THE WOMAN QUESTION in the Philippines Sr. Mary John Mananzan, OSB INSTITUTE OF WOMEN'S STUDIES fama tu M. Murhama Manila, Philippines by ©1997 ue tay anFirst Printing: Daughters of St. Paul Pasay City, Philippines Revised Edition Fourth Printing: Institute of Women’s Studies ©2006, Institute of Women’s Studies, Manila, Philippines All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise—-without permission from the Institute of Women’s Studies, St. Scholastica's College, 931 Estrada Street, Manila, Philippines. Cover photo by Manolo Araneta from “All Four of Me” by Rhoda Recto; Feminist Expressions, Series 1 (1995). ‘Proface After a course in Women's Studies, a participant suggested thar the lectures I give be published to serve as a source book for those who have taken the Basic Women’s Orientation. A pamphlet entitled Women Question in the Philippines was thus published by the Daughters of St. Paul. This booklet is a revised and expanded version of that pamphlet. For the sake of completion two chapters have been added, “Woman in Philippine History” and “Women’s Alternatives.” The contents have been arranged following the logic of women’s studies we at the Institute of Women's Studies discovered after seminars on women’s studies for the past 12 years. Women’s Studies begin with the participants’ own experience, because the proper subject matter of women's This first step, however, can not be included in this booklet because it varies per seminar given, studies is women and their experienc ‘The current situation of women can be understood only from within a historical context. Thus the chapter “Women in Philippines History,” which shows that Filipino women have a collective, “dangerous,” and “subversive” memory of their equality in the precolonial times. It also shows the entry of the features of western patriarchy in Philippines society with the introduction of western civilization and Christianity. The current issues of women are then discussed in the context of the national situation. These are classified according to general issues affecting all women and issues peculiar to the differentsectors of women such as the workers, peasant women, slum dwellers, etc. These concerns are analyzed and explained within the “Women Question” which is the systemic, ideological and global probiem affecting women as women, The woman question is perpetuated in society by three strong socializing factors, namely education, both at home and in school, religion, and the mass media. These institutions condition women’s consciousness about their person and their role and likewise condition men’s consciousness and society's expectation of women. The oppression of women has awakened them into analyzing and questioning their situation, and this has given rise to the women’s movement which has, in turn, brought about women’s alternatives in all areas of life. This portion focuses on three of these alternatives, namely: Women’s Organizations, Women’s Studies and Theology from the Perspective of Women. May this booklet be helpful to all students of women’s studies and may it serve ro make itself obsolete when genuine equality in society and the genuine emancipation of women would render the undertaking of women’s studies unnecessary. Sr. Mary John Mananzan, OSB Institute of Women’s Studies March 1997 preface woman tn philippine history iL THE STATUS OF WOMAN IN THE PRE-COLONIAL ERA... Woman's status in the family Role of the mujer indigena in society THE DOMESTICATION OF WOMEN DURING THE SPANISH REGIME ‘WOMEN DURING THE AMERICAN PERIOD. WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD... THE BEGINNINGS OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT... OTHER READINGB.......... current issues of women bce: INEQUALITY AND DISCRIMINATION .. VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Rape Incest Wife BatteringTRAFFICKING OF WOMEN .... Prostitution Women entertainers Mailorder brides Women overseas contract workers SECTORAL PROBLEMS OF WOMEN... Bea Women workers Peasant women OTHER READINGS. dt socializing factors 26 EDUCATION RELIGION Wei MAU 128 MASS MEDIA OTHER READINGS.........04 se teeeanjecse MRE the woman question and feminism a women’s alternatives 2a WOMEN’S ORGANIZATIONS . Organizing principle Strategies of the women’s movement Women's studies Feminist theology NO TURNING BACK....... Woman in Philippine History WZ, Woman tt philippine history THE STATUS OF WOMAN IN THE PRE-COLONIAL ERA The Filipino Woman has a valuable heritage—the memory of her egalitarian status in pre-colonial Philippines. In all aspects of life, the mujer indigena, as she was then called, enjoyed the same privileges, rights and opportunities as her male counterpart. Woman's status in the family In the family, a baby girl was as welcome as the boy was, if not more so. This is because in marriage, dowry was given by the bridegroom to the bride. Furthermore, a month before the wedding, the groom had to give a one-month bride service in the home of the girl, helping the father in the fields or fetching water for the household chores, etc. The people then had no concept of 1IME WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES virginity as a value. They had nie notion that a girl has something to protect, unlike the boy. Consequently they treated the boy and the gitl in the same manner, not overprotecting the girl while allowing more freedom of movement to the boy. So the daughter grew up active in all the spheres where the son was active” Pedro Paterno writes of this equality in childrearing: The fertile banks of the Nile resemble that of the beautiful riverside of the Pasig in the manner of coming for its flower. In both riversides, the women are as well educated as the men. The Egyptians, like the Tagalogs, oblige their youth without distinction of sexes, to do physical exercises as well as that of the spirit; all are supposed to know at least to read and write.! As to the relationship of husband and wife, Robert Fox says: Relationships between husband and wife were remarkably equalitarian; it is doubsful if even the term "Patricentric” could be applied to the preSpanish Filipino family. This was die also the bilateral character of the family and inship in which each spouse, after mariage, continued to maintain strong blood ties with his or her kinsman. The property which a spouse brought to marriage remained an individual possession ? Role of the mujer indigena in society * In economic life. In the economic field, the woman could engage in agriculture and could trade with the Chinese TPedro Paterno, La Antigua Civilizacion Tagalog, Madrid: Tipografia de Manuel G. Fernandez, 1887, p. 241 ?Robert Fox, "The Philippines in Preshistorie Times,” in Journal of History 2: pp, 457-458. Women 1x Pllippne Hator merchants in her own right. In fact, because women had gained a special reliability in fulfilling contracts, these were deemetl valid only if gained by them. The active role of women in economic activities is confirmed by Paterno: The Tagalog women, both rich and poor, pride themselves in speaking about their serious and productive (work), about commerce, and their fathers, also rich and powerful, put a great amount of their capital in the hands of their wives and daughters. In this manner, one sees very often young women directing, on their own initiative, not only domestic but also commercial enterprises, one time dictating the correspondence, at other times making contracts and billings, and still at other times confirming, authorizing or endorsing the contracts of their husbands.? * In the political arena, The oral history of the pre-colonial people is replete with evidences of the political role of the woman, The legendary first lawgiver was a woman, Lubluban, whose rulesand regulations concerning rituals, inheritance and property were observed from one generation to another, usually in songs, The ruler Datu Marikudo had to secure the consent of his wife Queen Maniwantiwan before he could sell his land to the Bornean Malay immigrants. Another woman rier, Queen Sima, is said to have ruled Cotabato in the seventh century with integrity, uprightness, honesty and justite. Strict primogeniture was observed. When a chief of a tribe died, he or she was succeeded by the first child, whether this was a boy or a girl. Women had the right to be pact holders, which meant that they could assure another tribe of safety when passing through their territory and implied some political power. ‘Paterno, p. 241‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES * In the religious sphere. Women had a special role in the religious life of the people. The people were very religious and every important aspect or event of their life-birth, wedding, death, planting, harvesting—was celebrated with a ritual. The main celebrant was the babaylan or priestess who was also healer and midwife. A man who wanted to perform the ritual was allowed to do so on condition that he wore the dress of the babaylan. The priestess was also a religious practitioner who had either special training or charisma to contact the spirit ‘world. Living in a world believed to be inhabited by spirits, the ancient Filipinos gave importance to one whom they identified as having the power to communicate with spirits and the supernatural being. THE DOMESTICATION OF WOMEN DURING THE SPANISH REGIME. When the Spaniards came in 1521, they were shocked by the freedom manifested by the mujer indigena, which did not fit into their concept of how women should be and behave since the women in the Iberian peninsula at that time lived like contemplative nuns. Although the missionaries were forced to acknowledge the superior quality of the indigenous woman, they set out to remold her according to the image and likeness of the perfect woman of the Iberian society. For this purpose, they established Catholic schools for girls and women, They translated manuals for training young girls. They introduced the cult of the Virgin Mary, but focused only on the obedient Mary of the Annunciation as the model for young girls, Later on they introduced a human model for the doncella, a sweet young girl, Maria Clara, who was sweet, docile, obedient and self-sacrificing. Assessing the role of this model in the domestication of the Filipino woman, Carmen Guerrero 4 Worm ix Philippine History Nakpil considered her “the greatest misfortune to have befallen Filipino women in the last one hundred years.”4 Ironically, while taking all efforts to convince the indigenous woman that she had a pearl of great price, her virginity, to protect, the Spaniards, both lay and religious, were guilty of robbing her of this very same treasure. The documents of the inquisition found in the Archivo General de Nacion serve as evidence of these transgressions. Furthermore, prostitution was introduced in the service of the Spanish soldiers. The women were thus maintained by the King and were in his employ. During the Propaganda movement, one of the most bitterly denounced abuses of the Spanish friar was the sexual exploitation of women. Members of the movement including Jose Rizal and Marcelo del Pilar also deplored the education of the women which was confined to “lighting candles and mumbling novenas.” However, in spite of the domesticating education the Filipino women received during this period, the Filipino woman guarded in her heart the subversive memory of her equality before the Spaniards came. Throughout the subsequent periods, women broke through the mold to exert their influence in society. During the Ilocos Revolt of 1807, a Spanish friar of Batac who tried to rally the people against the “rebels” indignantly reported a wot who dared to preach against him: Last Sunday, them to the I preached again to the people, exhorting obligation and vassalage to the sovereign so that those who have remained faithfiul until then should maintain their sentiment without prevarication, While 1 was thus preaching, « woman had the nerve also to preach, *Carmen Guerrero Nakpil, quoted in Ma, Cristina Velez, Images oj na, Manila: Alaala Foundation, 1975, p. 47. theTHE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES saying that they should not believed — me, that everything I said were lies and that in the name of God and the Gospel, we do nothing but deceive them so that we Spaniards could fleece them, well, we (the friar) are also Spaniards like all the others.° There were the Young Women of Malolos who led a protest movement on their own and preached that “it was dishonorable for a Filipino of their sex to follow the guidance of the priests.” They also demanded higher education for women in their town. To them Jose Rizal wrote from abroad Now that you have responded to our first appeal in interest of the welfare of the people, now that you have sent an example to those who like you, long to have their eyes opened and to be delivered from servitude, new hopes ate awakened in us, and now we even dare to face adversity because we have you for our allies and are. confident of victory.® Women such as Gabriela Silang, Tandang Sora, Gregoria de Jesus, Maria Dizon, Melchora Aquino, Trinidad Tecson and Agueda Kahabagan played significant roles in the history of resistance against Spanish rule WOMEN DURING THE AMERICAN PERIOD In the Filipino-American war, Filipino women enlisted in the army and fought beside the men, building trenches and operating machine guns. During the American rule of the country, women 5 Apuntes Intersantes Sobre Las Islas Filipinas por un Espatiol de larga Experiencia en el pais y Amante del Progreso, Madrid, 1870, p. 59 “Jose Rizal, quoted in Carlos Quirino, The Great Malayan, p. 228. 6 Woman in Philippine Hixory established organizations with civic, humanitarian and political objectives. Hilaria Aguinaldo, wife of General Aguinaldo, established the Women’s Red Cross Association in 1899. In 1905, the first women’s volunteer organization, the Associacion Feminista Filipina, was founded by Concepcion Felix Rodriguez to seek prison reforms, labor reforms for working women and education reforms. As early as 1906 the Association of llonga Feminists, founded by Pura Villanueva Kalaw, raised the issue of woman suffrage. The National Federation of Women's Club, organized in 1921, spearheaded the Suffragette Movement. In 1935, they gained their objective by virtue of Act No. 2711 which granted the woman the right to vote. The League of Women Voters in the Philippines was organized in 1939 to educate the general public on political issues and to encourage people to vote. WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD After the granting of independence in 1946, the First Women’s Civic Assembly was held with the theme “Filipino Women for Nation Building.” The event highlighted the participation of women in public affairs. In 1951, a National Political Party of Women was founded, although this did not last long. Aida Santos gives the following assessment of these first organizations of women: Except for those groups which had been founded especially to further the issue of women’s right of suffrage, most of the groups and associations emphasized the role of a woman as mother, wife and homemaker... Decision making at top levels in all these movements had largely been done by men, and while certain women’s 7‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES association or groups campaigned for their voices to be heard and roles given new definitions, the attempts had not made a substantial impact against the exploitation of women through class and gender. On certain occasions, as a matter of fact, some women's group had been used ‘and manipulated by both the colonial powers and local politicians, The world these women would create was still operating within the dimensions set by men, further aggravated by the deepening colonial values.! THE BEGINNINGS OF THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT ‘The period of the ’60s was a time of social and political upheaval, The worsening conditions of poverty and economic injustice, and after the declaration of Martial Law in 1972, of political repression, awakened an unprecedented social awareness and social involvement. The First Quarter Storm gave a rich harvest of political activists, It was during this period that women's organizations with a feminist perspective began to appear. The first one was Malayang Kilusan ng Makabagong Kababaihan (MAKIBAKA) which was founded in 1970 but had to go underground when Martial Law was declared. There was a lull for some years and it was not until the late '70s and early "80s thar feminist groups were formed—Kilusan ng Kababaihang Pilipino (PILIPINA), Center for Women’s Resources (CWR), Katipunan ng Bagong Pilipina (KABAPA), Samahan ng Makabagong Kababaihang Nagkakaisa (SAMAKANA), ete. After the assassination of Ninoy Aquino, more groups came up such as Women’s Alliance for True Change (WATCH) and Women ‘as 7 Aida Santos, “Do Women Really Hold Up Half the Sky?” in Sr. Mary John Mananzan, OSB, Essays on Women, rev. ed., Manila: Institute of Women's Studies, 1991; pp. 43,45 Woman in Philippine Hutory for the Ouster of Marcos and Boycott (WOMB). In 1984, the Concerned Women of the Philippines (CWP) called for a consultation of the existing women’s groups to work out a common orientation of a Third World Women’s movement. In this consultation, a federation of women’s organizations called General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms, Integrity, Equality, Liberty and Action (GABRIELA) was formed. In 1986, Corazon Aquino became the first woman president of the Philippines. However, the feminists will be the first to disclaim credit for this since Aquino did not come from their ranks. Nonetheless the women’s movement has continued to grow. Many more women’s organizations of different ideological orientation and political lines have sprung up. Service offices such as crisis centers, legal bureaus, migrant women centers, women’s health services, etc. have been established. Women’s Studies have been introduced in colleges and universities. It can truly be said that women’s issuies have definitely gained a place in the social and political agenda of the Philippine society. OTHER READINGS Camiagay, Ma. Luisa, Working Women of Manila in the 19% Century Quezon City: University of the Philippines (University Center for Women’s Studies), 1995 Eviota, Elisabeth. “The Sexual Division of Labour in the Philippines: PreColonial and Colonial Legacies,” The Political Ecoriomy of Gender Women and the Sexual Division of Labor in the Philippines. London, UK and New Jersey, USA: Zed Books Ltd., 1992. An eilirion for distribution only within the Philippines has been reprinted by the Instiruce of Women’s Studies as well Infante, Teresita. The Woman im Early Philippines and Among the Tribal Minorities. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Press, 1975, -,THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES Mananzan, Mary John, OSB, ed. Essays On Women, rev. ed. Manila: Institute of Women's Studies, 1991 Soriano, Rafaelita, ed. Women In Philippine Revolution: Quezon City.: -Printon Press, 1995 Sta, Romana Cruz, Neni. Gabriela Silang. Manila: Tahanan Books for Young Readers, 1992 10 ‘Woman in Philippine History 2 curvent Ussues of women In discussing the current issues of women in the Philippines, 1 shall first treat the general issues that are the concerns of all women regardless of sector. In a later part of the chapter, the particular concerns of the different sectors will be analyzed. INEQUALITY AND DISCRIMINATION Although our Constitution is among the few constitutions that include an equal rights provision, the reality is that the Filipino woman is still discriminated against and subordinated in the home, in the church and in society. In the home, there is still a preference for boys and couples sometimes base their family planning on the birth of a son. Sons have freedom of movement while the daughters are usually overprotected. Girls are usually given household chores from which boys are often exempted. When there is not enough i‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES money, boys are the priority in terms of education. There is an unwritten law in the Filipino family that the first daughter, especially if she is the eldest child, must sacrifice her life for the sake of her brothers and sisters. She usually gives up marriage and works to support her siblings. This is not true of the first son even if he is the eldest child. In marriage, the man is usually considered the head of the house and makes the major decisions. The wife, who usually also works outside the home, still holds the primary responsibility for the management of the household and the children’s education. Although she already bears the burden of pregnancy and childbirth, she still has the principal responsibility of the caring for and nurturing of the children. Not many Filipino husbands, who naturally cannot share the burden of pregnancy and childbirth, would even share in the care of the baby. Equally few are those who would share in the domestic chores. Then there is the tolerated double standard of morality. A woman who is seen eating in a restaurant with a man who is not her husband will be the subject of gossip and speculation. A man, on the other hand, not only eats with a woman who is not his wife but may be known to have a querida or mistress and somehow escape censure. His wife who goes to her mother to complain that her husband is playing around may be met by the advice: “Have patience. After all, he is a man! In society, there are work discriminations against women. There are job advertisements that are “for men only” or “for attractive women” only. There are expected behaviors of women not expected of men. There are courses of study that are supposed to be “for men” and those that are “for women.” Sexist language is still the norm in all forms of communication, with very few expectations. Advertisements use women as sex objects 12 ‘Woman in Philippine History and identify them with commodities to be sold. Top executives in business and majority of government top positions are still male-dominated. The Church is likewise discriminatory, Its teaching that men and women are equal is not consistent with practice, Only men in the Catholic Church can be ordained. The Church teaching on Christian marriage presupposes the subordinate tole of the wife in the name of complementarity. VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN The prevalence of cases of violence against women is the irrefutable proof that there is as yet no equality among: men and women. These cases certainly show an inequality in the sense of security felt by men and women, Rape Everyday in the newspapers, one can come across at least four articles on the rape murder of a woman or incest ot wife beating. In the last year, we have shuddered: at heinous Vizconde massacre, the crimes such as the Zileen Sarmenta case, the Myrna Diones story, etc. They all consist in the brutal rape and murder of innocent young women. There is likew marital rape or date rape, which is not reported because this is not even considered rape since it happens in the context of marriage or in a situation where the gitl freely goes with her boyfriend and is therefore presumed to have been “willing.” Even when victim: urvive rape, it is difficult and often humiliating to obtain justice from the court. The defendant's lawyer cross xxamines the victim with such conrempt.to prove thar either she is a woman of ill repute ot she was so dressed to 13‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES provoke rape or feel pleasure. In the process, she feels as if she had been raped all over again. Furthermore as rape victim, she becomes the object of scorn. She is considered a desgraciada. If the rape results in pregnancy, she has to bear the burden of bringing into the world the reminder of her disgrace and will have to be responsible for the support of the child. Incest A particularly obnoxious form of rape is incest. This is sexual abuse by a relative ~ father, brother, cousin, brother in-law, uncle or even grandfather. This is perpetrated against children sometimes as youngas 11 months. Itis especially heinous because these people, particularly the father, are persons trusted by the child. In fact the child has a natural need for their affection. To exploit this need and shatter the child’s trust is truly unforgivable. In many cases of incest, the mother has a tendency to hide behind a denial defence mechanism. She may have suspicions but two factors blind her: One is the feeling of jealousy, where she interprets the action of her husband as his rejection of her and the transfer of his sexual interest to the child, and the second is the fear that the apprehension of the husband will mean a scandal and eventually, a broken family as well as the loss of the breadwinner. The effect of incest on the child is often a lifetime trauma. Some victims block off the memory and it is only when psychological disturbances in adult life necessitate counselling or therapy that the memories of being molested in childhood come back, She suffers devastation, anger, depression. Some also cannot resolve the guilt they carry, Since they have this need for affection from the perpetrator, they feel guilty about their feelings, as they somehow contributed to the act. Victims 14 Woman in Philippine History of incest find it difficult in later years to enter into intimate relationships with the opposite sex. They also find it difficult to trust. Some become promiscuous, some suicidal. And in many cases, abusive parents have a history of being abused in childhood themselves. Wife-Battering One of the most common forms of domestic violence is wife-battering. Studies show that majority of married women suffer some form of physical violence from their husbands, ranging from a push or a slap, to kicking, punching and actual murder. Some couples already have conflicts before marriage and not a few women have suffered physical violence from their boyfriends. If women think they can reform the men by marrying them, they are very wrong. Marriage just aggravates the matter. The physical violence may be preceded by verbal violenice, insulting gestures, psychological torture, etc. Physical violence is just the culmination of these forms of abuse. In many cases of wife beating, the husbands are found to be immature, irresponsible, insecure. Such husbands are usually paranoid in their jealousy. Even normally intelligent husbands become irrational in their insecurity and would interpret harmless gestures, words and actions in the wrong way. They also give in to drinking or get into drugs and then blame their actions on their being drunk or under the influence of drugs. The violence usually comes in a cycle. After actually beating up their wives, husbands can be very contrite and promise all sorts of things. They can woo them, give them flowers, tell them they love them, etc. Thus the women are lulled into the false hope that their partners will change. But not long after, anything can trigger the violent streak again and the story repeats itself. 15‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES The irony is that the person who vowed to the woman he married that he would love her for better or for worse, in sickness and in health, till death do them part can even be the cause of the death of the partner he has sworn to love. And a lot of women are trapped in such a violent and humiliating situation because they are economically or emotionally dependent. It is difficult for a woman to separate from her husband if she has no way of supporting herself and her children. But some economically independent wives will hesitate to separate from their husband because they cannot imagine life without a husband since the Significance of their life has been defined by this relationship with @ man. They are also reluctant to have a “broken marriage” especially if there are children, and yet they fail to realize the traumatic effect on the childred when they see their mothers humiliated and beaten up. TRAFFICKING OF WOMEN Third World countries like the Philippines, because of the chronic economic crisis, have a particular problem of its women becoming victims of tr. ‘ficking in various forms. Globalization, which integrates the Third World economy into the liberal capitalist system controlled by the Group of Seven, has resulted in the greater impoverishment of people. Profit orientation seeks all way to. make money. This has led to the commodification of sex, and it is the women called upon to give this service. Prostitution The oldest form of commodification of women is prostitution. In the Philippines, prostitution became an institutionalized vice when tourism became one of the pillars of 16 Woman in Philippine History the economy in the 70's. Another contributing factor was the 40 years’ presence in the Philippines of the US military bases in Olongapo zhd Angeles. These were mainly used as R&R centers for American soldiers fighting in the Vietnam War. As with both Angeles and Olongapo, prostitution cities that depend mainly on bars and other entertainment industries developed around the bases. The problems that arose were staggering: venereal diseases, AIDS, proliferation of Amerasian children with “no” fathers, hole-in-the wall abortions, etc. The celebrated case of Rosario Baluyot highlighted the problems of child prostitution. Rosario was a twelveyearold prostituted child. A client, a Swiss doctor, inserted a vibrator in her. The vibrator broke and a part of it that was left inside rusted in the course of time, causing infection and finally her death. In the court trial, the Swiss doctor was acquitted for “lack of evidence.” Prostituted women don’t live glamorous lives as some people would think. They get as little as 5% to 10% of the client's fee, they have no vacation, and they are not safe from sadistic clients who often hurt them. They are exploited not only by clients but also by pimps, bars owners and even policemen. An eighteen-year-old prostituted woman who accepted an invitation to speak to a group relates how she became a prostitute. She was 16 years old then and her mother was sick with tuberculosis. Because she had no money to pay the hospital, she went to Ermita with her cousin who acted as pimp. She was a virgin, and the cousin exacted P4,000 from the customer. He then pocketed P2,000 and gave the P2,000 to the girl who had to pay the hospital for the care of her mother. Because she was no longer a virgin and felt like garbage, she decided to continue being a prestiture. In the midst of her narration, her eyes blazed and she said: “If 1 happen to come upon Mang Apeng sleeping, I will certainly kill him!” Mang Apeng, it turns out, was a policeman who, just the night before, accosted her as she and a customer were leaving a bar. 17THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES The American paid him P200 so that the woman would not be arrested. They then proceeded to a motel. At one o'clock a.m., when the woman came down to the lobby, Mang Apeng was waiting. He took the money she had just earned that night! Once for a breakfast fellowship, we invited two prostituted children. It is appalling how the faces of these children mirrored a mixture of innocence and corruption. At one moment they were giggling together like high school kids, and the next moment they were speaking of their work in streetwise language exuding hardness and vulgarity. They explained that when they were first recruited, they could not do the perverse acts expected of them by the customers. As a solution they were given drugs. The longer they stayed on the job, the more addicted they became. The money they earned no longer sufficed to buy drugs, so they became pushers ot criminals in the eyes of the law. Women entertainers abroad Another form of woman-trafficking is the export of women entertainers, mostly ro Japan. These women range in age from 14 to 30 years and are recruited as singers and dancers for the bars, clubs and resorts. In Japan, they have been given the name “Japayuki.” Actually they do not only sing and dance; most of them are forced into prostitution, especially if they fall into the hands of the Yakuza, the Japanese Mafia. If the women refuse, they may be killed. We recall the case of Marictis Sioson, a 20-yearold woman entertainer who worked in the Fukushima Prefecture I. One day, her family received the news that she was sick. Her sister prepared to go to Japan to take care of her. But before she could go, she was told that Mar because months before, she had received disturbing letters from Marictis about her negative experiences in her work, So the sister asked the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) to perform an s was already dead. The sister became suspicious 18 Woman in Philippine History autopsy when Maricris’ body arrived in the Philippines. The NBI report showed lacerations and other evidences of violence. The report concluded that the caused of death was traumatic head injuries. This contradicted the report by the Japanese authorities, which was corroborated by the Philippine consulate in Japan, that Maricris died from natural causes—hepatitis B! Mailorder brides The desire to escape the hard life and unemployment plaguing Philippine society has driven women to contract marriage with foreigners they have never seen. Brochures) marketing Filipino mail-order brides insult not only Filipino women but also white women. One brochure, for example, reads: “Are you sick and tired of dominant liberated white women? Do you want a sweet, docile wife who will be your mistress and your maid? Go to the Philippines.” Another brochure even gives three months’ guarantee—that if the customer is not satisfied, he can return the woman! A visit to a Woman’s Center in Germany corroborates this with examples of German men who have had five or six “wives” of different nationalitiesFilipino, Thai, Sti- Lankan, etc. one after the other. Aside from the objectionable commercial-flesh trade transactions involved, there are the consequent problems that the Filipino woman usually become prey to. Most of them come from remote barrios and have to cope not only with the normal demands of marriage but also with the language problem, the extreme and hard weather they are not accustomed to, the culture shock, etc. ‘We should also remember that most of the men who advertise for foreign wives are those who find difficulty in finding wives in their own culture such as old men, ex-convicts and psychologically imbalanced persons. Many Filipino brides find out too late that it would have been better for them to be overseas workers because 19‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES then, they would at least be earning some money to send home. As wives, they have no money of their own that they can spend freely and independently. Besides, it would be impossible for someone who grew up in a foreign culture to understand why the women should be sending money to their families. Very soon, there is disillusion on both sides. The frustrations sometimes lead to violence. But the women cannot go home only to suffer loss of face. Also, by this time, they would have one or two children the custody of whom will never be given to them because they are poor. So they continue to live in humiliating or even painful conditions. Or they go to the Frauenhaus’and try to find jobs if they can no longer stand living with their husbands. Some of them end up in prostitution. Cases of insanity and suicide have also been reported. Women overseas contract workers Having a slightly higher status than entertainers or mail- order brides are the overseas women workers. They have the consolation of having a “decent job” as domestic helpers. However, most of these women are college graduates and professionals—teachers, dietitians, midwives, etc, The only job open to them overseas is domestic work. Conversations with them show a progressive lowering of self: esteem exemplified in an incident where a Filipino woman worker in Madrid asked a Sister if she had the inanual for administering 1.Q tests, She wanted to take one because she felt her 1.Q. steadily declining. Follow-up inquiry showed that she used to work in the Current Accounts Section of a big bank in Makati. Aside from the loss of self-esteem, these women suffer such loneliness that they are driven into all sorts of relationships where they end up being unwed mothers or in abortion and psychological trauma, The fact that there are many more 20 Woman in Philippine History Filipino women than men in some countries gives rise to multiple partnerships by the men and the consequent disruption of families. When babies are born, they are usually brought home to the Philippines to be taken care of by the grandmothers. After two years, the mothers suffer anguish when their babies do not recognize them as their mothers. ‘There are some who are raped by their masters. Others are accused of theft, especially when they want to leave without the employer's consent. The cases of Flor Contemplacion and Sara Balabagan dramatize the problems of overseas women workers. Flor Contemplacion was a domestic worker in Singapore accused of killing her friend, another Filipino domestic worker, and het charge, a little boy. Actually the charge was a frame-up. But Flor was executed for a crime she never committed. Sara Balabagan was 14 years old when she worked as a domestic worker in Saudi Arabia. When her employer tried to rape her, she defended herself with a knife, which resulted in the death of her assailant. It was clearly a case of self-defense but she was condemned to death. Because of the international outcry, thankfully, the sentence was commuted to a year in prison, a $40,000 fine, and 100 lashes. Balabagan’s case also highlights the failure of the Philippine consulates in their foreign stations to protect Filipino workers. But the government continues to advocate overseas contract work because of the dollar remittances, which form the bulk of the government's dollar earnings and contribute substantially to the reduction of the balance of payments deficit. SECTORAL PROBLEMS OF WOMEN Aside from the problems that women in general suffer, there are problems, concerns or issues particular to women in the various sectors. Here we will discuss only the basic sectors: the urban poor workers and peasants. 21THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES, Women workers ‘Women workers are discriminated against from the time they are hired through their years of service in the area of promotion, They are the first to be fired when a company is in crisis. Job advertisements still specify conditions such as “For men only” or “Attractive women needed.” There are some humiliating tests that women have to go through. Salesgirls have to show their legs and there are even cases where virginity tests are required. At work, there are health hazards such as the danger of ruining one’s eyesight in the electronics industry where majority of workers are women. This is what is called the “grandma syndrome,” or the impairment of these women workers’ vision. Salesgirls and cashiers in some department stores are not allowed to sit down almost the whole day. Some women factory workers complain of the lack of ventilation of the shop floor. Aside from these, women are easy prey to sexual harassment, both from employers and male coworkers. In fact, in some factories, there is a saying “Get laid or be laid off.” To be promoted, one must go with the manager to a beach house on a weekend. Secretaries are expected not only to serve coffee; a number of them are sextally abused. And most of the victims are ashamed to denounce the perpetrators in fear of losing their jobs. There are certain sectors where, even as the load assigned to both men and women is the same, women are paid lower. Even women professionals at the executive level are discriminated against in the matter of promotion and must work doubly hard to prove their worth. Their disadvantage is that their male counterparts have wives to attend to their needs so that they can concentrate on their jobs. Women managers, on the other hand, are themselves wives who still have to cater to the needs of husbands and children, and therefore have less time for their work. And yet they have to compete for positions with their male counterparts. 22 Woman in Philippine History Peasant women The peasant woman usually bears a triple burden: household chores, work in the fields and marketing of the produce of the land. Although she actually works more hours in the fields, she is usually not considered a farmer but just a helper of her husband farmer. Her contribution to farm work is invisible. In most rural areas, farmers do not own their land but are tenants. So there is the very feudal relationship between the tenant and the landlord. Debts to the landlord are often paid for by the daughters or wife of the farmer, who do domestic work in the household of the landlord. Sometimes this feudal relationship is projected in the home, the farmer taking the place of the landlord in relation to the rest of the household. Since the farmer's family is in constant debt to the landlord, one remedy is for the daughters to go to the city to find work. Some are easy prey to agents who promise them work in the city but end up prostituting them, The women are also susceptible candidates for recruitment as mail-order brides and overseas contract workers. There is a greater danger in women-organizing in the rural areas, as the case of two organizers of the peasant organization, Amihan, illustrate. In the time of the vigilantes, these two organizers were suspected of being New People’s Army (NPA) organizers and were beheaded by the fanatic group Tadtads. One of them was pregnant and she was slit open with the fetus carved out of her. From the foregoing we see that all women suffer some form of discrimination and subordination in varying degrees. Other factors such as class and race exacerbate gender oppression. Thus, a poor woman is doubly vulnerable to oppression and a poor, black, Third ‘World woman would even be more so. It is therefore important to analyze women's issues in the different contexts women find themselves. 23‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES OTHER READINGS Beltran, Ruby and Aurora De Dios, eds. Filipino Women Overseas Contract Workers... At What Cost? Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc., 1992 Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975. De Stoop, Chris. They Are So Sweet, SirThe Cruel World Of Traffickers In inas And Other Women. Belgium: Limitless Asia, 1992 Eviota, Elizabeth. The Political Economy of Gender Women and the Sexual Division of Labour in the Philippines. London, UK and New Jersey, USA: Zed Books Ltd., 1992. An edition for distribution only within the Philippines has been reprinted by the Institute of Women’s Studies as © wel Garcellano, Rosario, Elizabeth Lolarga, and Anna Leah Sarabia, eds. “Sisterhood Is Global,” Dialogues im the Philippines. Quezon City: ‘Women's Media Circle, 1992 Institute of Women’s Studies and InterInstitutional Consortium, Brave Little ‘Women: A Study On Incest. Manila: Institute of Women’ Studies, 1995. Mananzan, Mary John, OSB, Mercy Oduyoye, Elsa Tames, et al., eds, Women Resisting Violence: Spirituality For Life. New York: Orbis Books, Maryknoll, 1996, An edition for distribution only within the Philippines has been reprinted by the Institute of Women’s Studies as well, Rivera, Roselle Lea and Elizabeth Lolarga. Sino Ang May Sala? Pambubugbog Ng Asawa, Quezon City: Circle Publications, 1994 Santos, Aida and Lynn Lee, eds. Awake 2, Women And Sex Tourism, Quezon City: Asian Partnership for Human Development, 1992. Speaking Tree, Women Speak: Asia Pacific Hearing on Crimes against Women Related to the Violence of Development: Asian Women Human Rights Council, 1995 ‘Yanez, Riza, ed. Valuing Women's Work. Quezon City: Women Development & Technoloov Insticute, 192. 24 Woman in Philippine History ao soctallging factors The question that comes to mind after realizing the many forms of women’s oppression is: Why do these continue year after year after year, from generation to generation? Is it in the nature of things that women should be subordinate? It is to be affirmed first of all that this state of affairs is not natural. It is the result of socialization. The most important socializing institutions are education, religion, and mass media. EDUCATION The first venue of a child’s education is the home. The early education of boys and girls is crucial because what they learn in these first years lasts throughout their lives. The socialization begins wheh a baby is born. If it is a boy, he is put in a blue crib and if a girl, in a pink crib. This is not just a matter of color. This is a direction in life. People will teact differently to a baby in a blue crib from one in a pink crib. 25WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES As the infant grows older, this is given dolls and tea sets for toys if this is a girl or a gun or a tank if this is a boy. The psychology of toys is a wish that they were real. So giving stereotyped toys to boys and girls sets their minds to their “future role Toys are avery important pedagogical means of conditioning. If girls are given tea sets and dolls, and boys are given guns and tanks, their stereotyped roles when they grow are already set. The girl will look forward to a domestic role and the boy will look forward to a macho one. Once these sex stereotypes have been ingrained in the minds of both boys and girls, all the institutions, practices and customs in society reinforce them. When a boy falls down, he is told he should not cry because “he is a brave boy.” The message is that he should not show his emotions, that to cry is to be weak. So boys learn to dam their emotions until later on in life, they can no longer keep in touch with these. Their outlet for these pent- up emotions is violence, either to others or to themselves. The girls are usually given household chores so that they will stay at home. This way, they do not endanger their virginity by going about. The boy may roam about because he has nothing to lose. This results in the boy's being less responsible, less mature, and therefore more insecure than the gitl. There is a tendency for the mother, sister, or wife to spoil the male. Sisters must cook and wash the clothes for their brothers even if the latter have greater strength to wring the clothes dry. The stereotyped roles are further confirmed in school which teach sewing to the girls and carpentry to the boys. A grade school textbook shows a picture entitled “A Happy Family” which has in the background, a mother, and daughter cooking and preparing the table, and the foreground, the father reading the newspaper and the son playing with toy tanks and guns. 26 Worn in Philippine History Without any expressed statement, the message that gets to the pupil is that in a happy family, women work while men recreate! Fairy rales, the staple food for reading, reinforce the prince-charming dream. In high school, the adolescent graduates co Mills and Boon romances which are essentially the same as the fairy tales except for their modern settings. Little boys, when asked what they want to be when they grow up, give answers that are oriented toward self-development and selffulfillment. A little girl is conditioned to look forward to finding a prince charming upon whose kiss she will “live happily ever after.” Girls develop an inverted pyramidal value system having as a crucial centerpoint their relationship with a significant man in their lives. All else depend on that. No wonder when this relationship collapses, the world of the women collapses. The men tend to develop a lateral valuation system where they have parallel values: first, their career, then the significant woman in their life, then male friends, then women friends or lovers. They don’t ustilly collapse when the relationship with the significant woman in their life collapses. The women’s values become focused on their marriage markerability and their reproductive capability. This is why women hide their age because at middle age, all the factors that “made them attractive” wane while men of 40, for example, are considered at the apex of their virility. Because of the focus on the goal of “catching a man,” the value ingrained in girls and women is that of physical beauty or attractiveness. Between a pretty girl who is dumb and a plain girl who is intelligent, it is the latter who develops an inferiority complex. An intelligent girl is a threat to suitors and must act less smart if she wishes to “keep a man.” The whole multimillion cosmetics and beauty aid industry caters to this value of “being beautiful” ar all cost. Ir also conditions 24‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES the girl to spend more time than necessary on these trivial pursuits than on more important endeavors. Jeepney drivers will make place for a pretty girl and will leave behind an unattractive one. People will blame delinquency of children on the absence of the working mother, never on the absence of the father. Men who have learned to help their wives in domestic chores are labeled “henpecked.” The sad thing is that when women are not conscienticized, they so internalize their “roles” that they perpetuate the situation from one generation to the next. RELIGION One of the most important gendersocializing factors is religion. In every institutionalized religion, there are liberating as well as oppressive forces. Unfortunately, in almost every religion, it is the oppressive forces regarding women that have prevailed throughout the centuries. In the Hebrew Christian tradition, the religious root of women’s oppression has different aspects + Woman and the Bible and Church History. The Bible has been attributed to men, translated by men, and taught by men for 2,000 years, so it is no wonder that this male bias is used to perpetuate the subordination of women. The main message of the Bible is liberation and the integral salvation of the human being, but the popular interpretation of this contributes to women’s oppression. Actually there are two creation stories, one where it says God created humankind in his image, male and female he created them 27). There is also the creation story that says woman 2:21.23). Itis this second (Genesis was taken from the rib of Adam (Genesi 28 Woman in Philippine History story that is emphasized, and the interpretation of this story is responsible for the poor selfimage of the woman in three ways. First, if she-is taken only from the rib of man, then the man is the principal character and she is just a derived being, Second, if she was created only because man was lonely, then she has no significance of her own except in a relationship of service to a man. Thitd, if she is told that she is guilty for the sin of Adam, then guilt is ingrained into her psyche even for things she is not responsible for. Woman is indicted as temptress, the cause of the fall, and a continuing danger to men. The letters of St. Paul, which are culturally conditioned, are constantly cited to justify the subordinate, inferior role of women, the diminishing of her ministry in the church, her subservience to her husband, etc. Despite the contrary attitude and action of Jesus to women, which was a radical deviation from the customs of Hebtew patriarchy, his apostles and disciples did not seem to learn this important value from him. Very early in Church history, there was the te- patriarchalization of the new organization as accommodation of the patriarchal Roman empire. The writings of the Fathers of the Church and Doctors of the Church who were influential in the formation of the consciousness of the first Christians were misogynistic. About two million women who were actually mystics and healers were burned because they could not fit into the male theological framework of the time. They were considered witches and were put to death in a most excruciating way. * Women in the Church, Among the Church teachings detrimental to women are the insistence on her subordination as wife, the identification of her value with virginity if she is unmarried, and the shift of valuation to her reproductive function once she is married. A moral theology based on the dichotomy of body and soul has identified woman with sex 29‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES and sin, and has implanted so much guilt in women that they feel guilty when they are raped, they feel guilty when they are battered, they feel guilty when their marriage breaks up, they feel guilty when their children do wrong. The Blessed Virgin, who is presented as a model for women, is often portrayed as a passive and submissive plaster Madonna instead of the valiant woman in the Bible who sang the strong verses of the Magnificat and stood courageously at the foot of the Cross. The teachings on marriage emphasize woman's secondary, passive and subservient role in the family. Her reproductive functions are controlled and she is burdened with almost total responsibility for the breakdown of the family although the reality is that many broken marriages, at least in the Philippines, are due to irresponsible, immature and insecure husbands. The structure in the Church is hierarchical and clerical and since only men can become clergy, the women are excluded from major decision-making in the Church. They have no major role in its worship even if the great majority who actually attend worship are women. It is ironic that given this presence of women, they are rendered invisible by the non-inclusive language of the liturgy that addresses the congregation as “brothers” and urges them to pray for the “salvation of all men.” The socialization effected by education and religion is a result of a thousand and one things which, when taken individually, may sound trivial. However, the cumulative effect is the successful perpetuation of a patriarchal society. MASS MEDIA Mass media is another effective form of socialization because it reaches so many people and invades even the privacy 30 eee Woman in Philippine History of the home. It has profound influence on the formation of values, opinions and attitudes. Unfortunately it has been very successful in the confirmation of the stereotyped sex roles and sexist values ingrained by education and religion. In advertisements, women are not only discriminated against but actually exploited. When there is a hospital scene, the doctor is a man and the nurse, a woman. In an office scene, you see a woman secretary serving coffee to a male boss. Women are depicted in lascivious, indecent and stupid roles to promote products. There are even ads where the face of the woman becomes the wine bottle or the product. This identification with a commodity is truly insulting. In advertisements of a home product, a myth is created that household chores are easy, cleaning is magical, and housewives simply have such fun laundering all the wash with this or that brand of soap. This contributes to the trivialization of domestic work, its continuous lack of economic valuation and the perpetuation of “it's women’s work.” In pornography, whether in print or non-print media, the woman is not only depicted in obscene and indecent ways as a sex object for the pleasure of the male. She is actually degraded and treated as garbage. The essence of pornography is this degradation of women, of her being a victim of physical violence in a sexual context. Males, especially those who already have neurotic or psychotic tendencies, seeing these images day in and day out, tend to act them out, as proven by the confession of a rapist murderer who not only raped but also killed his two young victims—one an eightyearold and the other a nine-year- old—in re-enactment of pornographic movies he had seen. It should be stressed that these three main socializing forces in influencing the consciousness of society regarding women— education, religion and mass media~are also the main avenuies of change in consciousness regarding the gender issue. 31THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES OTHER READINGS Afonuevo, Carolyn. Women, Education And Empowerment: Pathways Towards ‘Autonomy. Germany: UNESCO Institute fro Education, 1995 David, Rina and Pennie Azarcon De la Cruz. Towards Our Own Image: An Alternative Philippine Report on Women and Media. Quezon City: Pilipina, 1972. De la Cruz, Pennie Azarcon. From Virgin To Vamp... Images Of Women In The Philippine Media. Manila: Asian Social Insticute, 1988. Fiorenza, Elisabeth, ed. Searching The Scriptures-A Feminist Introduction, vol. 1. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1993. Gallares, Judette. Images of Courage. Quezon City: Claretian Press, 1995. Meyers, Carol. “Women in the Period of the Hebrew Bible.” In The Women’s Bible Commentary, eds., Carol Newsom and Shanon Ringe, 244-251 Kentucky: Westminster Press, 1992 Ruether, Rosemary. Sexism And God‘valk, Toward A Feminist Theology, Massachusetts: Beacon Press, 1983, Ruether, Rosemary. Women-Church Theology And Practise, New York: Harper & Row, 1988. Stone, Linda, ed. The Education Feminism Reader. New York: Routledge, 1994. Wordelman, Amy. “Women in the Period of the New Testament.” In The ‘Women's Bible Commentary, eds., Carol Newsom and Shanon Ridge, 390-396. Kentucky: Westminster Press, 1992, 32 , Woman in Philippine History q the woman question and feminusm The situation of women described in the preceding chapter is a situation that is true, in whole or part, to women of al races, cultures, religions, nationalities, whether in the First World or Third World, in the East or West, in the North or South. This brings us to the definition of the “woman question.” ‘We must look beyond the empirical data just described. These experiences of women are manifestations of a deeper problem. The “woman question” is the fact or phenomenon, NOT a thesis or hypothesis, of the discrimination, subordination, exploitation and oppression of women AS women, differing in degree or extent, but cutting across class, race, creed and nationality. The woman question is a global, systemic and ideological question. It is not only a personal question, although it is very much so, but also a social question, Hence its solution does not lie in the ability of individual women to break through the system. The solution must be a social solution and this can only be accomplished by a social movement—the women’s movement. 33THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES Furthermore, the solution can not consist merely in palliative or emergency measures like the establishment of a crisis center or the rehabilitation of prostituted women. The solution must involve structural changes and change of consciousness. Although the woman's question cuts across class, race, creed and nationality, it is important t6 note, however, that class and race, for example, may also aggravate the gender issue. For example, a poor woman is definitely more vulnerable to violence that her middle-class counterpart because there are more opportunities for her to be oppressed. By the same token, a black woman is more vulnerable to discrimination than a white woman. Likewise, there exists among women the possibility of inner contradictions. A white woman can oppress a black woman and an upper-class woman can likewise exploit her maid. There is no such thing as a given universal sisterhood among women. This remains a project to be undertaken and a cause to be pursued. The perception of the woman question is what distinguishes women’s organizations from organizations of women. There are organizations composed of women concerned about some specific issue, such as prostitution or woman suffrage, but unless these organizations understand the woman question, they cannot be considered as having the women’s or the feminist perspective. The women’s movement is not just interested in solving any one particular issue. It is interested in systematic change, a change in perspective, changes in structures, and a change in values in the most comprehensive and inclusive manner. The word feminism has come to be used to designate this movement. Unfortunately this word has become loaded with hegative nuances, among chem aggressiveness, bra-burning, hatred of men, etc. It is likewise true that not all women who have the perspective described above would designate themselves as feminist. This is because they feel that feminism grew out of 34 Woman in Philippine History white-middle class experience and imposed on all women. So the black women of the United States call themselves womanists and the Hispanic immigrant women with the same consciousness call themselves mujeristas. Whatever the name, they all answer po ( ively to two questions: Are you aware of the woman questioi 2. Because of this awareness, are you committed to be eradication of all these forms of oppression and discrimination, subordination, and exploitation of women toward a more egalitarian and just society? In the history of feminism, different types of feminists have developed, each contributing something unique to the women’s movement. In reality, there is no pure breed. Neither are there neat boxes to distinguish one from the other. Rather, the differences lie in tendencies or emphases. A helpful schema to differentiate these types is the table below that summarizes the Theoretical Approaches to the Woman Question. Despite their differences, most of these “strains” of feminism point to patriarchy as the overarching ideology at the core of the woman's question. The root word is “patriarch” — meaning father, and patriarchy denotes the absolute rule or power of the father. This may be traced to societies, for example the Hebrews and Romans, where the father was the head of the household and owner, not only of the family's material property such as the house, land, animals, etc., but also of the members of his household: slaves, children, concubines, wives. If you own something, you can do with these as you like. There are stories in the Bible where fathers delivered their daughters to be raped (Job, for example) or to be sacrificed (Jethro). In the Victorian period there arose the “husband patriarchy” by the institution of the “family wage” which was primarily earned by the husband as the chief 35Waoman in Philippine Hucory ‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES “breadwinner of the family.” The patria potestas has been carried over ro other social institutions outside the family in the dominac a of one class over another, of a dominant race over others, of white over colored peoples, and of a powerful country over colonies. So the rule of the father has become the rule of the master, designated by the term coined by Elizabeth Schussler Forenza as Patri-kyriarchy (kyrios meaning lord in Greek)® In contemporary times, Patri-kyriarchy has become the comprehensive system of male dominance. It has permeated all structures of society as well as the consciousness of both men and women, It attempts to control women in three ateas: in her biological reproduction and sexuality, in her wage labor, and in the mode of ideological reproduction. Criticisms Raised by Other Approaches Alors, blvious to Gender myopia, a tendency to be dass reductionist, economic determinist, Insufficient materialist, gives ess importance dass, racial and to patriarchy Not feminist enough ‘atonal oppression racial oppression nship of cl partis and goreraments Rel Women's Movement Subsumed to working — class movement 2 i 5 g 2 ‘Autonomous women's movement 3 z t 2 2 Ee B55 Supportive of ier! Separate women’s separate In the Philippines, western patriarchy was introduced by the Spanish colonizers in the 16" century, as we have seen in Chapter One. The domesticated mujer indigena who used to enjoy an egalitarian status with her male counterpart in all spheres of private and public lifeeconomic, politi and religious—became a subservient Maria Clara, Solution of women’s Oppressi to Larger Political Movement ‘al, social, FEMINIST THEORIES Summary ofthe Theoretical Approaches tothe Woman Question Equality of opportunites, gel al lesbianism, andogyy, women’s culture Separation, revlon in reproduciv technology, socalism Socialism pls OTHER READINGS hs, gender, raceletnicity from Nora Angeles, Feminism and Nationalism, 2 astra thesis Aguilar, Delia. The Feminism Challenge, Manila: Asian Social Institute, 1988. fam, national Sources of to the Woman Question Women’s Oppression Bhasil, Kamla. What Is Patriarchy? New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993. Paiarchy, women's bclogy, sex les, expecially forced motherhood and sexual slavery (pital and Patriarchy sexist sociation (has society, capitalism oppress AImpet Sac Davies, Miranda, comp. Third World Second Sex: Women Struggles and National i Liberation. New Jersey: Zed Books, 1983. Enloe, Cynthia. The Moming After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993, beth Schussler Fiorenza used this term in a talk on domestic violnce she gave during the EATWOT International Dialogue of Woinen Theologians in Costa Rica on December 9-14, 1994. Theoretical Approaches Traditional Marxist Feminism Socialist Feminism Third World Feminism: eral Feminism Radial Feminism 36 37HE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES ar, Alison and Paula Rothenberg. Feminist Frameworks—Alternative i ‘Theoretical Accounts of the Relations Between Women and Men, 3% ed. New York: McGraw Hill Inc., 1993. Lerner, Gerla. The Creation of Feminist Consciousness from Middle Ages to Bighteen-Seventy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, Mies, Maria. Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale, New Jersey: Zed Books, 1986, Reed, Evelyn. Problems of Women's Liberation, New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. Santiago, Lilia Quindoza, ‘Rebirthing Babaye: The Women's Movement in the Philippines.” In The Challenge of Local Feminisms, Women’s Movement in Global Perspective. Amrita Bast ed., pp. 110-127. Tong, Rosemarie. Feminist Thought, A Comprehensive Introduction. London: Westview Press Inc., 1989. 38 Woman in Philippine History : io womens alternatives The gravity of the woman question has mobilized women not only to look for immediste relief to their current problems but to search for a fundamental solution to this problem in all its dimensions—ideological, systemic, structural, and gldbal. Three efforts of women in the Philippines will be discussed in this chapter as examples of the alternatives Filipino women are engaged in. WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS As presented in the last chapter, women-organizing in the Philippines went through two phases, the first beginning in 1900 and the second in the 1970s. The first women’s organizations, although sensitive to women's issues, did not as yet have an analysis of the woman's question as systemic and ideological. Thus they were geared to specific problems of women such as prostitution, and struggled for specific reforms like women’s 39‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES suffrage. The second phase was no less attentive to specific women’s issties but in addition, the feminists had by then started theorizing about the root causes of women’s problems. In the Philippines, there are at present different types of women’s organizatiot grassroots organizations as well as a few groups with a middle-class base (General Assembly Binding Women for Reforms, Integrity, Equality, Liberty and Action, Katipunan ng Bagong Pilipina), service non-government organizations (NGOs) such as crisis centers for abused women (Women Crisis Center, Bathaluman), health centers (Women Health), legal aid centers (Women’s Legal Bureau), migrant women centers (Kanlungan, Batis), research/ documentation centers (Women Education Development Productivity Research Organization, Center for Women's Resources, Women Resource and Research Center, ISIS IntemnationalManila) and alternative media circles (Women Media Circle). There are issue-oriented federations of women's groups. ‘There are also institutions that have mainstreamed women’s studies in universities and colleges (Institute of Women’s Studies). : large alliances made up mostly of sectoral Organizing principle Most Filipino feminists started as political activists. This is a historical fact that influences the character of feminist organizations. Cognizant of the negative nuances of the word feminism, particularly its supposed man-hating stance, the first feminists in the Philippines took pains to define their organizing principle as a Third World Women’s movement. They see the women’s movement as a constitutive dimension of the transformation of society—not merely a woman-against-man endeavor but holistic effort to humanize society. And since one cannot talk of total human transformation if half of society is oppressed, they consider the gender issue as an essential element 40 Woman in Philippine History in the liberation of society as a whole. They regard their vision not just as a goal but likewise as a process. Thus when their male colleagues in the liberation movement tried to prevent them from organizing because this might “water down the main contradiction” of the elite versus the oppressed or “disperse attention and effort,” they fought for the right to address the gender question here and now, and not'when society has been liberated economically and politically, as the men suggested, In other words, they insisted that the resolution of the gender question belongs to the very process of liberation. It is not something that comes automatically with societal liberation to be handed as a gift to women. It is a struggle that they themselves are waging side by side with the struggle for an alternative society. Strategies of the women’s movement Filipino women have adopted different strategies in their struggle for their full humanization. These are: ‘* Organization. Since the woman question is a social question, the solution can not be individual but social emancipation involving the majority of Filipino women. This can only be possible with organization. Trainings for the organization of different sectors have been initiated and women are organized according to class, profession, interest, etc. * Mobilization. Organizations can remain active only if members are mobilized around issues that affect women. These can be both general national issues and specific gender issues. Filipino women believe that national issues are issues of women just as women issues should be national concerns. Mobi range from protest letters, picketing, lobbying, ‘lightning demos,” “tit for tat,” marches and other forms of mass demonstrations. The International Women's Day on March 8 is nationally observed. 41THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES * Education. Since the greater majority of women have internalized their stereotyped roles and oppression, women put much importance on conscientization seminars that provoke women to question their conditioning and the roles imposed on them by society + Feminist Scholarship. Aside from: awareness or gender sensitivity seminars, women have initiated researches and discussion of theoretical frameworks that explain the woman question in their specific contexts. Women Studies have been introduced in schools and there are efforts to give a women’s perspective in the different disciplines taught in school. * Policy/Legal Reform. An initial victory of women in this regard is their success in including the equality provision in the Constitution of 1987. Some laws favorable to women have also been passed like the anti-child prostitutions law and the law on rape. Woinen lawyers have otganized themselves to give legal education to women as well as legal assistance and counseling to women facing specific legal problems. * Women’s Action for Women’s Welfare. Immediate problems require immediate help. Crisis centers has been established to give legal, medical, and psychological help to women victims of rape, incest, and battering, There are some refuge houses that have been. established to shelter them. Day-care and primary health care centers have likewise been established, especially in urban poor communities. Most of these are NGOs that do not receive any subsidy from the government. * Cultural Initiatives. These consist of two distinct phases: the critique of mass media and the arts in theit depiction of women, and the creation of alternative forms of arts and media. 42 Woman in Philippine Hisxory + Networking and Solidarity. Sistethood is a goal of the women’s movement. Although women’s experiencesdiffer according to class, race, or ethnicity, women have overlapping experiences that transcend these barriers, Women need unity to struggle against the overarching ideology of patriarchy. And since the woman question is global, the solution must also be global. Networking within the country and with women’s groups globally is a must. However, there must be mutual respect regarding the analysis and the issue that women adopt in their particular contexts. Although teal differences that divide women have to be faced seriously, such as race and class, there should be genuine effort to emphasize the commonalities that unite rather than the differences that divide. However, constructive critique should also be welcomed. Women's Studies ‘Women’s Studies is in its infancy in the Philippines, This will be discussed mainly from the experience of one pioneer in women’s studies, the Institute of Women’s Studies of St. Scholastica’s College. In 1985, the Dean of College of St. Scholastica’s, who also, happened to be the chairperson of GABRIELA, realizing that the academe must catch up with the women's movement, established a Women’s Studies Program which offered a three- unit Introductory Course to Women’s Studies. The course included the following topics: Nature vs. Nurture, Physiology of Women, Psychology of Women, Women in Philippine History, Current Issues of Women in the Philippines, Feminist Theory, and Woman and Religion. Because of the positive evaluation at the end of the semester by students and teachers alike, the introductory course was made part of the general curriculum and a requirement for graduation. A year later, a ~ Cognate Course consisting of six courses (equivalent to 18 units) was offered. 4B‘THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES ‘The Women’s Studies Program of the college soon developed other projects including outreach seminars and women’s: publications. The time for a formal Institute of Women’s Studies eventually came. The institute received government clearance to operate asa foundation in April 1988. Ithas the following objectives + to awaken consciousness and provide understanding of the woman question through a formal institution educational strategy; + toconduct research studies pertaining to gender issues; + to initiate and administer projects promoting the cause of women; and * to offer outreach programs for women outside the formal educational institution. In 1990, the Institute acquired a three-story building that houses the offices, resource center and seminar facilities. To concretize its objectives, the Institute offers the following programs: * Training Program. The principal course offered is the three- month Intercultural Studies on Women and Society open to women of Asia-Pacific and lately, to African women as well. It consists of modules such as the Rivers of Life, Exposure Program, Country Situationers, Feminist Theories, Woman and Religion, Gender Issues in Development, Woman and Education, Woman in Arts and Media, Feminist Research, Women Organizing, Creative Facilitation and Module Making. Two times a year, a one-month Trainers’ Training Course is offered to actual and potential facilitators of women orientation seminars, Short-term courses such as Gender Fair Education and Gender Sensitivity Training are also given. 44 Woman in Philippine Histor * Publications. The need to have local instructional materials led to the establishment of the program which has produced a three-volume Women’s Studies Series, feminist literary criticism, women’s literary works, and researches. The Institute comes out twice a year with an Asia-Pacific Women’s Studies Journal which features specific themes per issue. * Resource Center. The program started with the collection of books and audio-visual materials and after some time, a considerable amount of material for a vertical file was accumulated. It became clear that a physical center to house these materials was needed and that this should be open to the public, The center is now visited by teachers, students and NGO workers conducting researches for their studies or campaigns. * Radio Broadcast. To reach women who can go neither to the school nor to the Institute, a radio broadcast has been initiated: Voice of Nursia—Women’s Studies on the Air. The onehour broadcast follows the topics of the modules given in the training. It als6 tackles current gender and even national issues from time to time such as violence against women in a period when this was widely discussed in print media asa result of a publicized case of wifebattering by a top government official. Guests are interviewed or topics are discussed in a conversational mode by two anchor persons. * Women's Wholeness Center. This program aims to develop 4 holistic spirituality among women by means of prayer groups, women celebrations, retreats for different groups of women, spirituality courses, etc. Every month, it sponsors a women’s celebration among the institute staff and friends, Both internal and external evaluations conducted have shown that the most important impact on Women’s Studies is on the person or the participant herself. She gains a heightened selfesteem and selfconfidence, and develops tremendous zeal and enthusiasm F 45THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES in working with women after attending a training, Interviews with former training participants show the maximum effect, that is the extent of change in the participants’ own work with other women. The potential of Women’s Studies in contributing to the efforts toward a postpatriarchal society is immense. Feminist Theology Aswith Women’s Studies, Feminist Theology will be discussed here in connection with the specific experience of Filipino women theologians who belong to the Ecumenical Association of the Third World Theologians (EATWOT), The chapter “Socializing Forces” illustrated how potent a socializing force religion is in the perpetuation of the subordination of women. Religion that is supposed to offer salvation and liberation has become, in its institutionalization, a means to rationalize the continued subservience of women in the interpretation of the Scriptures, in the writings of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church, in some teachings, in its hierarchichal structure, and in its patriarchal practices. Women theologians therefore deem it necessary to deconstruct what is oppressive in their religion and enhance its liberating aspects. Feminist Theology in the Philippines is likewise in its infancy. It began with the involvement of Filipino women theologians in the Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians which was founded in DaresSalaam in August 1976. This association is composed of theologians from Asia, Aftica, Latin America, and the ethnic communities of the United States. During the association's General Assembly in New Delhi in 1981, there occurred what would later be called an “itruption within an irruption.” This was the realization among EATWOT women that although their male counterparts were progressive theologians, 46 Woman in Pilippine History they were genderblind, not only in their theologizing but in their attitudes and behavior. It also became clear that the association needed a commission of women to addres the issue seriously. Tt was not until two years later that EATWOT women took concrete steps to realize their dream. In the international conference of EATWOT in Geneva in 1983, the women participants organized the Women’s Commission. The tasks of the commission are: To make a structural analysis of che situation of women: economic, political, sociocultural, and religious 2. To discuss the patriarchal elements in theology 3. To reformulate theology from the perspective of full humanity The following themes were suggested in developing a feminist liberation theology fro the perspective of Third World Women: Various forms of oppression of women and women’s responses in church and society. 2. Social analysis of the members’ respective country. Theological reflection, particularly on + hermeneutical analysis of the Bible * study of other sources stuch as myths, folklore, legends, indigenous religion * reflection on God-talk, Christology, Mariology, Pneumatology and Ecclesiology. ___ The Filipino women theologians were prominentin thisendeavor since the Secretary General, a Filipino, was put in charge of coordinating the efforts of the women in the different regions. National 41THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES and regional consultations were organized to reflect on how to do theology from the perspective of Third World women. The Asian consultation was organized by the Filipino women and held in Manila in 1985. The event assumed significance because of the important conclusions and the methodologythe women came up with, including: 1. Oppression of women is sinful. This systemic sin is rooted in organized structures: economic, political, and cultural, with patriarchy as an overarching reality that oppresses women. 2. The patriarchal churches have contributed to the subjugation and marginalization of women. 3. Theology itself, in its premises, traditions and belief, has blurred the image of God taught women. 4. The bias against women in Christian tradition buttresses maleoriented Asian religious beliefs. The participants also rediscovered empowering elements in their Christian faith: Jesus’ salvific mission that includesall, his supportive attitude toward women, and the creative power of the Holy Spirit that can overcome the forces of sin and death, Mary of the Magnificat, and the inspiration to struggle for justice and greater humanity of the poor and oppressed. The women renewed their commitment to this strugele. : Filipino feminist theologians have shared their reflections with other Third World Women theologians in two intercontinental consultations, in Oaxtepec, Mexico in 1986, and in San Jose, Costa Rica in 1994. An international dialog with First Woild feminist theologians was also held in the Costa Rica gathering From the Final Statement of the Asian Women Consultation Proceedings. Manila. EATWOT Women’s Commission, 1985 48 Woman in Philippine History From the experiences of the national and regional consultations, the Filipino women theologians developed, with their Asian sisters, the following features of theologizing from the perspective of Asian women: * Contextualization, The starting point of feminist theologizing is the experience of Asian women and their struggle in a maledominated world, Women tell their stories consciously and politically, and in. this act they begin to better understand themselves and their reality. + New biblical hermeneutics. In view of the women's situations, a new reading of the Bible has to emerge where parallelisms in the situations of Biblical women are pointed out. Passages indicating the subordination and discrimination of women have to be reinterpreted in their cultural contexts * Religious and cultural critique. Religions and cultures have both oppressive and liberating aspects. Feminist theologizing deconstructs the oppressive and reclaims the liberating aspects. * Recovery of the authentic wale of women’s experience, Women recognize their religious heritage while rejecting imposed! inhibiting traditions. Women realize that their spiritual heritage goes beyond institutionalized religion and official theology. * Reinterpretation and reformulation. As women bring into their religious traditions their own experiences and the analysis of their situations, new translations, new interpretation and new language emerge. Religious insights are expressed in new and varied forms and symbols. * Liberating action. Feminist theologizing is not merely academic, It leads to liberating action. Feminist theologians are participant, not just mere spectators, in the women's struggle for full humanity 49THE WOMAN QUESTION IN THE PHILIPPINES NO TURNING BACK The Women’s Movement in the Philippines has come to a point of no return. It can no longer be considered a fad or a transitory phenomenon. It is a movement that is inclusive not only of women’s concerns but of the concerns of race, class and environment. It is crucial not only for women but for humankind as a whole. ‘This conviction is the essence of the book by Riane Eisler. Basing her reflections on archeological data, Eisler posits a pre-patriarchal age when humankind enjoyed a more egalitarian situation, where there was less domination and conflict, and where culture flourished. Changes in history brought society into the patriarchal age, which became characterized by dominations: male over female, developed countries over underdeveloped countries, white over black, the human being over nature. These in turn have caused conflicts, crises, and wars. Life in this planet is now threatened. And if this state of affairs continues, this planet will no longer be friendly to human life and the human race might just become extinct. An alternative to this tragedy is a qualitative leap to a postpatriarchal age where dominations will diminish, true peace will be possible and cultures will again flourish. But this is not an automatic transition. All forces of change must consciously bring this about: the justice movement, the peace movement, the anti-apartheid movement, the ecological movement and most of all, the women’s movement. Since women are the most affected by patriarchy, it is the women’s movement that will lead in this crucial step. Itis clear that women at this critical juneture are given the unique chance to play a significant role in the world. Theit movement is not only for the liberation of women but also for the survival of the human race. 50