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Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research.

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Chapter 7 

Sampling data and

data collection in
qualitative research
Dean Whitehead and Lisa Whitehead

Learning outcomes Key terms

After reading this chapter, you should focus groups
be able to: interviews
• understand the rationale for observation
conducting qualitative sampling
qualitative data collection
techniques
qualitative sampling
• describe the main types of sampling
in qualitative research and appreciate questionnaires
examples of research studies for each sampling criteria
type
• explain the selection criteria used in
qualitative sampling
• describe different qualitative data
collection approaches and appreciate
examples of research studies for each
approach
• discuss the benefits and limitations of
qualitative data collection
approaches.

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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH
Introduction
A key stage in the qualitative research process is determining the nature of the study population and then sampling
from this population so that data can then be collected. In qualitative research, the study population is nearly always
human, although there are some exceptions that will be discussed later in this chapter. Individuals selected to take part
in a qualitative study are most commonly referred to as ‘participants’. This chapter will focus on sampling and data
collection techniques used in qualitative research.
Sampling techniques
and procedures in
qualitative research
The primary purpose of sampling is the selection of suit-
able participants to enable the focus of the study to be
appropriately researched. As with all types of research,
effective sample selection is a vital part of the research
design process. Inappropriate sampling approaches may
seriously affect the findings and outcomes of a study.
There are a number of types of sampling procedures that
can be adopted and the choice of the qualitative research
design (see Chapter 6 for common examples) will often
guide that process. For example, theoretical sampling is
a sampling approach linked specifically to the qualitative
approach of grounded theory.
Types of sampling
Sampling in qualitative research is termed non-probability
sampling. Unlike probability sampling used in quantita-
tive research, non-probability sampling does not involve
randomisation, which means that members of a qualita-
tive study population do not have an equal chance of
being selected. Instead, they are often ‘specifically’
approached by the researchers. There are four main types
of non-probability sampling:
1. convenience sampling
2. purposive sampling
3. snowball sampling
4. theoretical sampling.
Convenience sampling
This is the most common form of qualitative sampling
and occurs when people are invited to participate in the
study because they are conveniently (opportunistically)
available with regard to access, location, time and willing-
ness. Convenience sampling is a relatively fast and easy
way to achieve the sample size needed for the study.
For example, Honey et al’s (2014) descriptive qualitative
study sought to understand the perceptions of health
consumers related to their needs and use of health infor-
mation. Convenience sampling identified potential par-
ticipants from health consumer groups in NZ’s largest
city—Auckland. These groups were sent a letter of invita-
tion to share with their members who responded if they
were interested in participating. From the responding
participants, four focus groups (see later in this chapter)
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were conducted. While it may be the most common form
of sampling in qualitative research, the main limitation
of using convenience sampling is that it could suffer
from either under-representation or over-representation
of particular groups within the population. For example,
recruiting nursing students in a hospital library setting
could favour those students currently on a hospital place-
ment, those groups with imminent exams or assign-
ments, or those who favour physical library environments
over virtual resources. If a sample is not representative of
the ‘overall’ population being studied, it limits the
researchers’ ability to generalise the findings to a wider
population (Babbie 2014). Some would argue, however,
that this is not always important in qualitative studies.
Purposive (purposeful) sampling
Purposive sampling is a popular approach in qualitative
research. Participants are recruited according to pre-
selected criteria relevant to the research aims/questions
of a given study. Purposive sampling is designed to
provide information-rich cases as participants are those
who have the required status, experience, or knowledge
of interest to the researcher. For example, Quinn et al
(2013) report their research study about the perceptions
and acceptability of midwifery-led care in very remote
Australia (Far West NSW) as well as the potential barriers
and enablers to the delivery of such a model in this
context. These were especially important to elicit as there
was no agreed model for collaborative primary maternity
care in such a setting. They purposively sampled and
invited 24 clinicians and/or policy-makers to in-depth
interviews via the phone or face-to-face. Six participants
were subsequently considered ineligible as they had
resigned, taken leave during the study period or their
employing organisation declined further contact.
Of 16 eligible participants, 14 consented to partici-
pate and were very experienced practitioners from a range
of roles and settings.
Two further types of sampling sit under the umbrella
of purposive sampling; quota sampling and maximum
variation sampling. In quota sampling, the researcher
decides on both the number of participants required and
the characteristics of interest. These may be age, gender,
profession, diagnosis, ethnicity and so forth. The popula-
tion is segmented into the groups of interest e.g. men
under the age of 45 years and men >45 years. The
researcher would then select men from each group to
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Chapter 7
represent the proportion of each group in the wider popu-
lation. If the desired sample size was 20 men and the
proportion of men >45 years in the population was 75%
, then the sample would consist of 5 men under 45 years
and 15 men >45 years. Quota sampling is therefore more
specific with respect to representing proportions of the
sub-samples of interest in a given research study; for
instance, in the case of Shanley et al’s (2011) study on
nursing-home managers’ decisions about transferring
nursing home residents to hospital—highlighting the
roles of advance care planning and support from local
hospital and community health services. The study area
was the Western Zone of the Sydney South West Area
Health Service which, at the time, contained 66 nursing
homes. The intention of the quota sampling strategy was
to interview managers from the majority of nursing
homes in order to achieve a sample that was broadly rep-
resentative of the study population of 66 facilities in terms
of facility size, high/low care and type of ownership.
Maximum phenomena variation sampling is an
approach used to ensure that the full range and extent
of the phenomena are represented—such as ensuring
people experiencing mild symptoms in relation to a par-
ticular condition are included as well as those experienc-
ing severe symptoms (and all those in-between). An
example is Taghizadeh et al’s (2014) study investigating
23 Iranian mothers’ perception of psychological birth
trauma. To achieve maximum phenomena variation of
participants, the age, number of pregnancies, educational
level, economic, social and cultural status, employment
status and mode of delivery were considered.
Snowball sampling
Also known as ‘chain referral’ or ‘networking’ sampling,
snowball sampling occurs when the researcher starts
gathering information from one or a small number of
people and then requests they put the researcher in touch
with others who may be friends, relatives, colleagues or
other significant contacts. This type of sampling is espe-
cially useful in recruiting ‘hidden populations’, for
example, marginalised or stigmatised individuals, where
those individuals are not easily accessible to researchers,
such as drug-users, prostitutes or those not registered
with a medical practice (Babbie 2014). An example of
this sampling approach was used in McGregor et al’s
(2014) study, which explored health professionals’
(including nurses and midwives) experiences with adult
survivors of child sexual abuse in New Zealand. Face-to-
face, semi-structured interviews of up to an hour took
place with 13 health professionals. The participants were
asked about training, screening practices, their response
to disclosures, and advice to other health professionals.
They were also asked how they dealt with and reported
ranges of procedures or examinations that involved touch
with their clients.Some limitations of snowball sampling
are that the researcher needs to rely on referrals from
initial contacts to generate additional participants. The
Schneider_2302_Chapter 7_main.indd 113
Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
participants, therefore, are often not considered to be
representative of the overall population being studied.
Theoretical sampling
This form of sampling is mostly used in grounded theory
studies (see Chapter 6) but is increasingly being used to
gather data for the purpose of theory generation (see
Chapter 2). The research starts from a homogeneous
(small) sample and moves to a heterogeneous (larger)
sample (Babbie 2014). Sampling occurs sequentially and
alongside data analysis. Analysed data guides the areas to
be explored further in the next round of data collection
and the focus of the sample in order to achieve this (see
Chapter 8). The initial participants are usually purpo-
sively chosen or conveniently available. For example,
Hoare et al (2013) investigated new graduate nurses as
‘knowledge brokers’ in general practice in New Zealand
using a constructivist grounded theory method. Practice
nurses from the Auckland region of New Zealand were
invited to take part in the study. An email invitation and
participant information sheet were sent out to practice
nurse networks via the Primary Health Organisations
(PHO). Consistent with the method of theoretical sam-
pling, participants who demonstrated characteristics
congruent with developing categories were invited to
participate in a face-to-face interview conducted at the
practice nurse’s workplace. Unexpectedly, they found
that new graduate nurses were unconscious experts at
sourcing information and role-modelled this skill to
experienced practice nurses.
More than one form of sampling
in a qualitative study?
It is possible to use more than one form of sampling in
a single study. For example, in a study by Zhou (2014),
purposive sampling was used initially to select partici-
pants who had received their basic nursing education
in Mainland China and who had been working as regis-
tered nurses in Australia for at least 6 months. The main
form of data generation was face-to-face in-depth inter-
views. The initial broad question was: ‘Tell me of your
experiences of working as a registered nurse in the
Australian health care system’. Follow-up questions and
probing questions were used to encourage elaboration of
responses and to ensure clarity when necessary. After 28
interviews, study categories were tentatively established.
Theoretical sampling was employed then at this point
with the intent of filling certain conceptual gaps. For this
purpose, 18 of the initial 28 participants were invited for
a second interview. This theoretical sampling process
continued until there were no new emergent categories
or sub-categories.
Sampling criteria
In qualitative research, participants are viewed as capable
individuals able to reflect upon and clearly express their
experiences, values, beliefs and opinions. Different
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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH

qualitative approaches have varying sampling intentions
regarding participants. The selection depends on the
sampling criteria. Sampling criteria identify the charac-
teristics of the sample population and their eligibility to
be part of the study based on pre-selected inclusion and
exclusion requirements.
Inclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria are specific characteristics that the
person or population or elements must possess, such as
a certain age range or gender. For example, Jones et al
(2007) explored the training requirements of residential
aged-care personal carers needed in order to understand
and respond to residents with dementia and mental
illness. In the study, personal carers were those who carry
out all front-line nursing care tasks such as bathing,
feeding, dressing, simple wound management and organ-
ising residential aged-care plans. The inclusion criteria
included all personal carers enrolled in Certificate III and
Certificate IV in Aged-Care and all those who worked
primarily in aged-care facilities in Canberra, Australia. In
Wong et al’s (2015) study of families’ experiences of
interactions with staff in an Australian intensive care
unit, the inclusion criteria were English-speaking family
members over 18 years of patients admitted unexpectedly
(e.g. road trauma) to ICU—as opposed to planned, elec-
tive admissions.
The chosen qualitative methodology will ‘automati-
cally’ determine inclusion criteria (Oppong 2013). For
instance, participants in phenomenological studies are
mostly chosen because of their experience of the phe-
nomenon being studied and because of their ability to
express that experience. In grounded theory, because
samples of events and incidents involving action or inter-
action relevant to the research focus are sought, partici-
pants must have been or currently be involved in those
events. With ethnographic research, the researcher is in
the ‘field’, observing and recording the events and behav-
iours of participants, so the participants have to already
be in the observable location. This is illustrated in Bragg
and Bonner’s (2014) grounded theory investigation of
Australian rural nurses’ resignation behavior.
Exclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria identify characteristics that deem a par-
ticipant inappropriate for inclusion in a study. Age is
often specified; for example, a study on adults would
normally exclude those under 18 years of age. The use of
exclusion criteria such as any person who is cognitively-
impaired or where the language of the study is the par-
ticipant’s second-language should be employed with
caution so as not to marginalise entire sectors of society.
In Wong et al’s (2015) study (mentioned above), the
exclusion criteria were distressed family members and
families of patients at an end-of-life or ‘brain dead’ stage.
Sometimes exclusion criteria are implied as a ‘given’
(Issacs 2014). For example, studies of maternal care
would not normally include males unless the study also
aimed to explore expectant fathers’ experiences or the role
of male health professionals in maternal services.
Tutorial trigger 7.1
You intend to research the perceptions of patients in
the community setting with in-dwelling urinary cathe-
ters. What might you decide in terms of inclusion/
exclusion criteria?
Sample size in qualitative research
Unlike quantitative approaches, which aim to establish
statistical significance by sampling a predetermined
number of subjects or elements, qualitative researchers
do not always begin a study with a predetermined sample
size. In qualitative research, there are no overall formal
criteria for determining sample size and, therefore, no
rules to suggest when a sample size is small or large
enough for the study. Essentially, the ‘richness’ of data
collected is far more important than the number of par-
ticipants. This said, the researcher still requires insight to
the size most likely to achieve the purpose, context and
the richness of the data collected (Issacs 2014).
A common range is between 8 to 20 participants, but
studies will vary widely both inside and outside this
range. A number of qualitative methodologists, however,
provide sample size guidelines for qualitative research
designs. Issacs (2014 p 320) states a ‘rule of thumb’ is
12–26 participants. Other authors are more specific in
relation to different methodologies. For instance, Creswell
(2007) recommends 3–5 participants for a case study, 10
for a phenomenological study and 15–20 for a grounded
theory study, whereas Morse (1995) suggests a sample
size ranging from 6 participants for a phenomenological
study to 30–50 for an ethnographic study. Rarely, a large
number of participants may be involved. For example,
Crowe et al’s (2001) New Zealand-based qualitative
study accessed 131 community-based client participants
in order to evaluate consumer mental health service pro-
vision. Gauld and Horsburgh (2015) analysed qualitative
open-ended survey responses from 3205 participants in
their New Zealand-based study of healthcare profession-
als’ perceptions of clinical governance implementation.
For focus groups (group interviews—see later), Krueger
and Casey (2009) suggest 5–10 participants at each focus
group, but this can also range from as few as 4 to as many
as 12 participants. Carolan et al’s (2015) Melbourne-
based study exploring the experiences of individuals with
type 2 diabetes in low socio-economic settings, for
instance, used a number of focus groups ranging from
4–8 participants in each group. Within the literature,
decision on the number of focus groups is often com-
pared to the method of analysis to be used. Given the
amount of potentially rich and detailed data that can be
generated by each focus group, the number of focus
groups to be run should be carefully considered and also

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Chapter 7 Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

An unexpected hurdle
Dawson et al’s (2014) study aimed to reveal nurses’ experiences and perceptions of turnover in Australian hospitals
and identify strategies to improve retention, performance and job satisfaction. A qualitative design was used to
analyse responses from 362 nurses collected from a national survey of nurses from medical and surgical nursing
units across three Australian states and territories.
Participants were part of a broader study, which examined the relationship between nurse turnover and patient,
organisational and staff outcomes. Patient, nurse and costing data were collected on 62 medical and surgical
nursing units in 11 public hospitals across two states and one territory of Australia. Each nursing unit had two data
collection periods, spaced 12 months apart, over a two-year period (2008–10). Participants were registered nurses
(RNs; Bachelor degree level), enrolled nurses (ENs; Diploma level), medication endorsed enrolled nurses (EENs;
Diploma plus medication administration course) and assistants in nursing (AIN; Vocational Certificate). All RNs, ENs,
and AINs engaged in clinical practice on sampled units were asked to complete a survey that gathered information
about the practice environment, job satisfaction, physical and mental health, nurse leadership and demographics.
Nurses’ experiences and needs on the subject of nursing turnover were sought at the end of the survey where an
open question followed by a blank A4 page was given for participants to write their responses. The open question
asked ‘Please provide any additional comments you would like to convey’. A total of 1655 nurses provided written
consent and completed the survey, a response rate of 44.4%; only 21.8% (n = 362) of those who responded chose
to add comments, personal reflections and narratives at the end of the survey. These data formed the basis of the
analysis.
How might the study be approached differently to counter this hurdle and what might be the appropriate
method of data analysis?

reflect the amount of time and size of the research team
available to complete the analysis.
Data collection in
qualitative research
The process of data collection follows the identification
of the sample. Data collection can take the form of ‘direct
data’ or ‘indirect data’. Direct data include recordable
spoken or written words and also observable body-
language, actions and interactions. Here, the interactions
may be human-to-human or human responses to inani-
mate objects—such as a haemodialysis machine.
Whatever can be observed or communicated are consid-
ered to be potential or actual data (Issacs 2014). This will
occur when considering the thoughts, feelings, experi-
ences, meaning of experience, responses, actions, interac-
tions, language and processes of individuals and groups
within their social and/or cultural setting (Babbie 2014).
It is this type of data that sets the ‘context’ of qualitative
studies. Indirect data are generated, in the first instance,
by someone or something else, such as with documents
or photographs reporting an event or an artistic rendition
of an event or experience (e.g. novels, songs, paintings,
poems, photographs). Phillip and Rene (2012) highlight
the importance of qualitative approaches that use pho-
tography to collect data for Australian peri-operative
nurses. Where indirect data need to be collected these are
sought through a variety of methods. These may include
systematically searching archives or browsing through the
internet—with data collected being either in hard copy
or electronic form (see Chapter 4). Direct data, though,
are by far the most common form in qualitative research.
Depending on the types of data required for a qualita-
tive study, various methods of collecting data can be used
singularly or in combination to obtain direct data. For
direct data, these methods may include interview, obser-
vation, open-ended questionnaire, journalling (diary
accounts) or ‘think aloud’ sessions. Direct data can be
collected by the participant involved in a study at the
request of the researcher (e.g. through writing a personal
journal or diary) and then provided to the researcher.
Most commonly, however, qualitative approaches acquire
data primarily through interpersonal contact with par-
ticipants (usually an interview) or, secondly, through the
presence of the researcher in proximity to pertinent
events (usually observation) (Babbie 2014). This is unlike
quantitative research where, frequently, interpersonal
contact is deliberately limited with participants or events.
In quite a few instances, researchers will use more than
one technique to collect data. Rollans et al’s (2013)
ethnographic study describes the content and process
of psychosocial assessment and depression screening
undertaken by midwives in the antenatal booking visit
in two maternity units in New South Wales, Australia.
Participants included 34 pregnant women and 18 mid-
wives who agreed to be observed during the antenatal
booking visit. A structured observation tool and field
notes were used to record observations of the assessment
and screening process including the midwives’ approaches
(actions and interactions), communication styles, and
the interactive dynamics between the midwives and the
women. Following the observation, midwives also par-
ticipated in interview sessions. Licqurish and Seibold
(2013) employed three data collection approaches in
their Victoria-based grounded theory study of midwifery

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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH
students’ experiences of practice requirements for regis-
tration. They observed and interviewed 12 midwifery
students and analysed student documentation.
Interviews
Interviews are regarded as the prime method for qualita-
tive data collection; also representing the most common
method for gathering qualitative data in nursing-related
research (Issacs 2014). Spoken ‘narrative’ is the basis of
most qualitative data, where that narrative is most often
gained through a direct encounter between the researcher
and participant (or several participants) using in-depth
interviews or focus group interviews. Interviews can be
conducted by telephone, email and, more recently,
through social media conversations and micro-blogging
(e.g. Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr).
Interviews in qualitative research may be unstruc-
tured, semi-structured or occasionally structured. With
unstructured interviews, neither the specific questions to
be asked nor the range or type of possible answers are
pre-determined. The interviews are designed to be infor-
mal and conversational with the aim of encouraging par-
ticipants to express themselves in a naturally unfolding
manner. Unstructured interviews tend to start with single
broad questions, such as ‘what is your experience of …’
The researcher, however, has an idea in mind of the
general issues to be covered and may use a topic list as a
reminder. Mercer (2013) used unstructured interviews in
a New Zealand-based phenomenological study of 14
spouses whose partners were hospitalised in a local non-
tertiary centre. She refers to the ‘unfolding’ interview
events as ‘individual stories’.
Semi-structured interviews use an interview guide
to provide a set of questions for discussion. The questions
are set to ensure the research aims/questions are covered.
However, there is freedom to pose any questions in
any order, following tangents or seeking clarification of
previous answers or elaboration of responses. Semi-
structured interviews steer the interview yet are flexible
enough to allow the interviewer to follow leads and areas
of interest. For example, Merrick et al (2014), in their
descriptive exploratory study examining Australian prac-
tice nurse’s collaborative decision-making practices,
used semi-structured interviews consisting of 30 ques-
tions. The questions were non-directive and mainly
open-ended and were designed to trigger and stimulate
open discussion.
Structured interviews in qualitative research are not
commonly conducted. Structured interviews follow a list
of set questions, usually asked in a certain order—but
these questions are still open-ended; that is, usually
commencing with words like ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘where’ or
‘when’. This distinguishes them from structured quanti-
tative interviews, which usually only ask closed-ended
questions—such as ‘how many’ to illicit numerical data.
Common to all types of interview format is the desire
to avoid leading questions at all times. The researcher
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Schneider_2302_Chapter 7_main.indd 116
should not lead a participant down a particular line of
thinking.
Tutorial trigger 7.2
Prepare an interview schedule for investigating the
experiences of clients who have an in-dwelling urinary
catheter. What sort of questions might you want to ask
of your participants?
Conducting interviews
The structure and conduct of interviews are important;
both factors will impact on the quality of the data
generated. Conducting interviews can be complex and
demanding and requires attention to process (Peters
& Halcomb 2015). Many researchers perform ‘dry or
dummy runs’ with peers and/or colleagues as a form
of piloting the interview schedule and interview
techniques.
There are a number of considerations for all research-
ers conducting any type of interview to enhance the
experience and the quality of data collected. At the start
of the interview it is important that the ‘rules of engage-
ment’ are established early on—such as generating
and maintaining a warm and non-judgmental manner
towards the participant/s, asking questions in a balanced,
unbiased, non-threatening, sensitive and clear way, and
choosing a setting for the interview most appropriate to
exploring the area of study (e.g. private setting if personal
questions will be asked). The majority of interviews con-
ducted in qualitative research are audio-recorded or, less
commonly, video-recorded. Telephone interviews can
still be recorded; for example, Halcomb et al’s (2013)
study of consumer perceptions of general practice nurses
in New Zealand. James (2013) opted to both audio- and
video-record her interview sessions with 12 third-year
New Zealand-based midwifery students. Both of these
formats have an advantage over handwritten notes
because it is often impossible to record everything the
interviewer hears or to observe everything that occurs in
an interview situation. Other related mediums are also
now being considered. For instance, Oates (2015) con-
ducted 15 out of their 27 qualitative interviews using
Skype with mental health nurse participants.
During the interview it is important that the partici-
pant feels as comfortable as possible. Privacy and comfort
are important and the researcher should minimise the
likelihood of disruption as much as possible by, for
example, ensuring that all items required are available
(recording equipment, tapes, consent forms, participant
information sheets, drinks and tissues). Researchers
should take active steps, such as posting ‘do not disturb’
signs and disabling telephone or pager devices. The issues
of confidentiality and anonymity should be discussed
with the participant before the interview is conducted
and questions encouraged and answered. It is important
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Chapter 7 Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

to explore with the participant how you will minimise
their identification by others, and how you will securely
store the data, how long this will be kept and when and
how it will be destroyed. All of these issues are usually
set out in the study information, and the participant, in
signing the consent form, acknowledges that they under-
stand the issues and have had the opportunity to discuss
these with the researcher. To promote informed consent,
it is important to check out the participant’s understand-
ing before they sign. Appropriate time should be allowed
for each interview. Interviews should not be hurried
or stopped before they have naturally completed. If,
however, the participant wishes to stop the interview or
the researcher senses that the participant is becoming too
tired or distressed, then the interview can be stopped or
paused at any time. This may mean setting up a new
appointment for another occasion. It is, however, prefer-
able to resume as soon as possible so that flow and recall
of previous discussion is not lost. It is recommended that
no single interview last more than 1–2 hours, as ‘inter-
view fatigue’ is likely to occur.
Tutorial trigger 7.3
What might be the features of a ‘desirable’ environment
for the conduct of qualitative interviews?
During an interview, the interviewer’s presence and
engagement (including how they listen and attend to and
end responses) is vital to the process. It should be remem-
bered that the purpose is to gain information from the
participant; not for the researcher to express their own
thoughts and feelings. In a structured or semi-structured
interview, an appropriate range of questions is asked, as
listed on the interview schedule. The purpose of the
interview schedule is to provide clarity and assist the
participant if hesitant or confused. Questions may also
be used to prompt expansion and elaboration if further
detail is required. An active listening position is adopted
by the researcher, concentrating on what is being said as
well as being alert to other cues, particularly non-verbal
cues. During the interview, some researchers find it useful
to record (memoing) non-verbal aspects of the interview,
for example, if the participant laughs or cries. Another
researcher may be invited to take detailed notes (memos)
during the course of the interview. The notes are later
used to guide the data collected from the audio/
videotaped interviews. Alongside this, the interviewer
may well note and review their own thoughts and feelings
about the interview and any ‘extraordinary’ situations or
events that arise. The memos may then assist later data
analysis (see Chapter 8).
Qualitative interviews should allow the interviewee to
speak freely and offer in-depth and lengthy responses
through techniques used singularly or in combination.
Possible techniques include the following:
• Funnelling—beginning the interview with general and
broad (non-threatening) opening questions and then
narrowing down to topic specifics as the interview
progresses.
• Probing—eliciting further details or seeking clarifica-
tion. Price (2002) details an innovative probing
technique called ‘laddered questions’. Appropriate
questions are asked in a series leading from the least
intrusive questions to the most intrusive. This tech-
nique identifies classifications of questions; questions
about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the least invasive,
through to questions about ‘philosophy’ (feelings/
values/beliefs) as the most invasive. Storytelling, as
another technique, involves asking questions in a
manner which encourages storytelling and more elab-
orate answers; for example, ‘Tell me about when you
last experienced …’
• Paraphrasing—repeating what the participant has said,
without changing the meaning of what has been said,
assists understanding and clarity and acts as a further
prompt.
Cultural and language considerations
When conducting interviews it is also important to con-
sider the use of language, especially in cross-cultural set-
tings. In qualitative research where participants are not
fluent in oral or written English language, it is important
that the interviewer is fluent not only in the language but
is culturally understanding or representative of the par-
ticipants and their environment. In multicultural socie-
ties, such as New Zealand and Australia, research is often
conducted involving participants from culturally and lin-
guistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds for the purpose
of describing, understanding and clarifying their cultural

R esearch in b rief
Fernandez and Wilson (2008) examined the effectiveness of smoking cessation initiatives for Māori in New Zealand.
They conducted a focus group interview, consisting of five Māori women who had stopped smoking, to ask what
was more likely to influence Māori women to quit and the data were thematically analysed (see Chapter 8). Two
themes were identified: (1) ‘transmission of Whanau’ (immediate and extended family) with values that included
the sub-categories ‘Whanau experiences’, ‘being mothers’ and ‘role models’; and (2) ‘factors crucial in influencing
change’, which included the sub-categories of ‘choices and exercising own will’, ‘a positive perception of self’ and
‘a Māori approach’. The findings provide insight for nurses into Māori women’s insights that highlight the importance
of ‘Whanau’ and supportive relationships, and can be used to inform strategies to assist Māori women in smoking
cessation.

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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH
‘worldview’. As such, research in a multilingual environ-
ment poses methodological challenges in demonstrating
desirable practices—such as ‘cultural competency’
(Mareno & Hart 2014). Appropriate strategy for data
collection, when another language is used during inter-
views, is to include language assistants (such as bilingual
researchers or professional interpreters). In the Fernandez
and Wilson (2008) ‘Research in brief ’, one of the
researchers was of Ngati Tahinga descent and also a
Fellow of Te Mata o te Tau (Academy for Māori Research
and Scholarship).
Benefits of interviews
Interviews provide the researcher with a valuable oppor-
tunity to enter the world of the participant and reflect
on a particular event. Rapport and trust can be developed
and are desirable to collect the extensive and detailed data
that are needed. Interviews should develop as ‘conver­
sational encounters’ that offer opportunities to clarify
issues—as well as probe for ever-deeper insight and
meaning. Interviews also offer unique data, as interview
outcomes will never be the same between participants.
When emotional and emotive issues arise during the
course of the interview session, the interviewer is able to
offer appropriate support and referral to counselling if
the need exists or arises. Overall, qualitative interviews
offer a productive, meaningful and supportive engage-
ment that benefits both researchers and participants.
Limitations of interviews
Price (2002) identifies a range of challenges related to
interviewing. These challenges include securing access,
making sensitive records, managing power relationships,
managing ‘space’, managing communication and manag-
ing the sequence of interviews. Interviews are not so
much limited by the techniques and methods used, but
mostly by how these are applied by the researcher.
Ethically, interview schedules should be challenged if
there are questions which are seemingly biased, leading,
unbalanced, emotive, imposing, coercive, manipulative
or threatening (Bowrey & Thompson 2014). Therefore,
the potential for an increased imbalance in the power
relationship between interviewer and interviewee should
be avoided. Even in research designs that are well exe-
cuted, some degree of power differential will exist in
interview situations. In order to minimise the imbalance
in the power relationship, it is important for the inter-
viewer to explain why it is in the interest of the partici-
pants to respond to the questions and remain in control
of the interview. A good interview is a discussion rather
than a question and answer session. It is important to
always treat participants with respect.
Interviews can be time-consuming and resource-
intensive to establish. Although in qualitative research,
estimation can be made about how many interviews may
be necessary to gather a complete set of data, this is not
always an exact science. Also, limiting data collection
to ‘one-off’ interviews with participants may lead to
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Schneider_2302_Chapter 7_main.indd 118
insufficient data for analysis and therefore depth of
understanding. Another consideration is that the inter-
viewer, despite any effort to ‘bracket’ out their own expe-
riences, ideas, prejudices and opinions prior to an
interview session, is always partly generating their own
‘pre-conceived’ internalised data. The resulting data will
inevitably be, in part, influenced by the interviewer
whether this is through subtle body language or the
nature of questions asked. The methodological approach
employed by the researcher will inform how the issue of
objectivity is managed. In hermeneutic phenomenology,
objectivity is not sought and the researcher is required to
embrace and recognise subjectivity in the interview
process. In Husserlian phenomenology, however, objec-
tivity, through bracketing, is desired and methods to
enhance objectivity employed.
Focus group interviews
Focus groups are interviews conducted in a group setting
and can be used in a number of ways to generate data.
Focus groups can be conducted to explore, develop and
refine initial research questions and interview schedules;
as a form of data collection in their own right or as a
way of exploring the resonance of findings generated
through interviews (or another form of data collection).
Focus groups use interview schedules but these differ in
scope, nature and intention from other research inter-
views. This is because of the unique nature of group
dynamics and insights gained from interaction between
participants. Focus groups offer a collective set of values,
experiences and observations of participants that are later
interpreted in context. Sometimes group ‘synergy’ or
consensus (agreement) on issues occurs, but this is not
always the case.
If a series of focus groups are scheduled, initial inter-
views usually identify broad issues and perspectives
related to the focus of the study, while subsequent inter-
views seek to prioritise and narrow down generated
issues. In Fragar and Depczynski’s (2011) study of the
challenges at work for older nurses and allied health
workers beyond 50 years of age in rural Australia, com-
munities were selected for focus group discussions based
on size and geographical spread across the region of rural
New South Wales. A convenience sample of 80 older
health workers attended six focus groups. One or two
items from each group were selected for further discus-
sion by the larger group to assist other group members
to contribute and/or debate on the ideas that arose from
each small focus group. Such focus groups work because
they include participants who are similar to each other.
Homogeny (consistency) was determined by the purpose
of the study and by the general inclusion criteria; that all
were beyond 50 years of age, all were rurally located and
all were health workers. From the methodological
approach used, the results of this study provided ways to
address concerns and avoid demands being placed on
older healthcare workers across the rural health service.
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Chapter 7 Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

Benefits of focus group interviews interactions. Qualitative observation is traditionally

The main benefits of this method of data collection
are the generation of data from multiple participants
and often a larger sample size compared to individual
interview studies. Another advantage is that, for those
who may find one-to-one interviews intimidating, the
group setting may be more appealing, and provide
access to participants who may not participate other-
wise (Liamputtong 2010). Focus groups offer supportive
group interactions as each member is encouraged to iden-
tify, describe, analyse and resolve issues (Issacs 2014) and
are particularly valuable in obtaining different perspec-
tives on the same topic. Focus group interviews are
usually more economical to conduct than individual
interviews. The identified benefits of focus groups are
such that several of the studies already identified in this
chapter have used them (i.e. James 2013, Carolan et al
2015, Honey et al 2014).
Limitations of focus group interviews
Focus groups may not explore issues as deeply as one-on-
one interviews. At the same time, as they may not be as
intimate and private as individual interviews, sensitive
or potentially embarrassing information is generally not
discussed. Researchers require expertise to effectively
conduct focus group interviews by, for instance, avoiding
‘group think’ outcomes (where members try to minimise
conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical
evaluation of alternative viewpoints), and preventing any
individual from dominating conversations, as well as
drawing out quieter members. That said, where the focus
group does not present any of these dilemmas, the
researchers should be mostly inconspicuous—often only
needing to contribute to commence, prompt occasion-
ally, and finalise the session.
Observation
Observational methods are commonly used in qualitative
research designs and vary between methods. Observation
is the process of observing the daily life and behaviours
of participants in their natural setting to record aspects
such as social position and function, or actions and
adopted by ethnographers (De Chesnay 2014), but can
be used in other qualitative approaches. This is especially
so with studies using an interpretive/constructivist
approach (see Chapter 2) where exploring observed
events is often used to interpret and understand
behaviour.
In qualitative research, observation methods are
mostly unstructured. However, some studies will use
more structured observation. In unstructured observa-
tion, the researcher enters the ‘field’ with no predeter-
mined schedule as to what they may or may not see or
hear. Using this approach requires an ‘observation proto-
col’ to record the same information collected during
observations by the data collectors. For instance, observ-
ers in a ward or clinic may focus observation on a certain
phenomenon of interest. Munyisia et al (2011) under-
took an observational study to explore how nursing staff
spent their time performing clinical activities in a 110-bed
nursing home in Australia. Their study required a team
of trained observers to use a predetermined classification
of activities in recording the specific activity being under-
taken at a particular time by nurses. Some examples of
the predetermined nursing activities observed included
‘time spent in communication’, ‘medication manage-
ment’, ‘direct care’, ‘indirect care’ and ‘documentation’.
A total of 6538 observations were recorded over 5 days
from 74 nursing staff. Several recent midwifery studies
do similar—such as Heyward et al’s (2013) ‘Stepping
inside lives: experiences from an ethnographic investiga-
tion of domiciliary midwives in metropolitan Melbourne’
and Dove and Muir-Cochrane’s (2014) ‘Being safe prac-
titioners and safe mothers: a critical ethnography of con-
tinuity of care midwifery in Australia’ investigations.
Process of observation
Methods of observation range across a continuum
from participation to observation where four distinct
roles of participation and observation can be identified:
complete participant; participant-as-observer; observer-as-
participant; and complete observer. These roles can also be
adopted in quantitative research and are further discussed

R esearch in b rief
In a study by James (2013), the research objective was to explore the experiences of midwives when working
alongside third-year midwifery students in a New Zealand setting and, in particular, what contributed to a positive
placement experience for the midwife. The study sought to understand what supports midwives to work effectively
with third-year midwifery students. For this purpose focus groups provided the forum to gather the information
required since it was felt these would elicit a wider range of experiences than individual interviews, and these would
be mediated by the group dynamics. An invitation to participate in the research was sent to midwives within a
specific geographical area of New Zealand, who regularly worked with midwifery students. Midwives were allocated
to two focus groups in order of when they first contacted the researcher, with six midwives in each group. A com-
munity venue was used for each of the focus group sessions, with each session lasting for two hours. Trigger
questions were used to initiate the discussion—such as participants being asked to describe a positive experience
they had when working with third-year midwifery students. They were also asked how they perceived the role of
the student, the role of the school and the role of the midwife within this relationship. The sessions were audio- and
video-recorded. Findings showed that placements were mostly positive experiences for the third-year midwifery
students.

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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH
Complete Participant
• Researcher is immersed in group/community
(complete intervention)
• Research is usually concealed (covert)
Observer as Participant
• Researcher mainly observes but occasionally
enters field (brief intervention)
• Research is known (open)
Figure 7.1 
Different roles of the observer in observational research
in Chapter 11. Differences in observer roles depend
on the degree of researcher involvement (intervention)
or detachment (concealment) with participants (see
Figure 7.1).
With complete participation, the researcher is an
accepted and established member of the community (or
group or sub-group) under observation. Complete par-
ticipation gives the researcher the best opportunity to
observe behaviours as the researcher is part of the com-
munity. Most anthropological studies use this technique
as the researcher is already a member of the community
or attempts to be invited into and ultimately be accepted
by the community. Often it is not known by the com-
munity that the participant observer is a researcher (a
form of concealment) to avoid disruption of normal
activity. In a participant-as-observer role, the researcher is
acting as both participant and observer with this open-
ness allowing productive relationships to develop with
other participants, and allows the researcher to step in
and out of the research environment when they think it
is best. With observer-as-participant, the researcher’s role
is made public and the researcher is first an observer, with
participation a secondary role. The close relations of a
complete participation role, however, are more difficult
to establish in this role. As a complete observer, a researcher
is confined to observations only and offers no interaction
with participants. The research study itself may or may
not be revealed. There are major ethical implications for
not revealing to people that they are being observed for
research purposes and so examples, not just in nursing
and midwifery, are rare. Sometimes, it may be planned
that participants are informed instead after the research
has finished. However, this is still usually not a compel-
ling case for ethical approval to be given.
A further aspect of observation is in the ‘positioning
approach’ that the observer adopts. These are classified
as single, multiple and mobile. In single positioning
the observer occupies one location only. They are less
likely to distract participants or be distracted. Multiple
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Schneider_2302_Chapter 7_main.indd 120
Participant as Observer
• Researcher steps into and out of groups/
community (intervention)
• Research is known (open)
Complete Observer
• Researcher does not participate
• Research is either known (open) or
concealed (covert)
positioning allows the observer to move to different loca-
tions and view events from different angles/perspectives.
Mobile positioning is needed in situations where the
observer must follow participants as they go about daily
activities.
Another method of conducting observational study is
by the use of video-recording. Decisions on how to
record observational data depend on the focus of the
research question and the analytical approach proposed.
A main advantage of this approach is that the researcher
has the ability to play the video over and over, aiding the
data analysis process and reducing personal observational
bias. This method can also be effectively used for inter-
vention studies to compare pre- and post-change in prac-
tice. For example, Mjaaland et al (2011) videotaped
(using a still camera and extended microphones) 72
doctors’ encounters with their patients before and after a
communication-skills training intervention. The focus of
the study was to observe if doctors responded to patients’
cues and concerns when they expressed negative emo-
tions. The results showed that doctors tended to avoid
supporting or exploring patients’ emotions. A further
related method is the use of photographic observation
which serves to illustrate aspects of activities that are not
easily described. Researchers could, for example, take a
series of 10 to 15 photographs of an activity and then
describe what they see so that an account of what is hap-
pening in the activity unfolds (Phillip & Rene 2012).
Benefits of observation
De Chesnay (2014) suggests that observation has several
advantages in qualitative research: ‘capturing data in
more natural circumstances’, ‘capturing the whole social
setting’ and ‘context of the environment in which people
function’, and ‘informing about influences of the imme-
diate physical environment’. Depending on the observa-
tion method used, there is opportunity to interact with
participants while gaining rich data and perspectives
related to participants’ values and experiences. Where the
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Chapter 7 Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

Table 7.1 
Summary of benefits and limitations of main qualitative data collection methods
Data collection methods
Individual interview
Focus group interview
Involved observation
Detached observation
Benefits
• Allows participants to express their own
ideas
• Allows interviewer to be responsive to
individual differences and situational
circumstances
• Allows organised discussion structured
in a flexible way
• Provides opportunity for all to
participate and give their opinions
• Dominant and submissive participants
can be directed and controlled
• Discussion generated between
participants
• Large quantity of information collected
in a short amount of time
• Allows researcher immersion and • Altered behaviours of observed groups
prolonged involvement with participants
• Encourages free and open conversation • Takes time to build trust with
with the participants
• Reveals descriptions of behaviours by
stepping outside the group
• Allows identification of recurring
patterns of behaviours that participants
may be unable to recognise or reveal
themselves
Limitations
• Minimal control over the order in which
the topics are covered
• Usually small sample size limited due to
cost and time
• Researcher has less control over the
flow of discussion
• Facilitating focus group interviews
requires considerable skill
• Difficult to distinguish between
individual view and group view
• More difficult to organise and order
data for analysis
by the presence of the researcher
participants
• Potential researcher bias in the design
of a study
• Sources or participants may not be
equally credible
• Analysis of observation can be biased

researcher is also a participant, observation allows them
to reflect on and evaluate their own feelings about their
experiences in the field. In this case, researchers can
choose to either ‘step back from’ or ‘be immersed in’
situations.
Limitations of observation
If researching from an ‘objective’ stance, it is necessary to
be aware of cautions that observation is more prone to
‘subjective’ interpretation by the researcher than is usually
the case with interview data. Field notes are likely often
written up following the observation event potentially
adding to the subjectivity of data. De Chesnay (2014)
also points to the incidence of the Hawthorne effect
(reactivity) in observational research methods. This
effect is a well-known phenomenon whereby people who
know that they are being researched (particularly when
observed) tend to behave in different ways than they
would normally—either to please the researcher or to
present themselves in a different and possibly more posi-
tive way (see Chapter 11 for a more detailed account
of this phenomenon). To avoid participant ‘reactivity’
altogether, a practical solution is concealment of the
researcher’s role from start to finish. The disadvantages of
this approach, however, are that the researcher may lack
objectivity, the group members may feel distrust when
the identity of the researcher is revealed and the ethics of
the situation are questionable since the group members
are essentially being deceived (Bowrey & Thompson
2014). Table 7.1 highlights some of the overall benefits
and limitations of the main qualitative data collection
methods.
Tutorial trigger 7.4
Devise an observation schedule for observing chroni-
cally ill children on a paediatric ward. What type of
observer/participant role/s would you employ? What
might you expect to observe?
Other types of data collection
Although most qualitative studies use interviews or
observations for the collection of data, other data collec-
tion methods can also be used either as primary forms of
data collection or in partnership with other methods. For
instance, qualitative research questionnaires can be used
where a list of open-ended questions capture qualitative
data. Journals can be written by participants about their
experiences, decision-making or whatever is the focus of
the study, with the journaling usually occurring soon
after the event or the experience. A novel form of data
collection is the ‘think-aloud’ technique. This is where
participants record reflective thoughts, decision-making
processes or impressions about events and incidents into,
for example, a handheld audio-recorder.

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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH

R esearch in b rief
Dove and Muir-Cochrane (2014) sought to examine how midwives and women within a continuity of care midwifery
program in Australia conceptualised childbirth risk and the influences of these conceptualisations on women’s
choices and midwives’ practice. They conducted a critical ethnography within a community-based continuity of
midwifery care program, including semi-structured interviews and the observation of sequential antenatal appoint-
ments with eight midwives, an obstetrician and 17 women. The fieldwork occurred over nine months and approxi-
mately 20 hours per week were spent in the field. This involved observation of Health Centre activities involving
the midwives, for example, in their office area and antenatal clinic appointments, and in undertaking one-to-one
semi-structured interviews. Fieldwork also included ‘shadowing’ the program’s activities outside of the Health
Centre by accompanying midwives and observing meetings within the hospital or within the community, including
in their role as educators within community groups. All interview and antenatal visit observations were audiotaped
and transcribed, and transcripts were returned for review and comment. They concluded that the effects of obstetric
risk practices can be mitigated when trust within the mother–midwife relationship acts as a catalyst for identity work
and supports the midwife’s role as a risk-negotiator.

A long-established method of data collection is using
a form of ‘systematic searching’ for stored or displayed
items of relevance (indirect data) that can later be
analysed. The search may be for items of historical infor-
mation (e.g. archival material, minutes of meetings, biog-
raphies, personal and organisational diaries, letters and
personal documents). For instance, Kirby (2004) used
government reports and professional journals to investi-
gate nursing recruitment crises in the 1930s and 1940s—
to compare how this impacted on the foundations of
nursing research from 1950 to the 1970s. Such sources
provide historical and contextual accounts either to back
up observations and interviews, or to provide data in its
own right. Leibbrandt et al (2005) examined the curricu-
lum documents of 26 Australian universities to produce
data for the formation of a national curriculum evalua-
tion framework.
The systematic search process may also be used for
indirect data that present as a range of literary and artistic
media, including paintings, literature and photography.
In this case, some qualitative researchers also ask partici-
pants to create collages, take photographs or perform
other artistic processes related to the research focus of
a study. For example, Turner (2005) investigated hope,
from the perspective of 10 young Australian people,
asking them to take photographs that reflected their
experiences and interpretations of hope. Ureda et al
(2011) used ‘story-mapping’ with their focus group par-
ticipants to illustrate their decision-making processes for
dealing with prostate cancer. The story maps were illus-
trated visually by a local artist in colour and were found
to increase participants’ identification of the issues sur-
rounding prostate cancer. In addition, a discussion guide
was used to assist the focus group process of how and
where, in their community, participants might learn
about screening for prostate cancer.
Using multiple data
collection methods
Increasingly, nursing and midwifery researchers are
conducting research using mixed-method/triangulation
research (see Chapter 14). One form of methodological
triangulation is where the researcher uses different
methods for collecting data in the same study. For
instance, Licqurish and Seibold (2013), in their Victoria-
based grounded theory study of midwifery students’
experiences of practice requirements for registration,
used interviews, field observation and student documen-
tation to collect data. Ray and Street (2005) used inter-
views and an original technique, called ‘ecomapping’,
to explore the dynamic nature of social networks of
Australian motor-neurone disease sufferers. Ecomapping
is a form of observational technique that maps and tracks
relationships, social networks and support over time and
offers a visual schematic of identified connections.
When have enough data
been collected?
Qualitative researchers often experience uncertainty
when not being able to generalise their findings due to
the small sample sizes often used. However, this can be
overcome when researchers ‘feel’ that they have enough
information at hand or, alternatively, the emerging data
becomes repetitive or uncovers nothing new. If this is the
case, then researchers continue collecting data until data
saturation, redundancy of data or ‘theoretical saturation’
is achieved (see Chapter 8). Saturation is not dependent
on the amount of data collected but based on the richness
of the emerging data set. Controversy exists as to whether
it is possible to achieve true data ‘redundancy’ or satura-
tion, because further interviews always have the potential
to uncover something new or unexpected (Elo et al
2014). Therefore, the point at which this situation seems
to occur will vary with each study and cannot be pre-
dicted. Once the researcher is reasonably satisfied that
they have reached the point of data saturation, data col-
lection can cease and the researcher can move on to the
next stage in the research process—data analysis.
Summary
With qualitative research, sampling methods and
methods of collecting data are a vital and closely related

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Chapter 7 Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research

part of the study design. A number of different options K e y p oi n ts

are available which, in turn, will determine the nature
and approach of the research to be conducted. Attention
to detail is required with both sampling and data collec-
tion processes. Errors in either are likely to affect overall
study outcomes. The effectiveness of these processes
greatly impacts on the next stage of qualitative design
process, that of data analysis. Qualitative data analysis is
the focus of the following chapter.
• A wide range of methods and techniques are used for
both sampling and collecting data from the sample in
qualitative research.
• The four main types of sampling used in qualitative
research are convenience sampling, purposive sam-
pling, snowball sampling and theoretical sampling.
• Choosing a sample size and sampling scheme and col-
lecting data from the chosen sample should be an
active process of reflection, which is central to qualita-
tive research.
• Qualitative research usually employs interviews and/or
observation to collect data from sample populations.
Each has both strengths and limitations.

Tourangeau AE,Cummings G,Cranley LA, Ferron EM, Harvey S: Determinants of hospital nurse intention
to remain employed: broadening our understanding, J Adv Nurs 66(1): 22–32, 2010.
Time to reflect

Aim: Tourangeau et al (2010) conducted a study to identify nurse-reported determinants of intention to

remain employed and to develop a model explaining determinants of hospital nurse intention to remain
employed.
Design: A descriptive qualitative study using focus group methodology was implemented.
Reflect on the following:
Thirteen focus groups including 78 nurses were carried out in two Canadian provinces. Each focus group
was led by two moderators consisting of a researcher and a research assistant. One moderator led the
group and the other attended to participant needs, functioning and location of digital recorders, and
ensuring a comfortable environment. Focus groups were digitally recorded. A semi-structured question
guide was prepared that included one main question and several probing questions. Focus groups were
opened with one question reflecting the study research question: ‘What circumstances in your work or life
influence your decision to remain in or leave employment in your job at this hospital?’ Probing questions
were developed based on current knowledge of determinants of intention to remain employed from the
literature but were never required. Moderators sought clarification intermittently.

Questions
1. What aspects of good focus group conduct are evident in the above description?
2. What further information would be helpful in assessing the quality of the process and impact on data
collection?
3. What are the limitations of using focus groups for this particular research question?

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  Learning activities
1. In sampling, the inclusion criteria indicate: 6. Observational methods can employ which of the
a. characteristics or properties of the chosen following approaches:
sample that the researcher would not want a. in-place participant; participant-as-observer;
them to possess observer-as-participant; and absolute observer
b. characteristics or properties of the chosen b. complete participant; participant-as-observer;
sample that the researcher would most want observer-as-participant; and complete observer
them to possess c. absolute participant; participant-as-observer;
c. characteristics or properties of the sample that observer-as-participant; and in-place observer
the researcher would find most attractive d. complete participant; in-place observer; in-place
d. characteristics or properties of the chosen participant; and complete observer.
sample that the researcher would find least
attractive. 7. Observation techniques are most commonly used
in:
2. Which group of participants below would represent a. phenomenology
a purposive sample: b. grounded theory
a. all the people working in a hospital c. historical research
b. specialist nurses recommending other specialist d. ethnography.
nurses
c. specialist nurses working in intensive care 8. A qualitative researcher knows that it is not useful
d. all inpatients in a hospital. to collect any further data:
a. when they sense that this is the case
3. When sampling methods are applied to data b. when the participants say that they have
already collected, this is called: nothing more to say
a. data sampling c. when data saturation/redundancy of data is
b. information sampling reached
c. theoretical sampling d. when data overload is reached.
d. non-theoretical sampling.
9. A form of methodological triangulation applies
4. What is the most common method used for when:
collecting qualitative data: a. participants are mixed up
a. questionnaire b. different methods for collecting data are
b. interview employed in the same study
c. observation c. different methods for collecting data are
d. survey. employed in different studies
d. the data collection methods are mixed up.
5. When interviewing, starting off with simple and
broad questions to help ease the participant into 10. The Hawthorne effect, in observational research, is
the process is referred to as: when:
a. nurturing a. participants behave in different ways than they
b. channelling would normally
c. funnelling b. participants are observed when the research is
d. easing. concealed from them
c. the researcher becomes totally integrated into
the community being researched
d. there is more than one observer and
observations are integrated for objectivity.

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dential until formal publication.
Chapter 7
Additional resources
Interviews and focus groups in qualitative research—
www.qualres.org/HomeInte-3595.html.
Observation in qualitative research—www.qualitative-research
.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/466/996.
Sampling in qualitative research—http://catalog.flatworld
knowledge.com/bookhub/reader/3585?e=blackstone_1.0
-ch07_s02#.
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