My Observations

“Questionnaire Evaluation with Factor analysis and Cronbach’s Alpha”

Exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the validity and reliability of
the questionnaire. The researcher discussed the prerequisites in conducting a reliable factor
analysis such as: (1) the sample size needs to be big enough; (2) the variables are measured at an
interval level; (3) the data should be approximately normally distributed; and (4) the correlation
matrix must be generated and checked whether the variables do not correlate too highly or too
lowly with other variables. Likewise, the researcher reversed the scoring of reverse-phrased
items of the questionnaire as a prerequisite before the Cronbach’s alpha of the questionnaire was
determined.

It was concluded based on the output of the factor analysis with two extracted factors that the
positively formulated items in the questionnaire make up the first factor and the negatively
formulated items the second factor after ignoring the variables that load lower than 0.3 on a
factor.

The questionnaire was found to be reliable, α is 0.93. Generally, a questionnaire with an α of 0.8
is considered reliable. However, the researcher advised that the resulted α should be interpreted
with caution since the amount of items in a questionnaire is taken into account in the equation, a
huge amount of variables can upgrade the α.

The evaluated questionnaire seems reliable and construct valid. The items measure the same
underlying construct. The extraction of two factors in the factor analysis just seems to be a
consequence of the wording of the questionnaire items. After all, the two factors correlate highly
with each other. The result of the reliability measure was high: α=0.93. All items contribute to
the reliability and construct validity of the questionnaire: the items correlate more than 0.4 with
the factors that underlie them, the Cronbach’s alpha does not increase when one of the
questionnaire items is deleted, and the average correlation coefficient sometimes just a bit.
 My Observations

“Teachers Make a Difference, What is the research evidence?”

The researcher argued that we should be asking where the major source of variance in student’s
achievement lie, and concentrate on enhancing these sources of variance to truly make the
difference. The researcher observed that most of the researches have been conducted using
Hierarchical Linear Modelling, which decomposes the variance of many influences such as what
the student brings to the task, the curricula, the policy, the principal, the school climate, the
teacher, the various teaching strategies, and the home. The afore-cited method ignored the
interaction effects, which are too often, minor, and found that the major sources of variance are
six-fold: Students - which account for about 50% of the variance of achievement; Home - which
accounts for about 5-10% of the variance; Schools - which account for about 5-10% of the
variance; Principals - already accounted for in the variance attributed to schools; Peer effects --
which accounts for about 5-10% of the variance; and, Teachers - who account for about 30% of
the variance.
A pie chart showing the percentages of achievement variance was presented showing teachers
the greatest source of variance. It was because of this fact that the researcher suggested that
focus should be on the greatest source of variance that can make the difference – the teacher. The
researcher argued that there is a need to ensure that this greatest influence is optimized to have
powerful and sensationally positive effects on the learner. Furthermore, the researcher posited
that teacher can and usually do have positive effects, but they must have exceptional effects.
The researcher synthesized over 500,000 studies of the effects of these above influences on
student achievement. It was shown in a graphical presentation of effect size that almost all things
done in the name of education have a positive effect on achievement, but the one with the biggest
influence on achievement is the teacher as shown by the table depicting the influence, effect size,
and source of influence.
A major thrust of the work ascertained the differences between expert from experienced and
novice teachers. The researcher identified five major dimensions of excellent teachers: Expert
teachers can identify essential representations of their subject, can guide learning through
classroom interactions, can monitor learning and provide feedback, can attend to affective
attributes, and can influence student outcomes. These five major dimensions lead to 16
prototypic attributes of expertise.
The study highlighted a sub-sample of these teachers – those who just passed and those who did
not pass the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) tests of excellence of
teachers. These were grouped into two – excellent teachers and experienced teachers each of
which were further groups into two categories. Teachers were interviewed before and after the
lessons observed, lesson transcripts were analyzed, classroom observations were conducted, and
given different scenarios. Student Interviews before and after the lessons observed, student
surveys were conducted, and samples of student work were collected.
 My Observations

A pair of trained observers, unaware of the teachers’ expertise status, visited the classrooms,
collected the class based data, taped the lessons, took a transcript of the lesson, completed
observation protocols, took detailed observations of selected students, completed the narrative
running record, drew a movement around the room chart, and interviewed teachers and students.
Further, surveys and writing prompts were sent for students to complete.
All this material was then reviewed for completeness, and sorted into specific tasks. Twenty-two
trained scorers then reviewed each piece of material and coded it along the 16 dimensions, using
a four-point scale.
Results showed that the differences in the means indicate that there are reasonably major
differences for most attributes. A graph of the effect-size (difference in means divided by the
pooled standard deviation) demonstrated the magnitude or importance of the differences in
means of each of the 16 dimensions.
Correlations between these 16 dimensions were found and discriminant analysis and logistic
regression analysis was used to determine the best sub-set of dimensions that distinguished
between experts and experienced teachers. Three dimensions: Challenge, Deep Representation,
and, Monitoring and Feedback emerged. These three most effectively separated expert from
experienced teachers. (Where all 16 dimensions can successfully classify 84% of the teachers
correctly, these three alone could classify 80%, so are probably sufficient to highlight the major
differences between expert and experienced teachers.
Looking at only those teachers just above and just below the cut score, the researcher found the
same pattern of effect-size differences and two of three subsets of dimensions made the
difference: Challenge and Monitoring and Feedback.
 My Observations

“Influence of Teachers’ Motivation on Students’ Performance in Kcse In Public Secondary

Schools In Kinangop Sub County Nyandarua County, Kenya”

The objective of the study was to establish the influence of appreciation of teachers on students’
performance.
Slovin’s formula was used to select a sample of participants. Stratified random sampling was
employed to create 8 zones based on the 8 administrative wards. Respondents were selected
using simple random sampling. Questionnaires and interview guides were used to collect data.
Qualitative data analysis was done thematically in narrative forms, while quantitative data was
analyzed descriptively using frequencies and percentages, means and standard deviation.
The study established that teachers’ appreciation through rewards and incentives for good
performance enhances work commitment, increases engagement with students consequently
leading to improved academic performance. The study recommended that school administrators’
need to create avenues for rewarding good performance and teachers’ commitment towards their
work.
 My Observations

“A Study on the Correlation Between Self Efficacy and Foreign Language Learning Anxiety”

This study highlighted and determined the relationship between foreign language learning
anxiety and self-efficacy and to probe whether low self-efficacy increases anxiety or high self-
perception lowers the anxiety level.
The researcher presented the means and standard deviations of the Anxiety Scale given to the
teacher trainees; the means, standard deviations and the results of t-test of the teacher trainees
according to gender; the teacher trainees’ self-efficacy; the means, standard deviations and
results of t-test for self-efficacy according to gender; the correlation between anxiety and self-
efficacy; and the ANOVA results of high and low efficacy.
Results indicated that there is no significant relationship between anxiety and efficacy.
 My Observations

“The Effect of Compensation, Competence, and Talent Management on Employees Performance

of the Ikatan Motor Indonesia”

The study aims to determine the effect of compensation, competence and talent management on
employee performance. The data were processed using the multiple linear regressions. The
questionnaire was tested for its validity using the Corrected Item Total Correlation (> 0.3) and
for its reliability using Cronbach’s alpha.
The results of the classical assumption test showed that the normality test passed because the
distribution of errors was still around the straight line and followed the direction of the diagonal
line so that the regression model met the assumption of normality. Multicollinearity test results
showed that the compensation, competence and talent management variables were not correlated
or multicollinearity did not occur in the research model because the VIF value was smaller than
10. The results of heteroscedasticity test showed that there was no heteroscedasticity as they
were seen in the points that spread randomly above and below zero (0) and did not form a certain
pattern, hence, it can be said that the regression did not experience heteroscedasticity disturbance
so that the regression model could be used feasibly to predict the work performance based on the
input of the independent variables.
The results showed that compensation, competence and talent management simultaneously had
positive and significant effects on the employee performance. Partially, compensation and talent
management had positive and significant impacts on the employee performance, while
competence did not have an effect on the employee performance. Compensation was the variable
that has the greatest effect on employee performance.
 My Observations

“A Quasi-Experimental Study on Management Coaching Effectiveness”

The researchers conducted a quasi-experimental study to figure out whether coaching really leads
to presupposed individual goals. Sixty managers were divided in two groups: one group followed
a coaching program, the other did not. Before the coaching program started (Time 1), self-
efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies were measured, linked to three central domains of
functioning: setting one’s own goals, acting in a balanced way and mindful living and working.
Four months later (Time 2), the same variables were measured again.
The researchers constructed a questionnaire that measured outcome expectations and self-
efficacy beliefs of the experimental and the control group. According to existing literature, both
outcome expectations and self-efficacy beliefs, which are reliable predictors of behavior, are
domain-specific. A coactive coaching model that described three domains of behavior which
fitted the coaching purposes very well was used, namely setting one’s own goals, acting in a
balanced way, and mindful living and working. The items were scored two times on a 10-point
scale, ranging from “Completely significant” to “Completely insignificant” for outcome
expectations, and from “Quite uncertain” to “Quite certain” for self-efficacy beliefs. Table 2
shows the reliability of the three domains of our questionnaire at Time 1 and Time 2. Reliability
test was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha.
The researchers presented the descriptives; differences between the experimental and the control
group concerning outcome expectations on acting in a balanced way; the results of the analysis
of variance; graphical representation of the differences between the experimental and the control
group concerning outcome expectations on acting in a balanced way; and the graphical
representation of the significant differences between the control group and the experimental
group concerning self-efficacy beliefs on setting one’s own goals.
Results showed that the coached group scored significantly higher than the control group on two
variables: outcome expectancies to act in a balanced way and self-efficacy beliefs to set one’s
own goals.
 My Observations

“Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence
and Adulthood: An Experimental Study”

This study examined the differential effects of the presence of peers on risk taking, risk
preference, and risky decision making among adolescents. 306 individuals in 3 age groups—
adolescents (13–16), youths (18–22), and adults (24 and older)—completed 2 questionnaire
measures assessing risk preference and risky decision making, and 1 behavioral task measuring
risk taking. Participants in each age group were randomly assigned to complete the measures
either alone or with 2 same-aged peers.
Participants were recruited from areas in and around a major urban center. The adolescents were
recruited from middle schools, day camps, and community centers; the youths were recruited
from undergraduate introductory psychology courses at a large urban university; and the adults
were recruited through fliers posted on urban university and community college campuses,
advertisements distributed to community organizations, and word of mouth. The three age
groups did not differ substantially with respect to gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status.
Risk taking was assessed with a video game called “Chicken”. Chicken is played on a laptop
computer and requires participants to make decisions about whether to stop a car that is moving
across the screen once a traffic light turns from green to yellow. The appearance of the yellow
light signals the impending appearance of a red traffic light, as well as a potential crash if the car
is still moving when the red light appears. Chicken was selected because it measures risk taking
in the moment rather than the more deliberative form of risk taking assessed in many studies, in
which participants have unlimited time to consider and evaluate all potential decisions and
outcomes. Additionally, Chicken requires participants to make actual decisions in a risky
situation, rather than simply requiring participants to report what they would do in a hypothetical
risky situation.
A shortened, modified version of the Benthin Risk Perception Measure (BRPM) was used to
assess risk preference. This measure assesses both risk perception (the extent to which one
perceives a given activity as carrying the potential for adverse consequences) and risk preference
(whether one believes the benefits inherent in an activity outweigh the costs, or vice versa). Only
data from the scale reflecting cost–benefit consideration are used in the present analyses. The
researchers chose not to include data from the risk perception scale because prior studies have
failed to find age differences in performance on this scale. Similarly, evidence from a research
suggests that adolescents and adults are relatively equal in terms of their awareness of the
potential for adverse consequences in risky situations. However, as argued by another researcher,
adolescents and adults may differ in terms of the relative weights or values that they attach to the
potential costs and benefits of risky activities.
Risky decision making was assessed via the Youth Decision-Making Questionnaire (YDMQ).
Participants were presented with five hypothetical dilemmas, each involving a risky decision.
Because participants were recruited in groups of 3, scores for participants within each triad could
not be treated as independent. In order to accommodate the nested structure of the data, all
 My Observations

analyses were performed with the linear mixed model (LMM) procedure in the SPSS. Unlike the
general linear model (GLM) procedure, which assumes that all observations are independent of
one another, the LMM procedure allows for correlated variability among observations. Because
the LMM procedure does not permit the simultaneous analysis of multiple dependent variables,
separate LMM analyses were performed for each of the three dependent variables (Chicken,
BRPM, YDMQ). Prior to entering the independent and dependent variables for each analysis, the
structure of the data—individuals nested within triads—was specified. Then, for each analysis,
chronological age was entered as a continuous independent variable, and condition (group vs.
sole participant) was entered as a fixed factor. Additionally, gender and ethnicity (White vs. non-
White) were entered as fixed variables in order to determine whether these variables moderated
age, condition, or Age x Condition effects.
The researchers presented the descriptive statistics for group and sole participant conditions by
age group; and the intercorrelations, means, and standard deviations of study variables.
Results indicated that (a) risk taking and risky decision making decreased with age; (b)
participants took more risks, focused more on the benefits than the costs of risky behavior, and
made riskier decisions when in peer groups than alone; and (c) peer effects on risk taking and
risky decision making were stronger among adolescents and youths than adults. These findings
support the idea that adolescents are more inclined toward risky behavior and risky decision
making than are adults and that peer influence plays an important role in explaining risky
behavior during adolescence.
 My Observations

“Foreign Language Competence and Content and Language Integrated Learning in Multi-
Lingual Schools in Catalonia: An Ex Post Facto Study Analyzing the Results of State Key
Competencies Testing”

This study analyzed the results achieved by students on the state test of English language
competence during the period 2009–2012 at (1) 1175 Catalan primary schools, (2) a purposive
subset of 85 primary schools and (3) a school of reference (SoR), which applies a program
integrating physical education and language, and then, within that context, quantitatively
analyzed the results of the SoR.
The inferential statistical test used to analyze the relationship between the participation in each
category and the student’s results is the statistical chi-square (χ2) test with a predetermined level
of significance of .05 (p-value < .05). Cramer’s V is used to determine the strengths of statistical
associations. Values above .6 indicate a strong association.
Results indicated that the improvement of English competence occurs regardless of whether
schools have participated in the experimental English language programs. It was also showed
that slightly better results can be observed in schools that apply the content and language
integrated approach and a notable improvement in the SoR.
 My Observations

“The Effect of Organizational Culture and Islamic Work Ethic on Permanent Lecturers’ Job
Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Work Performance at Private Islamic Universities
in the City of Medan”

The present study seeks to provide an empirical elaboration on the effects of organizational
culture and Islamic work ethic on permanent lecturers’ job satisfaction, organizational
commitment and work performance.
The data was collected by distributing questionnaires with five Likert Scales in order to generate
respondents’ answers on the variables of organizational culture, Islamic work ethic, job
satisfaction, organizational commitment and lecturers’ performance. The data was analyzed
using descriptive analysis and path analysis.
The researchers did not present a graphical model for the study nor a revised graphical model as
a result of the study. It is noteworthy though that all the variables have a positive and significant
effect on lecturers’ performance. The researchers however, presented the direct, indirect and
total effects.
The findings of the study indicated that organizational culture and Islamic work ethic directly
impacts on permanent lecturers’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment among lecturers
and their performance, job satisfaction has an effect on organizational commitment among
lecturers , job satisfaction has an effect on lecturers’ performance, organizational commitment
among lecturers has an effect on lecturers’ performance, organizational commitment among
lecturers together with Islamic work ethic have effects on organizational commitment among
lecturers through lecturers’ job satisfaction , organizational commitment among lecturers and
Islamic work ethic have positive and significant effects on lecturers’ performance through
lecturer’s job satisfaction, organizational culture and Islamic work ethic have positive and
significant effects on lecturer’s performance through organizational commitment among
lecturers and job satisfaction has a positive and significant effect on lecturers’ performance
through organizational commitment among lecturers.
 My Observations

“A Structural Equation Model of Predictors for Effective Online Learning”

The purpose of this study was to eliminate many of the problems of correlational and ordinary
least squares analysis by using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation
modeling (SEM) to systematically identify plausible evaluation factors and further test the major
relationships between variables (e.g., online instructor activities, student to student activities, and
learning).
The sample of the study includes students from multiple courses which provides methodological
benefits such as external validity, increased statistical power, and the ability to control for
instructor-specific characteristics.
The researchers hypothesized that:
1. Web-based course advantages/flexibility will be positively related to student perceived
learning and satisfaction.
2. Instructor-student interaction activities will be positively related to student perceived learning
and satisfaction.
3. Student-student interaction will be positively related to student perceived learning and
satisfaction.
3a. The effect of student-student interaction will be equivalent to that of instructor-student
interaction (i.e., the path coefficients will be approximately equal).
4. Student-content interactions will be positively related to perceived student learning and
satisfaction.
5. Age, grade point average, and gender (male vs. female), respectively, are significantly related
to student perceived learning and satisfaction.
6. Prior student experience with online courses is positively related to student perceived learning
and satisfaction.
Given these hypotheses, the researchers presented a theoretical model. Structural paths all were
posited to be positive with the exception of gender because a positive or negative coefficient
would not be meaningful for a nominal variable.
The data were analyzed with LISREL, using the original framework for SEM developed by
Joreskog and Sorbom (1993). Factor analyses, both orthogonal and oblique, initially were used to
identify possible latent variables. Following this identification, CFA followed by SEM was
employed to determine the paths between latent variables.
As a result, some variables were dropped and a fitted model was presented which is very much
different from the hypothesized model.