foundation
(including small openings for ducts, services, etc.), to the chimney terminal. D.p.cs should be provided
unless they are well protected by building features, to prevent the downward passage of water into the
such as overhanging eaves. This may be difficult to interior of the building. In principle, the aim should
achieve in arches (see 27.6). The cavity tray should be to provide a horizontal d.p.c. through the
step down or slope across the cavity towards the thickness of the chimney wall with an upturn at the
external leaf and, preferably, terminate in a small inner face, which is continuous with the vertical
drip on the external face of the wall. Not less than flashing at the intersection with the roof
two weepholes should be provided in the outer leaf (see Figure 9). This is possible with flat, or very
in the perpends of the course above the cavity tray. shallow pitched roofs. However, the junction is more
Consideration should be given to the detail of the complex with steeper pitched roofs. The
junction between the vertical d.p.c. in the jamb and d.p.c. through the chimney stack should be stepped
the cavity tray over the opening to ensure continuity to correspond with, and be continuous with, the
of damp-proof measures [see Figure 12(d) and stepped flashing to pitched roofs. However, if the
Figure 12(e)]. chimney stack walls are only 100 mm thick, rain
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21.5.6 At balcony thresholds. Where balconies or will almost certainly penetrate the chimney stack
patios are formed by an extension of the structural and run down the internal surface. If the chimney is
floor or the roof of a room below, difficult set in an internal partition or party wall and the roof
waterproofing problems can arise unless the details is steeply pitched, the masonry may dry out in the
are carefully considered. An example of a suitable roof space, particularly if it is well ventilated.
junction between the cavity tray, sill d.p.c. and However, with lower pitched roofs the chimney
vertical d.p.c is shown in Figure 12(f). Such a stack should either be built 200 mm or 215 mm
junction should be carefully detailed for the thick, or a d.p.c. provided in the chimney stack
particular location and, unless made of malleable within the roof space to prevent moisture getting
metal, should be fabricated off-site by specialists. into the masonry below the ceiling.
21.5.7 In parapets. A d.p.c. should be provided at a It should be noted that a sheet d.p.c. at the point of
height of not less than 150 mm above the abutment intersection with the roof structurally separates the
of a roof, to form a moisture-resisting continuity masonry, and the stability of the chimney stack and
with the flashing to the roof, and should extend to its resistance to lateral wind loading needs to be
form a projecting drip at the external face of the considered. A horizontal d.p.c. consisting of two
parapet. courses of d.p.c. bricks bedded in designation i)
mortar for clay brickwork, or two courses of slates
In a cavity parapet wall, a d.p.c. or cavity tray
bedded in designation i) mortar for calcium silicate
should be provided, stepped down at least 150 mm
or concrete bricks, is often satisfactory. A horizontal
towards the inner or outer part of the wall
d.p.c. should always be provided at the top of the
[see Figure 12(g)]. The designer should carefully
stack.
consider which way to slope the d.p.c. in a given
case. If sloped outwards, the d.p.c. will direct water Where a chimney stack is incorporated in an outer
towards the outer face, which may cause staining. If cavity wall, preferably the outer leaf and cavity
sloped inwards, moisture may travel along the should be continuous around the chimney stack for
underside of the d.p.c. and gain access to the the full height of the outer wall and then completely
underside of the roof covering and interior of the surround the chimney stack where it projects above
building. the roof. Corbelling from the chimney breast may be
necessary below the roof line, to support the outer
In addition to weepholes (see 21.4.6), a d.p.c. should
leaf at the sides and back of the chimney stack.
be provided under the coping, with rigid support
Chimney stacks built in cavity work should contain
where necessary.
a stepped d.p.c. in the outer leaf, continuous with
It should be noted that the d.p.c. or cavity tray the stepped flashing at the abutment with the roof.
structurally separates the parapet from the wall In exposed areas, consideration should be given to a
beneath, and the coping from the parapet. chimney tray. This should be of a material stiff
Structural stability of the parapet should be enough to form a cavity tray without being built into
considered in accordance with 18.4.1. the inner leaf, thus allowing structural continuity.
© BSI 11-1999 45
BS 5628-3:1985
Chimney terminals, freestanding walls, including pitched roof abuts such a wall, a stepped cavity tray
parapet walls [see Figure 12(g)] and retaining walls will be necessary, to follow the profile of the roof
exposed to the weather, should preferably be [see Figure 12(h)]. Pre-formed tray profiles should,
provided with a coping. The coping (see 2.5) may be preferably, be used, and the joints should be sealed.
a preformed unit or it may be built up using creasing
tiles. In either case, the drip edge(s) should be 21.9 Structural frames
positioned a minimum of 40 mm away from the Where masonry is supported by a structural frame,
face(s) of the wall. Where for aesthetic or other particular attention should be paid to the detailing
reasons a capping (see 2.2) is used, special care is of d.p.cs to ensure their continuity. Where cavity
needed in the choice of materials, both for the brickwork is supported on an edge beam, or on a
capping and for the walling beneath (see clause 22). floor slab, a cavity tray should be used to prevent
Where the coping or capping is jointed, a continuous moisture penetration into the structure. Where a
d.p.c., bedded in designation i) mortar, for fired-clay column, or other structural member, obstructs the
units, or designation ii) mortar, for calcium silicate cavity of the wall, the cavity tray should be
or concrete units, should be provided. Where continuous around the member. When a structural
cappings are used, the d.p.c. may be positioned two member bridges the cavity, a vertical d.p.c. should
courses down rather than immediately below the be included between the structural member and the
capping course, in order to obtain greater weight on external leaf, and stop ends formed in the cavity
the d.p.c.. Alternatively, a flashing designed to tray [see Figure 12(i)].
throw rainwater clear of the walling beneath may be
built into the joint.
46 © BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 12 — Damp-proof systems
47
BS 5628-3:1985
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48
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 12 — Damp-proof systems (continued)
49
BS 5628-3:1985
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50
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 12 — Damp-proof systems (continued)
51
BS 5628-3:1985
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52
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 12 — Damp-proof systems (continued)
53
BS 5628-3:1985
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© BSI 11-1999 54
BS 5628-3:1985
BS 5628-3:1985
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NOTE All discontinuities in cavity trays to be given stop ends to prevent water discharging behind the tray.
(i) Structural frames
Figure 12 — Damp-proof systems (concluded)
© BSI 11-1999 55
BS 5628-3:1985
56 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
strength nor water absorption are reliable guides for of water available and the permeability of the
assessing the resistance to freezing and there is no masonry. For this reason, the greatest attention
substitute for experience of performance in a should be given to the provision of effective d.p.cs
particular situation. and to the exclusion of water by good design and
detailing (see 21.4).
There is no test method in any British Standard for
assessing frost resistance of fired-clay products, Where masonry is likely to remain wet for long
although a test being developed by the British periods of time, e.g. in freestanding boundary walls,
Ceramic Research Association is referred to in retaining walls, parapet walls, below d.p.c. at or
BS 3921. The best evidence of ability to withstand near ground level, and all elevations exposed to
frost damage is provided by brickwork which has exceptionally severe wind-driven rain, sulphation of
been in service for some years. Where brickwork is mortar can occur and consideration should be given
used in situations in which it may become saturated to the use of strong mixes or of ordinary or
and will be exposed to cyclic frost action, the frost sulphate-resisting Portland cement in mortars used
resistant category (F) specified in BS 3921 should be in these situations. Calcium silicate and concrete
used and if there is any doubt it is strongly masonry units do not contain significant amounts of
recommended that the manufacturer’s advice as to soluble sulphates. However, where it is intended to
the suitability of his product should be sought. use concrete masonry units, expert advice should be
sought, taking into account local ground conditions.
22.3.3 For calcium silicate bricks, durability and
compressive strength are related, and experience 22.5 Architectural features
shows that repeated freezing and thawing has little For aesthetic reasons, designers may sometimes
effect on bricks. Bricks of strength class 3 of BS 187 include features which lead to increased local
possess good frost resistance in most applications, exposure of the masonry. As a result, the masonry
but higher strength classes are recommended in will be more likely to become very wet or saturated,
very exposed situations. Calcium silicate bricks may so increasing the risk of frost damage or
suffer deterioration if impregnated with strong salt disfiguration. In such cases it is essential to select
solutions and then subjected to intense freezing. more durable masonry units and mortar, and this
They should thus not be used in situations where may in turn govern the choice for the whole
the masonry may be directly wetted by sea-water or building.
subjected to contamination by repeated applications Examples of architectural features leading to
of road de-icing salts.
increased local exposure are:
22.3.4 Precast concrete masonry units possess good
a) recessed windows with sloping masonry at the
frost resistance and, in general, provided that they
bottom;
are selected following the recommendations of this
code, problems should not occur. b) flush sills;
c) inadequate or non-existent overhangs at
verges;
d) large expanses of glazing or impermeable
cladding with no effective form of construction at
the base designed to shed run-off clear of the
masonry beneath;
© BSI 11-1999 57
BS 5628-3:1985
e) areas of rendering adjoining the masonry and Cappings of brickwork and tile creasings, even
recessed from it without an efficient seal or other though flaunched with mortar, cannot be relied
detail at the junction of the rendering and the upon to keep out moisture indefinitely and require
masonry; an effective d.p.c. beneath them. Where possible, a
f) vertical tile hanging, the lower edge of which precast concrete coping in one piece, with weathered
has little or no projection over the walling below. top and ample overhang, properly throated, is
preferred.
There has been an increasing tendency to use
cappings for masonry parapet walling. The capping 22.6 Selection of masonry units and mortar for
may be brick-on-edge, brick-on-end, bonded durability
brickwork or a purpose-made capping unit. Such Table 13 gives guidance on the choice of masonry
cappings give relatively little protection to the units and mortar designations most appropriate for
masonry beneath, which may become saturated for particular situations as regards durability. At the
up to 1 m below the capping level, depending on the design stage, the weather conditions at the time of
water absorption of the masonry units used. It is building will rarely be known and indeed building
strongly recommended that parapets and chimneys may continue through more than one winter period.
Licensed copy:Scott Wilson Holdings, 07/03/2005, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
be protected by copings and d.p.cs (see 21.7). The recommendations given, therefore, relate to
Since chimney stacks are normally exposed on all cold weather when night frost is expected but even
four faces and the top, they may be more liable to so it is essential to protect fully masonry units,
saturation and frost attack than other parts of the mortar and masonry under construction from
building, especially where an effective coping has saturation and freezing (see clauses 30 and 35).
not been provided at the terminal. Reference to experience of durability in service of
masonry units and mortar produced from local
constituent materials in the geographical area
concerned may provide valuable guidance.
58 © BSI 11-1999
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A1 Low risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 a) of block Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
saturation in i), ii) or iii) in iii) or iv) in iii) density W 1 500 kg/m3; block may not be suitable. The manufacturer
with or without (see remarks) or should be consulted.
freezing b) made with dense If sulphate ground conditions exist, the
aggregate complying recommendations in 22.4 should be followed
with BS 882 or Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
BS 1047; or essential to ensure that all masonry units,
c) having a mortar and masonry under construction are
compressive protected fully from saturation and freezing
strength W 7 N/mm2; (see clause 30 and clause 35)
or The masonry most vulnerable in A2 and A3
d) most types of is located between 150 mm above,
autoclaved aerated and 150 mm below, finished ground level. In
block (see remarks) this area masonry will become wet and may
in iii) remain wet for long periods of time,
particularly in winter. Where FN or MN
A2 High risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 As for A1 in ii) or iii) fired-clay units are used in A2 or A3,
saturation in i) or ii) in ii) or iii) in ii) or iii) sulphate-resisting cement should be used
without freezing (see remarks) (see 22.4)
A3 High risk of FL or FN in i) Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 As for A1 in ii)
saturation or ii) in ii) in ii) or iii)
with freezing
(B) D.p.cs
B1 In buildings Damp-proof Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Masonry d.p.cs can resist rising damp but
course 1 as will not resist water percolating downwards.
described in If sulphate ground conditions exist, the
BS 3921, in i) recommendations in 22.4 should be followed.
BS 5628-3:1985
B2 In external Damp-proof Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable D.p.cs of fired-clay units are unlikely to be
works course 2 as suitable for walls of other masonry units, as
described in differential movement may occur (see 20.1)
BS 3921, in i)
59
Table 13 — Durability of masonry in finished construction
60
BS 5628-3:1985
(C) Unrendered external walls (other than chimneys, cappings, copings, parapets, sills)
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Masonry condition Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations Remarks
or situation
Fired-clay units Calcium silicate Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
C1 Low risk of FL, FN, ML or MN Classes 2 to 7 W 7 N/mm2 Any in iii) or iv) Walls should be protected by roof overhang
saturation in i), ii) or iii) in iii) or iv) in iii) (see remarks) and other projecting features to minimize
(see remarks) the risk of saturation. However, weathering
C2 High risk of FL or FN in i) or ii) Classes 2 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 Any in iii) details may not protect walls in conditions of
saturation (see remarks) in iii) in iii) very severe driving rain (see 21.3). Certain
architectural features, e.g. brickwork below
large glazed areas with flush sills, increase
the risk of saturation (see 22.5).
Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
essential to ensure that all masonry units,
mortar and masonry under construction are
protected fully from saturation and freezing
(see clause 30 and clause 35).
Where FN fired-clay units are used in
designation ii) mortar for C2,
sulphate-resisting cement should be used
(see 22.4).
(D) Rendered external walls (other than chimneys, cappings, copings, parapets, sills)
Rendered external FN or MN in i) Classes 2 to 7 W 7/mm2 Any in iii) or iv) Rendered walls are usually suitable for most
walls (other than or ii) (see remarks) in iii) or iv) in iii) (see remarks) wind-driven rain conditions (see 21.3).
chimneys, cappings, or FL or ML in i), ii) (see remarks) Where FN or MN fired-clay units are used,
parapets, sills) or iii) sulphate-resisting cement should be used in
the mortar and in the base coat of the render
(see 22.4).
Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
essential to ensure that all masonry units,
mortar and masonry under construction are
protected fully from saturation and freezing
(see clauses 30 and 35)
(E) Internal walls and inner leaves of cavity walls
Internal walls FL, FN, ML, MN, Classes 2 to 7 W 7 N/mm2 Any in iii) or iv) Where designation iv) mortar is used it is
© BSI 11-1999
and inner leaves OL or ON in iii) or iv) in iv) (see remarks) essential to ensure that all masonry units,
of cavity walls in i), ii), iii) or iv) (see remarks) (see remarks) mortar and masonry under construction are
(see remarks) protected fully from saturation and freezing
(see clauses 30 and 35)
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BS 5628-3:1985
61
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62
BS 5628-3:1985
(H) Chimneys
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aerated blocks
(see remarks)
in ii)
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(J) Freestanding boundary and screen walls (other than cappings and copings)
Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition
Calcium silicate Remarks
or situation Fired-clay units Concrete bricks Concrete blocks
units
J1 With coping FN or MN in i) or ii) Classes 3 to 7 W 15 N/mm2 Any in iii) Masonry in free-standing walls is likely to be
or FL or ML in i), ii) in iii) in iii) severely exposed, irrespective of climatic
or iii) conditions. Such walls should be protected
J2 With capping FL or FN in i) or Classes 3 to 7 W 20 N/mm2 a) of block density by a coping wherever possible and d.p.cs
ii) (see remarks) in iii) in iii) W 1 500 kg/m3; or should be provided under the copings and at
the base of the wall (see clause 21).
b) made with dense
aggregate complying Where FN or MN fired-clay units are used
with BS 882 or for J1 in conditions of severe driving rain
BS 1047; or (see clause 21), the use of sulphate-resisting
cement is strongly recommended (see 22.4).
c) having a
compressive strength Where designation iii) mortar is used for J2,
W 7 N/mm2; the use of sulphate-resisting cement is
(see remarks); or strongly recommended (see 22.4).
d) most types of Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete
autoclaved aerated block may also be unsuitable. The
block (see remarks) manufacturer should be consulted.
in ii)
BS 5628-3:1985
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Table 13 — Durability of masonry in finished construction
64
BS 5628-3:1985
(K) Earth-retaining walls (other than cappings and copings)
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BS 5628-3:1985
65
BS 5628-3:1985
22.7 Protection of components embedded in Bolts, nuts, screws, etc. should be given the same
masonry from corrosion protection as the components with which they are to
22.7.1 Metal anchorages, dowels and fixings. Metal be used and be compatible with these components,
components other than wall ties built into masonry e.g. consideration should be given to the possibility
should be in the appropriate category given in of electrolytic action between dissimilar metals.
Table 14. (For wall ties see Table 9.) 22.7.2 Reinforcement. Reinforcement for structural
Components in contact with or embedded in an use should be protected as described in BS 5628-2.
inner leaf which is damp or exposed to periodic Reinforcement for non-structural use should be in
wetting should be protected in the same way as the appropriate category given in Table 14.
components in contact with or embedded in an outer 22.7.3 Timber components. Where joist ends are
leaf, e.g. below d.p.c. built into external walls or the inner leaves of cavity
In Severe or Very Severe exposure conditions as walls, they should be treated with preservatives.
defined in 21.2, only category D should be used in For guidance, see BS 5268-5. Joists should not
walls of three storeys or less. project into a cavity.
Table 14 — Protection of metal components (other than wall ties) built into masonry
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66 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
accommodating the strains arising from minor the grading of sand to enable the contractor to
movements within the wall. Where a mortar determine where, within the range, the sand
designation richer than the minimum designation should be proportioned. Not all sands complying
recommended for durability in Table 13 is required with BS 1200 will be suitable for conditions of
for structural reasons, careful consideration should Severe or Very Severe exposure or where flexural
be given to the accommodation of movement strength (adhesion) is critical, owing to high fines
(see clause 20). content and/or particle distribution. In such
cases, consideration should be given to using
The range of volume proportions given in Table 15 is sands having a particle size distribution towards
to allow for the effect of the differences in sand the coarser end of the BS 1200 grading envelope.
grading upon the properties of the mortar. Such sands may be found amongst those
Proportioning by mass will produce more consistent complying with grade M of BS 882.
mortars than volume proportioning, provided that
the variation in bulk densities of the materials is c) Specify the lowest mix proportions for each
checked on site constantly. type and designation, e.g. specify 1 : 1 : 5 for
designation iii) cement : lime : sand.
Table 15 — Mortar mixes
Mortar Type of mortar (see note 2)
designation
Cement : lime : sand Air-entrained mixes (see note 5)
(see note 3)
Masonry cement : Cement : sand with
sand (see note 3) plasticizer (see note 3)
Proportions by Proportions by Proportions by
volume (see note 4) volume volume
Increasing Increasing i) 1 : 0 to ! : 3
strength ability to ii) 1 : " :4 to 4" 1 : 2" to 3" 1 : 3 to 4
(see note 1) accommodate
and movements iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 4 to 5 1 : 5 to 6
improving due to iv) 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 1 : 5" to 6" 1 : 7 to 8
durability temperature v) 1 : 3 : 10 to 12 1 : 6" to 7 1:8
and moisture
changes
Direction of change in properties is shown by the Increasing resistance to frost attack during construction
arrows Improvement in adhesion and consequent resistance to rain penetration
NOTE 1 Where mortar of a given compressive strength is required by the designer, the mix proportions should be determined from
tests following the recommendations of Appendix A of BS 5628-1:1978.
NOTE 2 The different types of mortar that comprise any one designation are approximately equivalent in compressive strength and
do not generally differ greatly in their other properties. Some general differences between types of mortar are indicated by the arrows
at the bottom of the table, but these differences can be reduced (see 23.2.1).
NOTE 3 The range of sand contents is to allow for the effects of the differences in grading upon the properties of the mortar. In
general, the lower proportion of sand applies to grade G of BS 1200 whilst the higher proportion applies to grade S of BS 1200.
NOTE 4 The proportions are based on dry hydrated lime. The proportion of lime by volume may be increased by up to 50 % (V/V)
in order to obtain workability.
NOTE 5 At the discretion of the designer, air entraining admixtures may be added to lime : sand mixes to improve their early frost
resistance. (Ready mixed lime : sand mixes may contain such admixtures.)
© BSI 11-1999 67
BS 5628-3:1985
reduced by admixtures or special treatments. For admixtures are known that are free from other
example, the adhesion of air-entrained mortars to undesirable effects. In particular, calcium chloride
dry absorbent units can be considerably improved or admixtures based on this salt may lead to
by water-retaining admixtures. Air-entrainment of subsequent dampness or corrosion of embedded
cement : lime : sand mortars will improve their metals, including wall ties, and therefore should
resistance to damage by freezing at an early age. never be used. There is little experience of the
However, the use of such admixtures should be at successful use of any admixture intended to provide
the discretion of the designer. frost protection by depressing the freezing point of
23.2.2 Cement mortar. Adequate strength in the the mixing water. Some substances that might be
fully hardened mortar, combined with a rapid contemplated for this purpose, e.g. ethylene glycol,
development of strength in the early stages, is most are known to adversely affect the hydration of the
conveniently attained by the use of Portland cement.
cement, but it is not practicable to adjust the
strength simply by varying the ratio of cement to 24 Fire resistance
sand, because lean mixes of cement and sand are
Masonry walls should be designed to have a fire
harsh and unworkable.
resistance appropriate to their use.
23.2.3 Cement : lime : sand mortar. Mortars made NOTE The fire resistance is taken to be the time from the start
with appropriate proportions of Portland cement, of the tests laid down in BS 476-8 until failure first occurs under
including sulphate-resisting Portland cement and any one of the listed criteria, i.e. stability, integrity and thermal
lime, take advantage of the useful properties of insulation. This time ranges from 30 min to 6 h and is a property
of the complete element of structure.
each. Cement : lime : sand mortars are designed on
the principle that part of the cement is replaced by Table 16 gives notional fire resistances of walls for
an equal volume of lime so that the binder-paste still various types of construction. Other forms of
fills the voids in the sand. In this way good working construction may be used, provided evidence of
qualities, water retention, adhesion and early satisfactory performance in use, based on the
strength can be secured without the mature results of standard fire resistance tests, is produced.
strength being too high. The lime used should be If the required fire resistance of a loadbearing cavity
non-hydraulic (high calcium or magnesian) or wall with a thickness taken from Table 16 is more
semi-hydraulic. than 2 h, the imposed load should be shared by both
23.2.4 Masonry cement mortar. The good working leaves; otherwise, if the load is carried by the
properties of mortar mixes made with masonry exposed leaf only, the minimum thickness of the
cement are derived from the plasticizing effects of exposed leaf should be that given for loadbearing
the fine filler and the entrained air. single-leaf walls.
23.2.5 Air-entrained (plasticized) mortar. Mortar For panel walls required to provide fire resistance
plasticizers which entrain air in the mix provide an where edge isolation is necessary, special
alternative to lime for imparting good working consideration should be given to the edge details.
qualities to lean cement : sand mixes. In effect, the Where movement joints or edge clearances are
air bubbles serve to increase the volume of the required for walls designed to resist fire, they
binder paste, filling the voids in the sand, and this should be filled with a non-combustible material,
correspondingly improves the working qualities. such as mineral fibre, which still allows the
movement joint to function.
68 © BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999 69
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70 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
© BSI 11-1999 71
BS 5628-3:1985
concrete or than 50 %
calcium solid
silicate
Fired Block Not less SC/SG 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
brick-earth, (outer-web than 70 %
clay or shale not less than solid, e.g.
13 mm thick) perforated
Not less SC/SG — 100 100 100 100 100 100
than 50 %
solid
Concrete, Block Solid None 90 75 75 75 75 75 75
class 1 Other, None 100 75 75 75 75 75 50
aggregate e.g. hollow
(see note 7)
Concrete, Block Solid None 90 75 75 75 75 75 50
class 2
aggregate
(see note 7)
Aerated Block Solid None 90 75 75 63 63 50 50
concrete,
density
480 kg/m3 to
1 200 kg/m3
NOTE 1 Non-loadbearing walls are assumed to carry no load other than their own weight and edge restraint. Loadbearing walls
may carry any load up to that which produces the maximum permissible design stresses.
Interpolation between Table 16(A) and Table 16(B) or between Table 16(C) and Table 16(D) is not permitted.
NOTE 2 The finish should be not less than 13 mm plaster or rendering on each face of a single-leaf wall and on the exposed faces of
a cavity wall.
SC/SG is sand : cement or sand : gypsum (with or without lime). Plasterboard of an equivalent thickness may be substituted for fire
resistance periods up to 2 h.
VG is vermiculite : gypsum plaster (1" : 1 to 2 : 1 by volume). Perlite may be substituted for vermiculite for fired-clay bricks and other
materials with similar surfaces.
NOTE 3 The thickness represents either the work size of the unit, or, where applicable for solid walls, the sum of the work sizes of
two units together with the work size of the joint between them.
NOTE 4 A solid brick is a brick without frogs or with frogs up to 20 % of its volume, but with no through holes or perforations.
NOTE 5 The minimum thickness given is suitable for 75 mm brick-on-edge construction with a completely solid unit with plane
faces.
NOTE 6 The number of cells is that in any cross section through the wall thickness.
NOTE 7 Class 1 aggregates for concrete blocks include limestone, air-cooled blast-furnace slag, foamed or expanded slag, crushed
brick, well-burnt clinker, expanded clay or shale, sintered pulverized-fuel ash and pumice. Class 2 aggregates for concrete blocks
include all gravels and crushed natural stone, except limestone.
NOTE 8 These thicknesses may be reduced to 100 mm for walls built with cellular bricks.
NOTE 9 These thicknesses may be reduced to 90 mm if the load is distributed over both leaves.
72 © BSI 11-1999
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6) Available from the Chartered Institution of Building Services, Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS.
© BSI 11-1999 73
BS 5628-3:1985
26.2 Sound insulation and resistance to sound Where joists span perpendicular to the separating
transmission wall, they should be supported on joist hangers and
26.2.1 General principles. Sound is transmitted not built into the wall. Hollow cored concrete floor
from its source to adjacent spaces or enclosures by a units supported on separating walls should have
multitude of routes involving airborne and their voids filled at the bearings.
structure-borne transmission. Structure-borne The surface of a wall formed from materials with
sound can originate from impact on a surface or coarse interconnecting pores should be sealed, even
from airborne sound impinging on the surface of the when dry lined. In addition, surfaces should be
structure; however, when designing walls, the sealed below suspended floors within the depth of
origin is generally assumed to be airborne rather the floor construction and in the roof space.
than impact sound. Plastered resilient materials, e.g. polystyrene
Sound generated in the air in one room radiates to board, should not be used for sound insulation
the surfaces of the enclosing structure and is without expert advice.
transmitted through the structural elements. Connections between leaves of party walls should be
separating walls, and flanking walls and floors to an kept to the minimum consistent with structural
Licensed copy:Scott Wilson Holdings, 07/03/2005, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
adjacent room, where the sound is finally stability. If butterfly ties are not permissible, it is
transmitted through the air to the ear. better to use a single-leaf wall.
The sound insulation of single-leaf masonry walls is 26.2.2.2 External flanking walls. To minimize the
largely related to their mass per unit area, provided risk of direct sound transmission around a
that there are no direct air paths through the wall. separating wall and to provide stiffness to the
Even very small air paths such as cracks and poorly separating wall, full storey height window or door
filled cross joints in unplastered masonry or openings should not be placed adjacent to the
masonry finished with a dry lining, will greatly separating wall. Adjoining openings should be
reduce the sound insulation. separated across the party wall or the party wall
The sound insulation of a cavity wall is related to its should be continued beyond the flanking wall.
mass per unit area, the width of the cavity and the Reveals of openings should be sealed to reduce
rigidity and spacing of the wall ties. A cavity wall of transmission along the cavity of the external wall.
nominal cavity width 50 mm and with leaves Fibrous materials used for fire stops cannot be
connected by wire butterfly ties as recommended relied upon to provide an adequate acoustic barrier
in 19.5 may be expected to have a resistance to in the flanking path.
sound transmission similar to that of a solid Masonry-separating walls should be preferably
masonry wall of the same surface mass. If more
bonded to one leaf of the external masonry walls,
rigid ties or a greater number of ties per square
rather than tied across a butt joint.
metre are used, the sound insulation of the wall will
decrease. Conversely, if the ties are omitted, the Plastered resilient materials, e.g. polystyrene
sound insulation will improve. In addition, the board, on the internal face should not be used for
wider the cavity, the better the sound insulation. sound insulation without expert advice.
Of equal importance is the reduction of flanking 27 Masonry bonds and other
transmission. Direct air paths around the
separating wall have to be avoided. Window reveals
constructional details
have to be sealed to prevent direct transmission 27.1 Masonry bonds
with the cavity. Care has to be taken to avoid air 27.1.1 General. The horizontal distance between
paths through floors which are continuous through cross joints in successive masonry courses should
the separating wall. Unplastered walls in attics or normally be not less than one-quarter of the length
roof spaces should be well built with all bed joints of the units but in no case less than 50 mm for bricks
and perpend joints filled. or 75 mm for blocks. Those patterns which depart
The designer should consider the detailed from the principle of having adequate distance
recommendations given in 26.2.2 when seeking to between the cross joints in adjacent courses,
achieve satisfactory sound insulation. particularly stack bond, should be used only where
26.2.2 Construction details experience or experimental data indicate that they
are satisfactory for the particular construction.
26.2.2.1 Separating walls. The minimum thickness
of a separating wall required for sound insulation
should always be maintained, particularly where
chases, recesses, chimney flues, electrical sockets,
etc. are to be built into a wall.
74 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
The overall dimensions of walls and the positions Shell bedding for solid and cellular blocks may be
and sizes of openings and piers should be chosen used only by permission of the designer, since it
bearing in mind the dimensions of the type of unit to affects the strength of the finished wall.
be used and the dimensions of the special units 27.2 Architectural features
available, so that cutting of the units will be kept to
a minimum and irregular or broken bond will be 27.2.1 Architectural features such as plinths, string
avoided. Flue blocks, where built into a wall, should courses and cornices may be formed of bricks, blocks
be bonded. or other suitable materials. Their design may
involve considerations of stability, resistance to
The choice of bond may be affected by the need to
abrasion, moisture penetration (see 21.3.1
include reinforcement. and 21.3.2.7) and durability (see 22.5), particularly
The types of masonry bonds and joint finishes that where dissimilar materials are associated.
are commonly used are detailed in Appendix B. Wherever possible, all features should be designed
27.1.2 Brickwork masonry bonds. The masonry to fit with the masonry in length, height or
bonds described in B.1 are commonly used in thickness.
brickwork. Other ornamental bonds, designed for 27.2.2 Features which project from the main plane
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appearance only, may be derived from these of the wall should have their upper surfaces
principal bonds. protected by flashings or weatherings from
Stretcher bond, which consists of stretchers only in downward penetration of water. In modern cavity
each course, is normally used for leaves one-half wall construction, projecting features cannot readily
brick thick whether in solid or cavity walls; other be secured in the wall by weight above as in older
bonds should not be used for such cavity walls solid walls. It may therefore be necessary to hold
unless purpose-made bats are available. The lap is them in place by other means, such as a reinforced
normally half the length of the brick but the concrete, reinforced masonry or steelwork core.
distance may be reduced to not less than 50 mm, as, 27.2.3 Unless bricks are selected for size, their
for example, in short lengths of partition walls to variation in length will usually preclude the
accommodate block bonding of return and building of one brick single-leaf bonded walls having
intersecting walls made of thin blocks. Sleeper walls a fair face on both sides, but this can readily be
and non-loadbearing screen walls may be built achieved by using double-leaf (collar-jointed) walls
using honeycombed construction provided the lap instead.
between courses is at least one-quarter the length of
27.2.4 The facing of external walls of common bricks
the brick.
by veneering materials requires careful
Quetta or Rat-trap bonds may be used in reinforced consideration of their weathering and jointing
brick-work, because these bonds leave voids for the characteristics. If absorbent, the veneer will add to
vertical reinforcement. Rat-trap bond is sometimes the capacity of the wall to act as an overcoat but if
used for garden walls. As the bricks are edge the veneer is impermeable, the success of jointing in
bedded, leaving voids in the thickness of the wall, resisting penetration will become critical. If water
such walls are economical in material; however, gets behind such veneers and cannot readily escape
they lack the strength of a single-leaf wall of the it may cause disruption by sulphation of the mortar
same overall thickness. of the backing material or by crystallization of
27.1.3 Blockwork masonry bonds. Because of the soluble salts.
wide range of available shapes and sizes of blocks, a 27.2.5 Sometimes a separate leaf of brickwork of an
great variety of bonding patterns for facing ornamental leaf is added to a common brick wall to
blockwork is possible. The general principles of improve the appearance. The ornamental leaf
bonding given in 27.1.1 should be observed. The should be adequately fixed to the parent wall, using
masonry bonds described in B.2 are commonly used metal ties, and due consideration should be given to
in blockwork. stability.
Hollow blockwork may be suited to the The parent wall should be regarded as carrying the
incorporation of reinforcement within the voids of load independently of the ornamental leaf, i.e. as a
the units, which are filled with concrete. Where veneered wall.
quoin or reveal blocks are used, alternate short and
long blocks should be used in successive courses to
ensure that the bond within the wall is retained.
© BSI 11-1999 75
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horizontally and vertically, with the floors above already its weakest point.
and below. Reference may be made to BS 5606 When the bottom of the “barrel” rests on brickwork
which quotes characteristic accuracies for various below, a flexible compressible horizontal joint as
materials and components. It is important also that recommended for bricks slips in 20.2.4 should be
the wall above does not overhang its support by provided for the full thickness of the “barrel” and its
more than one-third its width, e.g. 34 mm for vertical backing joint.
a 100 mm wide leaf. The accurate positioning of the
Figure 13(b) shows the essential dimensional
face of concrete in relation to the eventual finished
requirements when using pistol bricks.
face of the masonry is critical and needs close
attention at all stages of design and construction. 27.5 Cut blocks
The method of fixing slips using adhesives is Concrete blocks similar to pistol bricks may be used
described in 32.12. Where more than two courses as an alternative to block slips to match facing
are to be fixed, a mechanical method of tying back concrete blockwork. An alternative method for
slips, such as the one shown in Figure 13(a), should masking the concrete slab or beam is the use of cut
always be used to supplement the adhesives. hollow blocks [see Figure 13(c)]. The cut block is cast
Where fired-clay brick slips are bonded to the nib or into the slab or beam and acts as permanent
toes of a concrete slab or beam, arrangements shuttering whilst the concrete is being laid. It is
should be made to minimize horizontal and vertical important to ensure that the cut blocks are
stresses acting on the courses of slips (see 20.2.4). supported adequately on the formwork whilst the
concrete is being placed.
Bituminous paint should never be applied to
concrete surfaces, as this would severely affect the
adhesion between the concrete and the slips.
The design should ensure that there is enough cover
to reinforcement to allow for removal of laitance
before fixing the slips.
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 13 — Matching facing masonry
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Alternatively, if of soft bricks known as rubbers, the bedding mortar undisturbed. The mortar used
they may be formed on site, either method resulting for pointing should have mix proportions similar to
in gauged arches. These methods may still be those used in the bedding mortar.
demanded for restoration work (see BS 6270-1) but
in modern practice normal bricks are used and the Types of finish for jointing and pointing of work are
wedge shape is achieved by varying the thickness of described in B.3. These should be carefully chosen
mortar joint from intrados to extrados. Arches built in relation to colour, texture, form and durability of
this way were known previously as “rough arches” the units used and the conditions of exposure.
and were used as backing to gauged arches, but Tooling of the joints to compact the mortar helps to
today they are used for facing work. improve the durability of the mortar and the
For uniform loads, a parabolic shape is ideal rain-shedding capacity of the wall. Recessed joints
because the line of thrust coincides with the centre should not be used where there is a danger of
line of the arch ring and eliminates bending and excessive wetting which may lead to damage by
tension. In practice, masonry arches are built as frost action or rain penetration. The depth of the
segments of circles and a parabola is approximated recess should be related to the distance of any
when the rise of the arch equals one-eighth of the perforation of cavity from the exposed face of the
span. unit.
The difficulties of determining the actual loads
acting on arched openings formed within brick
masonry walls means that accurate structural
design is unlikely to be achieved. Usually minor
arches of segmental, parabolic or semicircular form
and up to, for example, 2 m span, can be
proportioned empirically, provided care is taken to
ensure that there is an adequate amount of masonry
over the arch ring and between it and any line of
floor loads and also that adequate resistance is
provided at the abutments
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Figure 14 — Brick arches
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Section 4. Workmanship
essential that large or intricate buildings be set out so as to permit the inspection and sampling of
using an optical instrument. The corners of the individual consignments.
building should be located by nails or by saw-cuts in All materials should be inspected both when
pegs driven firmly into the ground and the accuracy delivered to site and immediately before use, to
of the pegs checked by triangulation. Profiles, check whether they have been subject to
i.e. boards which are securely fixed to pegs driven deterioration or damage.
into the ground and upon which the width of 30.2 Masonry units
foundations, thickness of walls and the projection of
offsets may be clearly marked by saw-cuts or nails, Masonry units should be unloaded by machine or by
should then be set up in line with peg marks but hand on to a dry and reasonably level area or
further away from the corners so as to allow their scaffold. It is important that they should be
use during preliminary building operations whilst carefully stacked to avoid damage and to ensure
remaining undisturbed. Intermediate profiles may stability, and should be protected from rain and
then be established for setting out party walls and snow.
partitions. Where the shape of the wall does not For concrete and calcium silicate masonry units, it
permit the use of profiles, e.g. curved walls, is desirable that provision is made for the free
accurately formed templates for the whole or part of circulation of air within the stack so that masonry
the shape may be used. Curved work may be set out units may dry out before being built into the work.
by theodolite; this is preferable on large radius Particular care should be taken with facing masonry
work. Where a number of openings of similar width units.
are to be formed, a rod cut to the required size may Masonry units should not be stacked directly on
be used to check the width of openings as the work sulphate-bearing ground, clinker or ashes because
rises. To be of use, rod and templates have to be of the danger of chemical contamination through
clearly marked. rising moisture, nor should masonry units be
28.3 Vertical setting out stacked on newly cast slabs until the slabs have
attained sufficient strength.
A levelling instrument and staff should be used to
establish a site datum in relation to the reference Strict precautions should be taken to ensure that
level shown on the setting out drawing. The site stacks of material on floor slabs do not overload the
datum should be fixed at some convenient height, structure. This is particularly important where
preferably ground floor level, and pegs should be masonry units delivered in packs are hoisted direct
established indicating the datum level near each to areas where they are to be used.
quoin; the pegs should be protected (backed up) with It is desirable that facing masonry units should be
concrete. Where long straight length of walling mixed either on site or, by agreement with the
occur, it may be useful to establish intermediate manufacturer, at the works, to avoid the effect of
levels. If it is inconvenient to use pegs, brick or block bands of colour in the finished work.
piers should be used to mark the datum level. Storey 30.3 Cement and hydrated lime
or gauge rods setting out the heights in relation to
the site datum should be prepared. Saw cuts in the Cement and hydrated lime should be stored off the
storey rod should mark the top of each course of ground, kept dry and used in order of delivery.
units, the heights of window and door openings and Cement or hydrated lime affected by dampness
of other relevant features. should never be used.
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the mixer; the appropriate amount of lime and/or then used should be discarded and not retempered.
cement should then be added gradually and allowed If necessary, to restore workability within a 2 h
to mix in. This should then be followed by the period, mortar can be retempered by adding a small
remainder of the sand and any necessary water to amount of water, and remixing thoroughly.
achieve workability. When the mortar is being made Ready-to-use mortars should be used in accordance
from coarse stuff, about three-quarters of the with the manufacturer’s instructions and following
required mixing water should be added to the mixer, the recommendations in Appendix A of
followed by the required quantity of cement, which BS 4721:1981.
should be added slowly to ensure a thin paste free If coloured mortar is used, retempering may cause a
from lumps. The required quantity of coarse stuff significant colour change of the mortar.
should then be added and allowed to mix in,
The working life of mortar will be shorter in hot
together with any additional water to achieve
weather. Fresh mortar should be prepared at the
workability.
rate it is used so that its workability will remain
Admixtures should be used only with the designer’s about the same throughout the day. Mortar that has
permission and following the manufacturers been mixed but not used immediately tends to dry
instructions. out and stiffen. Loss of water by absorption and
When mixing plasticized cement : sand mortars or evaporation on a dry day can be reduced by wetting
masonry cement mortars, care should be taken not the boards and covering the mortar.
to add too much water at the start, as these mortars All tools and containers should be cleaned and
become more fluid as air is entrained. Plasticizers washed after use and when changing coloured
should be mixed with part of the mixing water mortar.
unless the manufacturer’s instructions specify
otherwise. The proportion of mortar plasticizer
should be that recommended by the manufacturer of
the plasticizer according to the mix and type of
aggregate to be used.
Table 17 — Ready-mixed lime : sand mixes for specified cement : lime : sand mortars
Mortar Type of mortar Gauging of cement Mean
designation with lime : sand mix water demand
Specified cement : lime : sand (coarse stuff)
Lime : sand mix
mortar
i) 1 : 0 to !: 3 1 : 12 1:3 30
ii) 1 : " : 4 to 4" 1:9 1 : 4" 35
iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 1:6 1:6 45
iv) 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 1 : 4" 1:9 60
v) 1 : 3 : 10 to 12 1:4 1 : 12 80
NOTE Where mortar of a given compressive strength is specified by the designer, the mix proportions should be determined
from tests or the supplier.
© BSI 11-1999 85
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Specified mix Yield Mean Specified mix Yield Mean Specified Yield Mean
water water mix water
demand demand demand
Proportions
by volume
i) 1 : 0 to ! : 3 0.14 40 — — — — — —
ii) 1 : " : 4 to 4" 0.19 50 1 : 2" to 3" 0.15 35 1 : 3 to 4 0.16 40
iii) 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 0.25 70 1 : 4 to 5 0.21 45 1 : 5 to 6 0.24 50
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bricks should be wetted (docked) for not longer If pointing is desired, the joints should be well raked
than 2 min just before use (less time may be out to a depth of between 10 mm and 15 mm as the
required, depending on the moisture content of the work proceeds to give an adequate key. Joints
bricks). should be brushed out to remove dust and loose
In very dry conditions, easier laying and better material and should be lightly wetted using a brush.
adhesion of calcium silicate bricks may be achieved The mortar used for pointing should not be stronger
by adjusting the consistency of the mortar or than that used when constructing the wall. It is
dipping the bricks briefly in water just before use. desirable to carry out pointing from the top of the
The bricks should not be soaked in water. wall downwards.
Concrete masonry units should not be wetted. 32.7 Bricklaying
Instead the consistency of the mortar should be Bricks should be laid on a full bed of mortar and all
adjusted to suit the suction, if necessary using cross joints and collar joints should be filled.
water-retaining admixtures. Immediately after the brick is laid, excess mortar
For guidance on the characteristics of particular should be struck off the external face of the work
masonry units and appropriate wetting procedures, and off the internal faces of leaves of cavity walls.
the manufacturer should be consulted. Care should be taken to ensure that mortar is not
32.4 Appearance scraped into the exposed face of the brick. Any
accidental smears should be lightly brushed off the
The achievement of vertical alignment of perpends face after the mortar has taken its first set.
may require gauging of bricks, particularly for
Where grout is used to fill collar joints or voids
narrow piers; setting out from the base in relation to
within the thickness of the wall, it should follow the
openings; careful variation of vertical joint width.
recommendations for mortar given in clause 23.
To avoid a patchy appearance, care should be taken Only enough water to make a pourable mix should
to mix facing masonry units from different be added, as excess water may cause segregation
consignments (see 30.2). Colour variation in and undue shrinkage. For any given mortar, the
different batches of mortar, which will also lead to water content should be appropriate to the suction
uneven appearance, may be reduced by consistent rate of fired-clay bricks (see 32.3). The daily lifts
mixing and preparation (see clause 31). should be regulated accordingly.
When laying masonry units, the mortar should not Unless otherwise specified, frogged bricks should be
be allowed to encroach on their exposed faces, since laid frog up and the frogs should be completely filled
it is not easily removed when dry. This applies with mortar. The position and filling of the frogs are
particularly to open-textured masonry units. important, as both can affect the strength and sound
Wherever practicable, facing work racked back insulation of the wall. Cellular bricks should be laid
should not be left overnight before being brought up with their cavities downwards and unfilled.
level. Reinforced and prestressed brick masonry should be
The appearance of finished masonry may be affected constructed following the recommendations
by failure to protect the work during construction of BS 5628-2.
(see 35.2).
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32.10.5 Wherever possible, all cavity trays should 32.11.5 It is essential that the cavity is free from
be supported, either by laying directly on existing protrusions which would form ledges and thus
supporting structures, e.g. the concrete slab upon facilitate the build up of mortar droppings. If a bond
which the inner leaf is built, or by building up the pattern is desired which necessitates the use of
base of the cavity to form a suitable support. snap-headers, these should be either accurately cut,
32.10.6 Weepholes should be formed by leaving sawn or purpose made. The cavity should extend for
open perpend joints at not less than 1 m intervals, at least 150 mm below the lowest d.p.c. If cavity
with not less than two weepholes over each opening. walls are built off the foundation, they should be
Care should be taken to avoid holes being blocked by filled in solid to external ground level. At the base of
mortar droppings; where necessary, they should be the cavity every fourth vertical joint in the outer leaf
cleaned out. This is particularly important where of external walls may be left open to drain the
the use of cavity fill is anticipated. cavity.
32.10.7 Wherever possible, flashings should be built 32.12 Slips
in as the work proceeds. 32.12.1 Preparation of surfaces. It is essential to
32.11 Cavity walls clean all surfaces of the slips and the substrate
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© BSI 11-1999 89
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is still tacky, the mortar should be buttered on to the nor should any inclusion, such as joists, be built into
grouted surfaces and the slips pressed into place. It this section, with the exception of d.p.c. materials
should be noted that, as with conventional mortars, which intrude not more than one-quarter of the
the strength of the bond will be slow to develop at width of the bed joint or 30 mm, whichever is the
low temperatures. lesser. Installation should follow the
32.13 Masonry bonds recommendations of the manufacturer.
To maintain a regular masonry bond and neat 33.5 Arches
appearance at quoins, reveals, joints, etc, special When building an arch, temporary support should
bonding units or closers may be required. A number be provided and the arch should be allowed
of special shaped units are manufactured sufficient time to develop adequate strength before
(see BS 4729). However, it is advisable to consult it is made to carry superimposed loads. Care should
the manufacturer at an early stage about the be taken to butt up the voussoirs, either by using
availability of such units. rubbers or by varying the thickness of the joint
(see 27.6). In cavity construction, cavity trays
33 Constructional details should be of malleable material, curved to follow the
33.1 Quoins and reveals arch, or preformed.
When constructing quoins and reveals, particular 33.6 Toothing and indenting
care should be taken to check gauge and verticality Where future extensions are required to be provided
as the work proceeds. The use of toothings should be for in a wall, the course terminating in a header or
avoided. bat should have that header, and the adjacent
Quoins and reveals in vulnerable positions should closer, if one occurs, bedded in designation iv)
be protected during the period of work on site. mortar so that these units can be easily removed to
33.2 Piers enable the bond to continue. Alternatively, units can
be left projecting or omitted and where this is done,
Broken bond should be avoided in piers and the the upper exposed surfaces of the units should be
bonding of the quoins should be such as to preserve weathered in designation iv) mortar.
symmetry in the appearance of the work. Piers
which are required to strengthen the wall should be 33.7 Connections between walls and partitions
properly bonded or tied into the parent wall. Walls and partitions should generally be bonded,
33.3 Sills and thresholds tied or dowelled to one another at angles and
junctions, but particular care should be taken to
One-piece sills or thresholds, e.g. stone or concrete, construct joints as shown on detailed drawings, as
should be bedded with mortar only below the ends or they may be required to accommodate movement in
stoolings, to prevent fracture of the sill in the event a particular direction or to be totally discontinuous.
of thermal movement and differential settlement. Where it is necessary for a partition to be connected
The open joint should be pointed with mortar on to an adjacent wall or column, this should be done by
completion of the masonry. Timber, pervious or toothing or block bonding unless otherwise
jointed sills or subsills should be provided with a specified.
d.p.c. for the full length and width of the sill bed.
Sills should be adequately weathered to prevent
water lying on their upper face.
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33.8 Movement joints Where chases have to be cut, suitable power tools
Movement joints should be formed as the work which do not operate by heavy impact, e.g. rotary
proceeds. For efficiency in the performance of tools, should be used so that the depth
sealants, it is essential that the joint is properly recommended in 19.6 is not exceeded. Fixing units
designed and prepared (see 20.3 and 20.4). Back-up (bricks or blocks), where required, should be built
material should be placed within the joint in such a into the wall or partition in the correct positions for
way that the distance of its face from the joint face skirting, rails and other items of joinery, fittings,
will allow the correct depth of seal to be used. The etc.
faces of the joint to which sealant is to be applied
should be clean and free from loose material; they 35 Protection against damage during
should also be dry unless otherwise specified. construction
Application of primer and sealant should be in 35.1 General
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Care should be taken to apply the sealant to the full Care should be taken to anticipate and prevent
specified depth, avoiding bubbles. The sealant damage or disfigurement to the finished work due to
weather, subsequent building or other operations.
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Where work is to be carried out in frosty or freezing c) Protection of the finished work by an insulated
conditions, particular attention should be paid to waterproof covering.
protection of the materials and finished masonry, d) Provision of complete heated enclosures to
since water in the mortar mix and masonry units protect both masonry and operatives. In this
may cause considerable damage to the masonry if it condition, both the mixing plant and materials
is allowed to freeze. During cold weather, the mortar should, ideally, be housed within the enclosure.
will be slow to gain strength and, therefore, any
The following precautions should generally be
precautions should be maintained until the mortar
implemented in freezing conditions:
has gained sufficient strength to resist being frozen.
Because of the possible damage that may occur to 1) the masonry units in the stack should be
newly constructed masonry in cold weather, no protected from becoming saturated;
masonry units should be laid when the temperature 2) the sand should be protected by waterproof
is at or below 3 °C, unless precautions are taken to insulating covers (insulating quilts, tarpaulins or
ensure that the mortar has a minimum temperature similar) supported clear of the sand to improve
of 4 °C when laid and that the masonry is protected thermal insulation.
from becoming frozen until the mortar has
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92 © BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:1985
well vary according to the general shape of the been found practicable to recommend coefficients for
building and in many cases cannot be quantified. total effective free movement of concrete and
calcium silicate masonry. However, where joints are
The determination of movement is thus a complex
provided in accordance with 20.3.2.3 and 20.3.2.4,
problem which cannot be solved simply by adding or
the total effective free movement will be small and
subtracting individual values for thermal
detailed calculations are unnecessary.
movement, moisture movement, creep, deflection,
etc. The various individual movements are treated A.3 Determination of spacing and widths of
separately in A.4 to A.6. movement joints
Any estimation of movement has to rely to a great There is no convenient mathematical expression for
extent on engineering judgement, since many determining the position of movement joints in
factors, such as the temperature and moisture masonry. However, the basic principle is that the
content of the material at the time of construction, distance between joints should be such that the
weather conditions and degree of restraint, are longitudinal strain induced in the wall is no greater
unpredictable. than the strain capacity of the wall. Owing to the
difficulty of computing joint spacings on this basis,
A.2 Determination of total movement within a
recommended spacings based on practical
wall
experience have been given in clause 20. It is
A.2.1 General essential that the maximum movement in the
To determine the movement that is likely to take masonry should be no greater than the permitted
place within an actual wall, the individual movement in the joint sealant.
movements described in A.4 to A.6 have to be Thus:
considered in combination.
Length of masoary Permitted strain in sealant
An estimate of the total movement may be made by --------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Width of joint Effective strain in wall
summing all the potential free movements.
However, thermal and moisture movements are not
directly additive. For example, a wall which
expands due to thermal or moisture action alone
generally becomes cooler when wetted by rain. The
exact effect of such a combination is in practice
extremely difficult to determine. All that can be said
is that the maximum thermal and moisture
movements should not be added together to arrive
at the total effective free movement.
© BSI 11-1999 93
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7) Adsorptionis the term used to describe the bonding of water molecules to the molecules of the masonry material. It should not
be confused with absorption, which refers to the entry of water molecules into the pores of the masonry.
94 © BSI 11-1999
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In considering Figure 16(b), it may be seen that the Typical shrinkage values for mortars are given
potential free movement within a wall is related to in Table 21. The actual values will depend on the
the moisture content at the time of laying. Since constituents of the mortar, the proportions of the
concrete and calcium silicate masonry units have a mix and the ambient relative humidity. For
general tendency to shrink as they dry out, it is clear convenience, however, the lower values in the table
that keeping these masonry units as dry as may be taken to apply to mortars in external walls
practicable before and during construction will and the higher values to mortars in internal walls.
reduce any subsequent movement. Also, the The resulting movement of internal walls may
expected movement may be less for walls built generally be neglected, since they are unlikely to
under cover than external walls, subject to the become wet after drying out initially.
relative humidity. Table 21 — Shrinkage of mortars due to
The potential free movement may be modified by change in moisture content
restraints. It should be noted that such restraints, Stage Shrinkage
particularly at the end of a wall, are likely to
%
increase the tensile stresses in the wall.
Initial drying 0.04 to 0.10
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98 © BSI 11-1999
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© BSI 11-1999
Figure 17 — Brick masonry bonds
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Index
In this index references are to clause, appendix, table and figure numbers.
Access for the disabled 3 Bed joints 2.24.1, 26.2.1, 32.8, 32.11.4 fired-clay
Accidental loading 18.1 Blocks, concrete8) see also Masonry units design
design adhesion 17.5
Accuracy in building 3, 17.1
adhesion 17.5
Acoustic properties 17.1, 26 durability 22.6, Table 13
cut to match facing masonry 27.5 frost attack 22.3.2
Adhesion
durability 22.6, Table 13
design 17.1, 17.5 movement Appendix A
frost attack 22.3.4
workmanship 32.3 selection 17.6, Table 6
movement Appendix A slips 2.27.4, 27.3
Admixtures
selection 17.6, Table 6
mix design 23.2.1, 23.3 sulphate attack 22.4
slips 27.3
specification 6.4 water absorption 22.3.2
sulphate attack 22.4
workmanship 31 specification 5.1
specification 5.1 workmanship
Adsorption 20.1, Appendix A
workmanship
Aggregates adhesion 32.3
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adhesion 32.3
effect on d.p.cs 21.5.7 laying 32.7
handling 32.8
mix design 23.1, Table 15 slips 32.12
laying 32.8
specification 6.3 pistol 2.27.3, 27.4
slips 32.12
storage on site 30.4
workmanship 32.2, 32.10.1 Blockwork, concrete see also Masonry
design Calcium chloride, prohibition
Airbricks of 6.4.2, 23.3
masonry bonds 27.1.3
design 27.10 Cappings
movement joints 20.3, 2.4
specification 12 definition 2.2
resistance to rain
Alternative components 4 penetration 21.3.2.5, 21.3.3 design 21.7
Alternative materials 4 durability 22.1.3, Table 13(I)
Bonding ties
Alternative methods 4 protection against corrosion 22.7.1, effect on durability of masonry 22.5
Analysis of structures 3 Table 14 Carbonation 20.1, Appendix A
Anchorages specification 8, Table 1 Cast stone 13, 15
design workmanship 33.7 Cavity closers 21.5.4
fixed supports 18.4.2.2, Figure 5 Cavity insulation foreword, 21.3.1,
Bricks see also Masonry units
floors Figure 7 calcium silicate 21.3.2.6, 21.4.2, 21.4.6, 21.5.5, 25.3,
roofs Figure 7 32.10.6
design
simple supports 18.4.2.2, Figure 5 Cavity trays
adhesion 17.5
protection against corrosion 22.7.1, definition 2.3
durability 22.6, Table 13
Table 14 design 21.4.2, 21.4.3, 21.4.4
frost attack 22.3.3
specification 8, Table 1 in arches 27.6
movement Appendix A
types 19.4, Figure 8 in chimneys 21.5.8
selection 17.6, Table 6
Appearance of facing work 32.4, 32.8 in external wall becoming internal
sulphate attack 22.4 wall 21.8
Arches specification 5.1
design 27.6 in parapets 21.5.7
workmanship in structural frames 21.9
workmanship 33.5
adhesion 32.3 over openings 21.5.5
Architectural features laying 32.7
design 27.2 protection against corrosion 22.7.1,
concrete8) Table 14
effect on durability 22.5
design workmanship 32.10.5
effect on rain
adhesion 17.5 Cavity walls see also Masonry and Walls
penetration 21.3.1, 21.3.2.7
durability 22.6, Table 13 definition 2.28.2
Balcony thresholds 21.5.6, Figure 12(f)
frost attack 22.3.4 design
Bat 2.1
movement Appendix A area of walls with edge
Bearings
selection 17.6, Table 6 restraint 18.4.2.1
design
sulphate attack 22.4 condensation 25.6
floors 19.1
specification 5.1 damp-proof courses 21.4.2
lintels 19.3
workmanship ducts 27.10
walls beneath structural
members 20.2.2 adhesion 32.3 exclusion of moisture 21.1,
laying 32.7 21.3.2.6, 21.3.2.7
walls subjected to concentrated
loads 18.3 damp-proof course 10, Table 12, fire resistance 24, Table 16(C) and
Table 13 Table 16(D)
workmanship 32.1, 33.4
projecting features 27.3
8) Where a clause refers both to concrete blocks and concrete bricks the term precast concrete masonry units is used for brevity.
sound insulation 26.2.1 Creasing, tile 2.5, 21.7 Exposure, Severe/Very Severe
support conditions 18.4.2.2 Cross joint 2.30.3, 32.1 effect on choice of wall ties 19.5
wall ties 19.5 effect on durability 21.1.1, 22.1.3, 22.4
workmanship 32.11 Damp-proof courses (d.p.cs.) effect on protection of metal
Cellular masonry units 18.3, 32.7 components 22.7.1
design
Cement effect on quality of
general 21.4 workmanship 21.3.2.2
mix design 23.1, 23.2, Table 15 positioning 21.5
specification 6.1 above ground level 21.5.2
storage on site 30.3 Factors affecting design 17.1
balcony thresholds 21.5.6,
sulphate attack 22.4 Figure 12(f) Fair faced work 2.9, 32.8
workmanship 31 below ground level 21.5.1 Finishes 17.1, 17.3, 20.3.1, 21.3.1,
Chases 21.3.2.1
cappings 21.7
design 19.6, 27.9 Fire resistance 24, Table 16
chimneys 21.5.8, Figure 9
effect on stability 18.4, 18.5, 19.6 Fittings 19.6, 20.3.1, 27.9
copings 21.7
placing of movement joints 20.3.2.5 Fixing units 2.27.1, 34
external wall becoming an internal
workmanship 34 wall 21.8, Figure 12(h) Fixings
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movement joints 20.3.1 Timber, protection against Wall plates 19.1, 19.2
wall ties Table 9(B) corrosion 22.7.3 Wall ties
workmanship 32.7 Toothing 2.23, 33.6, 33.7 design
Special masonry units 2.27.6, 32.13 Truss roofs, connections general 19.5, Table 9
Spreader beams 18.3, 19.2 with straps Figure 7(d) sound insulation 26.2.1
Squints 2.26.7 without straps Figure 7(e) specification 7
Stability 18, 19 workmanship 32.11
Stop-ends 21.4.5, 21.5.5, Figure 12 Veneering 27.2.4 Water, quality of 6.5
Storage on site 30 Veneered walls 2.28.7, 27.2.5 Water repellents 21.3.2.1, Table 11(B)
Stretchers 2.26.8, Figure 17 Weathering 2.29, 16, 21.6
String courses 2.22, 27.2.1 Weepholes 21.4.6, 32.10.6
Walls see also Masonry, Single-leaf walls
Suction rate 17.5, 32.3 and Cavity walls Wetting of masonry units 17.5, 32.3
Sulphate attack 21.3.2.1, 22.1.2, 22.1.3, external becoming internal (d.p.c.s) Wind-driven rain index 21.1, 21.2
22.4 21.8, Figure 12(h) Windows see also Openings
Sulphate-resisting cement 6.1, 22.4, external flanking walls (sound design
Table 13 insulation) 26.2.2.2 effect on durability of masonry 22.5
Supervision 36
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Publications referred to
BS 3111, Specification for steel wire for cold forged fasteners and similar components.
BS 3111-2, Stainless steel.
BS 3148, Methods of test for water for making concrete (including notes on the suitability of the water).
BS 3416, Black bitumen coating solutions for cold application.
BS 3797, Specification for lightweight aggregates for concrete.
BS 3797-2, Metric units.
BS 3826, Silicone-based water repellents for masonry.
BS 3921, Specification for clay bricks.
BS 4027, Specification for sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
BS 4254, Specification for two-part polysulphide-based sealants.
BS 4360, Specification for weldable structural steels.
BS 4721, Specification for ready-mixed building mortars.
BS 4729, Shapes and dimensions of special bricks.
BS 4887, Mortar plasticizers.
BS 5215, One-part gun-grade polysulphide-based sealants.
BS 5224, Specification for masonry cement.
Licensed copy:Scott Wilson Holdings, 07/03/2005, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
BS 5250, Code of basic data for the design of buildings: the control of condensation in dwellings.
BS 5262, Code of practice for external rendered finishes.
BS 5268, Code of practice for the structural use of timber.
BS 5268-5, Preservative treatments for constructional timber.
BS 5390, Code of practice for stone masonry.
BS 5440, Code of practice for flues and air supply for gas appliances of rated input not exceeding 60 kW (1st
and 2nd family gases).
BS 5440-1, Flues.
BS 5493, Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structures against corrosion.
BS 5606, Code of practice for accuracy in building.
BS 5618, Code of practice for the thermal insulation of cavity walls (with masonry inner and outer leaves)
by filling with urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam.
BS 5628, Code of practice for use of masonry.
BS 5628-1, Structural use of unreinforced masonry.
BS 5628-2, Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry.
BS 5642, Sills and copings.
BS 5642-1, Specification for window sills of precast concrete, cast stone, clayware, slate and natural stone.
BS 5642-2, Specification for copings of precast concrete, cast stone, clayware, slate and natural stone.
BS 5810, Code of practice for access for the disabled to buildings.
BS 5838, Specification for dry packaged cementitious mixes.
BS 5838-2, Prepacked mortar mixes.
BS 5889, Specification for silicone based building sealants.
BS 5896, Specification for high tensile steel wire strand for the prestressing of concrete.
BS 5973, Code of practice for access and working scaffolds and special scaffold structures in steel.
BS 5974, Code of practice for temporarily installed suspended scaffolds and access equipment.
BS 5977, Lintels.
BS 5977-2, Specification for prefabricated lintels.
BS 6017, Specification for copper refinery shapes.
BS 6073, Precast concrete masonry units.
BS 6073-1, Specification for precast concrete masonry units.
BS 6100, Glossary of building and civil engineering terms.
BS 6100-5, Masonry.
BS 6150, Code of practice for painting of buildings.
BS 6178, Joist hangers.
BS 6178-1, Specification for joist hangers for building into masonry walls of domestic dwellings.
BS 6180, Code of practice for protective barriers in and about buildings.
BS 6213, Guide to the selection of constructional sealants.
BS 6232, Thermal insulation of cavity walls by filling with blown man-made mineral fibre.
BS 6270, Code of practice for cleaning and surface repair of buildings.
BS 6270-1, Natural stone, cast stone and clay and calcium silicate brick masonry.
BS 6323, Specification for seamless and welded steel tubes for automobile, mechanical and general
engineering purposes.
BS 6398, Specification for bitumen damp-proof courses for masonry.
BS 6399, Design loading for buildings.
BS 6399-1, Code of practice for dead and imposed loads.
BS 6457, Specification for reconstructed stone masonry units.
BS 6461, Installation of chimneys and flues for domestic appliances burning solid fuels (including wood and
peat).
BS 6510, Specification for steel windows, windowboards and doors.
BS 6515, Specification for polyethylene damp-proof courses for masonry.
BS 6577, Specification for mastic asphalt for building (natural rock asphalt aggregate).
Licensed copy:Scott Wilson Holdings, 07/03/2005, Uncontrolled Copy, © BSI
9)
Published by the Chartered Institution of Building Services.
10)
Published by the British Ceramic Research Association.
11)
Published by the Building Research Establishment.
© BSI 11-1999
BS 5628-3:
1985
BSI — British Standards Institution
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British Standards. It presents the UK view on standards in Europe and at the
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