Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Washing of waste prior to landfilling

Raffaello Cossu, Tiziana Lai ⇑
University of Padua, IMAGE Department, Lungargine Rovetta, 8, I 35127 Padova, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The main impact produced by landfills is represented by the release of leachate emissions. Waste wash-
Received 5 July 2011 ing treatment has been investigated to evaluate its efficiency in reducing the waste leaching fraction prior
Accepted 2 December 2011 to landfilling. The results of laboratory-scale washing tests applied to several significant residues from
Available online 15 January 2012
integrated management of solid waste are presented in this study, specifically: non-recyclable plastics
from source separation, mechanical–biological treated municipal solid waste and a special waste, auto-
Keywords: motive shredded residues. Results obtained demonstrate that washing treatment contributes towards
Waste washing
combating the environmental impacts of raw wastes. Accordingly, a leachate production model was
Sustainable landfilling
Final storage quality
applied, leading to the consideration that the concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total
ASR, MBT Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), parameters of fundamental importance in the characterization of landfill leach-
Plastic sorting process residues ate, from a landfill containing washed wastes, are comparable to those that would only be reached
between 90 and 220 years later in the presence of raw wastes. The findings obtained demonstrated that
washing of waste may represent an effective means of reducing the leachable fraction resulting in a con-
sequent decrease in landfill emissions. Further studies on pilot scale are needed to assess the potential for
full-scale application of this treatment.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction wastes by rainwater, an interesting treatment option may be repre-

The sustainable landfill represents the most recent evolution in
the management of landfilled waste (Greedy, 2010; Scharff, 2006;
Hjelmar and Hansen, 2005). The design of a sustainable landfill is
based on a concept of multibarrier system: the latter foresees the
use of multiple barriers to produce a synergistic effect in reducing
the uncontrolled diffusion of leachate and biogas into the environ-
ment. Accordingly, a decrease in waste quantities and the pre-
treatment of landfilled wastes, final covering of the landfill and its
ability to regulate leaching of wastes, control of biological degradation
of deposited wastes, and the drainage and lining systems employed
in a landfill may all be considered barriers (Cossu, 1995). The differ-
ent methods of pre-treatment (mechanical–biological, thermal
treatment, etc.) and in situ treatment (forced aeration, semiaerobic
landfill, flushing, etc.) should therefore be considered according to
an integrated view (Stegmann et al., 2003). The aim is to develop
landfill sites capable of reducing environmental impacts over one
generation to a level that no longer significantly affects the quality
of the surrounding environment, whether air, water or soil. A similar
condition is habitually termed final storage quality (Cossu et al.,
2007; Baccini, 1989; Belevi and Baccini, 1989).
In particular, as the main long-term impact produced by landfills
is represented by the emission of leachate from the leaching of
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 049 827 8990; fax: +39 049 827 8984.
E-mail addresses: tiziana.lai@unipd.it, lai.tiziana@gmail.com (T. Lai).
sented by the controlled washing of wastes prior to landfilling.
Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of washing
of incineration residues in reducing the leachable fraction of
metals (Wang et al., 2001, 2009; Astrup, 2007; Van Herck and
Vandecasteele, 2001). Ishii et al. (2009) have developed, through
column tests, a model of use in establishing mechanisms to en-
hance removal of total organic carbon (TOC) from waste inciner-
ation residues.
Thus, the present paper reports the results of a study aimed to
assess the effects produced by the washing of wastes performed
using two liquid/solid ratio (L/S) with different lengths of time.
The study was carried out on two typical residues produced in the
traditional management of municipal solid wastes (non-recyclable
plastics from source separation and mechanical–biological treated
municipal solid waste) and on a special waste (automotive shredded
residues). The disposal of the latter causes problems due to its com-
plex matrix (Cossu and Gadia, 2007), particularly in the case of land-
filling, the parameter to maintain under control is the dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) content.
2. Materials and methods
The scheme of the research is presented in Fig. 1.
Waste samples were washed on a laboratory scale; the effi-
ciency of washing pre-treatment was evaluated by standard batch
leaching test to assess the improvement in landfill acceptability.

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2011.12.005
870 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878
Fig. 1. Scheme of the experiment (L = amount of washing water, S = amount of
washed waste, er = eluate of batch leaching test for the raw waste samples,
ew = eluate of batch leaching test for the washed waste samples, Lr = leachate of
column test for the raw waste samples, Lw = leachate of column test for the washed
waste samples).
Leaching column tests were carried out on the waste to simulate
long-term emission potential on both raw and washed waste.
2.1. Sample composition and characterization
All experiments were performed on four different types of waste:
(a) undersieve residues from plastic sorting process (USP);
(b) end residues from plastic sorting process (ESP);
(c) mechanical–biological treated waste (MBT);
(d) automotive shredder residues (ASR).
Samples (a) and (b) were collected in a sorting plant for source
segregated plastics (Appendix A).
The USP residue was mainly constituted by non-recyclable fine
fraction (20% of the total input material), whilst the ESP residue
was made up of the non-recyclable heavy fraction (15% of the total
input material).
Sample (c) was constituted by undifferentiated fraction of waste
from separate collection after mechanical and biological treatment
(4 weeks forced aeration and 6 weeks maturation phase).
All samples were collected in plants located in the Veneto
Region, Italy. The production of waste in the area per capita per
year is 475 kg. Source segregation rates are among the highest in
Italy (43%) (Regione Veneto, 2005).
Sample (d), collected from a shredder plant for end-of-life vehi-
cles (ELV), was constituted by non-recyclable fraction (approxi-
mately 25% of the total weight of ELV; Vermeulen et al., 2011).
The plant is located in Northern Italy and produces approximately
6000 tons of ASR per year (2008).
All samples were collected according to the Italian reference
method UNI 10802 (2004).
The materials thus collected underwent classification in order
to obtain a complete characterization of wastes. The materials
were separated into two fractions: fine fraction (<20 mm) and dif-
ferent material fractions depending on the specific type of waste.
Prior to washing test all samples were ground to a size <4 mm
using a laboratory cutting mill (model Retsch SM 2000) and ana-
lyzed to determine both solid composition and leachable fraction
of waste by standard batch leaching test.
The following parameters were analyzed on solid fractions:
total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), seven day respirometric index
(RI7), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total organic carbon (TOC) and
some metals (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Zn).
Batch leaching tests, in accordance with standard UNI EN
12547-2, were performed using deionised water as extractant to
obtain a liquid to solid ratio of 10 l/kgTS; the one step test has a
duration of 24 h. Eluates filtered at 0.45 lm were analyzed for
the following parameters: DOC, COD, TKN and metals (As, Ba, Cd,
Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Zn), chlorides, fluorides, and sulfates.
Methods applied in analyzing samples are reported in Table 1
(IRSA-CNR, 2003; US-EPA, 1996).
2.2. Laboratory-scale washing tests
Laboratory-scale washing tests were performed by placing
500 gTS of sample (ground to <4 mm) in an HDPE 5 l container,
and adding deionised water to reach L/S ratios of 5 and 10 l/kgTS.
The samples were continuously agitated by an overhead shaker
(Rotax 6.8) set at a speed of 20 rpm. Tests were conducted using
treatment times of 3, 6, 12, 24 and 48 h.
Initially, tests were carried out considering only the parameter
DOC to determine the better conditions for washing among those
considered; from a sustainability point of view the best conditions
were defined by placing particular emphasis on duration of treat-
ment and lowest efficient L/S ratios to be used in a potential
full-scale application.
Washing conditions were selected on the basis of asymptotic
values obtained from elaboration of experimental DOC data using
a desorption model based on a first order kinetic:
C ¼ C  ð1  ekt Þ ð1Þ
where, C = concentration of water solution substance (mg/l);
C⁄ = equilibrium concentration (mg/l); k = rate constant (h1). Addi-
tional parameters (TKN, COD, metals, chlorides, fluorides, sulfates)
were analyzed in eluates corresponding to washing conditions
selected.
2.3. Leaching column test
Column tests were performed in glass columns (diameter 5 cm,
height 30 cm). Leaching was obtained through introduction of
deionised water by a peristaltic pump for low flow rates (model
Watson Marlow 401D), from the bottom to the top of the column
to avoid formation of unsaturated zones and preferential pathways
(CEN/292 method) as showed in Fig. 2. The flow rate was 0.012 l/h,
test duration was about 10 days.
The liquid released was collected to obtain a liquid–solid ratio
of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 15 l/kgTS.
Following filtration (10 lm), eluates were tested to determine
concentrations of the following parameters: pH, TKN, COD, TOC
and metals.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Waste composition
The findings obtained in composition of wastes studied are
summarized in Fig. 3.
The fine fraction (<20 mm) was increasingly present in waste
samples subjected to grinding and/or sieving. This fraction is con-
sidered a separate category, as the small dimensions of the mate-
rial did not allow additional classification. On the contrary, ESP
sample included a large quantity of polymers exceeding 20 mm.
3.2. Waste characterization
The findings obtained for solid composition of wastes studied
are illustrated in Table 2.
The highest TOC content (63% TS) was obtained in the ESP sam-
ple. The screened material, ASR and MBT featured TOC values rang-
ing between 33% and 40% TS.
Values revealed for seven day respirometric index (RI7) indi-
cated a low biological activity for all materials.
 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878 871

Table 1
Reference analytical methods and equipment used in testing of liquid and solid samples.

Parameter Sample Reference method/equipment Description

TS Solid IRSA CNR Q.64/85 vol.2 n°2 Gravimetric methods after drying at 105 °C for 12 h
Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.1 n°2090 A
VS Solid IRSA CNR Q.64/85 vol.2 n°2 Gravimetric methods after drying at 550 °C for 4 h
RI7 Solid Sapromat and VoithSulzer Respiromat Static respirometric index
TKN Solid IRSA CNR Q.64/85 vol.3 n°6 Determination of ammonia by titration with a standard mineral acid, after
Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.2 n°5030 A conversion of amino nitrogen and free ammonia into ammonium by acid
digestion followed by distillation
TOC Solid Shimadzu TOC-VCSN analyzer Infrared detection of CO2 during dry combustion
Liquid Shimadzu TOC-VCSN analyzer
DOC Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.2 n°5040 Infrared detection of CO2 during dry combustion
COD Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.2 n°5130 Acid digestion with potassium dichromate followed by titration with Mohr’s salt
Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Zn Solid EPA 1996 n°6010 Analysis of aqua regia extracts by inductively coupled plasma
Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.1 n°3010+3020 atomic emission spectroscopy
As Solid EPA 1996 n°7061 Analysis of aqua regia extracts by atomic absorption spectrometry
Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.1 n°3010+3080A
Hg Solid EPA 1996 n°7471 Analysis of aqua regia extracts by atomic absorption spectrometry
Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.1 n°3010A+3200A2
Se Solid EPA 1996 n°7741 Analysis of aqua regia extracts by atomic absorption spectrometry
Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.1 n°3010A+3260A
Cl Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.2 n°4090 Direct titration with silver nitrate
F Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.2 n°4100B Potenziometric method
SO42 Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.2 n°4140A Turbidimetric method: precipitation of barium sulfate in HCl medium
pH Liquid IRSA CNR 29/03 vol.1 n°2060 Potentiometric method

The presence of nitrogen in wastes was mainly due to polyure-

thane plastics widely use for cars seats filling (Zia et al., 2007; Mar-
and et al., 2004), predominant in ASR, and to protein material and
humic substances, predominant in MBT (Tinter et al., 2010; Berthe
et al., 2008): the highest TKN content, corresponding to 1.3% TS,
was obtained for the ASR sample and for MBT (0.9% TS), whilst
the lowest value was observed in ESP sample (0.3% TS).
The highest quantities of metals were obtained for copper and
zinc. Concentrations determined in ASR sample were 7440 mg/
kgTS and 3820 mg/kgTS, respectively, corresponding to approxi-
mately 0.7% and 0.4% TS: this was due to the fact that copper
is present in electric wires whilst zinc is used as an additive in
tyres and paints. Copper and zinc concentrations exceeding
500 mg/kgTS were also obtained in USP and in MBT residues. In
the latter sample the presence of metals may have been caused
by wastes obtained from urban road dust, characterized by a sig-
nificant heavy metal content (Charlesworth et al., 2003; Wei and
Yang, 2010).
Results of batch leaching test are reported in Table 3.
On comparing the results obtained with those pertaining to so-
lid content, the nitrogen detected in the ASR sample was found to
be almost completely unleachable, being largely present as a com-
ponent of polyurethane plastics.
Moreover, in USP and ESP samples significant amounts of leach-
able fraction of nickel and zinc, higher than 20% and 5%, respec-
tively, were also detected.

3.3. Laboratory-scale washing test

3.3.1. Test results and modeling

The results of washing tests illustrated in Table 4 report an
increasing DOC trend (expressed as mgC/kgTS) associated to both
duration of treatment and L/S ratios used in washing.
The desorption model applied interpolated in a satisfactory
manner with DOC concentrations measured in washing eluates
on varying duration of treatment to correspond to a specific L/S
ratio: values obtained for Mean Absolute Percent Error (MAPE) were
within the range of 2  10%.
Fig. 4 illustrates an example of the curve obtained following
application of the desorption model to DOC values measured in
eluates from tests performed on wastes at an L/S ratio of 5 l/kgTS.
Fig. 2. Leaching column test apparatus.
Asymptotic values were similar to those obtained in standard
batch leaching tests for USP, ESP and MBT, slightly lower in the
case of L/S of 5 l/kgTS and without significant differences in the case
of L/S of 10 l/kgTS; only in the case of ASR sample were values
calculated by the model lower than those obtained in standard
batch leaching tests (Table 5).
The L/S ratio to be applied in a potential full-scale washing of
wastes was determined by comparing asymptotic DOC values
established by the desorption model.
872 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878

Fig. 3. Composition of raw waste samples.

Table 2 Table 4
Chemical–physical composition of solid matrix in wastes investigated. DOC released amounts expressed as mg/kgTS measured in eluates at the end of
washing tests associated to duration (h) and L/S ratio (l/kgTS).
USP ESP MBT ASR
Time (h) L/S
TS gTS/gRW 0.79 0.98 0.81 0.85
VS gVS/gTS 0.59 0.89 0.48 0.51 USP ESP MBT ASR
RI7 gO2/kgTS 3.8 2.0 2.2 3.0
5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10
TOC gC/kgTS 400 630 380 330
TKN mgN/kgTS 8000 3100 8800 12,900 3 7700 7660 3645 4030 4825 5270 349 485
As mg/kgTS n.d. 0.05 0.08 0.16 6 8980 9080 4415 4860 5690 5870 480 594
Ba mg/kgTS 11.9 9.8 7.8 12.8 12 9945 9220 5240 6090 6230 6480 487 505
Cd mg/kgTS 1.33 n.d. 0.5 11.8 24 8040 7840 5595 6420 6560 6480 488 671
Cr mg/kgTS 15.7 4.1 79 117 48 9395 9620 5710 7820 6190 6940 637 747
Cu mg/kgTS 1388 22 583 7443
Hg mg/kgTS 4.3 1.2 2.32 0.12 USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from
Mo mg/kgTS 1.79 1.09 2.4 19.3 plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = auto-
Ni mg/kgTS 13.8 2.5 16 346 motive shredder residues.
Pb mg/kgTS 215 8.2 131 409
Se mg/kgTS n.d. n.d. 0.11 n.d.
Zn mg/kgTS 554 120 452 3815 The latter clearly underlines how washing tests for this type of
waste should be performed at an L/S ratio of 5 l/kgTS. Likewise,
USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from
the same ratio should be applied in washing of ESP and of MBT
plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = auto-
motive shredder residues. samples. Moreover, following washing at a ratio of 5, approxi-
n.d. = Value under instrument detection limit. mately 73% of the leachable content of ASR sample is eliminated
using an L/S ratio of 10 l/kgTS: to obtain an approximately 27% in-
crease in removal the quantity of water would have to be increased
With regard to the USP sample, the results obtained emphasize 100%. In view of a possible full-scale application, the marked water
how washing at an L/S of 5 l/kgTS would enhance leaching of 98% consumption required at a high L/S ratio would however result in
the amount that could be desorbed at an L/S ratio of 10 l/kgTS. an L/S ratio of 5 being considered feasible.

Table 3
Released amount (mg/kgTS) compared with concentration in solid (%) of parameters measured in eluates from batch leaching tests on raw waste samples.

USP ESP MBT ASR

(mg/kgTS) (%) (mg/kgTS) (%) (mg/kgTS) (%) (mg/kgTS) (%)
DOC 10,070 2.5 6470 1 6870 1.8 1020 0.3
TKN 850 11 580 19 870 9.9 80 0.6
Ba 3 25 1 10 1 13 1.5 12
Cr 0.3 1.9 0.2 4.9 2 2.5 n.d. n.d.
Cu 3 0.2 0.4 1.8 12 2.1 2 0
Mo 0.3 17 0.4 37 1.1 46 0.5 2.6
Ni 3.1 22 0.5 20 3.3 20 0.2 0.1
Pb 1.4 0.7 n.d. n.d. 0.9 0.7 n.d. n.d.
Zn 34 6.1 6 5.0 12 2.7 1 0

USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = automotive
shredder residues.
n.d. = Value under instruments detection limit (As, Cd, Hg, Se are non-reported because under instrument detection limit for all samples).
 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878 873

Fig. 4. Desorption model application of DOC concentration values measured in eluates of washing with L/S = 5 l/kgTS.

Table 5
Asymptotic values of DOC released amounts (C⁄) calculated through application of a
dynamic desorption model to results obtained in washing tests carried out at an L/S
ratio of 5 and 10 l/kgTS. Results obtained from standard leaching batch test are also
reported (C).

C k5 C ⁄5 k10 C⁄10 C⁄5/C⁄10

(mgC/kgTS) (h1) (mgC/kgTS) (h1) (mgC/kgTS) (%)
USP 10,070 0.57 9395 0.53 9620 98
ESP 6470 0.35 5600 0.33 6430 87
MBT 6870 0.50 6200 0.56 6480 96
ASR 1020 0.42 490 0.42 670 73

USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residue from Fig. 5. Percentage of DOC removed through the application of desorption model
plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = auto- starting from values measured in washing eluates (L/S = 5 l/kgTS) of wastes. Curves
motive shredder residues. were normalized with respect to the asymptotic value obtained by the model. The
broken line indicates the 6 h washing duration.

The duration of washing was determined on the basis of time Table 6

trends obtained through application of the model to washing tests Concentration of different substances measured in residual water resulting from the
washing test (t = 6 h, L/S = 5 l/kgTS), compared with limit values established by Italian
conducted at an L/S of 5 l/kgTS (Fig. 5). law (D.M. 152/2006) for discharge into the domestic sewerage system.
In all samples investigated, a 6-h washing treatment led to
removal of more than 85% of asymptotic DOC concentration (i.e. USP ESP MBT ASR Discharged limits

the maximum removable amount) calculated by the model. In TOC mgC/l 1796 883 1138 96 –
the case of USP, the removal obtained exceeded 95%. In the light COD mgO2 =l 3303 3846 3555 208 6500
TKN mgN/l 258 149 190 n.d. 630 (as ammoniac nitrogen)
of these results a 6-h period was identified as the better washing
Ba mg/l 0.08 0.17 0.09 0.11 –
duration among those tested. Cd mg/l n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.02 60.02
For full scale applications of waste washing further research is Cr mg/l 0.03 0.03 0.20 n.d. 64
required in order to optimize the L/S ratio and the most appropri- Cu mg/l 0.11 0.04 0.81 0.15 60.4
ate operative conditions (water recirculation, drying before land- Mo mg/l 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.07 –
Ni mg/l 0.41 0.06 0.35 0.03 64
filling, etc.), and to assess the energetic and economic balance. Pb mg/l 0.12 n.d. 0.09 n.d. 60.3
Zn mg/l 1.37 1.31 0.81 0.07 61.0
3.3.2. Characterization of residual water resulting from washing tests USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from
(L/S = 5 l/kgTS, t = 6 h) plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = auto-
Table 6 illustrates the concentration of different substances in motive shredder residues.
the residual water resulting from the washing test at L/S of 5 l/kgTS n.d. = Value under instruments detection limit (As, Cd, Hg, Se are non-reported
because under instrument detection limit for all samples).
and 6-h duration. This residual water should be treated in a
wastewater treatment facility, with the exception of residual
water from ASR washing which can be directly discharged into
the domestic sewerage system, as established by Italian law 3.3.3. Washing efficiency and landfill acceptability
(D.M. 152/2006). The concentrations obtained for parameters measured in batch
The results obtained, expressed in terms of amounts released leaching tests carried out on the four raw waste samples (er)
(Table 7), demonstrate how the washing test at L/S of 5 l/kgTS studied are reported in Table 8. The measured values were com-
and 6-h duration allows a large part of the leachable waste fraction pared with limits established by Italian regulations (D.M. 27/09/
to be removed (Table 3). In particular, values of TOC and TKN re- 2010) for waste acceptance in landfill.
moved were in line with those obtained from batch leaching test DOC concentrations obtained in eluates from all raw wastes
and confirmed by values obtained for improvement of landfill studied exceeded limits established for disposal in hazardous
acceptability illustrated in Table 8. waste landfills. However, in accordance with Italian legislation
874 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878

Table 7 conditions selected (L/S = 5 l/kgTS, t = 6 h), according to the follow-

Released amount (mg/kgTS) of parameters measured in the residual water resulting ing equation:
from washing test (t = 6 h, L/S = 5 l/kgTS).

USP ESP MBT ASR

gA;i ¼ ðer;i  ew;i Þ=er;i ð2Þ

TOC mgC/kgTS 8980 4415 5690 480 where, er,i = concentration of the i-substance in the eluate of batch
TKN mgN/kgTS 1290 745 950 n.d. leaching test for raw waste; ew,i = concentration of the i-substance
Ba mg/kgTS 0.40 0.85 0.45 0.55
in the eluate of batch leaching test for washed waste.
Cd mg/kgTS n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.10
Cr mg/kgTS 0.15 0.15 1.00 n.d. Concentrations detected in eluates and washing efficiency (gA,i)
Cu mg/kgTS 0.55 0.20 4.05 0.75 after waste washing treatment, for more significant parameters
Mo mg/kgTS 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.35 analyzed, are shown in Table 8.
Ni mg/kgTS 2.05 0.30 1.75 0.15 Removal efficiency for TKN was particularly significant: for the
Pb mg/kgTS 0.60 n.d. 0.45 n.d.
Zn mg/kgTS 6.85 6.55 4.05 0.35
USP sample the concentration of this parameter present in eluates
from batch leaching tests was decreased by 76% following treat-
USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from ment, from a value of 85 mgN/l to a value of 20 mgN/l.
plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = auto-
DOC removal efficiency ranged from 22% for MBT and 85% for
motive shredder residues.
n.d. = Value under instruments detection limit (As, Hg, Se are non-reported because USP samples. DOC removal revealed for ASR waste reached 53%,
under instrument detection limit for all samples). with a decrease of concentration in eluates from batch leaching
tests from an initial 102 mg/l to 48 mg/l after washing. A similar
decrease would be sufficient to allow the disposal of ASR in a land-
(D.M. 27/09/2010), this parameter is important for assessing land- fill for inert wastes.
fill acceptability exclusively for residues different from municipal Removal percentages obtained for COD are comparable to those
solid wastes (MSW). Therefore, among the waste taken into con- obtained for DOC.
sideration, it applies only to ASR residue and not to the other With regard to the heavy metal content, in all samples investi-
wastes examined which could be considered similar to MSW for gated copper and zinc concentrations in eluates obtained from
quality and quantity. batch leaching tests following washing were significantly lower
The highest COD values (approximately 2590 mgO2 =l) were ob- (a decrease of approximately 90%). Removal percentages for other
tained in eluate from the USP sample, whilst the lowest concentra- metals analyzed varied according to type of waste: e.g. the removal
tions, approximately 240 mgO2 =l, were obtained for ASR residues. efficiency for nickel ranged from 32% (ESP) and 73% (MBT).
TKN content was higher in eluates from MBT residues (87 mgN/l),
whilst lower concentrations were observed in ASR eluate (8 mgN/l). 3.4. Long-term emission potential of washed waste
With regard to metals, the highest concentrations were
detected for copper (0.3 mg/l in eluate from USP and 1.2 mg/l in The long-term pollution potential of a landfill is determined by
eluate from MBT) and zinc (3.4 mg/l in eluate from USP and the residual concentrations of compounds present in leachate. The
1.2 mg/l in eluate from MBT). In eluates from USP and from MBT longest lasting environmental impacts of a landfill are caused by
residues, nickel concentrations of 0.31 and 0.33 mg/l were ob- the presence of ammonia nitrogen in leachate (Kjeldsen et al.,
tained. Metal concentrations measured in ASR eluate were gener- 2002). Furthermore, several studies on municipal solid waste have
ally low and complied with limits established for landfill disposal demonstrated that metals reach environmentally sustainable
of inert wastes. concentrations in leachate over long periods (Revans et al.,
The highest concentrations of chlorides and sulfates, 535 and 1999); although pre-treatment of waste (e.g. composting) seems
559 mg/l, respectively, were detected in eluate from MBT residues. to reduce the mobility of metals such as nickel, lead and zinc
Washing efficiency, from the point of view of improvement of (van Praagh et al., 2009).
landfill acceptability, was determined by calculating removal of Leaching column tests were carried out on the waste to simu-
the leachable component of waste obtained by applying washing late long-term emission potential on both raw and washed waste

Table 8
Batch leaching test results before (er) and after treatment (ew), and washing efficiency (gA,i). Concentrations in eluates are compared to limits established by Italian regulation
(D.M. 27/09/2010) for waste acceptance in landfill (I = inert, NH = non-hazardous, SH = stable non-reactive hazardous, H = hazardous).

USP ESP MBT ASR Landfilling limits

er ew lA,i er ew lA,i er ew lA,i er ew lA,i I NH SH H
(mg/l) (mg/l) (%) (mg/l) (mg/l) (%) (mg/l) (mg/l) (%) (mg/l) (mg/l) (%) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
DOC 1007 155 85 647 280 57 687 539 22 102 48 53 50 100 80 100
COD 2592 385 85 2105 950 55 1997 1050 47 237 70 70 – – – –
TKN 85 20 76 58 29 50 87 29 67 8 <5 >38 – – – –
Ba 0.3 0.09 74 0.1 0.04 22 0.1 0.1 0 0.15 0.11 28 2 10 10 30
Cr 0.03 <0.01 >67 0.02 <0.01 >50 0.2 0.05 76 <0.01 <0.01 n.c. 0.05 1 1 7
Cu 0.3 0.03 89 0.04 0.01 73 1.2 0.03 97 0.2 0.02 87 0.2 5 5 10
Mo 0.03 0.02 37 0.04 0.03 28 0.11 0.04 64 0.05 0.04 35 0.05 1 1 3
Ni 0.31 0.10 67 0.05 0.03 32 0.33 0.09 73 0.02 <0.02 0 0.04 1 1 4
Pb 0.14 0.09 33 <0.03 <0.03 n.c. 0.09 0.06 28 <0.03 <0.03 n.c. 0.05 1 1 5
Zn 3.4 0.32 91 0.6 0.07 89 1.2 0.13 89 0.1 0.02 88 0.4 5 5 20
Cl 369 92 75 291 121 59 535 213 60 71 28 60 80 2500 1500 2500
F 0.3 0.2 33 0.2 0.2 0 0.4 0.3 25 0.6 0.4 33 1 15 15 50
SO42 205 70 66 117 47 60 559 137 75 27 22 17 100 5000 2000 5000
pH 7.5 7.4 – 7.4 7.5 – 7.4 7.4 – 7.7 7.5 – – – – –

USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = automotive
shredder residues.
As, Cd, Hg, Se are non-reported as under instrument detection limit for all samples.
n.c. = Values measured in eluates of raw waste were lower than instrument detection limit.
 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878 875

Table 9
Cumulative concentrations of parameters analyzed in eluates from column leaching tests on raw waste samples (Lr) and washed waste samples (Lw).

USP ESP MBT ASR

L/S 1 2 5 10 15 1 2 5 10 15 1 2 5 10 15 1 2 5 10 15
TOC Lr gC/kgTS 0.95 2.46 4.88 6.65 7.97 0.33 0.98 2.31 4.44 6.80 0.93 2.79 5.41 8.34 10.5 0.14 0.39 0.79 1.15 1.51
Lw 0.52 1.20 2.22 3.84 5.34 0.27 0.71 1.63 2.99 4.43 1.44 3.58 8.07 12.7 15.5 0.09 0.25 0.52 0.84 1.25
COD Lr gO2/kgTS 3.13 9.29 19.8 28.0 34.2 2.61 6.97 14.7 23.1 35.1 4.41 12.5 25.4 40.8 55.7 0.31 0.93 1.68 2.34 2.81
Lw 1.35 3.65 5.98 8.43 11.6 0.90 2.51 5.61 8.04 11.7 3.65 8.75 16.8 23.5 32.6 0.15 0.36 0.61 1.06 1.51
TKN Lr gN/kgTS 0.21 0.56 1.12 1.53 1.71 0.06 0.17 0.40 0.66 0.91 0.25 0.72 1.35 2.13 2.66 – – – – –
Lw 0.05 0.14 0.25 0.36 0.46 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.39 0.54 0.10 0.25 0.54 0.82 1.04 – – – – –
Ba Lr mg/kgTS 0.11 0.23 0.78 1.48 2.23 – – 0.50 1.50 2.85 0.06 0.17 0.38 0.78 1.08 0.54 1.12 1.77 2.87 4.22
Lw 0.09 0.27 0.67 1.17 2.07 – – 0.45 1.15 2.20 0.31 0.63 1.33 1.73 2.18 0.29 0.67 1.52 3.02 4.82
Cr Lr mg/kgTS 0.04 0.12 0.22 0.32 0.32 – – 0.10 0.20 0.35 0.27 0.75 1.60 2.80 3.55 – – – – –
Lw 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.09 – – – – – 0.11 0.31 0.71 1.11 1.41 – – – – –
Cu Lr mg/kgTS 0.26 0.64 1.39 2.49 2.64 – – 0.45 0.85 1.30 1.86 4.88 8.23 12.3 15.6 0.08 0.24 0.49 0.79 1.09
Lw 0.16 0.34 0.74 1.34 1.64 – – 0.10 0.40 0.70 0.11 0.27 0.67 1.57 2.02 0.05 0.13 0.28 0.48 0.78
Mo Lr mg/kgTS 0.06 0.14 0.24 0.34 0.34 – – 0.20 0.40 0.55 0.15 0.43 0.83 1.33 2.08 0.09 0.25 0.65 1.45 1.60
Lw 0.03 0.07 0.12 0.22 0.22 – – 0.15 0.35 0.50 0.04 0.08 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.08 0.22 0.57 1.07 1.67
Ni Lr mg/kgTS 0.65 1.71 3.41 4.91 5.81 – – 0.25 0.45 0.60 0.51 1.39 2.89 4.79 5.69 0.03 0.09 0.19 0.39 0.54
Lw 0.22 0.56 1.06 1.66 2.11 – – 0.10 0.20 0.50 0.14 0.36 0.81 1.21 1.51 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.09
Pb Lr mg/kgTS 0.15 0.33 0.58 0.88 0.88 – – – – – 0.14 0.40 1.00 2.00 3.35 – – – – –
Lw 0.11 0.23 0.48 0.48 0.48 – – – – – 0.11 0.29 0.74 1.44 2.34 – – – – –
Zn Lr mg/kgTS 1.71 3.31 5.86 12.4 15.2 – – 3.10 6.50 9.95 2.02 3.86 6.21 9.21 12.5 0.06 0.12 0.27 0.47 0.62
Lw 0.48 0.94 1.79 3.19 4.99 – – 0.30 1.00 1.45 0.19 0.45 1.00 2.10 3.00 0.04 0.08 0.18 0.28 0.43
pH Lr – 7.6 7.9 7.4 7.1 6.7 7.4 7.6 7.4 7.0 7.0 6.9 7.5 7.6 7.5 7.3 7.6 8.1 8.0 8.0 7.8
Lw 7.6 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.2 7.7 7.6 7.3 7.4 7.0 7.3 7.5 7.5 7.3 7.4 7.9 8.0 7.9 7.8 7.4

USP = under-sieve residues from plastic sorting process, ESP = end residues from plastic sorting process, MBT = mechanical–biological treated waste, ASR = automotive
shredder residues.
As, Cd, Hg, Se are non-reported as under instrument detection limit for all samples.

Fig. 6. Values of COD obtained by applying the model for prevision of landfill long-term emissions to concentrations assayed in eluates from column tests of raw and washed
waste (L/S = 5 l/kgTS; t = 6 h). The hatched part of the graph corresponds with the opening period of the landfill; the broken line corresponds to the end of the financial
guarantee period (30 years after closure).

(Table 9). Cumulative concentrations of parameters analyzed in
eluates from washed waste sample were generally lower than elu-
ates from raw samples, with the exception of TOC, and to a lesser
extent, barium, in the case of MBT; this is probably due to the het-
erogeneity of the sample.
The effects of waste washing on long-term impacts was
evaluated by comparing, in particular, the potential time
trends obtained for COD and TKN concentrations registered
in leachate following landfilling of raw and washed wastes,
respectively.
To this regard, a hypothetical landfill with a surface area of
13 hectares and an average height of 10 m was taken into consider-
ation. The operational phase during which wastes are conferred was
taken as 10 years (1 sector with 1.3 hectares of surface per year).
The cumulative leachate production was estimated using a mod-
el based on mass balance of water influx and water released from
876 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878
Fig. 7. Values of TKN obtained by applying the model for prevision of landfill long-term emissions to concentrations assayed in eluates from column tests of raw and washed
waste (L/S = 5 l/kgTS; t = 6 h). The hatched part of the graph corresponds with the opening period of the landfill; the broken line corresponds to the end of the financial
guarantee period (30 years after closure).
each sector of the landfill (Canziani and Cossu, 1989; Cossu et al.,
1988), considering a waste density of 0.7 t/m3and an absorption
capacity of 0.16 m3/t (Blakey, 1992), in the presence of a cover of
clayey soil in the cultivation period and a planted soil cover after
landfill closure. Rainfall was taken as mean monthly amounts
registered in the Veneto region from 1994 to 2007 and was equal
to 1040 mm/y (ARPAV, 2008).
The correspondence between L/S evaluated in column leaching
test, 1, 2, 5, 10, 15 l/kgTS, and the time required to reach the same
L/S ratio for the hypothetical landfill was 25, 43, 98, 190 and
280 years, respectively.
The time trend observed for COD and TKN concentrations in
leachate was established by interpolating concentrations mea-
sured in eluates from column leaching tests and following washing
(L/S = 5 l/kgTS, t = 6 h) according to the following formula (Belevi
and Baccini, 1989; Heyer and Stegmann, 1997):
C t ¼ C 0  ekðtT 0 Þ
where, Ct = concentration of substance determined at time t (mg/l);
C0 = concentration of substance determined at time T0 (mg/l);
k = indicative velocity coefficient for decreasing concentration over
time (y1); T0 = time taken as start of model simulation. As a general
rule the time coincides with the duration of reaction time initially
occurring within the landfilled wastes; in the present case this per-
iod was hypothesized to last throughout the entire length of landfill
operations (10 years).
The hypotheses underlying the application of the model con-
cerned are as follows:
– constant factors influencing leaching of substances from land-
filled wastes (pH, redox conditions, etc.) over time;
– the main factor involved in emission abatement if leaching pro-
duced by rainwaters;
– the time-related decrease in concentrations of substances pres-
ent in leachate can be described by means of a first order
kinetic.
The estimates obtained by the model should be considered whilst
taking into account that column test conditions are not entirely com-
parable to those present in a landfill (Heyer and Stegmann, 1997). In
particular, waste composition is not homogeneous and the organic
matter present could reach different degree of degradation that
influence the mobilization potential of contaminants (Andreottola
and Cannas, 1992). Furthermore percolation through the landfill
body varies, and contact times between water and waste may differ
as in presence of preferential flow pathways, as a consequence leach-
ate quality could reflect processes within waste mass in the sur-
roundings of preferential flow paths and not in the whole landfill
systems (Fellner et al., 2009; Rosqvist et al., 2005; Rosqvist and Des-
touni, 2000).
Time trends relating to COD and TKN, obtained by applying the
model for prevision of long-term emissions to concentrations
assayed in eluates from column tests carried out on the wastes
investigated before and after washing treatment (L/S = 5 l/kgTS,
ð3Þ
t = 6 h) are represented in Figs. 6 and 7.
To verify the efficacy of washing treatment in achieving envi-
ronmental sustainability of a landfill, COD and TKN concentra-
tions estimated by the model at the end of the financial
guarantee period, were assessed. The period established by law
for financial provisions (D.Lgs. 36/2003) is of 30 years after land-
fill closure.
All waste samples evaluated to assess the time trend of COD
concentration in leachate through application of the model dis-
played lower concentrations for washed wastes.
With regard to USP sample, it was observed how 30 years after
landfill closure leachate from washed wastes features a COD con-
centration that would only have been achieved 130 years later if
wastes had not been washed (Fig. 6).
A similar observation was made for simulations carried out
using the remaining samples investigated: at the end of the finan-
cial guarantee period leachate obtained from washed ASR was
characterized by concentrations similar to those that would be
obtained for raw wastes only 120 years after landfill closure.
 R. Cossu, T. Lai / Waste Management 32 (2012) 869–878
Fig. 7 illustrates the trends obtained for TKN. The curve ob-
tained for ASR is not illustrated as TKN concentrations measured
in eluates from column leaching tests were below detection limits
(<5 mg/l).
Similar to the trend observed for COD, the time trend of TKN
concentration in leachate as simulated by the model were de-
creased following washing procedures performed under L/S = 5 l/
kgTS and t = 6 h conditions.
With regard to USP, thirty years after landfill closure leachate
from washed wastes features TKN concentrations that would nor-
mally only be reached after a period of 160 years in the presence of
raw wastes. Similar results also applies to MBT residues.
Significant findings have been determined for ESP: leachate ob-
tained from washed wastes presented concentrations that would
otherwise have been achieved with raw wastes only after a period
of 90 years subsequent to landfill closure.
The grain size of waste, of course, is a factor which may influence
the efficiency of washing at full-scale applications. This aspect will
be evaluated in future research. However the grain size considered
in the present experiment can accurately represent waste display-
ing a prevalence of fine fraction (USP, MBT, ASR).
4. Conclusions
The results obtained in the present study reveal that for all wastes
investigated, and taking into account a reduced use of resources
emphasizing the sustainability of treatment, washing conditions,
for use in possible full-scale application, among those studied, are
represented by an L/S ratio of 5 l/kgTS and a duration of 6 h.
Following washing treatment DOC concentrations measured in
eluates from batch leaching tests displayed an improvement of
landfill acceptability with a washing efficiency (gA,i) ranging from
22% (MBT) to 85% (USP). In particular, the decrease of leachable
fraction observed for ASR waste (from 102 to 48 mg/l) was suffi-
cient to enable disposal of the waste in a landfill for inert materi-
als; while a significant reduction of the parameters considered
was detected for other residues.
Nitrogen contained in the ASR sample was almost completely
unleachable, being present mainly in the form of polyurethane
polymers; for all other wastes examined the gA,i values for TKN
ranged between 50% (ESP) and 75% (USP): these findings are of
particular interest on taking into account that the longest lasting
environmental impacts produced by a landfill are caused by the
presence of ammonia nitrogen in leachate.
Significant findings were obtained for metal removal efficien-
cies determined following comparison of batch leaching tests:
concentrations of copper and zinc released in eluates from batch
leaching tests were decreased following waste washing by approx-
imately 90%.
Results of leaching column tests, carried out to simulate long-
term emissions in a hypothetical landfill, demonstrated that con-
centrations of TKN and COD in leachate from a landfill containing
washed wastes are comparable to those that would only be
reached in a period comprised between 90 and 220 years later in
the presence of raw wastes.
In the light of the above considerations it can be confirmed that
washing constitutes an effective treatment aimed at reducing
leachate released from wastes prior to landfill disposal: this
implies a decreased release of compounds into leachate by the
waste that would appear to result in the achievement of final stor-
age quality of a landfill over a considerably shorter period of time.
Lysimeter tests should be conducted to evaluate the influence of
the degradation process, that may affect the wastes studied to
varying degrees, on the long term emission potential of washed
waste. In fact waste washing in general can only address the read-
877
ily leachable fraction, but may not significantly affect the emission
potentials associated with mobilization processes occurring at a
slower rate from the deposited waste.
For full scale applications of waste washing further research is
needed in order to evaluate the influence of the waste grain size,
optimize the L/S ratio and the most appropriate operative condi-
tions (water recirculation, drying before landfilling, etc.), and to
assess the energetic and economic balance.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their appreciation for her precious
support to Dr. Annalisa Sandon Head of the Analytical Laboratory
of Sanitary Engineering and Environmental (LISA) of the University
of Padua, and wish to thank Bruno Sartorello for taking part in the
experimental work.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2011.12.005.
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