Table of Contents

Title of Project.........................................................................................................................................3
Chapter # 1 1.0. Introduction:.................................................................................................4
1.1. Types of open channel......................................................................................................................5
1.1.1. Natural Channel.............................................................................................................................5
1.1.2. Artificial Channel............................................................................................................................5
1.1.3. Prismatic Channel..........................................................................................................................6
1.1.4. Non-Prismatic Channel..................................................................................................................6
1.2. Types of flow in open channel..........................................................................................................6
1.2.1. Uniform flow..................................................................................................................................7
1.2.2. Non-Uniform flow..........................................................................................................................7
1.2.3. Gradually varied flow (GVF)...........................................................................................................7
1.2.4. Rapidly varied flow (RVF)...............................................................................................................7
1.2.5. Steady and Unsteady flow.............................................................................................................7
1.2.6. Laminar and Turbulent flow..........................................................................................................8
1.3. Bernoulli’s Theorem.........................................................................................................................8
Chapter # 2 2.0 Background and Literature View......................................................................9
2.0.1. The Egypt and Mesopotamia History...........................................................................................10
2.0.2. The Terrace irrigation History......................................................................................................11
2.0.3. The Sri Lankan irrigation History..................................................................................................11
2.0.4. The North American irrigation History.........................................................................................12
2.0.5. The Assyrian irrigation system.....................................................................................................13
2.0.6. The Romans irrigation History.....................................................................................................13
2.0.7 Ancient Persia irrigation History...................................................................................................14
2.1 Modern Irrigation System................................................................................................................15
Chapter # 3 3.0 Location..........................................................................................................16
3.1 Topography......................................................................................................................................16
3.4 Climate.............................................................................................................................................16
3.5 Equipment.......................................................................................................................................16
Chapter # 4 4.0 Empirical Formulas............................................................................................17
4.0.1 The Chezy’s Formula.....................................................................................................................17
4.0.2 The Manning Formula...................................................................................................................19
4.0.3 Bazin’s Formula for discharge.......................................................................................................20
4.0.4 Kutter’s formula for discharge......................................................................................................22
Chapter # 5 5.0 Most Economical Section of a Channel...........................................................23
5.1 Most economical section of rectangular channel............................................................................23
5.2 Most economical trapezoidal section of channel............................................................................26
5.2.1 Channel shape..............................................................................................................................28
5.2.2 Channel dimensions......................................................................................................................29
5.2.3 Discharge......................................................................................................................................31
5.2.4 Equation of Continuity of Flow.....................................................................................................32
5.3 Technical Terms...............................................................................................................................33
5.3.1 Path line........................................................................................................................................33
5.3.2 Stream line....................................................................................................................................33
5.3.3 Potential line.................................................................................................................................34
5.3.4 Flow net........................................................................................................................................34
5.3.5 Fluid..............................................................................................................................................34
5.3.6 Orifices..........................................................................................................................................34
5.3.7 Weir..............................................................................................................................................34
Chapter # 6 6.0 Designing process of Irrigation Channel..............................................................34
6.1 Design of irrigation channel.............................................................................................................35
Chapter # 7 7.0 Survey of Hydraulic Irrigation Channel................................................................36
Chapter # 8 8.0 Quantity and Estimates of Irrigation Channel......................................................38
References.............................................................................................................................................39

2
 Title of Project

DESIGNING, SURVEYING AND ESTIMATIMG OF IRRIGATION

CHANNEL AT DANGRAM SWAT.

3
 Chapter # 1 1.0. Introduction:
Irrigation Channel: - “An irrigation channel is an open channel that transport water in order to
irrigate agricultural land or crops”.
An open channel is a duct which supply water to agricultural land the water flows freely with
bed slope in channel due to gravity. The invention of irrigation channel first start from the Egypt
and then it’s come to advanced stage means of modern era. If we see the irrigation system of this
era (modern) so many improvement changed the system of irrigation and make it easier. An
ancient era the irrigation system is not good because not well knowledge about system up
gradation and also not advanced technology so the production of crops produced less.
Irrigation system is the essential part of every country. If the irrigation system is best and
advanced so, the production of crops will also large in amount it’s mean that if system of
irrigation is good so that country will be in success and also strong in economic base. Pakistan is
on the 3rd number on the basis of irrigation system in the world. Today’s irrigation system is well
advanced and have simple technique which make irrigation system easier but in some countries
and areas still use ancient system of irrigation system due to mountainous areas because not
approachable the system of irrigation but they takes benefits from rainfall and constructed
reservoirs.

Fig. 1.1

4
 Fig. 1.2 Modern Machinery irrigation system

1.1. Types of open channel

Based on their existence, an open channel can be:
 Natural Channel
 Artificial Channel

1.1.1. Natural Channel

They are made naturally such as rivers, streams, lakes, valleys etc. They are irregular in shape
and have roughness and different bed slope and also change in velocity.

1.1.2. Artificial Channel

They are made by artificially or man-made such as irrigation channel, reservoirs, waste water
management and drainage system to collect rainfall water. They are regular in shape and
smoothly bed slope and also have same velocity.
Based on their shape, an open channel can be:
 Prismatic Channel
 Non-prismatic Channel

5
1.1.3. Prismatic Channel
Prismatic channels are those channel which are made artificially and have constant uniform
velocity and same cross-section and also constant bed slope.

1.1.4. Non-Prismatic Channel

Non-prismatic channels are those channel which are made naturally, so that’s why it velocity and
bed slope cannot constant and also cross-section is change.
There are some shapes which are used for prismatic channel. See fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3

1.2. Types of flow in open channel

The flow in an open channel can be classified into the following types are below:
 Uniform flow
 Non-uniform flow
 Steady and un-steady flow
 Laminar and turbulent flow

1.2.1. Uniform flow

In pipes or rivers etc. the velocity of water is remain same at any point is known as uniform flow.

6
 Fig. 1.4 Uniform and Non-uniform flow

1.2.2. Non-Uniform flow

In pipes or rivers etc. the velocity of water not remain same at any point is known as non-
uniform flow it is divided into:
 Gradually varied flow
 Rapidly varied flow

1.2.3. Gradually varied flow (GVF)

It is non-uniform flow which is gradually change the depth of the flow.

1.2.4. Rapidly varied flow (RVF)

It is suddenly changes in the depth of water for short distance due to pressure. For example,
when the dam water is left suddenly arise depth of the water or also weirs etc.

1.2.5. Steady and Unsteady flow

In the time of flow of water the discharge will be remain constant at every point is known as
steady flow. In unsteady flow, the discharge cannot remain constant at any point.

7
1.2.6. Laminar and Turbulent flow
In the time of flow the particles of liquid moves parallel and do not intersect the path is known
laminar flow. In turbulent flow, the particles of liquid moves in specific path but intersect each
other so, known as turbulent flow.

Fig.
1.5

Laminar and Turbulent flow

1.3. Bernoulli’s Theorem

It is stated that ‘An incompressible liquid is continuously flowing in a stream line, total energy of
liquid particles remain same, while particles move from one place to another”.

v2 p
H=Z+ + =C.
2g w
So, its mean Total head is equal to Potential head + Kinetic head + Pressure head.

8
 Fig.1.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Chapter # 2 2.0 Background and Literature View

Humans survival on crops and agriculture for thousands years they struggle for the production
and maximum quantity to produce large number of crops for this purposes they used irrigation to
watering the crops. Irrigation is artificial method for irrigating the agricultural land.
From the back years to now they are going to successfully and also have advanced technology to
make irrigation system better. The history of irrigation from the earliest days until modern times
are:
 The Egypt and Mesopotamia History.
 The Terrace irrigation History.
 The Sri Lankan irrigation History.
 The North American irrigation History.
 The Assyrian irrigation system.
 The Romans irrigation History.
 Ancient Persia irrigation History.

9
2.0.1. The Egypt and Mesopotamia History
It’s began in 6000 BC. It is the oldest method to irrigating the crops, in this method the Egyptian
used the flooded water to irrigate the agricultural land but in this method depends on rainfall if
rainfall is high and enough so the flood come and they irrigates the crops but not specific channel
provided to crops but they transfer the flooded water but if flood waves high then it destroy the
earthen channel and dikes also destroyed many villages. After this method they constructed small
dam and canals.

In Mesopotamia, they are also used same method as Egyptian irrigation system. But they dug
canals and this was the first engineering technique used. It is used for many years to irrigating
the crops.

Fig. 2.1 Egypt and Mesopotamia irrigation channel

10
2.0.2. The Terrace irrigation History
Terrace irrigation is the oldest technique which was used all over the world and it’s considered
best system as compared to other system. It was used by China and India too. But specially was
used in America. This system is now also used in some countries especially in mountainous
areas.

Fig.2.2 Terrace irrigation system

2.0.3. The Sri Lankan irrigation History

Irrigation in Sri Lanka it’s began in 300 BC. They are constructed complex system mean
underground canals which transfer water to crops and for domestic used. And also constructed
reservoirs for storage of water and this is the first reservoir constructed which considered in
engineering field.

Fig.2.3 Sri Lankan irrigation system

11
2.0.4. The North American irrigation History
This is also ancient system of irrigation but here used two system and this two system was used
by two tribes which located in North America. One tribe is Hohokam and the other tribe is
Anasazi. Hohokam people were used Hohokam system and the other tribe Anasazi were used
Chaco system. But then the Hohokam tribe constructed canals system for irrigating of
agricultural land.

Fig. 2.4 Hohokam irrigation system

Fig. 2.5 North American irrigation

12
2.0.5. The Assyrian irrigation system
The king of the Assyrian Empire constructed huge irrigation systems to provide water to every
farms and agricultural lands. In this system the flooded water store or convey by through of
channels but it is not good method for irrigating the crops and difficult method. But flooded
method nowadays still used in some countries and especially in modern Iraq.

Fig. 2.6 Assyrian irrigation system

2.0.6. The Romans irrigation History

Before the development of technology Romans used sources of water such as springs and
streams that can be storage in reservoir for irrigating farms and other domestic used. Roman
constructed aqueducts it’s moved water through gravity within conduits of stone, brick or
concrete. Roman first aqueducts was built in 312 BC.
Most Roman aqueducts are reliable and durable, few are partly in use in modern era. But now
advance technologies comes which help to make every work easy and advanced irrigation
system helps to improve the quality of irrigation system to provide water easily to agricultural
land, gardens, for domestic use etc.

13
 Fig. 2.7 the Romans irrigation system

2.0.7 Ancient Persia irrigation History

In the history of this irrigation system they were used some technique called water clocks in 360
BC which transfer water to irrigation channel for the purposes of irrigation crops. The Qanats
developed in ancient Persia about 800 BC. They take benefits of rainfall to irrigated agriculture.
This method is still use in modern era and also found in Asia and North Africa. This system of
irrigation composed of wells and tunnels which supply water for irrigation.

14
 Fig. 2.8 Ancient Persia irrigation

2.1 Modern Irrigation System

Modern irrigation system is very advanced due to new technology which make the irrigation
system very easily and simple. In this era and onward constructed reservoirs, tanks and wells
which transfer water to crops and population for domestic uses. New irrigation system is
developed which is known as drip irrigation this is the most suitable method for irrigation plants.
Other methods of irrigation included surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and sub-surface
irrigation this is the modern techniques which are used for irrigation.

Modern irrigation system

15
 Chapter # 3 3.0 Location
The irrigation channel for which we are requiring to “design, survey and quantity estimates” is
situated on Panr road Dangram Swat (KPK).

3.1 Topography
On the basis of our survey the area is rolling, flat and slope. And contain bushes which
interference our work but we keep struggle to complete our project. The area is not more
smoothly or flat but have rise or fall.

3.4 Climate
The area under consideration has maximum temperature in summer range from 25C – 43C and
rains usually occur in mid of July and September. In winter season the temperature fall up to 2C,
but winter season usually remains for only four to five months.

3.5 Equipment
The equipment which we are used for the project in field are;
 Level machine
 Total station
 Axe (for cutting bushes and other plants)

16
  Note book
 Plum bob
 Staff rod
 Tool box
 Tri pod
 Tape

Chapter # 4 4.0 Empirical Formulas

Some empirical formulae are used to find out the flow of open channel. Which help to find out
the in different channels and give us accurate value with the help of these empirical formulas we
design easily different flow in channels. The different empirical formulas are given below;
 The Chezy’s Formula
 The Manning Formula
 Bazin’s Formula
 Kutter’s Formula

4.0.1 The Chezy’s Formula

This formula was made by the French hydrologist Antoine Chezy (1718-1798). This formula is
used for uniform flow of liquid through in open channel.
Formula:
Q = A C √ mi
Where,
Q = Discharge
A = Area of the Channel
I = Gradient (Bed slope)
M = Hydraulic mean depth

17
 C = Chezy constant that depends on the shape & surface of channel. Its
values varies from 40 to 70.

For discharge we use this formula:

V=C √ RS
Q=A ×V
Q= AC √ RS

Example: Calculate the discharge through a channel having a bed slope 1 in 1000, area 12m 2
hydraulic radius of 1.2 m and Chezy’s constant being equal to 50.
Given data:
Bed slop = 1:1000
R = 1.2m
C = 50
Q =?
We know that,
Q= AC √ RS
Putting the values above the equation,

1
√
Q = (12) (50) ( 1.2 ) (
1000
3
¿ )=¿ ¿ 20.98 m /s

Discharge (Q) = 20.98 m3/s

18
4.0.2 The Manning Formula
Manning was work on Chezy;s formula constant C after more experiment the Manning gets the
result and derived constant and put this constant in Chezy’s formula, which is known as
Manning’s. Relation is given below:

1 1/6
C= m
N
Q = MA m2/3 i2/3
Where, Q = Discharge
A = Area of flow
I = Bed slope
M = Manning constant

Channel Surface n
Smooth steel surface 0.012
Corrugated me 0.024
Smooth concrete 0.011
Concrete culvert 0.013
Glazed brick 0.013
Earth excavation, clean 0.022
Natural stream bed 0.030
Smooth rock cuts 0.035
Channels not maintained 0.050 – 0.1
Table 4.1 Typical values of Manning’s n

The Manning’s formula for uniform flow:

1
Q = VA = ( )AR 2/3 √ s
n
Where,
Q = flow rate
  v = Velocity, (ft/s)               
    A = Flow Area, (ft2)

19
      n = Manning’s Roughness Coefficient
     R = Hydraulic Radius, (ft.)
     S = Channel Slope, (ft. /ft.)

Example: Find the flow rate using Manning equation, n = 0.025, open channel width = 3m, bed
slope = 1:5000, and d = 1.5m.
Solution:
1
V= R 2/3 s
n h √ e
A = 0.5 × (3+9) × 1.5 = 9m2

P = 2 √ 32 +1.52 + 3 = 9.708

A 9
Rh = = = 0.927
P 9.708
1 1
V=
0.025 √
× 0.9272/3
5000
= 0.538 m/s

Q = VA = 0.538 × 9 = 4.84 m3/s

4.0.3 Bazin’s Formula for discharge

Mr. Bazin works on Chezy’s constant (C) to finding the correct value of constant C after many
experiments Bazin’s derived the formula which is given below:

20
 157.6
C = 1.81+ K
√M

Where, C = Chezy’s constant

K = Bazin’s constant
M = Hydraulic mean depth

Type of inside surface of channel Value of K

Smooth cement plaster or planned wood 0.11

Brickwork, stone or un-planned wood 0.21
Poor brickwork or Rubble stone 0.83
Earth of very good surface 1.54
Earth of ordinary surface 2.35
Earth of rough surface 3.17
Table 4.2 Values of Bazin’s constant

Example: A rectangular channel is 1.5m wide and 1m deep has a longitudinal slope of 1 in
157.6
3600. Using Bazin’s formula for Chezy’s constant i.e. C = 1.81+ K . Find the discharge
√M
through the channel. Take K = 1.54.
Given data:
B = 1.5m
D = 1m
I = 1:3600
K = 1.54

21
 Q =?
Solution:
A = b × d = 1.5 × 1 = 1.5m2
P = d + b + d = 1 + 1.5 + 1 = 3.5m
A 1.5
M= = =0.43 m
P 3.5
According to Bazin’s formula
157.6 157.6
C = 1.81+ K = C = 1.81+ 1.54 = 37.90
√M √ 0.43
According to Chezy’s formula
Discharge = Q = AC √ mi

1
√
= 1.5 × 37.90 0.43 ×
3600
= 0.6m3/s

4.0.4 Kutter’s formula for discharge

Kutter and Ganguillet are two engineers from Swiss which both works on Chezy’s constan (C)
and after many experimental works they gave the relation of valve C, which is more accurate the
formula is given below:

0.00155 1
23+ +
i N
C=
0.00155 N
(
1+ 23+
i √m )
Where, N = Kutter’s constant
I = Bed slope
M = Hydraulic mean depth

Type of inside surface of channel Value of N

Smooth cement plaster or planned wood 0.010

Brickwork, stone or un-planned wood 0.012

22
Poor brickwork or Rubble stone 0.017
Earth of very good surface 0.020
Earth of ordinary surface 0.025
Earth of rough surface 0.030
Table 4.3 Values of N in the Kutter’s formula

Chapter # 5 5.0 Most Economical Section of a Channel

Those channels which the cost of construction is minimum is known as economical section of a
channel. In other words simply its mean the cross – sectional area is minimum and the discharge
is maximum is said to be most economical section. And this section is possible when wetted
perimeter is at least and during the design of open channel this section can be used, this type of
section is called best section and also called critical section.
The cost of construction is depends on the excavation of channel and also depends on lining. The
condition of most economical section of channel depends on slope and roughness surface which
already the Manning and Chezy’s formulae the values of “I” (Slope). Many shapes of channel
are available such as rectangular shape, circular shape and trapezoidal shape but the most
effective section is trapezoidal because it is the best hydraulic section. A semi – circular section
is also best economical channel but it is difficult to construct.
The overall cost of economical section is minimum from excavation to fully constructed and also
depend on depth of channel, roughness surface of channel and gradient (Bed slope) of a channel
this is the main conditions of most economical section of a channel.

23
5.1 Most economical section of rectangular channel
A rectangular section is only provided where rocks is available mean in rocky areas. Though a
rectangular section is not of much practical importance, yet we shall discuss it for theoretical
importance only. Consider a channel of rectangular X-section as shown in figure 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Rectangular x-

section

Where b = width of the channel

d = depth of the channel
Area of flow = A = B × D
Q=A×V
Q = A × C √ mi

Q = AC
√ A ×i
P
A A
Keeping A, C and I constant the discharge will be maximum when is maximum when is
P P
maximum or the perimeter is minimum or in other words,
Dp
=0
dd
We know perimeter,
P = B + 2D
A
P= +2 D
D
DP d A
So, =
dd dd D (
+2 D )
24
 DP d A D
Then, =
dd dd D dd( )
+ (2 D)

d -1 2 d
0=A D + D
dd dd
0 = A (-1) d -1-1 + 1 (2)
A
0= +1 ( 2 )
D2
A
So, = 1 (2)
D2
By cross multiplication we get,
A = 2d2 ……………. 
As we know that,
A=B×D
So, equation  become
BD = 2D2
B = 2D
Now,
A
R=
P
B×D
R= +2 D
B
D
R = 2D × +2 D
2D

2 D2
R=
4D
D
R=
2
For most economical x-section of rectangular channel two condition exist:
1. B = 2D
D
2. M =
2

25
Example: A rectangular section has a cross-section of 32m2. Determine dimensions for the most
economical section.
Given data:
A = 32m2
B =?
D =?
Solution: Since the section is most economical.

Fig. 5.2
B = 2d
A = 32
B × d = 32
2d × d = 32
D2 = 16
D = 4m
And b = 2d = 2 × 4 = 8m.

5.2 Most economical trapezoidal section of channel

A trapezoidal section is suitable for alluvial soil or loose soil. The side slopes, in a channel of
trapezoidal cross-section are provided, so that the soil can stand safely. Generally, the side slope
in a particular soil is decided after conducting on that soil. In a soft, flatter side slopes should be

26
provided whereas in a harder one, steeper side slopes may be provided. Trapezoidal cross-section
as shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 Trapezoidal cross-section

Let
B = Breadth of the channel at the bottom
D = Depth of the channel
I = Side slope

P = b + 2d √ n2 +1

Differentiating with respect to zero

A
P= −nd+ 2 d √ n2 +1
D
Differentiating with respect to (d) and equation = 0.
Dp d
So, = ¿
dd dd
d A d d
0=A× (
dd d ( )
− ( nd )+ 2 ¿
dd dd
d d
0=A× × d−1−n × × d+ 2¿
dd dd

0 = A (-1) (d)-1-1 – n (1) d-1-1 + 2√ n2 +1 ¿ ¿ × (1) d-1-1

−A
0= 2
−n+2 √ n2 +1
d

27
 A
So, 2
+n=2 √ n2+1
d
n
A+ 2
=¿ 2 √ n2 +1
d
Area = b × d
d (b+ nd)
Now, + n = 2 √ n2+ 1
d2
b+nd +nd
= = 2 √ n2 + 1
d
By cross multiplication

B + 2 (nd) = d√ n2 +1

Both sides divided by

nd
B+2 = d√ n2 +1
2
Area
M = Hydraulic mean depth =
Wetted perimeter
A d ( b +nd )
M= =
P b

Putting the values of d + √ n2 +1

d ( b +nd ) nd
M= × (b + 2) ×
2 2

d ( b +nd )
M= + (b + 2 nd)
b
d ( b +nd )
M= + b + 2 (nd)
b
d ( b +nd )
M=
2b +(nd )
d ( b +nd )
M=
2(b+nd )

28
 d
So, M=
2

5.2.1 Channel shape

There are many shapes of irrigation channel which are used in different areas such as
rectangular, circular and trapezoidal shape. But trapezoidal considered the best section of
irrigation channel while circular is not suitable for earthen and alluvial soil. And trapezoidal
section is suitable for alluvial soil and rectangular section is best for rocky areas.

5.2.2 Channel dimensions

The channel dimensions can be obtained using uniform flow formula, which is given below:

Q = AV

Where,
V = flow velocity (m/s)
A = cross – sectional area of canal perpendicular to flow (m)
Q = discharge (m3/s)
Velocity is computed by Manning’s formula or Chezy formula.
Manning’s equation is given by,
2
1 3 12
V= R S
n

Chezy’s equation is given by,

V = C R1/ S1/

29
 Where,
N = Manning’s roughness coefficient
C = Chezy’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = bed slope (m/m)

Here the some limitations for clear water and turbid water which is given below (Source:
Schwab et al. 1993).

Materials m/s m/s

Fine sand, colloidal 0.46 0.76
Sandy loam, non-colloidal 0.53 0.76
Silt loam, non-colloidal 0.61 0.92
Alluvial silts, non-colloidal 0.61 1.07
Ordinary firm loam 0.76 1.07
Volcanic ash 0.76 1.07
Stiff clay, very colloidal 1.14 1.52
Alluvial silts, colloidal 1.14 1.52
Shale and hardpans 1.83 1.83
Fine gravel 0.76 1.52
Graded loam to cobbles 1.14 1.52
When non colloidal - -
Graded silts to cobbles 1.22 1.68
When colloidal - -
Coarse gravel, non-colloidal 1.22 1.83
Cobbles and shingles 1.53 1.68

Example: A most economical trapezoidal channel has an area of flow 24m 2. Find the discharge
in the channel when running 1.8m deep. Bed slope may be taken as 1: 1200 and C = 60.
Given data:

30
 A = 24m2
D = 1.8m
I = 1: 1200
C = 60
Discharge Q =?
Solution: according to condition of most economical section,
d 1.8
Hydraulic mean depth = m = = =0.9 m
2 2
Using Chezy’s formula
Q = AC √ mi

1
√
= 24 × 60 0.9 ×
1200
= 39.44 m3/s

5.2.3 Discharge
Quantity of liquid passing per second through by section or conduit is called discharge. It is
denoted by capital letter “Q”. Formula of discharge is given below:

Q=V×A

Where,
Q = discharge
V = velocity of flowing liquid
A = cross – sectional area of flowing liquid

Example: Water is flowing in a pipe line of 10cm diameter. If the velocity of water is 1.5m/s.
find the rate of flow of water in m3/s.

31
 Given data:
D = 10cm = 0.10m
V = 1.5m/sec
Q =?
Solution:
2
πd 2 3.142(0.10)
Cross – sectional area of pipe = A = = =0.00786 m2
4 4
Discharge of water = Q = V × A
= 1.5 × 0.00786 = 0.0118m3/s

5.2.4 Equation of Continuity of Flow

If an incompressible liquid is continuously flowing through a close conduit or an open channel
(The cross- sectional area may or may not be constant) quantity of liquid passing per second is
called equation of continuity of flow.

Fig. 5.3 Flow through varying cross – section pipe

Q = a1v1 = a2v2 = a3v3 = -------------

Where, Q = discharge
a1, a2, a3 = Area of flow at various section
v1, v2, v3 = velocities of flow at various section
Example: Find the most economical cross – section of a trapezoidal channel with velocity of
flow 1m/s and to discharge 8m3/s having side slopes 2: 1. Take C = 55.

32
Given data:
V = 1m/s
Q = 8m3/s
S = 2: 1
B =?
C = 55
D =?
I =?
Solution: We know that,
Q=V×A
Q 8
A= = =8 m 2
V 1
According to conditions 1.
b
+ 3 d=d √ s 2+1
2
b
+ 2 d=d √ s2 +1
2
B = 0.48d
A = (b + sd) d
8 = (0.48 + 2d) d
8 = 2.48d2
D = 1.8m
B = 0.48d = 0.48 × 1.8
= 0.8664m

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5.3 Technical Terms
Some technical terms are used in project about irrigation channel which are given below:

5.3.1 Path line

The flow of liquid from one place to another, the particles of liquid make proper path this path is
known as path line.

5.3.2 Stream line

It is imaginary line which particles suspended in the fluid and carried along with it.

5.3.3 Potential line

It is the flowing of liquid where the potential line is meet to line this line is known as potential
line.

5.3.4 Flow net

The summation of flow lines is known as flow net.

5.3.5 Fluid
Fluid is something which can flow from place to another is known as fluid. Fluid may be gas or
liquid.

5.3.6 Orifices
It is an opening in a vessel or container in which liquid flow out is known as orifices.

5.3.7 Weir
To finding out the discharge of lakes, streams, rivers and drain to construct vertical wall, which
is called weir.

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Chapter # 6 6.0 Designing process of Irrigation Channel
In this stage we are starting the main working on our project designing so first of all we find the
length, depth and width of the irrigation channel with the help of Total Station (TS) and other
instruments such measure tape and level machine etc. Overall length of irrigation channel is
500m, the depth is 0.40m and width is 0.60m. We take the measurement unit is meter (m). We
measured the length with the help of measure tape during the measurement we faced many
difficulties because the site area is neither smooth nor slope but we struggled and get successes.
So finally we find the area of channel which make our project easier and then we continue to
complete our project step by step.

6.1 Design of irrigation channel

Now we are explaining of our project design data which we take from the site.

Discharge Measurement by Float Method:

Area of channel,
Depth = 0.40m
Width = 0.60m
Length = 500m
Area of rectangular section = w × d
= 0.60 × 0.40
= 0.24 Sq. inch
Distance
Velocity of water V =
Time
1. Velocity of channel V1 = 0.67m/s
2. Velocity of channel V2 = 0.67m/s
3. Velocity of channel V3 = 0.70m/s
0.67+0.67+ 0.70
Average velocity of channel = =¿0.68m/s
3
Discharge of channel Q = A × V
= 0.4 × 0.68
= 0.163m3/s or 163lit/s

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So,
Depth = 0.375m
Width = 0.75m
Length = 500m
Slope = 0.001
N = 0.011
Measured discharge = 0.163m3/s
Depth = 0.375m
Breadth = 0.75m
D = D – 0.10 = 0.275m
A = b × d = 0.20625m
P = b + d = 1.3m
A 0.20625
R= = = 0.158654m
P 1.3

R Λ 2/3 = 0.9174
V = R Λ 2/3 × S Λ 1/2/¿n = 0.837354m/s
Q = A × V = 0.20625 × 0.837354
= 0.17270m3/s or 172.7043lit/s

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 Chapter # 7 7.0 Survey of Hydraulic Irrigation Channel
We find and collect survey data with the help of level machine which are given below:

R.D B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L Remarks

0 1.95 100 B.M = 100

0 1.982 0.032 99.968
40 2.223 1.979 0.003 99.971 C.P
60 2.202 2.28 0.057 99.914 C.P
80 1.919 2.08 0.122 100.036 C.P
100 1.837 0.082 100.118
110 2.449 1.888 0.051 100.067 C.P
130 1.394 2.408 0.041 100.108 C.P
150 1.535 0.141 99.967
170 1.63 0.095 99.872
190 1.284 1.646 0.016 99.856 C.P
210 1.116 1.31 0.026 99.83 C.P
230 2.178 1.193 0.077 99.753 C.P
250 2.79 2.161 0.017 99.77 C.P
270 1.98 2.778 0.014 99.784 C.P
290 1.788 2.187 0.207 99.577 C.P
300 2.169 1.904 0.116 99.461 C.P
310 2.063 2.283 0.114 99.347 C.P
320 2.038 0.025 99.372
340 2.95 2.33 0.292 99.08 C.P
360 2.115 2.392 0.097 98.983 C.P
380 2.159 0.044 98.939
390 2.311 2.182 0.023 98.916 C.P
410 2.706 2.234 0.077 98.993 C.P
430 1.453 2.71 0.004 98.989 C.P
450 2.525 1.601 0.148 98.841 C.P
470 1.79 2.562 0.037 98.804 C.P
490 1.741 0.049 98.853
500 1.819 0.078 98.775
Total 42.702 43.927

We are going to check our survey data for this purposes we using formula which is given below:

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 Check:
Sum of B.S = 42.702
Sum of F.S = 43.927
B.S – F.S = 42.702 – 43.927 = - 1.225
First R.L – Last R.L = 98.775 – 100 = - 1.225
So the result of (B.S – F.S) and (First R.L – Last R.L) are both same its mean our survey
data is correct.

38
 Chapter # 8 8.0 Quantity and Estimates of Irrigation Channel
In last stage we estimates the data of overall irrigation channel which is given below:

S. Lengt Widt Heigh No Materials

N0 Descriptio h h t . Shutterin
. n (Ft) (Ft) (Ft) g

Quantit Uni Cemen Sand Gravel

y t t (CFt) (CFt)
(Bags)
A Water Course Size 3.46 × 1.4 (Ft)
1 Excavatio 1641 3.79 1.56 1 9702.2 Cft
n 5

2 P.C.C in 1641 3.79 0.33 1 2052.4 Cft 361 903 1806

bed 0
(1:2:4)

3 P.C.C in 1641 0.50 1.4 2 203484 Cft 358 895 1791

walls
(1:2:4)

4 Centering 1641 1.5 2 4923.0 Sft 4923

and 0
Shutterin
g
719.35 1798. 3596. 4923
3 7
359.6 719.3
7 5

5 Wastage 0% on Sand & Gravel 85% on 719.35 2158. 4316.

bricks 0 1
6 Grand Total Quantities 719.35 2158. 4316. 4923.0
0 1

39
 References
1. Irrigation and Drainage engineering written by Dr. Iqtidar H Siddiqi.

2. Introduction to Hydrology by Viessman.

3. Fundamentals of irrigation and on – farm water management: Volume 1 by Ali Hossain.

4. Hydraulics and Irrigation CT – 344 by Engr. Sheikh Muhammad Asif and Engr. Mazhar
Abbas Naqvi.

5. Irrigation Channels by Gaurav. H. Tandon

https://www.slideshare.net/gauravhtandon1/irrigation-channels-46360889

6. Irrigation water management by A. Goffeau and M. Heibloem FAO Land and water
development division http://www.fao.org/3/r4082e/r4082e00.htm#Contents

7. Neenu is a Civil and Structural Engineer and has experience in Design of Concrete and
Steel Structures. She is an Author https://theconstructor.org/fluid-mechanics/chezys-
formula-open-channels-determine-chezys-constant/37904/

8. Open channel flow and Hydraulic machinery by B. V. Raju Institute of technology

https://www.slideshare.net/RambabuPalaka/open-channel-flow-57084579

9. Irrigation engineering and Hydraulic structures by Santosh Kumar Garg.

10. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering by Muluneh Yitayew and Peter Waller

11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation#History

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12. https://civiltoday.com/water-resource-engineering/irrigation/58-objectives-of-irrigation

13. https://www.easy-irrigation.co.uk/a-history-of-agricultural-page-29?
zenid=5ii251m1f4knkemq1epdm14um4

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