ME-411

Mechanical Engineering Laboratory – IV

Dynamics of Machines Lab, Control Lab, Tribology Lab

Syllabus: Instrumentation and control: Proportional, integral, PI, PD, and PID
controllers, lead, lag, and lag-lead compensators, hydraulic, pneumatic, and electronic
controllers;

Tribology: Performance of air bearings, friction and wear testing under different
operating conditions, optical viscometry;

Vibration: Experiments on single and multi degree of freedom systems, modal and
frequency response analysis, vibration isolation, random vibrations;

Acoustics: Measurement of sound pressure level with various frequency weightings,

sound power estimation with sound pressure pressure level;

Signals and Systems: Time domain and spectral analysis with software such as
MATLAB; determination of FFT, PSD; effects of sampling, windowing, leakage,
averaging.

Learning Outcomes:

 They would be able to experiment with SYSTEM what they have learned in
theory in last three years.
 The students shall be enabled to identify the application of those systems in real
life problems.

 By working in small teams they gain experience in executing project work, self
organization, and team work.

Lab Manual

Revision: Rivision # 0 date of preparation 03.08.2017

Marking Scheme: Attendance 20/100, Answer to question in form of report 20/100, Final
exam 60/100,.

Set of Experiment –A

1. Cantilever Beam- I
2. Air Track
3. Coupled tank
4. Field Balancing on MFS
5. Signal Processing
 Indian Institute of Technology, Patna
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory IV (ME 411)
Autumn Semester
Experiment No # 1

PART A
Objectives: To determine the natural frequencies of a cantilever beam by resonance
method.

Theory:
y

p(x,t)

M+ (∂M/∂x)dx
M

V V +(∂V/∂x)dx
dx
x

The transverse displacement y is a function of position x and time t, i.e.,

y=y(x,t)

Flexural Vibration of Euler-Bernoulli Beam:

Assumptions:
1. Plane section remain plane after deformation [ Pure bending case]
2. Rotation of cross section is neglected.
3. Effect of rotational inertia is neglected. [Rayleigh beam takes care]
4. Shear deformation is neglected. [ Timoshenko takes care both 3 & 4]
5. Deflections are small. [To avoid non-linearity]
y=y(x,t), (deflection as a function of space and time)
M= M(x,t), [ Bending Moment]
V=V(x,t). [Shear force]
m(x)= Mass per unit length
Take an element length of dx, V and M are the Shear force and Bending Moments
respectively.
By force summing
V 2 y (1)
 p ( x , t )  m( x ) 2
x t
By moment summing
M V 1
M dx  M  (V  dx)dx  p ( x, t ).(dx) 2  0
x x 2
which turns to
M  2 M V
 V  0 or  0 neglecting higher order term of dx (2)
x x 2 x
2 y
From (1) & (2) and applying M  EI we get
x 2
2 2 y 2 y
 ( EI )  p ( x , t )  m ( x )
x 2 x 2 t 2

For uniform beam (both in rigidity and geometry) above reduces to

4 y 2 y
 EI  m (3)
x 4 t 2
By separation of variable
y(x,t) = Y(x) F(t).
We get the form of Eqn.(3) as
d 2F d 4Y
dt 2   EI dx 4   2 , where ω is natural frequency.
F m Y
Finally the space part becomes
d 4Y m 2
  4
Y  0 , where  4
 .
dx 4 EI

Now the general solution to this equation becomes as

Y(x)= Asinβx+Bcosβx+Ccoshβx+Dsinhβx.

If we apply boundary condition for cantilever beam, (Fixed- Free) we get

Y(x)=0 and dY/dx=0 for x=0, [ displacement and slope zero]
EI (d2Y/dx2)=0 and EI (d3Y/dx3)=0 for x=L (L= length of the beam) [ Force and Moment
zero]. Then we arrive to the trancedental equation

cosh(βL)cos(βL)+1=0.

The solutions of the trancedental equation are given below (for cantilever beam)
Fundamental Mode Second Mode Third Mode
2
(βl) 3.52 22.4 61.7
Mode Shapes:

Fundamental
Mode

Second Mode

Third Mode

Experimental Procedure and Instrumentation : Phase is the sure identification of

resonance and we know that at resonance the phase is at 90o.

Accelerometer

Real Time
Analyzer or FFT
Exciter Analyzer

Power
Amplifier

Function Cathode Ray

Generator Oscilloscope
  Configure the sensor actuator system as per the above diagram
 First take the free respose of the beam to estimate approximately the natural
frequencies. You may use Impact Hammer.
 After getting the estimate of frequency go for the finer estimation from the
Lisazos plot. Please note that at the excitation frequency of ωn only Lisazos plot
will be vertical otherwise it will be inclined.

Please fill up the following table:

Fundamental Second Mode Third Mode

Mode
Theoretical Frequency (Hz)
Experimentally obtained
frequency

Questions:
Answer the following question and mail it to domiitp@gmail.com on the date of the
experiment. Answers are to be brief and to the point. Don’t forget to send the
observation table.

1. List the name, make and model of the instrument used to conduct the experiment.
Please note that the block circuit diagram is a representative one and you are free
to choose your own diagram.
2. Does the Mass of Accelerometer affect the natural frequencies? State the reason.
3. Why the theoretical results are different from experiment results?
4. Why the differences are much prominent in higher modes?
5. If we reduce the length of given beam by 50%, what is the change in Fundamental
frequency?
6. If we place the beam vertically instead of horizontal will there be any change in
natural frequency? State the reason.
7. Why the exciter is placed near the root and middle of the width?

To be submitted in report on the date of experiment: Answer to the question. Block

circuit diagram of the experimental set up. Theoritical calculation of frequency.
 Indian Institute of Technology, Patna
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory IV (ME 411)
Autumn Semester
Experiment No # 2

PART A
Objectives: To identify and visualize the modes in 2DOF and 3DOF system designed on
Air track.

Theory: Air track is a low friction path where the glider is lifted by air and there is no
mechanical contact between the path and glider. However, there will be viscous drag and
form drag of the glider. The amount of these drags is very small compared to the sliding
friction and we effectively consider that the path is friction free.

Mode is more fundamental than the frequency and through this experiment we will deign
at least 4 different systems consisting of masses and springs.
Frictionless Surface
1. System I: k
m1 m2

Frictionless Surface
2. System II: k
m1 m2

3. System III:
Frictionless Surface
k k
m1 m2 m3

4. System IV:

Frictionless Surface
k k
M M M
Experiment:
 Place the gliders on the air track and connect them with the spring.
 Configure your system accordingly
 Obtain the Equation of motion of our system
 With the help of matlab obtain the eigen vector and eigen values
 For example if the EOM is
 m 0 0   x1   k k 0   x1  0
 0 m 0   x     k 2k  k   x   0 
  2    then ω  0, k m ,3k m ,
2
  2 
 0 0 m   x3   0 k k   x3  0
1 1  1 
    
Modes 1 ;  0  ; 2  ,
1  1   1 
    
1

 Now provides the initial condition for example as 1 and you will achieve only
1

 1
 
the rigid body mode and if you provide  0  then we will achieve only the
1
 
frequency as ω2  k m .

Have Fun
In the above cases we know the natural frequency and now if we excite the system with
any one of the frequency then we will obtain the resonance.

Now measure the current of the exciter and through the Hall effect sensor and measure
the vibration of the any mass through vibrometer. Now critically look at the result you
have obtained.

Compare the Experimental result with the Matlab simulation.

Questions:
Answer the following question and mail it to domiitp@gmail.com on the date of the
experiment. Answers are to be brief and to the point. Don’t forget to send the
observation table.

8. Draw the systems along with their respective different modes and corresponding
frequency.
 9. From the above answer identify the positive semidefinite mode, if any?
10. Why mode is more fundamental than the frequency?
11. In the resonance is your experimental result is different from the theory? If it is
yes explain.

To be submitted in report on the date of experiment: Answer to the question. Block

circuit diagram of the experimental set up.

PART B

Objectives: To design and study the dynamic behavior of a tuned vibration absorber on
Air track. .

m1
k1

Primary System, ω211 =k1/m1

k2
m2
Secondary System, ω222 =k2/m2.

x1
x2
F sinωt

The governing equation of motion for the above two degree of freedom system is

 m1 0   x1   k1  k2 k 2   x1   F 
 0 m   x     k      sin t . (1)
 2 2  2 k 2   x2   0 
Substitute
 x1   X 1 
     sin t in Eqn. (1).
 x2   X 2 
We get,

k1  k 2  m1 2  k2   X 1  F 
 2    . (2)
  k 2 k 2  m2   X 2  0

   2 
1    
X 1k1     
  22

F  k   2     2  k
1  2     1       k
2

 k1 
 11     22   1
X 2k1 1

F  k        2  k
2

1  2     1     2
 k1  11     22   k1
Now if ω = ω22 then X1 = 0 and X2 = - F/k2 which means that the primary mass will not
move and all the energy will be transmitted to the secondary mass. How this occurs? As
the force on mass m2 is k2 X2 = -F , secondary system exerts a force opposite to the
disturbing force.
m2 k2 
Now we define   , hence   ( 22 ) 2 .
m1 k1 11
Question:
Answer the following question and mail it to domiitp@gmail.com on the date of the
experiment. Answers are to be brief and to the point. Don’t forget to send the
observation table.

1. List the name, make and model of the instrument used to conduct the experiment.
Please note that the block circuit diagram is a representative one and you are free
to choose your own diagram.
2. How does the primary system attains zero vibration level when it is perfectly
tuned?
3. Give some applications where tuned vibration absorber is used.
4. State the advantages and disadvantages over active vibration control.
5. Is your system is perfectly tuned ? If not, what adjustment is to be done and
where to be done?
 Indian Institute of Technology, Patna
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory IV (ME 411)
Autumn Semester
Experiment No # 4

PART A
Objectives: To perform the field balancing of a rotating disc mounted on a shaft.
 3 1

Fig. 1

Experimental and Instrumental Details: Configure the Machine Fault Simulator and
use Acclerometer, proximity probe, and optical tachometer along with OROS analyzer.

Steps:
1. Check the critical speeds and suggest a spped of operation.
2. Measure the unbalance velocity level at a speed well pass the critical speeds (below
or above). Let that vibration level in velocity be V0 and the rotor has to be balance
at that operating speed only.
3. Now mark the disc in three point of 90o apart consequtively.
4. Take a trial mass and its value to be known.
5. Attch that mass in three different position as marked earlier and take the reading
from vibration meter in velocity mode.
6. Now construct the vector diagram and find the position and amount of balancing
mass.
7. It has to be noted that there are two unknown (position & amount) . So it may
appear that, only two set of experimental data on point 1 and 2 is good enough to
conclude. The data of third point decide the orientation of angle i.e. whether it is
either upper or lower side of the disc .
Notations:
V0 = The velocity level found from the disc to be balanced.
V1 = The velocity level found from the disc when trial mass is attached to point 1.
V2 = The velocity level found from the disc when trial mass is attached to point 2.
V3 = The velocity level found from the disc when trial mass is attached to point 3.
VT1 = The velocity level due to only trial mass at point 1 with out unbalance mass.
VT2 = The velocity level due to only trial mass at point 2 with out unbalance mass.
VT3 = The velocity level due to only trial mass at point 3 with out unbalance mass.
MT = Trial mass.
MCOMP = Compensating mass.
 = The angle between V0 and VT1.

Calculation: By considering only the two reading V1 and V2 we can proceed for the
balancing. From vector diagram of Fig. 2. we can construct the following relations:

V22  VT21  V02  2V0VT 1 cos  , (1)

V12  VT22  V02  2V0VT 2 cos(180 o   ) , (2)
and
VT 1  VT 2 (3)

From Eqn. (1) and (2) we deduce VT1 and  as

V12  V22  2V02

VT 1  VT 2  , (4)
2
V 2  V22
  cos 1 1 , (5)
4V0VT
V
M COMP  0  M T (6)
VT

Orientation angle of balancing mass  is having two value in  [0, 360o]. So it is

required another data V3 to determine the exact position of the mass to attach. It could be
V3 position is as stated in
shown from the vector diagram that, for V3 > VT3 the unbalance
the figure. Otherwise, for V3 < VT3 the orientation of the unbalanced mass is in negative
orientation with same angle  (shown by dotted line and corresponding vector diagram is
not drawn) VT3

V3 V0 V1

VT2 VT1

VCOMP

Fig.2. Vector diagram

Questions:
Answer the following question and mail it to domiitp@gmail.com on the date of the
experiment. Answers are to be brief and to the point.

1. Without any instrument or experimental setup how do you judge whether a disc or
rotor is balanced or not?
2. While spacifing the vibration level (in m/s or m/s2) it is always associated with
speed. Why?
3. State the vibartion level before and after balancing.
4. Is the balancing mass orientation angle (in your case) is 15o or its multiple? If
not, how you will orient the mass in threaded hole?
5. Is your balancing method is a dynamic balancing?
 6. State any other method to balance the experimental disc.
7. A rotating disc which is not a rigid one (i.e. the disc is also vibrating ) is to be
balanced. How can you balance it?
Note : For this experimental purpose we have assumed that the disc is a rigid one.

To be submitted in report on the date of experiment:

Indian Institute of Technology, Patna

Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering Laboratory IV (ME 411)
Autumn Semester
Experiment No # 5

PART A
Objectives: To obtain the spectrum and power spectrum of a known signal through
Matlab Programming.

Theory:

Fourier Transform
Expression:


 x(t )e , Forward Transform

 j 2 ft
X(f )  dt



 X ( f )e . Inverse Transform.
j 2 ft
x (t )  df


DFT

We know FS is for continuous periodic time signal. FT is for any signal. What about the
signal obtained from DAQ?
DFT is a special case of FT where the time information is discrete and we use extensively
the convolution integral to obtain the Fourier Spectra of known waveform function. The
necessary condition for DFT is that the signal should be periodic.

Q1. What will be the DFT of a signal whose wave form can not be represented as a
function?
Q2. Shall we wait for infinite time to read the frequency of a signal coming out of a
simple tachometer? Because, the signal is periodic.
Q3. After a certain duration of time the speed changes. Will you scrap all your
computation?

Answer to Q1 leads to the numerical computation as the data you obtain is a numeric (in
binary form). The definition of DFT is given below:
T
1 0
T0 0
X ( kf 0 )  x(t )e  j 2 kf 0t dt

(1)

x (t )  

X ( kf 0 )e j 2 kf 0t (2)
where f0 = 1/T0 and T0 is the block time and k is for the index number. Now suppose that
the signal x(t) is sampled N times per period of time T0, with a sampling period of T
seconds, such that NT= T0. The discrete signal can now be represented by Equation 3,
where δ is the dirac delta impulse function and has a unit area of one.

x[ nT ]   
x (t ).(t  nT ) (3)
Now replace x(t) in the Fourier integral of Equation 1, with x[nT] of Equation 3. The
Equation can now be rewritten as:
T
1  0
X ( kf 0 )   
T0  0
x (t ).(t  nT )e  j 2 kf 0t dt

(4)
 1 for t  nT
Since the Dirac delta function (t  nT )  0 , Equation 4 can be modified
 otherwise
even further to become Equation .5 below:
1 N 1
X [kf 0 ]   x[nT ].e  j 2 kf nT
N n0
0
(5)
 1
Since, f 0  T and T0  NT Equation 6 is formed by combining these two together.
0

1
f 0T  (6)
N
By inserting Equation 6 into Equation 5, the DFT and its inverse, for a periodic signal, is
represented by Equation 7 and Equation 8 respectively.

N 1 j 2 kn

X [k ]   x[n].e
n 0
N
(7)

N 1 j 2 kn
1
x[n] 
N
 X [k ].e
n 0
N
(8)

Let’s Play with Digital Frequency:

1 1 f
1. Frequency resolution =   s .
T0 NT N
2. Short time record  Wide line spacing in frequency domain i.e. poor frequency
resolution.
3. Long time record  Narrow line spacing in frequency domain i.e. better frequency
resolution.
f
4. Maximum digital frequency = s .
2
Please note that we have to choose an optimized value of N and f s. It is preferable to
perform an FFT operation with two extreme values of these parameters and observe the
effects.

Let’s Play with Equation (7):

Rewrite Equation (7)
N 1 j 2πkn N 1

X [k ]   x[n]e N
  x[n]WNnk , (9)
n0 n 0
nk
  jN2π 

j 2πkn
where W  enk
N  e N
 is called as the Nth root of unity. In matrix form the
 
Equation (9) transforms to
 X [0]   WN0.0 WN0.1 ...... WN0.( N 1)   x[0] 
 X [1]    

1.0
   WN WN1.1 ...... WN1.( N 1)   x[1] 
(10)
 ....   .... ..... ...... .....   .... 
   ( N 1).0  
 X [ N  1] WN WN( N 1).1 ...... WN( N 1).( N 1)   x[ N  1]
The total number of computation involving multiplication and addition
is N2 to get the Fourier Coefficients.

FFT ( Fast Fourier Transform)

Note that we need the Fourier Transform of a signal to monitor or to analyze a dynamical
process or a system. The example of a dynamical process where we need to monitor the
temperature could be Steel Melting Shop of Bokaro Steel Plant. The example of a
parameter in a dynamical system could be the speed of steam turbine in the same Steel
Plant. Note that if for a very short time span (may be fraction of second) the speed drops
to 49 Hz, the same Steel Plant is going to loose thousands of Crore.

Conclusion from above Paragraph: The DFT computation which is in the order of N2
should be reduced to catch the change of parameter (e.g speed) for the smallest possible
time. In sum the reduced computational time is going to make an Efficient Real Time
Analyzer.

How to reduce Computational Time and How to reduce the Number of Computation?

How to reduce Computational Time? ------ Improve the processor – Hardware Solution.

How to reduce the Number of Computation? ---- Search for the symmetry in W matrix by
choosing suitable number of block size N  2int erger (e.g, 4 8 16 32 ……….1024 2048….).
These symmetry will reduce the number of computation to the order of N logN. For
detailed elaborative discussion you may follow any signal processing book for Cooley–
Tukey FFT algorithm.
Note that still today you will find research papers to reduce the number of
computation and devevelopment in the field of FFT algorithm is also a hot cake to
the signal processor.

Power Spectrum, Parseval’s theorem

We know that integral transform is an another way of representing the real number. Thus
it appears that decimal 8 is binary 1000. Thus if we equate the energy content in the
signal is same as that of the frequency domain. Following are the proof:
  
 * 
E   x(t ) dt   x(t ) x (t )dt   x(t )   X ( f )e 2πft df dt
2 *

     
(11)

 
  
  X ( f )   x(t )e dt df   X ( f ) X ( f )df   X ( f ) df
* 2πft * 2

     
Note that (.)* represents the conjugate of (.) . In (11) we have used the alternate form of
*
   
inverse FT x(t )    X * ( f )e 2πft df  or x* (t )    X * ( f )e 2πft df  .
     
For Fourier Series: The energy content for the time period of the signal is

T
  an2  bn2 
0 x(t ) dt  T    
2
(12)
n0 2 n 1 2 

The relations (11) and (12) are known as Parseval’s theorem.

2
We understand that the power content in a signal at any instant of time is x(t ) and
2
correspondingly the power spectrum is the plot of frequency vs. X ( f ) ( X ( f ) X * ( f )) .

Experiment
 In Matlab environment perform the following problem
1. Y = 10 sin(2*pi*50*t)+ 0.5 cos(2*pi*30*t)+ 20 cos(2*pi*10*t)+ 0.25
sin(2*pi*20*t). Perform the FFT both in Amplitude and Db scale. Show the phase
as well. Calculate the frequency resolution from your programme.
2. Y = 10 sin(2*pi*50*t)+ 4 cos(2*pi*300*t)+ 20 cos(2*pi*10*t)+ 25
sin(2*pi*20*t). Plot the power spectrum of the signal.
3. Y = 10 sin(2*pi*50*t)+ 4 cos(2*pi*50.25*t). Perform the FFT of the signal.

Questions:
Answer the following question and mail it to domiitp@gmail.com on the date of the
experiment. Answers are to be brief and to the point. Don’t forget to send the Matlab
Code.

4. Can you apply Fourier Transform to any signal or function? If not state the
condition?
5. We know that by employing the FT or F series we obtain the frequency contains
in the signal. Then what is use of DFT or FFT.
6. Again FT is an integration thus may employ any numerical integration technique
like Gauss-Quadrature, Simpson ……… Then what is the use of FFT?
7. Using pen and paper derive the FT of sine signal, cosine signal and a DC signal.

To be submitted in report on the date of experiment:

PART B
Objectives: To reduce the spectral leakage through different windowing function and to
perform the spectra as that of an Real Time analyzer and to perform waterfall plot by
using Matlab.

Theory:

Need of Windowing: Your Spectrum analyzer is blocking the signal for FFT blindly.
It is not known priory that the blocked signal is falling on the integer multiple of time
period. If the case is not so then observe the case for a cosine wave in the hand out given
to you.
Observations from your handout- The fourier coefficients are present not only in 1/T 0 but
also at 2/T0, 3/T0…….. . Note that other than the fourier coefficient at 1/T 0 all other non-
zero coefficients are error.
The Misinterpritation: You are going to interprate that the time signal is not at all a
monocromatic signal. This is also known as Spectral leakage.

How to reduce Spectral leakage?

To reduce the spectral leakage it is common practice to use a different window function
from the rectangular window one that has a more suitable spectrum with lower side lobes.
The ideal window function for W(w) is of course a delta function, since the convolution
operation will then not distort X(w) at all. However, the inverse Fourier transform of a
delta function is w(n) = 1, which is of infinite duration Choosing a suitable window
always involves some kind of a trade-off between the width of the main lobe and the
level of the side lobes.

Window Mathematical Definition of Remarks

Function multiplying function
Rectangular 1 No windowing effect
Hanning  2πn 
0.5  0.5cos 
 N  1 
Hamming  2πn 
0.54  0.46 cos 
 N  1 
Blackman  2πn   4πn 
0.42  0.5cos    0.08cos 
 N  1  N  1 
Kaiser   2n 
I 0  3π 1    1 
  N  1   , where I 0 is

I 0 (3π)
the Bessel function of the first kind.
Flat Top Search Wikipedia
Waterfall plot: FFT is applicable to periodic stationary signal. Now what is the
measure if the signal is non-stationary, i.e., the signal is changing with time. In order to
check the behavior of the signal with respect to time we go for waterfall plot. It is spectra
with another axis denoting time and it provides the change of spectra with time.

Experiment
 In Matlab environment perform the following problem
8. Show the spectral leakage of a signal Y = 10 sin(2*pi*5*t). Now using a window
function of “ W(t) = 1/2 -1/2 cos(2*pi*t/T)” reduce the spectral leakage.
9. Try with other windowing function along with Flat Top window. Suggest the best
window for your case.
10. Take a time signal from Machine fault Simulator ( Choose any sensor and vary
the speed of the motor.) and perform the FFT of the signal block by block and
choose the bock time to be of 0.1- 0.5 sec.
11. Load the “inco.asc”. It is a transient response of a cantilever beam made of INCO
which is sampled at 3.3333*10e-4s sampling time.
a) Time plot for 10s.
b) Perform the FFT of first 1024 data.
c) Perform the FFT of three (3) sets of 1024 data and display the spectra
containing average Fourier coefficient of three blocks.
d) Insert a for loop which will perform the FFT continuously step by step
e) Now represent that with waterfall plot.

Questions:
Answer the following question and mail it to domiitp@gmail.com on the date of the
experiment. Answers are to be brief and to the point. Don’t forget to send the Matlab
Code.

12. Please note that you are performing DFT or FFT through Matlab command. How
will you perform the same in C or Fortran? Write with in two sentences.
13. Write two drawbacks of DFT or FFT.
14. Write the usual available windowing function available in Spectrum Analyzer
like OROS, Onosoki, Pulse (B&K), Tektronics.
15. Write a few available functions in Analyzer (any from OROS, Onosoki, Pulse
(B&K), Tektronics) which you have not done in this experiment.

To be submitted in report on the date of experiment: