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The International Electronic Journal of Health Education, 2000; 3 (Special Issue): 180-193
http://www.iejhe.siu.edu
Health Behavior Models Redding et al
The International Electronic Journal of Health Education, 2000; 3 (Special Issue): 180-193
http://www.iejhe.siu.edu 181
Health Behavior Models Redding et al
The International Electronic Journal of Health Education, 2000; 3 (Special Issue): 180-193
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
benefits, and barriers.9 Becker and Maiman added the behavior is strongly related to the actual performance
concept of motivation to the HBM.6 This has also been of that behavior. Two basic assumptions that underlie
interpreted as readiness to change behavior.12 the TRA are: 1) behavior is under volitional control,
The Theory of Reasoned and 2) people are rational beings. From the perspective
of TRA, we behave in a certain way because we choose
Action/Planned Behavior to do so and we use a rational decision-making process
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is a widely in choosing and planning our actions. The TRA was
used behavioral prediction theory which represents a designed to predict behavior from intention, and
social-psychological approach to understanding and proposes quasi-mathematical relationships between
predicting the determinants of health-behavior.14_16 beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior. A modified
Over the years, TRA has been applied to many diverse version of TRA includes the addition of perceived
health-related behaviors including: weight loss, control over the behavior and is referred to as the
smoking, alcohol abuse, HIV risk behaviors, and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB).3,7 Table 2
mammography screening. The theory of reasoned describes the main constructs used in TRA and the
action states that the intention to perform a particular Theory of Planned Behavior
Constructs Description
Behavioral Belief Evaluation of the likelihood that performance of the behavior is associated
with certain outcomes
Subjective Norm The product of the normative belief multiplied by the motivation to comply
Normative Belief Perception of how much each personal contact approves or disapproves of the
behavior
Perceived Behavioral Control The product of the control belief multiplied by the perceived power
Perceived Power Perceived effect of each condition in making the performance of the behavior
easier or more difficult
Predicting behavior is the ultimate goal of the For example, whether or not someone intends to cut
TRA. According to the TRA, behavior is influenced by down on dietary fat by giving up bacon and red meat
the intention to perform the behavior. Intention is could be partly determined by what that person
influenced by three major variables: subjective norms, believes his or her spouse's opinion would be if s/he
attitudes, and self-efficacy. Subjective norms involve did. Attitudes can be conceptualized in terms of values.
an individual's perception of what significant others That is, an individual develops particular values about
believe about his or her ability to perform the behavior. behaviors. For example, one attitude might be: eating
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
a healthy diet is a good way to prevent heart disease The majority of TRA research has focused on the
and/or cancer. Self-efficacy is the confidence an prediction of behavioral intention rather than on the
individual feels that s/he can successfully perform the behavior itself.13 Unfortunately, because the correlation
behavior of eating a healthy diet. between behavior and intention is not particularly
Two of the variables that influence intention, impressive, research on attitudes and behaviors is often
subjective norms, and attitudes are in turn influenced dismissed.14 Despite this shortcoming, Sonstroem has
by beliefs. Two general types of beliefs are considered suggested that TRA can still be a useful perspective as
in TRA: normative and behavioral beliefs. Normative long as situation-specific attitude and intention
beliefs are situationally based social expectations, measures are employed that specify congruent action,
which are considered the rule. Normative beliefs target, context, and time, and that the interactions
influence subjective norms while beliefs about the between personal determinants and situations are
behavior influence attitudes. An individual's attitudes emphasized.17
toward a behavior are determined by his/her Social Cognitive Theory
expectations about the outcome of performing the This theory goes well beyond individual factors in
behavior, and the extent to which s/he values the health behavior change to include environmental and
outcome. Thus, from a TRA perspective, the likelihood social factors. In fact, this theory may be the most
that an individual will engage in health risk reduction comprehensive model of human behavior yet proposed.
depends upon how much s/he is convinced that healthy Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (SCT),18 also
behaviors will prevent risk, and the degree to which referred to as Social Learning Theory, is a behavioral
s/he perceives the benefits will outweigh the costs.
Constructs Description
Observational Learning Acquiring a new behavior by watching someone else perform it and observing
the outcomes–a.k.a. modeling
Reinforcements Responses to a person’s behavior that affect how likely it is that the behavior
will reoccur
Emotional Coping Responses Strategies used by someone to deal with emotionally challenging thoughts,
events, or experiences
Reciprocal Determinism Dynamic interaction of the person, the behavior, and his/her environment
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
prediction theory that represents a clinical approach to • Expectations are beliefs associated with the
health behavior change.3,7 This theory has been widely outcome of a behavior. Expectancies are the value
applied to health behavior with respect to prevention, an individual attributes to the anticipated outcome
health promotion, and modification of unhealthy of performing a behavior.
lifestyles for many different risk behaviors. SCT • Self-regulation refers to the individual's ability to
emphasizes what people think and its effect on their manage or control behavior. Individuals use goal
behavior.19,20 SCT proposes that behavior can be setting, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement to
explained in terms of triadic reciprocity between three regulate performance of a behavior.
key concepts which operate as determinants of each • Observational/experiential learning refers to the
other. Reciprocal determinism forms the basic acquisition of a behavior through observation and
organizing principle of SCT. This important concept experience. Learning can occur either through
states that there is a continuous, dynamic interaction observation of another's performance of a behavior
between the individual, the environment, and behavior. (modeling), or through personal experience, i.e.,
Thus, a change in one of these factors impacts on the trial and error.
other two. SCT involves numerous key concepts, • Reinforcement refers to the consequences that
which have been associated with each of the three affect the probability a behavior will be tried
main constructs for the purpose of describing the SCT. again. Individuals are motivated to perform
Table 3 describes all the key constructs employed by behaviors through rewards and incentives.20
SCT. In SCT, the relationship between behavior, person,
Bandura conceptualized influences on behavior and environment is interactive. The stereotypic picture
that involved the concept of person in terms of basic of the relatively young executive who develops high
human capacities that are cognitive in nature.18 Key blood pressure provides an illustration of how variables
concepts associated with the person include: personal associated with person, (e.g., personal characteristics),
characteristics, emotional arousal/coping, behavioral interact with the environment and behavior. Consider
capacity, self-efficacy, expectation, expectancies, a male in his early 40s who is obsessed with
self-regulation, observational/experiential learning, achievement, advancement, and recognition. This
and reinforcement.19,20 individual is a highly competitive workaholic who is
• Personal characteristics have been driven to get things done quickly. Such individuals are
operationalized as multiple, interacting sometimes described as being hostile and might be
determinants such as demographics (e.g., gender, found operating in a highly stressful environment.
race/ethnicity, education), personality, cognitive Although simplistic and stereotypical, this picture
factors (e.g., thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, represents a classic example of a "Type A personality."
knowledge), motivation, and skills. From an SCT perspective, this individual's
• Emotional arousal/coping can interfere with predominant personality type negatively influences his
learning and thus influence behavior. This refers behavior. Thus this individual is less likely to take the
to an individual's ability to respond to emotional time to acquire the cognitive and behavioral skills
stimuli with various techniques, strategies, and necessary to successfully perform any risk reduction
activities that help one to deal with arousing behavior (smoking cessation, stress management, etc.).
situations (e.g., fear, anxiety). Influences on behavior which involve the
• Behavioral capacity refers to the individual's environment can be physical, social, cultural,
possession of both the knowledge and skills economical, political in nature,21 or situational in
necessary to perform a behavior. nature.20 In SCT, the person's perceptions of the
• Self-efficacy refers to an individual's confidence in environment are referred to as situations; this key
his or her ability to perform a behavior in various variable can facilitate or inhibit behavior. In this
situations. Self-efficacy has been recognized as an reciprocal, interactive scheme, in which multiple
important mediating variable between knowledge, determinants of behavior are assumed, behavior also
attitudes, skills, and behavior.13 exerts an influence on both the environment and the
person. The environment and past experience with a
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
Constructs Description
Stages of Change
Preparation Intends to take action within the next 30 days and has taken some behavioral steps
in this direction
Decisional Balance
Self-efficacy
Confidence Confidence that one can engage in the healthy behavior across different
challenging situations
Process of Change
Consciousness Raising Finding and learning new facts, ideas, and tips that support the healthy behavior
change
Dramatical Relief Experiencing the negative emotions (fear, anxiety, worry) that go along with
unhealthy behavioral risks
Self-reevaluation Realizing that the behavior change is an important part of one’s identity as a
person
Environmental Realizing the negative impact of the unhealthy behavior, or the positive impact of
Reevaluation the healthy behavior, on one’s proximal social and/or physical environment
Helping Relationships Seeking and using social support for the healthy behavior change
Counterconditioning Substitution of the healthier alternative behaviors and/or cognitions for the
unhealthy behavior
Reinforcement Increasing the rewards for the positive behavior change and/or decreasing the
Management rewards of the unhealthy behavior
Stimulus Control Removing reminders or cues to engage in the unhealthy behavior and/or adding
cues or reminders to engage in the healthy behavior
Social Liberation Realizing that social norms are changing in the direction of supporting the healthy
behavior change
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
particular behavior can also provide reinforcement for Furthermore, its incorporation into almost all major
acting in a particular way. For example, as Americans theories of behavior change is further evidence of its
have demanded the availability of healthier, lower fat, important role in the behavior change process.
higher fiber choices in their environment, more and Bandura proposed that the actual performance of
more eating establishments have changed their food a particular behavior is highly related to an
preparation procedures and menus to reduce dietary individual's belief in his/her ability to perform that
fat. There are a wider variety of "heart healthy" menus behavior in specific situations. An individual with low
available now. To reduce their risk, consumers have self-efficacy is likely to have lower expectations of
begun to take advantage of greater environmental successfully performing the behavior and be more
choices by: purchasing more fruits and vegetables, affected by situational temptations that are
substituting available lower fat products instead of counterproductive to promoting and maintaining
high fat ones, changing their food preparation methods behavior change. In contrast, an individual who has
to broiling and baking instead of frying, and ordering high self-efficacy not only expects to succeed but is
lower fat food choices offered by restaurants. actually more likely to do so. For example, the
Interactions are also assumed to occur between likelihood that an individual will successfully perform
problem behaviors (e.g., eating high fat foods, lack of a behavior like exercise is strongly dependent upon
exercise, smoking) and physiological factors (e.g., how confident that individual is that s/he can actually
nicotine, caffeine addiction).21 An individual's do activities, such as walking, jogging, swimming, or
performance of associated behaviors can have an doing aerobics on a regular basis.22
important impact on disease prevention. Engaging in Several factors influence an individual's
exercise can trigger hunger, stimulating the desire for self-efficacy, including persuasion by others, observing
high fat food. Finishing a meal can act as a cue that others' behavior (modeling), previous experience with
triggers the desire for a cigarette. An individual may performing the behavior, and direct physiological
use smoking to relax in a high stress environment. To feedback.18 For example, individuals are more likely to
effectively prevent disease, an individual needs to attempt to quit smoking if: 1) a physician recommends
engage in multiple healthy behaviors like exercise that they do so, thus persuading them that quitting is
adoption, low fat/high fiber eating habits, a good idea, 2) they have observed others who have
mammography screening, wearing seatbelts, etc. SCT been able to quit and/or are coping well with trying to
assumes that most behaviors are learned responses and quit, 3) they have had past experience with quit
can be modified. Thus, learning through observing the attempts, and/or 4) they have been able to cope with
behavior of others (i.e., modeling) is important from a the physical symptoms of nicotine withdrawal.
SCT perspective. SCT also places heavy emphasis on Self-efficacy exerts such a strong influence on behavior
learning both cognitive and behavioral skills for change that confidence has been found to outperform
coping with situations and making changes in health past performance in predicting future behavior.24
behavior. Thus, an individual who wants to quit The Transtheoretical Model
smoking but lacks the cognitive and behavioral skills The past 20 years of Transtheoretical Model-based
to effectively cope with stressful situations without research has found some common principles of
cigarettes is less likely to successfully change smoking behavior change which have applied to a wide range of
behavior in spite motivation to do so. health behaviors. These behaviors include: smoking
Self-Efficacy cessation, exercise adoption, sun protection, dietary fat
The concept of self-efficacy is recognized as one of reduction, condom use, adherence to mammography
Bandura's most important contributions to psychology screening, medication adherence, stress management,
and the field of health behavior change in general.22 and substance abuse cessation, to name just a few.25_29
Self-efficacy refers to the confidence an individual has These problem behaviors are important from both a
in his or her own ability to successfully carry out a clinical and a public health standpoint because they are
behavior. The importance of self-efficacy for behavior strongly associated with increased morbidity,
change has been widely recognized across multiple mortality, and with decreased quality of life. The
behaviors relevant to health risk reduction.23 Transtheoretical Model (TTM) is a model of
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
intentional behavior change that has produced a large to stage, but often progress and then recycle back to a
volume of research and service across a wide range of previous stage before moving forward again. This
problem behaviors and populations.25_29 This model change process is conceptualized most meaningfully as
describes the relationships among: stages of change; a spiral, which illustrates that even when individuals
processes of change; decisional balance, or the pros do recycle to a stage they've been in before, they may
and cons of change; situational confidence, or still have learned from their previous experiences.
self-efficacy in the behavior change; and situational Precontemplation describes individuals who for
temptations to relapse. Table 4 describes all the many reasons do not intend to change within the next
constructs that collectively comprise the TTM. six months. Some of these individuals may want to
This model has several advantages over other change at some future time, but just not within the next
models. First, it describes behavior change as a six months. Others may not want to change at all and,
process, as opposed to an event. Then, by breaking the in fact, may be very committed to their problem
change process down into stages and studying which behavior (e.g., a lifelong smoker or someone who
variables are most strongly associated with progress regularly cultivates a deep tan).
through the stages, this model provides important tools Contemplation describes individuals who are
for both research and intervention development. thinking about changing their problem behavior within
Secondly, its explicit focus on measurement of the next six months. They are more open to feedback
constructs has provided a strong foundation for the and information about the problem behavior than their
model. Across different problem behaviors and counterparts in Precontemplation.
populations, different variables have been associated Individuals in the Preparation stage are
with stage movement for each stage of change.30 committed to changing their problem behavior soon,
These TTM findings inform the design of usually within the next 30 days. These people have
individualized, stage-matched, expert system often tried to change in the past and/or have been
interventions (see below) that target those variables practicing change efforts in small steps to help them
most predictive of progress for individuals at each get ready for their actual change attempt.
stage of change. One aspect of this model that often The Action stage includes individuals who have
goes unrecognized is that it is the processes of change changed their problem behavior within the past six
that drive movement through the stages of change.31 months. The change is still quite new and their risk for
Thus, although commonly referred to as the "Stages of relapse is high, requiring their constant attention and
Change Model" since "stage" is the core construct vigilance.
around which other model constructs are organized, Maintenance stage individuals have changed their
this is a misnomer since it focuses attention on only problem behavior for at least six months. Their change
one construct from this multidimensional model. has become more of a habit, and their risk for relapse
Naturally, model-based interventions are is lower, but relapse prevention still requires some
multidimensional as well. TTM research has found attention, although somewhat less than for individuals
remarkable similarities across different kinds of in Action.
behavior changes. We have found repeatedly that the Processes of Change
stages of change have predictable relationships with The processes of change describe the ten
the pros and cons of behavior change, confidence in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal
behavior change, temptation to relapse, and the strategies and techniques that individuals and/or
processes of change. change agents (therapists, counselors) use to change
Stages of Change problem behaviors.25,26 Research has demonstrated that
Individuals do not change their behavior all at once; successful behavior change depends upon the use of
they change it incrementally or stepwise in stages of specific processes at specific stages.32_35 TTM-based
change. The stages most commonly used across research has consistently found that different processes
research areas include: Precontemplation, are used to progress to different stages. Thus, the
Contemplation, Preparation, Action, and Maintenance. processes mediate the transitions from stage to stage
Individuals do not typically move linearly from stage and can represent important intermediate outcomes of
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
interventions. The processes of change are also ideal Decisional balance is an excellent indicator of an
tools for process-to-outcome research and in many individual's decision to move out of the
ways provide the foundation for TTM expert system precontemplation stage. The relationship between the
interventions (see below). The processes of change are stages of change and decisional balance has been
consistent with many SCT constructs and are quite shown to be remarkably consistent across at least 12
similar to most conceptions of coping behaviors as different problem behaviors.39 Not only has the
well.36 relationship between stage and the pros and cons been
Many studies across problem behaviors35,37 have replicated across problem behaviors, but the magnitude
found that the ten most used processes of change are of the change across the stages of change has been
organized into two higher order clusters of processes: replicated as well. Based on these data, the strong and
the experiential processes—Consciousness Raising, weak principles of behavior change were formulated.38
Dramatic Relief, Self-Reevaluation, Environmental The strong principle states that in progressing from
Reevaluation, and Social Liberation; and the precontemplation to action, the pros of change
behavioral processes—Helping Relationships, generally increase by about one standard deviation,
Counterconditioning, Reinforcement Management, whereas the weak principle states that correspondingly,
Stimulus Control, and Self Liberation. The the cons of change tend to decrease by about one-half
experiential set of processes are most often emphasized of a standard deviation.
in earlier stages (Precontemplation, Contemplation, The TTM pros and cons constructs are quite
and Preparation) to increase intention and motivation; similar to those also proposed by both the HBM
and the behavioral set of processes are most often (benefits/barriers) and the TRA/TPB (benefits/costs);
utilized in later stages (Preparation, Action, and and the evidence presented by Prochaska and
Maintenance) as observable behavior change efforts colleagues39 across 12 problem behaviors does provide
get underway and need to be maintained. some support for all three models. However, only the
Decisional Balance TTM proposes the specific relationship between these
Decisional Balance, or the pros and cons of behavior constructs and the stages of change. Also, importantly,
change, describes the importance or weight of an the TTM has gone beyond mere specification of
individual's reasons for changing or not changing. The components to deductively hypothesize the degree of
pros and cons relate strongly and predictably to the change in the pros and cons that occurs from
stages of change.38,39 These are the decision-making Precontemplation to Action across problem
components of the TTM and also serve as two behaviors. 38 This is an important, innovative step for
important intervening, or intermediate outcome the TTM and for the development of the science of
variables. Individuals' decisions to move from one behavior change in general.
stage of change to the next are based on the relative Situational Confidence and
weight given to the pros and cons of adopting the Temptations
healthy behavior. The pros are the positive aspects of The self-efficacy construct utilized in the TTM40
changing behavior, or the benefits of change (reasons integrates the models of self-efficacy proposed by
to change). In contrast, the cons include the negative Bandura,18,22 and the coping models of relapse and
aspects of changing behavior, or barriers to change maintenance described by Shiffman.41 These variables
(reasons not to change). These two dimensions have have undergone considerable elaboration over time,
been consistently supported by studies across many with situational temptation to engage in the unhealthy
different problem behaviors in TTM-based research.39 behavior often viewed as an equally important
Characteristically, the pros of healthy behavior are low companion construct to the more commonly used
in the early stages and increase across the stages of situational confidence measures. Confidence and
change, and the cons of the healthy behavior are high temptation function inversely across the stages, and
in the early stages and decrease across the stages of temptation predicts relapse better. Research has
change. demonstrated that both the confidence and temptation
The pros and cons are particularly useful when constructs can be conceptualized psychometrically as
intervening with individuals in early stages of change. unifactorial and/or multifactorial. Structural modeling
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
analyses have repeatedly revealed a global higher order Measurement and Research
construct (confidence or temptations) which is
comprised of several lower order situationally Foundations
determined components.40,42,43 The lower order What is not obvious from most descriptions of the
situational factors depend more strongly upon the TTM is the careful attention to measurement
problem behavior than the higher order construct. A development and validation that is taught and
global score is often useful as a general screening tool, practiced by TTM-Model contributors and
while the situational subscale scores provide useful originators.54,55 Construction of measures based on the
information for targeting intervention feedback to TTM have typically employed the sequential methods
individuals at different stages of change. of scale development described by Jackson56,57 and
Confidence and temptation both vary across the Comrey.58 Initial item pools are generated based on
stages of change, with confidence rising and theoretical construct definitions. Many of the items are
temptation decreasing across longitudinal profiles of adapted from existing instruments, but item content is
smokers.30 A moderate, reciprocal relationship (r = then modified to more closely reflect the problem
-.60) has been found between temptation and behavior and the language used by the population
confidence for both smoking cessation and safer sex being studied. This is necessary for intervention
behaviors.40,43 Confidence is typically lowest in the development, as well as being an important foundation
Precontemplation stage, since individuals have little for any research project. There is a large and
performance feedback and/or little interest in change. increasing volume of research using this model.
Confidence is higher during Contemplation, Summary/Future Directions
outperforming demographic variables in its ability to We have presented each of four models of behavior
predict movement into Preparation and Action stages.44 change, with a clear emphasis on the TTM. The TTM
Even in the Maintenance stage where subjects have has an explanatory advantage since it was conceived
successfully altered the problem behavior for at least later than the other models. The TTM was clearly not
six months, temptation is one of the best predictors of conceived in a vacuum. As part of their
relapse and recycling to earlier stages of change.45 "Transtheoretical" strategy, model originators
Expert Systems consciously incorporated and built upon the strengths
An expert system computer program mimics or of their predecessors. As put so well by Isaac Newton
codifies the reasoning of human experts. The program in his letter to Robert Hooke (February 5, 1676), "If I
uses standardized decision rules or algorithms for have seen further …it is by standing on the shoulders
assessment and providing feedback and applies those of giants." Also, importantly, the TTM is not a fixed
algorithms consistently. A TTM expert system is an entity. It must grow and develop over time
integrated assessment and intervention delivery incorporating and responding to new promising ideas
computer program.46_49 Expert systems have been used and new challenging data. It is a sign of our times that
with many different populations and have been found other theories are now utilizing this same strategy and
to be effective for smoking cessation,33,50 sun drawing upon TTM variables, especially stage of
protection, 51,52 dietary fat reduction 53 and change, to integrate within their own framework.
mammography screening. 54 The more recent Others are also now using various eclectic theoretical
development of multimedia expert systems provides frameworks to develop tailored feedback systems.59_62
nearly immediate feedback to respondents, who sit at We have made our biases clear. It is now up to the
the computer and completes a series of questions reader to investigate the strength of the evidence
followed by feedback. Participants respond to several further and to keep these questions in mind as he or
series of questions interspersed with feedback on she evaluates and compares competing theories:
different TTM constructs.47,48 • How well does this model describe health behavior
change?
• How parsimonious is this theory?
• How much variance is accounted for in studies
applying this model?
The International Electronic Journal of Health Education, 2000; 3 (Special Issue): 180-193
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Health Behavior Models Redding et al
• How much intervention development guidance is In: Glanz K, Lewis FM, Rimer BK, eds. Health
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