(Solar Thermal workshops and Tutorial)

Topic 1 : (Solar Radiation and Low Temperature Collector)

Topic 2 : Low Temperature Systems

Q1) Why are selective surfaces used in solar thermal collectors?

Purpose of a selective surface: to absorb well in the solar spectrum and to be a poor emitter of radiation in the
thermal radiation section of the spectrum – so that heat losses by thermal radiation are lowered.

A selective surface has a good absorptance in the solar part of the spectrum and a poor absorptance/low emittance
in the thermal radiation part of the spectrum

Would a material with the following optical properties be a suitable material for a selective surface in a solar thermal
collector?

Why or why not?

• Yes, Duffie and Beckman section 4.9 provides details on how this can be achieved

• The most common involves a surface coating that has a high absorptance in the solar spectrum (and a high
transmittance in the long-wave radiation) applied to a substrate with low emittance in the long-wave
radiation part of the spectrum – eg a shiny metal surface.

• Remember: Transmittance + Absorptance + Reflectance = 1 (ie radiation is either transmitted, absorbed or

reflected).

• In the graph shown, the surface absorbs well in the region of solar radiation and is a poor absorber in the
near infrared (λ > 3μm) – and hence a poor emitter of radiation in the near infrared – this means that this
material would be a good selective surface.

Important points:

1. In general a good absorber is a good emitter (seems to contradict the above)

2. But, this is true for the same wavelength – absorptance, αλ = emittance, ελ - note the wavelength subscript. A
good absorber in a particular wavelength range is a good emitter in that same wavelength
 3. The important thing here is that we are talking about different wavelength ranges – the solar spectrum
range (ie the wavelengths in the solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface – say 0.31 – 1.8µm) and the
thermal radiation spectrum range (long wavelengths – say > 3µm )

4. Materials can have different properties in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum and that is the
basis of selective surfaces – we are talking about two different wavelength ranges

Q2) Why is glass such a useful material for covering a flat plate solar collector?

Properties of glass that make it a useful material for covering a flat plate solar collector:

• Transparent to solar radiation (especially with low iron content)

• Opaque to thermal radiation re-radiated from the warm collector absorber plate – prevents the warm
absorber plate radiating to the cold sky temperature

• Impervious to the wind – prevents cooling winds from flowing over the absorber plate and inducing high
convective heat transfer losses

Q3) The general equation for the efficiency of a flat plate solar thermal collector is given by:

a) A particular two square metre collector is tested and the efficiency is plotted against the parameter (t i – ta)/I T. This
test was conducted using the standard water flow rate of 0.015 kgs -1 per square metre of collector area. The
intercept of the resulting straight line fit is 0.82 and the slope is -5.4. What are the units of these values?

Intercept = FRτα = 0.82 [this is dimensionless]

Slope = -FRUL = -5.4 [Units of this are W/m2.K]

Therefore the efficiency equation is:

η = 0.82 - 5.4 (ti-ta)/IT

b) The same flow rate flows through the collectors as that used in the efficiency test. At one particular time during
the day, the inlet water temperature to each string is 38°C, the solar radiation level is 700 W/m² and the ambient
temperature is 21°C. Calculate the temperature of the water leaving each string at this time.

 Q=mcΔT
 The flow rate through all the collectors in this example = 0.015 kgs -1m-2 x 2m2 = 0.03 kgs-1
 Efficiency of collector, η = Useful heat out / Solar Radiation incident on the collector
For the first collector, ti = 38°C, ta = 21°C, and IT = 700 W.m-2

 Using the efficiency equation, for the first collector in the string, η = 0.82 – 5.4 x 0.0243
 = 0.689

 Solar radiation incident on the first collector in the string = 700 W.m -2 x collector area
= 700 x 2 = 1400W

 Therefore, Useful heat out of the first collector in the string

= η x Solar Radiation incident on the collector

= 0.689 x 1400 = 965 W

 Q= m x c x ΔT = 0.03 kgs-1 x 4180 Jkg-1K-1 (water heat capacity)x ΔT K(or °C)

 (Remember, Collector flow rate (mdot) = 0.015 kgs -1m-2 x collector area(m2) = 0.015 x 2 = 0.030 kgs-1)
 Therefore, ΔT = 965 / (0.03 x 4180) = 7.70 K or °C
 The inlet temperature of the second collector in the string = outlet temperature of the first collector in the
string = inlet temp + ΔT = 38°C + 7.7°C = 45.7°C
 Using the efficiency equation, for the second collector in the string, η = 0.82 – 5.4 x 0.0353 = 0.629 [How
does this compare with the efficiency of the first collector?]
 Solar radiation incident on the second collector in the string = 700 W/m 2 x collector area
= 700 x 2 = 1400W

 Therefore, Useful heat out of the first collector in the string

= η x Solar Radiation incident on the collector

= 0.629 x 1400 = 881 W

= mdot x Cp x ΔT = 0.03 kgs-1 x 4180 Jkg-1K-1 x ΔT K(or °C)

 Therefore, ΔT = 881 / (0.03 x 4180) = 7.08 K or °C

 Therefore the outlet temperature of the second collector, and hence the outlet temperature of the two-
collector string = inlet temperature + ΔT = 45.7°C + 7.08°C = 52.78°C or 52.8°C

Topic 3: Low Temperature Systems – Design and Performance

Q1) What is the basic process involved in the development of design tools such as the f-chart methods?

 Using trnsys
 Lots of simulations to capture correlations between the measure of performance (f – monthly solar
fraction) and some parameters. This is so we don’t need to run a whole simulation but can make
pretty good approximations.

Q2) what are the advantages and disadvantages of using procedures such as the f-chart design methods and Q chart
design method?

1. Lots of correction factors or otherwise limited to the particular type of system.

2. Have to be the same type as the one they developed it for.

Additional:

F-chart is the authoritative solar system analysis and design program developed by S.A. Klein and W.A. Beckman. It
provides a means of easily determining the thermal performance of solar energy heating systems (using either liquid
or air as working fluid)

It widely used in designing both active and passive solar heating systems, especially in selecting the sizes and type of
solar collectors that provide the hot water and heating loads.
Advantages

 The major advantage method is that it provides a means of designing solar energy systems with less
computational effort.
 The f-Chart method is widely used in designing new systems and performance analyses of existing systems.
 It is very useful in the applications for which it was developed;

CHART LIMITATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

 The f-Chart was developed only for standard type of solar space and domestic water heating systems.
 The parameters ranges for which the method is applicable are limited. Using the f-Chart method for system
other than those for which it was originally developed or for design parameters outside the range of the
correlations may produce erroneous results.
 Although the systems and parameter ranges for which the f-Charts are applicable are clearly indicated in the
original references, the method has been incorrectly applied to space heating systems with no storage, solar
cooling systems, and systems having control strategies that differ from those for which the method was
designed

The φ-f chart method is applied to the closed loop solar energy system as reported in Figure 1. This method is
particularly useful in the simulation of absorption refrigerators, industrial process heating, and space heating
systems where the thermodynamics cycle efficiency is independent of the heat supply temperature.

Advantages:

 The major advantage of the φ-f chart method is that it can be used for applications other than space and
domestic water heating, such as solar air-conditioning or process-heating with either flat-plat or
concentrating collectors.
 It is generally agrees more closely with simulation results than the f-Chart method for space and water
heating systems for which f-Chart is applicable, because the variability of solar radiation is incorporated into
the utilizability function

Disadvantages

 The major disadvantage of the φ-f chart method is that it requires substantially more computational effort
than the f-Chart method which precludes it for use with hand calculations.
 Storage energy losses and load heat exchanger limitations are built into the f-Charts, whereas the result
from the φ-f chart must be modified for these considerations

Q3) A collector in a water-based solar space heating and hot water system has the following efficiency equation:

  = 0.75 - 4 (Ti - Ta) / IT

The system has a configuration that satisfies the requirements for using the f-chart method for determining
the monthly solar fraction values. For this particular system the following parameters apply for the month of
February:

Average monthly daily solar radiation on the collector surface = 18.8 MJ m-2
Average ambient temperature = -5.0°C
Space heating and hot water load = 30.4 GJ

1) Assuming that FR'/FR = 0.97 and (τα)/(τα)n= 0.96, use the f-chart method to calculate the solar fraction for
this system in February if the collector area is 50 m².
  This is for February.
 How do we go about doing this?
 There are 2 dimensionless groups to work out
 FRtalpha is the intercept of the equation (0.75)
 FRul = slope from efficiency equation (4)
 FR'/FR = 0.97
 Tref =100
 Ta = -5
 ΔT = 28*24*60*60
 Ac = 50 m2
 load L = 30.4*109 J

b) If the actual water storage capacity in the system was 150 litres/m² what would the
estimated solar fraction be in this case?

Xc Actual storage capacity −0 .30

X
= (
Stan dard storage capacity )
Actual storage capacity
for 0 .5≤ (
S tan dard storage capacity )
≤ 4. 0

Xc/X = (150/75)^-0.3 = 0.812*X(from part 1) = 0.812*1.62 = 1.315

2 2 3
f = 1.029Y – 0.065X - 0.245Y + 0.0018X + 0.0215Y

Apply X=1.315 and Y=0.6 in above f equation, you will get f= 0.45

A standard litre tank is 75m2 (1.5L per m2 of collector)

For 150L X becomes, 1.315 and the solar fraction is: 0.45
Topic 4 : High Temperature system

Q1) Why are concentrating collectors often proposed for dry desert climates rather than tropical climates?

• Concentrating collectors need to focus solar radiation. This means they require beam radiation and so
climates with an abundance of beam radiation are preferred.

• An abundance of beam radiation implies clear sky and clean sky conditions.

• Desert environments are good locations for clear skies and unpolluted skies.

• Tropical climates have a significant amount of cloud and rainfall and this limits the beam radiation and hence
the output of concentrating collectors.

• Note that dust in such environments could reduce the effectiveness of reflecting concentrating surfaces –
therefore there may be a need to a cleaning/washing program.

Q2) What is the difference between a line-focus and a point focus concentrating collector?
Which will produce the higher temperature and why?

• Using a parabolic shape sunlight can be concentrated onto a small area.

• A line-focus concentrating collector uses a trough arrangement to focus sunlight along a line. An evacuated
tube collector can be placed along this line and used to absorb the concentrated solar radiation.

• A point-focus concentrating collector uses a dish arrangement to focus sunlight onto a small spot. A receiver
placed in this focal region can be used to absorb the concentrated solar radiation and turn it into thermal
energy.

• The concentration ration is higher for a point-focus collector compared to a line-focus collector. More solar
radiation is being concentrated onto a unit area and consequently this area will reach higher temperatures.

• In a stagnation situation:

• Energy absorbed = energy lost

• Incident Solar radiation x area x absorptance = overall loss coefficient x area x (Tabsorber – Tambient)

• Assuming that the absorptance and the overall loss coefficient are approximately constant (the loss
coefficient will generally increase with increasing temperature because of the radiation heat loss
mechanism), as the incident solar radiation increases, so will the absorber temperature.

Second part :A parabolic trough collector is used to heat a fluid flowing in a tube along the focal line of the
collector. The tube is enclosed in a cylindrical glass cover with the space between the tube and the glass cover
evacuated. Global solar radiation of 1050 W/m² is incident on the collector. Briefly describe all the factors that
reduce the amount of this energy that actually ends up being absorbed by the heat transfer fluid flowing in the
tube.

Q3) A parabolic trough collector is used to heat a fluid flowing…

• Only the beam radiation will be focused onto the tube The amount of radiation reaching the evacuated tube
collector will be influenced by:

– the tracking accuracy

– the reflectance of the reflecting surface

– the accuracy of the surface (closeness to parabolic shape)

• Once at the evacuated tube collector the amount of energy reaching the fluid in the tube will depend on:
 – the transmittance of the glass cover

– the absorptance of the absorber coating

– the heat loss coefficient from the absorber surface

– the conductivity of the tube

– the heat transfer coefficient from the tube wall to the fluid (will depend on the fluid properties and
the flow rate of the fluid)

Q4) What has been the most widely installed of the solar thermal electric systems up to now?
What is the principle of operation of this system?

• Most widely installed solar thermal electric systems up to now are the concentrating trough systems in
California (formerly the Luz systems)

• Parabolic troughs, rotating around a horizontal north/south axis, focus sunlight onto evacuated tube
collectors and heat a special heat transfer oil passing through the collectors.

• Heat transfer oil pumped to a central location where a heat exchanger is used to produce steam. This steam
is used in a conventional steam turbine.

• Natural gas is used as a backup fuel to ensure that a given output can be achieved, irrespective of the
weather.

• Second part : Parabolic-trough power plants consist of large fields of parabolic trough collectors, a
HTF/steam generation system, a Rankine steam turbine/generator cycle, and optional thermal storage
and/or fossil-fired backup systems.

• Each parabolic mirror (single axis tracking) focusses light onto a receiver

• Heat transfer fluid heated up to 390°C, runs through heat exchangers (central)

• Produces steam, runs turbine, circulates back through field

Q5) Describe the principle of operation of an Integrated Solar Combined Cycle System (ISCCS).

• Integrates a parabolic trough plant with a Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Plant

• Solar heat supplements the waste heat from the G-T – therefore more power is derived from the steam
Rankine Cycle

• Solar system is used to produce more steam while some of the G-T waste heat is used to preheat and
superheat the steam
Q6) What are the benefits of adding storage to a power tower system?

• Power plant becomes despatchable – especially when demand to power is the highest

• Can guarantee output – during the day (ie overcome the effect of short term cloud events) or into the night
(depending on the amount of storage included)

• Could get some capacity credit

• Can develop power plants with a wide range of capacity factors (depending on the amount of storage
included)

Q7) What thermodynamic cycles have been used in the engines incorporated into Solar Dish power systems?

What working fluids are used in these engines?

• Rankine cycle – water/steam; organic fluids (eg salt pond systems where boiling point needs to be < 100)

• Stirling systems – hydrogen or helium

• Brayton systems - air

Q8) For the Central receiver systems shown in the lecture materials, what is their overall efficiency (solar radiation to
electricity). Assume that in bright clear sky conditions the beam radiation is of the order of 900 W/m2

Topic 5: High Temperature System and Design

Q1) if the maximum theoretical concentration ratio for a dish concentrator is 18,000, then what is the maximum
acceptance angle over which it can accept and concentrate radiation?
Q2) Show that if a surface normal varies from an initial direction by a deviation angle, , then the deviation in the
reflection vector from its original direction is 2. What does this indicate about the degree of focal spread
introduced by surface slope error?

With the original direction of the light , the smaller the angle of the light the more energy absorbed , also, the
variation of the original direction angle will affect the angle of the reflection angle so the smaller the angle of the
original vector the less reflection.

Q3) The integrated power under a flux distribution on a 0.1m diameter disk target is 18.8 kW, for a spherical dish
with a circular aperture of 12m diameter. If the insolation is 950 Wm -2, and the mirror reflectivity is 92%, what is the
interception factor (the fraction of the incident light reaching the target) of the collected radiation?

r= 12m/2 = 6m

E (aperture) = 950W.m-2 x π x 62 x 0.92

E (aperture) = 98.8kW

E (aperture) should = E (receiver)

Does not, so interception factor = E(receiver)/E(aperture) = 18.8/98.8 = 19%

Q4) A system at 500K transfers 40 MJ of heat to a system at 300K. Calculate the exergy destroyed in this process if
the ambient temperature is also 300K. If the temperature of the lower system was 400K, what would the new value
for exergy destroyed be? Why is this less than in the first case?

B = Exergy Destroyed

( TT )=40 MJ (1− 300

B=Q 1− o
500 )
=16 MJ

T 400
B=Q ( 1− )=40 MJ ( 1−
500 )
o
=8 MJ
T
Q5) A solar collector receives solar radiation at the rate of 0.65 kW/m 2 and provides energy to a storage unit whose
temperature remains constant at 500K. A power cycle receives energy by heat transfer from the storage unit,
generates electricity at the rate of 1000 kW, and discharges energy by heat transfer to the surroundings at 20°C. For
operation at steady state, determine the minimum theoretical collector area required, in m 2.
Assume that all components of the power plant are at steady state; there are no stray heat transfers from any plant
component; the system undergoes a power cycle subject to Carnot limitations; the storage unit and the
surroundings play the roles of hot and cold reservoirs, respectively.