Coventry University Faculty of Engineering and Computing PEPs MSc Dissertation in Manufacturing Systems Engineering ‘The Design of Light Weight Automotive Brake Pedal’ Submitted By: Nurfaizey A. Hamid Project Supervisors: Dr. Gurmail Singh Assc. Prof. Ir. Mustafar Abdul Kadir Dr. Janatul Islah Mohammad ” oO = = O — (e)) Oo = oO oD) = — oO oO £ Do) c Lu O SS © 5 Oo © Sa od) — 7) oO OW 10th September 2007ABSTRACT In recent years, people concems on emissions are growing. As vehicles are one of the contributors, some governments had introduced legislations pertaining to the matter. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) for example was introduced by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) of the United States in order to encourage car manufacturers to improve their product's efficiency, thus reducing emissions. Higher efficiency means less fuel consumption without compromising, vehicles’ performance. One of the solutions is to design the vehicles using smaller engine and light weight design. Conventional heavy materials can be replaced with new advanced materials to reduce weight. This dissertation is concemed with the design of light weight automotive brake pedal. Later we will be looking at how a new material can be selected as replacement for conventional material. Material selection will be carried out systematically using CES Edupack to search for potential materials. Material properties and manufacturing process are the two factors which will be considered during material selection process ‘An actual steel brake pedal sample from a passenger car will be used as example. ‘The component will be measured using coordinate measuring machine before a 3D model can be generated using SolidWorks. A new brake pedal will be designed using alternative material. Both current and new design of brake pedal will be analysed using ABAQUS. Linear static stress analysis will be performed to study the behaviour of the component when subjected to extreme foot load. Based on analysis results, a polymer based composite material was found as a suitable material to produce light weight brake pedal. iiiTHE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL. CHAPTER | INTRODUCTION 1.1 History of Automotive Brake System In the early days, wagons and other animal drawn vehicles relied on the animal's power to both accelerate and decelerate the vehicle. Eventually there was the development of basic supplemental braking system consisting of a hand lever to push a wooden friction pad directly against the metal tread of the wheels. Over the years, as the level of transportation technology has increased the braking system used to slow down vehicles has also been improved. In 1902 in New York, Ransom E. Olds had invented a brake system known as external brake. It used a single flexible stainless-steel band, wrapped around a drum on the rear axle. When the brake pedal was applied, the band contracted to grip the drum. Although it ground down solid rubber tires pretty quickly, the tire brake was popular onTHE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL carriages and many early autos. By 1904, practically all car makers were building cars with an extemal brake on each rear wheel (1). However, the external brake demonstrated some serious flaws in everyday use. On hills, for example, the brake unwrapped and gave way rapidly. Another drawback to the extemal brake was it had no protection from dirt so its bands and drums quickly wore. A brake job every 200 to 300 miles was considered normal. The problems associated with the external brake were overcome by the internal brake or drum brake as it is now known. And, since brake parts were inside drums and protected from dirt, drivers could go over 1,000 miles between brakes overhauls [1] Since those days, drum brakes became all-dominant in the United States. In Europe, particularly in Great Britain, it had to share the stage with disc brakes. The first record of the dise brake was in 1902 in England where Dr. F.W. Lanchester patented a design for a dise brake. However, these early disc brakes were not as effective at stopping as the contemporary drum brakes of that time. Its major problem was noise, Metal-to- metal contact between his copper linings and the metal disc caused an intense screech that sent chills through anyone within earshot. The problem was solved in 1907 when Herbert Frood, another Englishman, came up with the idea of lining pads with asbestos. The new material was quickly adopted by car manufacturers on both drum and disc brakes, Asbestos linings also outlasted other friction materials by a wide margin up to 10,000-mile [1]. ‘As roads improved and cars began to be driven at high speeds, engineers recognized the need for even better braking system. In 1918, a young inventor named Malcolm Lougheed (or Lockheed) applied hydraulics to braking. He used cylinders and tubes to transmit fluid pressure against brake shoes, pushing the shoes against the drums. In 1921, the first passenger car the Model "A' Duesenberg was equipped with four-wheel hydraulic brakes [1]. The basic braking system we have today is based on this technology. ‘The modern automotive brake system today is the result of improvement for over 100$I RSI OF IG WEIGHT ALITOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL years, Modern braking systems are now equipped with anti-lock system, power assisted and ete making it extremely dependable and efficient, 12 The Fundamental Theory of Brake System The operation performed in braking is the reverse of that carried out in accelerating, When accelerating, the heat energy of the fuel is converted into kinetic energy of the ear, whereas in braking the kinetic energy of the car is converted into heat [2]. The kinetic energy of a moving vehicle depends on weight and speed of the vehicle, ‘The equation of kinetic energy may be given by [3]: ‘mi dt) where U, kinetic energy of vehicle (I) = mass of vehicle (kg) FV = speed of vehicle (m/s) ‘This energy must be partially or totally dissipated when the vehicle slowed down or brought to a standstill. When we depress the brake pedal, the pads or shoes that press. against the brake drum or rotor convert the kinetic energy into thermal energy. The cooling of the brakes dissipates the heat and the vehicle slows down. This is all to do with ‘The First Law of Thermodynamics, sometimes known as the aw of conservation of energy. This states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another. In the case of brakes, it is converted from kinetic energy to thermal energy [4]. ‘The work done in bringing the vehicle to rest is given by [3]: (1.2) where Uy. — =work done (J)HE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRIKE PEDAL F — =average braking force (N) 5 = distance travelled (m) When braking a moving vehicle to a standstill, the work done must equal the kinetic energy of the vehicle, Uy= Ue (13) Fs=’AmP (lay Therefore, average brake force is, F=%mP/s(N) (1.5) Figure I —IIlustration of braking conditions [3] 1.3 Brake Subsystems A typical brake system consists of disc brakes in front and either dise or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder. Other systems that are connected with the brake system include the parking brakes, power brake booster and the anti-lock system [5]. Figure 2 shows layout of a typical automotive brake system.Front Brakes “y Rear Brakes Typical Automotive Braking System Figure 2 — Typical Brake System [5] ‘There are three subsystems in automotive brake system: a) Leverage system b) Hydraulic system ©) Friction In an emergency stop, the forces that have to be applied to the brake shoes in order to produce the maximum deceleration are very large. Approximating to the weight of the vehicle, and to enable the driver to produce these forces with an effort which cannot exceed 700 N and which is normally kept down to about one-third of that amount, the brake system must be able to provide a considerable leverage [2]. The force multiplication processes take place in two areas; leverage system and hydraulic system. 1.3.1 Leverage System Leverage system is a foot pedal mechanism which is designed in such a way that it can multiply the force from driver’s foot several times before it is transmitted to theTHE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PED, brake fluid. end of the lever will trigger twice amount of the firce at the right end of the lever, 2. igure 3 shows how a simple leverage system works. A force F at the left Figure 3 — Force multiplication by a leverage system [6] Pedal ratio is shown in Figure 4. For example if the distance Z from the pedal to the pivot is four times longer than the distance X from master cylinder to the pivot, the force at the pedal will be increased by a factor of four before it is transmitted to the master cylinder. oe Figure 4 ~ Brake pedal ratio [7]HE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL 1.3.2. Hydraulie System Hydraulic system consists of a master cylinder, brake lines and braking unit at each wheel. Figure 5 shows hydraulic system and a typical master cylinder in automotive brake system. Due to the fact that fluid cannot be compressed, the force transmitted from the foot pedal can be manipulated for an even greater force and then transferred to the braking unit at each wheel. Figure 6 explains this process. To determine the multiplication factor in Figure 6, start by looking at the size of the pistons. Assume that the piston on the left is 2 inches (5.08 em) in diameter (1-inch / 2.54 cm radius), while the piston on the right is 6 inches (15.24 cm) in diameter (3-inch / 7.62 cm radius). The area of the two pistons is * 1°, Therefore piston on the right is nine times larger than the piston on the left [6]. This means that if 100 Ibs force is applied to the left-hand piston, a 900 Ibs force will come out on the right-hand piston. MASTER__| CYLINDER Figure 5 ~ Hydraulic system and a typical master cylinder [5]THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL se cs ae iF : ip 2 LE 3 iL ‘ op : ce ¢ iC ; se 3 cE : int 1 6in Figure 6 — Force multiplication in hydraulic system [6] 13.3. Friction Friction happens when force from the brake fluid press the brake pads or friction linings against the rotor or drum, Friction also happens between tires and road surface. Friction is a measure of how hard it is to slide one object over another [6]. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the limiting friction to the normal reaction between the sliding surfaces. It is constant for a given pair of surfaces. Coefficient of friction = Friction force / Normal load n=F/N (1.6) Friction force (F) = . Normal load (N) The friction force is proportional to normal load. Therefore, the heavier the vehicle, the greater force is needed to decelerate the vehicle. This concept applies to the brake system where the more force applied at the brake pads or linings, the greater the friction force or braking force generated.1.4 The Project Objectives Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) was introduced by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) of the United States in order to encourage car manufacturers to improve their product’s efficiency, thus reducing emissions, CAFE is the sales weighted average fuel economy, expressed in miles per gallon (mpg), of a manufacturer’s fleet of passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 8,500 Ibs (3,855 kg) or less, manufactured for sale in the United States [10]. According to [9], the trend toward lightweight materials continues to grow each day. Whether it is for the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards in the automotive indusiry or just an OEM’s drive to improve product performance by increasing efficiency through weight reduction [9]. ‘This project is concerned with the design of light-weight automotive brake pedal. Most of the cars today have pedals that are made of steel. In some performance cars, aluminium has been used to replace stee! due to its higher strength to weight ratio. In this project, we will be looking at a polymer-based material as the replacement material for steel. A product sample from an average production car will be used as reference. The main advantages of using this material are light-weight and case of manufacture. ‘However, there are few problems that need to be considered such as limitation in material properties, reliability and cost. The aim of this project is to come out with a successful design of light-weight automotive brake pedal using polymer-based material with acceptable level of performance. In achieving this aim, project objectives are set as below: = To understand the working principles, components, standards and theories through a literature study. * To analyse current design and its material properties. * To select an altemative materials using 2 systematic selection method. 9THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT 4UTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL + To develop and analyse new component design using CAD and CAE applications. + To clearly justify the results and conclusions. Knowledge gained from this project is to be able to understand the steps needed to design new brake pedal with new material from systematic material selection. The use of CAD and CAE for design and analysis will help to minimise design time. 1,5 Current Developments in Brake Pedal Design Efficiency of a car can be improved through weight reduction. In this perspective, manufacturers are searching out opportunities to replace conventional materials with new and lighter materials without compromising its mechanical and physical properties. An example of reducing weight through new material application can be seen in the manufacturing of Chevrolet Corvette. The Chevrolet Corvette is the sport car range that has been manufactured by Chevrolet since 1953. It has been proclaimed to be the "America’s Sports Car" [11]. The recent model Chevrolet Corvette C6 is shown in Figure Figure 7 — Chevrolet Corvette Cé [8] Chevrolet will take another step forward through the next generation of Chevrolet Corvette C7 which will be launched in 2010. It was reported by [9], the conventional brake pedal which was made of steel will be replaced with B356 aluminium. To solve 10THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDA structural and mechanical property concems, modified alloy chemistries and heat treatment cycles were used with permanent mould casting to achieve the mechanical properties of 35 ksi tensile strength, 25 ksi yield strength and 7% elongation [9]. Another advantage other than light weight is the exceptional appearance which is important as itis a visible component. Secondary cosmetic process such as spray painting will be no longer required. Figure 8 — Aluminium cast brake pedal to be used by the next generation Corvette C7 [9] It is reported in [12] titled ‘Concurrent design and manufacturing process of automotive composite components’ which had used concurrent engineering in the development of polymeric based composite automotive clutch pedal. The research objective was to demonstrate the use of Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) to help designers in the design process. The chosen product was a cable operated automotive clutch pedal which was converted from conventional material to polymer based composite. Several engineering computer applications were used from conceptual design until prototyping such Pro Engineer, LUSAS, Mould Flow Analysis, and Stereolithography (SLA) and 3D Printer for rapid prototyping.THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL There were two conceptual designs considered; the ‘T* profile and the ‘I’ profile. Highlighted by [12] that based on analysis, the ‘T” profile design was stiffer compared to the ‘I’ profile. The analysis was done using LUSAS finite element analysis software. ‘Another interesting finding was the addition of ribs to the design to improve stiffness and rigidity. The use of ribs enables designers to compensate the effect of reducing section thickness to improve design efficiency. However, S.M. Sapuan [12] did not discuss the overall performance of the new component in comparison with the original component. 1.6 Report Structiire a 3 3 haps Germ bd iene NEASUREMENT: GEOMETRY | __-¥! ney yatta SELECTION INTRON CURRENT COMPONENT |) CENERATION AND ANALYSES |” cee ‘OF GURRENT COMPONENT i Sage? Chern 5 cer ¢ [CONCLUSIONS NO FUTURE neworsettonwerss|—* _oiscissew "RECOMMENDATIONS Figure 9 ~ Report Structure Chapter 1 is the introduction chapter. A brief literature review on brake system has been carried out focusing on history, fundamental theory and brake subsystems. The project objectives and current developments in brake pedal design had also been discussed. Chapter 2 explained about the current steel brake pedal with an actual brake pedal used as example, The material properties and manufacturing process of the current brake pedal will be discussed in detail Chapter 3 is about measurement, geometry generation and finite element analysis of current brake pedal. Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) will be used for measurement, SolidWorks® 2003 for geometry generation and ABAQUS for finite clement analysis. 12Chapter 4 is about new material selection process using CES Edupack. CES Edupack is a systematic material selection software developed to help designers in material selection process, The new material properties and its manufacturing process will also be discussed. Chapter 5 will explain about the new design of brake pedal using an alternative material. Some design considerations taken in the new design will be discussed in detail, ‘The same finite element analysis as in Chapter 3 will be performed. Chapter 6 is about results and discussions. Finite element analysis results of steel brake pedal and the new brake pedal will be discussed. Comparative cost of using the two ‘materials will also be discussed. Finally in Chaptet 7, conclusions and recommendations for future work will be presented. 13Wo CHAPTER 2 CURRENT COMPONENT 2.1 Component Overview Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional Sdn, Bhd, (Proton) was established in 1983 inspired by the former Malaysian’s Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad [13]. Proton Wira also known as Persona in the UK was introduced in 1993 (Figure 10). Although it has been in the market for about 14. years, itis still one of the best selling cars in Malaysia. In this project, the brake pedal of a Proton Wira 1.5 (A) will be used as an example. Figure 11 shows the brake pedal assembly of Proton Wira. 2.2 Component Design Figure 12 shows brake pedal assembly and its components. The bracket is made of galvanised steel sheet with thickness 3mm. It consists of five subcomponents joint by welding, Bracket is used to hold the brake pedal assembly in its position, ‘The bracket is 14THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL also the mounting place of hydraulic master cylinder (not shown in figure) of the brake system and brake light switch. The spring is used to retain brake pedal assembly at its original position. When the brake pedel is depress, the spring will provides slight load to the brake pedal. When brake pedal is released, it will move back to its original position. Bolt and nut, pivot shaft and plastic bearings anchored the brake pedal assembly to the bracket. Grease was applied at this area to minimise friction. Figure 11 — Proton Wira brake pedal assembly 15THE. DESIGN GE LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL Figure 12 — Proton Wira brake pedal and its components: (a) bracket assembly (bb) brake pedal assembly (¢) spring (4) bolt and nut (e) pivot shaft (f) plastic bearings Figure 13 — Arrow shows the mounting surface for master eylinder‘THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL Figure 14 — Brake light switch mounting area a Figure 15 — Location of spring The size of the brake pedal assembly is about 370 mm x 148 mm with overall weight of 944.4 grams, Brake pedal assembly consists of three components; brake pedal, rubber foot pad and switch contact pad. The main body of brake pedal is made of steel plate with thickness 6 mm. It consists of three subcomponents joint by welding. The welding areas are shown in Figure 17. Rubber foot pad is used to prevent foot slip while switch contact pad is used to absorb noise as the result of contact between pedal and brake light switch. 17THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL Figure 16 — Brake pedal assembly: (a) Brake pedal (b) Rubber foot pad (c) Switch contact pad Figure 17— Three areas of weldingTHE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL 2.3. Material Properties A good design should always accompanied with the correct choice of material. Selecting the wrong material will result in higher product cost, poor product performance or even product failure. It was stated by [15] that normally the choice of material is dictated by the design, but sometimes the other way around. Since the number of engineering materials is large at an estimated over 120,000 materials are available, the material selection process can be a difficult task without guidance. Ashby [15] also explained that a method of screening those materials is by understanding the design requirements for a component by an analysis of function, constraints, objectives and free variables. Table 1 explains what those criteria are while Table 2 shows the design requirements for a brake pedal Table 1 Function, constraints, objectives and free variables [15] Function What does component do” What non-negotiable conditions must be met? Constraints What negotiable but desirable conditions. ..? Objective ‘What is to be maximised or minimized? Free variables ‘What parameters of the problem is the designer free to change? Table 2 — Design requirements for a brake pedal Function Brake pedal (load transfer) No failure, meaning able to withstand load Constraints High Young’s modulus Good tensile strength Objective Low material cost Choice of material Free variables Choice of design 19THE SIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL Based on the design requirements, stee! could be a material for brake pedal due to its strength and low cost. According to [16], steel is the most important group of engineering materials in use today. They stated that the definition and classification of steel by the European Standard EN10020 is ‘a material which contains by weight more iron than any other single element, having a carbon content generally [ess than 2% and containing other elements." A study by [17] had mentioned the use of 3 mm steel strips which is according to standard DINI614 to be qualified as RRStW24 grade for brake pedal production. This grade of material is classified under Hot-rolled Unalloyed Steels with very low content of carbon. The microstructure of this material is shown in Figure 18, It shows the ferrite grain structures of RRStW24 steel with grain boundaries seen in dark area. Figure 18 —Ferritic microstructure of RRStW24 steel (x 1000) [17] By using CES Edupack, an equivalent material to DIN 1614 RRStW24 can be obtained, CES Edupak is the software-based material selection developed by Michael F. Ashby and Granta Design, The material is Low Carbon Steel AISI 1010 with basic properties as in Table 3. Material properties in mere details are attached in Appendix I. 20Table 3 — Material properties of Low Carbon Steel AISI 1010 [18] Properties Minimum Maximum Units General: Density *7800 7900 kgim* Price 70.25 0.45 GBP/kg Composition: Fe (Iron) *99.13 99.62 % C (Carbon) *0.12 0.18 % Mn (Manganese) 03 0.6 % P (Phosphorus) *0 0.04 % S (Sulphur) *0 0.05 % Si (Silicon) 0 0.05 % Mechanical: ‘Young’s Modulus +205 215 GPa Compressive Strength #255 315 MPa Tensile Strength 310 430 MPa Poisson’s Ratio 0.285 0.295 = ‘Note: Value marked * are estimates 2.4 — Manufacturing Process Steel brake pedals are manufactured using press forming, Press forming covers a range of sheet forming processes performed by means of a die and press. Processes used include blanking, shearing, drawing, bending, forming, coining and swaging. These processes may be performed consecutively to form complex shapes. However, all shapes produced by this process have a uniform cross-sectional thickness. Tools are dedicated and, therefore, tooling costs are high. Only materials available in sheet form can be stamped and the thickness is limited to available sheet size [18]. More detail information on press forming is attached in Appendix 2. 2Deep drawing Blanking Punch —>| Bending Stretching Ae ep: Figure 19 — Process schematic of press forming [18] The overview of current component as well as the material properties and ‘manufacturing process had been explained earlier in this chapter. In the next chapter, the current component will be measured to get the actual dimensions. These data will be used to generate the 3D model for stress analysis. The analysis will simulates the component's behaviour when it is subjected to load exerted by the driver's foot.THE DESIGN OF LIGHT WEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE PEDAL CHAPTER 3 MEASUREMENT, GEOMETRY GENERATION AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT COMPONENT 3.1 A Brief History of Finite Element Method This section presents @ brief history of the Finite Element Method (FEM). Although ‘finite element’ terminology was first used in 1960 by R.W. Clough in a paper on plane elasticity problems [19], the ideas were dated back much further. A. Hrennikoff in 1941 and D. McHenry in 1943 used a latticed of line elements for the solution of stresses in continuous solids. Meanwhile R. Courant in 1943 had proposed setting up the solution of stresses in a variational form. He used piecewise interpolation funetions over triangular sub-regions making up the whole region as a method to obtain approximate numerical solutions [20]. Sinee then more and more researchers involved in FEM. Table 4 summarizes the important findings made by early researchers. 23Table 4 — Brief History of Finite Element Method [20] Name of researchers Year Findings A. Hrennikoff and 1941-1943 Latticed of line elements for the solution of stresses D. McHenry in continuous solids ”) interpolation functions over tangular sub-regions as R. Courant 1943 | a method to obtain approximate numerical solutions S. Levy 1947-1953 | Force method and displacement method TH. Argyris and S. . x 1954 | Matrix structural analysis using energy principles Kelsey Direct stiffness method for obtaining total structure MJ. Tumer 1956 | stiffness matrix Introduction of finite efement using both triangular R.W. Clough 1960 . and rectangular elements for plane stress analysis MJ. Tumer 1960 _ | Large deflections and thermal analysis Flat rectangular-plate bending-clement stiffness R.J. Melosh 1961 ; matrix R.H. Gallagher 1962 | Material nonlinearities RH, Gallagher and - 1963 | Introduction of buckling problems J. Padlog PE, Grafton and 1963 | Wutved-shell bending: element stiffness matrix for DR. Strome axisymmetric shells and pressure vessels Martin, Gallagher, Extension of the FEM to three-dimensional 1961-1964 Melosh and Argyris problems R.W. Clough, ¥. 1965 | Special case of axisymmetric solids Rashid, E.L. Wilson 2 TS. Archer 1965 | Dynamic analysis in consistent-mass matrix OC Zienkiewiez 1968 _ | Visco-clasticity problems B.A Szabo and Lee 1969 | Weighted residual methods T. Belytschko 1976 | Large-displacement nonlinear dynamic behaviour 24