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Manufacture and examination of carbon ceramic brakes

Technical Report · November 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25765.50402

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 2

1 FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE CARBON – CERAMIC BRAKES AND ITS

PRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Dimensioning and design ................................................................................................. 3

1.2 General material performance requirements .................................................................... 4

1.3 Material structure of carbon-ceramic brakes .................................................................... 5

1.4 Characteristics of carbon fiber .......................................................................................... 6

1.4 Characteristic of silicon carbide ....................................................................................... 7

1.5 Product development ........................................................................................................ 7

1.6 Production steps ................................................................................................................ 8

2 SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON – CERAMIC BRAKES ....................................... 10

2.1 Advantages of carbon-ceramic brake discs .................................................................... 10

2.2 Disadvantages of carbon-ceramic brake discs ................................................................ 11

3 THE CARBON – CERAMIC COMPOSITE EXAMINATION .......................................... 12

3.1 Braking curves on different conditions .......................................................................... 14

3.2 Morphology of worn debris ............................................................................................ 14

3.3 Conclusion of the examinations ..................................................................................... 15

4 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DUE TO MANUFACTURING ANF DESIGN ...................... 15

4.1 Possible problems during production ............................................................................. 15

4.2 Thermo-mechanical distortion ........................................................................................ 16

4.3 Cracking.......................................................................................................................... 16

CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 17

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 18
INTRODUCTION

If we talk about transportation the most commonly way nowadays is automobile. Every
year car manufacturers spend huge amounts of money to improve their car’s performance,
comfort and safety. Because of that they have to invest to new things or improve old
technologyes. One of the most important themes about car manufacturing is safety. When we
talk about car reliability and safety, the first thing comes in our mind is braking systems.

Despite the great performance, every car must be equipped with appropriate braking
system. Today almost every super sport or sport car is supplied with new types of brakes called
carbon-ceramic.

Along the enthusiastic path that leads to the search for perfect braking, discs in carbon-
ceramic material represent a fundamental progressive step. It was taken from aerospace
application and the technology was manufactured and designed for super sports or very
powerful cars. Against cast iron discs carbon-ceramic ones provide extraordinary advantages
that results directly in cars performance improvement. These discs meet the needs of
performance excellence, driving comfort and safety.

As a mechanical engineer and a person who is interested in cars, I have chosen to

investigate carbon-ceramic brake discs in my project. I think it is really important to learn more
about these emerging composite materials and their utilization to be able to manufacture new
environmental friendly components.

The aim of these project is to understand the structure of the carbon ceramic discs, its
material specification and the manufacture. There is listed the advantages and disadvantages of
these rotors, as well as its material examination. At the end of the seminar work the possible
problems is written regarding to dimensioning and manufacturing.

2
1 FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE CARBON – CERAMIC BRAKES AND ITS
PRODUCTION

Ceramic brakes offer great braking performance, wear well over time and are very
lightweight - all of which are important for high-performance driving. These are made from
ceramic fibers, filler material, bonding agents and they may even have small amounts of copper
fibers within them as well. Because it’s ceramic properties, these brake parts dissipate heat well,
which keeps performance strong, even after repeated hard stops. They also produce less dust
than other types of brakes, and the dust they produce is lighter in color and doesn't stick to the
wheels. However, they're very expensive, therefore ceramic brakes aren't for every type of
vehicle. Mostly sports cars that are routinely driven hard or part of club racing can benefit from
ceramic brakes. Almost every other vehicle performs great with other brake pad materials [1].

In the following chapters the carbon-ceramic brake discs production will be presented
from the computer model to the actual part, as well its material specification.

1.1 Dimensioning and design

The braking system is designed to match a car´s layout and take advantage of the
ceramic brake disc material´s properties. The car´s maximum speed, it’s aerodynamic, the axle
load distribution and the time sequence of full brake applications possible to bring a car to a
stop from top speed are the main parameters determining the braking system design. The
purpose of brake disc dimensioning and design is to ensure that a car can be stopped safely
under any conceivable driving conditions. The design also needs to ensure that neither the disc
itself nor any other component in its direct vicinity is exposed to excessive thermal loads. The
optimal cooling vane geometry (see Fig.1) is determined by numerical methods (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) for each car model. It’s also have to calculate with the air pressure building
up underneath the car and inside the wheel arch as a function of the car´s aerodynamic design
and traveling speed. Usually in the brake rotor the friction layer is grooved, drilled or its
combination (see Fig.2). The purpose of the holes/grooves is to clean the surface of the pad and
allow gases produced to escape which helps cooling and reduces the risk of brake fade [2] [3].

3
 Fig. 1 The structure of carbon-ceramic brake disc

Fig. 2 Brake rotor varieties

1.2 General material performance requirements

Disc brake systems generate braking force by clamping brake pads onto a rotor that is
mounted to the hub. The advantage of hydraulic and mechanical disc brakes is that allows small
lever input force at the handlebar to convert into a large clamp force at the wheel. This force
pinches the rotor with friction material pads and generates brake power. The higher the
coefficient of friction for the pad, the more brake power will be generated. Depending on the
type of material used for the brake rotor coefficient of friction can vary. Typically service brakes
are concerned with dynamic coefficient of friction, or the coefficient of friction measured while
the vehicle is moving. Disc brakes systems rely on brake pads pressing on both sides of a brake
rotor to increase the rolling resistance and slow the car down. The amount of frictional force is
found by multiply the force pushing the pad into the rotor by the coefficient of friction of the
pad. The structural materials used in brakes should have possess some combination of
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properties such as good compressive strength, higher friction coefficient, wear resistant, light
weight, good thermal capacity and economically viable [4].

1.3 Material structure of carbon-ceramic brakes

A special feature of carbon-ceramic brake discs is the ceramic composite material they
are made from. The carbon-ceramic brake disc body and the friction layers applied to each side
consist of carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide. Silicon carbide (SiC) and elemental silicon
(Si) are the main matrix components. The reinforcement of the material is provided by carbon
fibers (C). The main matrix component silicon carbide governs great hardness for the composite
material. The carbon fibers assent to high mechanical strength and provide the fracture
toughness needed in technical applications. The resulting quasi-ductile properties of the ceramic
composite material ensure its resistance to high thermal and mechanical load. Carbon fiber-
reinforced silicon carbide materials therefore combine the useful properties of carbon fiber-
reinforced carbon (C/C) and polycrystalline silicon carbide ceramics. The elongation at break
of C/SiC materials ranges from 0.1 to 0.3%. This is exceptionally high for ceramics. The
characteristic profile of fiber-reinforced silicon carbide makes it to a first-choice material for
high-performance brake systems. Especially the low weight, the hardness, the stable
characteristics also in case of high pressure and temperature, not to mention the resistance to
thermal shock and the quasi-ductility properties provides long live time to the brake disc and
avoid all problems resulting of loading, which are typical for the classic grey cast iron brake
discs. The first table shows the characteristic properties and its differences between carbon
ceramic and gray cast iron discs [2].

C/SiC for carbon-

Gray cast iron (GG-20)
ceramic brake disc
Density (g cm-3) 2,45 7,25
Tensile strength (MPa) 20 - 40 200 - 250
Modulus of elasticity
30 90 - 110
(GPa)
Flexural strength
50 - 80 150 - 250
(MPa)
Elongation at break
0.3 0.3 - 0.8
(%)
Thermal shock
resistance (second
> 27.000 < 5.400
thermal coefficient K')
(W m-1)

5
 Thermal stability (°C) 1350 approx. 700
Maximum operating
temperature (brake 900 700
disc) (°C)
Linear coefficient of
thermal expansion 2.6 - 3.0 9 - 12
(K-1)
Thermal conductivity
40 54
(W m-1K-1)
Specific heat capacity
(cp) 0.8 0.5
(kJkg-1K-1)

Table 1 Differences between carbon ceramic and gray cast iron discs

To understand more the material of carbon ceramic brakes, we have to know about the
main components features.

1.4 Characteristics of carbon fiber

A carbon fiber is a long, thin strand of material about 0.005-0.010 mm diameter and
composed mostly of carbon atoms. These atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals
that are aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber. The crystal alignment makes the fiber
incredibly strong for its size. Several thousand carbon fibers are twisted together to form a yarn,
which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric.

Based on precursor fiber materials, carbon fibers are classified into:

 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibers

 Pitch-based carbon fibers

 Mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers

 Isotropic pitch-based carbon fibers

 Rayon-based carbon fibers

 Gas-phase-grown carbon fibers

PAN or polyacrylonitrile is the most common precursor for plastic composites and also
used in carbon ceramic brakes.

In the conversion of PAN precursor into high-performance carbon fibers there are three
stages. The first is oxidative stabilization. The polyacrylonitrile precursor is stretched and

6
simultaneously oxidized in a temperature range of 200-300C. This treatment converts
thermoplastic PAN to a non-plastic cyclic or ladder compound. The second stage is called
carbonization. After oxidation, the fibers are carbonized at about 1000C without tension in an
inert atmosphere (normally nitrogen) for a few hours. During this process the non-carbon
elements are removed as volatiles to give carbon fibers with a yield of about 50% of the mass
of the original PAN. The third and last one is graphitization. In this stage depending on the
type of fiber required, the fibers are treated at temperatures between 1500-3000C, which
improves the ordering, and orientation of the crystallites in the direction of the fiber axis [5]
[6].

1.4 Characteristic of silicon carbide

Silicon carbide is composed with strong bonds in the crystal lattice of tetrahedral carbon
and silicon atoms. Each silicon atom is surrounded by four carbon atoms, and also each carbon
atom with four silicon atoms. The structure consists of two identical, mutual converging layers
with the closest arranging, when one layer consist silicon atoms and the second one carbon
atoms. This produces a very hard and strong material. Silicon carbide is resistant to any acids
or alkalis or molten salts up to 800°C. In air, SiC forms a protective silicon oxide coating at
1200°C and is able to be used up to 1600°C. The high thermal conductivity coupled with low
thermal expansion and high strength give this material exceptional thermal shock resistant
qualities. Silicon carbide ceramics with little or no grain boundary impurities maintain their
strength to very high temperatures, approaching 1600°C with no strength loss [7] [8].

1.5 Product development

A carbon-ceramic brake is developed in three main stages to match a car´s particular

layout: numerical modeling, the construction and testing of prototypes, and testing on an actual
car. Using the car´s particular model data’s the brake disc is first simulated numerically on the
computer. The brake disc´s diameter, its thickness and the height of the friction path are only
some of the parameters calculated on the computer. Also have to calculate with the assembled
brake, with the connection of the ring and the hub. Because of various coefficients of thermal
expansion this is a highly demanding design task, when differences need to be compensated for
at any operating temperature possible. To optimize fluid dynamics the numerical model also
provides the design of the cooling vanes configuration. In the second development stage, based
on numerical model results prototypes (test specimens) of the carbon-ceramic brake discs are

7
constructed and bench-tested, together with the matching brake pads and calipers. In the third
and final stage, the disc prototypes are tested on the car. They complete high-speed runs on a
test circuit but also mountain pass descents and road tests. On these test runs, the driver evaluate
brake behavior, in particular braking performance and braking comfort. After that the computer
provides a detailed analysis of measured results. Finally with the bench test results and the car
test runs determine whether a disc prototype can be approved or not [2].

1.6 Production steps

The first step is to prepare the carbon fiber by mixing two ingredients: heat molded resin
and sharp pieces of raw carbon fiber. After that an automated machines pour the carbon fiber
into aluminum mold with the shape of the disc ring. The first filling station fills the mold only
half way (see Fig. 3a). Then inserts the aluminum cores into the slots (see Fig. 3b). These cores
will form the cooling wanes in the disc ring to keep the disc from overheating. Then the mold
moves on to the next filling station, it fills the remains of the cavity with carbon fiber,
simultaneously the machine levels the top. After that the mold is closed and with a small press
pushes down the cover to lightly compact the contents (see Fig. 3c). Then the mold enters a
large press which applies 20 tones of pressure, while heating to 200 degrees Celsius. This
compress the carbon fiber and transform the resin powder into plastic. This process is usually
called as green machining. After that the mold is cools down and removes all the cores. Then
the mold is opened and extract the disc ring (see Fig. 3d). Then a CNC machine smooth out the
rough areas and drill tiny ventilation holes. Then they put the disc into an oven which oven the
course of two days gradually heats it approximately 1000 degrees Celsius. This causes a
chemical change which transforms the plastic into carbon (carbonizing). Next they take a
crucible a high heat resistant container and place 5 mounts inside (see Fig. 3e). They place the
disc ring into the mounts, then in the middle a funnel into which they pour the ceramic material,
fine silicon powder. They load the crucible into an oven for 24 hours which gradually heats the
disc ring to 1700 degrees Celsius, melting the silicon (siliconizing). Then it applies low level
suction to drawn the liquid silicon into the disc ring. This creates an exceptionally hard material
called silicon carbide. After that a CNC machine drills mounting holes for the wheel hub. Then
the disc ring goes into a chamber when receives protective paint. The paint shield the carbon in
the disc ring from oxygen, which is critical because at high heat oxygen burns carbon. This anti
oxidation treatment significantly extends the life of the brake disc. The paint is cured in an
oven, leaving behind small white patches. Then a robot removes it and polishes the entire disc
ring surface (see Fig. 3f). The final process is the inspection when a sophisticated machine takes

8
thousands of high definition photograph’s of the surface which a computer than analyze with
micro-details (see Fig. 3g) [9] [10].

Fig. 3 Manufacture process of carbon-ceramic brakes: a) filling the mold, b) inserts the aluminum cores, c)
pressing the ingredients together, d) extracting the disc ring, e) preparing for siliconization, f) polishing the disc
ring, g) inspection.

9
2 SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON – CERAMIC BRAKES

In the following chapters the advantages and disadvantages will be listed. Due to the
material properties the driver must consider these special features, whether it is worth to apply
these discs.

2.1 Advantages of carbon-ceramic brake discs

There are many different carbon ceramic brake rotors available on the market today,
but they all have common benefits compared to iron rotors.

Reduced weight

One of the most important performance advantage of carbon ceramic materials is weight
reduction. Carbon ceramic materials are 50% lighter than cast-iron discs of the same size
because of their low densities. This lead to reduce the car’s un-sprung weight and rotating mass
which improves handling and driving dynamics under decelerating (braking), accelerating, and
cornering conditions [11].

Great hardness and reduced wear rate

Another important property of the ceramics is the hardness of the material. Compared
with the classical brake discs based on gray cast-iron, the structure of the ceramic composite
brake discs is more solid. This feature provides a longer life time and prevents the discs from
wear and waste. Compared with steel ones, this material lasts four times longer. The high
abrasion resistance of ceramic discs means that they will last for up to 300,000 kilometers [12].

The extreme surface hardness of the material is also a sign for holding to higher friction
values. It means that higher brake capacity is provided, therefore with same size of disc larger
loads can be carried. Another advantage of the structure of the ceramic composite brake discs
is that they are non-metallic, which means that the discs are unsusceptible to solid and liquid
road salts as well as to corrosion and rust [12].

Deformation resistance

At high temperatures, carbon ceramic materials are more resistant to deformation or

warping because of their high thermal stability values (1350° for carbon ceramic vs. 700°C for
cast iron) [11].

10
Reduced brake fade

Carbon ceramic brake discs offer high heat stability, heat capacity, and heat dissipation
benefits. The coefficient of friction of carbon ceramic remains stable across a wider (and higher)
range of temperatures. Numerically it means that they thermal stability is nearly twice of cast
irons. They retain their braking performance longer as temperatures rise under severe
conditions, such as racing. The specific heat capacity of carbon ceramic is 60% greater than
cast iron, it means it can absorb 60% more heat than iron for the same increase in rotor
temperature. Thermal conductivity and heat dissipation is a function of fiber length within the
carbon-ceramic composite material. Rotors with long carbon fibers can dissipate heat faster and
better than cast iron rotors [11].

2.2 Disadvantages of carbon-ceramic brake discs

While the benefits are significant, there are also limitations that the driver must consider.

High initial cost

Carbon ceramic rotors are currently priced over 1,000€ and go significantly
higher. Compared to cast iron rotors costing 50€ to 500€, the investment is substantially
more. Even though carbon ceramic rotors may outlive iron rotors ten or twenty times over, the
driver should consider whether it is worth to invest. The high cost of carbon ceramic material
is due to the length (up to 16 days per rotor) and energy-intensive manufacturing process [11].

Higher operating temperatures

There is less braking feel during the first part of travel, especially when the ceramic
rotors are cold. The reason for this is that the optimal operating temperature of the carbon
materials is much higher than those found in normal brakes. Once the brakes heat up, under
aggressive braking, such as track use, then their friction coefficients increase, and they feel
more “normal” [11].

Limited brake pad selection

Carbon ceramic is not compatible with most brake pads that are intended for cast iron
rotors. Due to the different frictional and thermal properties of iron and ceramic discs it is
important to use a brake pad compound that has been specifically developed for ceramic brake

11
discs. Although some high performance brake pads designed for extreme track use, can be used
with both iron and ceramic discs [11] [13].

3 THE CARBON – CERAMIC COMPOSITE EXAMINATION

With tribological tests the friction and the wear is examined. It was carried out on a
friction testing machine with C/C-SiC composites as static plate and corresponding steel discs
as moving plate. The sizes of test specimens and corresponding steel discs were d75 mm (outer
diameter) × d53 mm (inner diameter) ×16 mm. The experimental conditions were: the initial
linear speed of braking 20 m/s (i.e. rotational speed 6 500 r/min), the running inertia 1 kg·cm·s2,
and the braking pressure 0.5 MPa. The experimental conditions were divided into dry condition
and wet condition. To simulate wet condition the tested specimens were soaked in water for 2
min before friction test. The experiment were performed for 20 cycles under each kind of
condition. The thickness losses of test specimens and corresponding steel discs were measured
with the help of the micrometer. The coefficient of friction (COF) was taken as the average
value of each cycle. The microstructure of the composites, morphology of worn surfaces and
wear debris were examined using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and energy dispersive analysis of X-ray (EDAX). The components were analyzed by X-
ray diffractometer (XRD) [14].

The examined C/C-SiC material have dense and uniform microstructure (see Fig. 4).
From the EDAX results, it is obvious that the round and filiform components are short carbon
fibers that distribute in the composite evenly. The bright white matters are residual Si. The gray
regions around residual Si are SiC. Other regions are carbon matrices, including graphite and
resin carbon [14].

12
 Fig. 4 Microstructure of examined C/C-Si material

The tribological performances of C/C-SiC composites under dry and wet conditions are
listed in Table 2. The measured values shows that there is no much difference between dry and
wet conditions. The coefficient of friction (0.35) under wet condition could maintain mostly of
that under dry condition (0.38). The COF of the C/C-SiC composites does not decline under
wet condition. The carbon-ceramic braking composites show strong environmental adaptability
which is one of the great advantages in comparison with other braking composites. The main
difference is that the thickness loss under wet condition (0.70 μm per cycle) is only two third
of that under dry condition (1.10 μm per cycle). The thickness losses of the corresponding steel
discs have the same trend as well. Other performances are quite similar [14].

Braking Coefficient Stability Braking Braking Thickness Counterpart

condition of friction coefficient power energy loss (µm) thickness
(W.cm-2) (J.cm-2) loss (µm)
Dry 0,38 0,69 193,40 1245,36 1,10 0,97
Wet 0,35 0,64 196,72 1242,78 0,70 0,63

Table 2 Tribological performances of C/C-SiC under different conditions

13
3.1 Braking curves on different conditions

The first braking coefficient curves of C/C-SiC composites under dry and wet conditions
are shown in Fig. 5. It seems that two friction coefficient curves are basic consistent, although
the curve under dry condition is rougher (Fig.3 (a, b)). The two braking coefficient curves arise
gradually in the beginning period of the braking, appearing the so-called “first peak”
phenomenon. Afterward, the coefficient of friction reduces and the curves tend to change
smoothly. At the end of the braking, the COF starts to increase again [14].

Fig. 5 First braking curves of C/C-SiC on different condition: a.) Dry condition b.) Wet condition

3.2 Morphology of worn debris

Some of the worn debris remain on the worn surface of the tested C/C-SiC composites
during braking with a few worn debris adhered to the corresponding steel disc. The scanning
electron microscopy photographs (see Fig. 6) shows that the worn debris on dry condition are
ball-like, appearing to be a typical characteristic of abrasive wear. However, the worn debris on
wet condition are flake-like, which means that there are serious sticky sliding and plastic
deformation in the braking period [14].

14
 Fig. 6 SEM photographs of worn debris of C/C-SiC under different conditions: a.) Dry condition b.) Wet
condition

3.3 Conclusion of the examinations

The influence of dry and wet conditions on the tribological characteristics of the C/C-
SiC composites was ascertained. Under dry condition, C/C-SiC braking composites show
superior tribological characteristics, including high coefficient of friction (0.38), good abrasive
resistance (thickness loss is 1.10 μm per cycle) and steady breaking. The main wear mechanism
is plastic deformation and abrasion. Under wet condition, frictional films form on the worn
surface. The coefficient of friction (0.35) could maintain mostly, and the thickness loss (0.70
μm per cycle) reduces to a certain extent [14].

4 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS DUE TO MANUFACTURING ANF DESIGN

The following chapters deals with the possible problems during manufacturing and
brake defects caused by improper dimensioning and design.

4.1 Possible problems during production

Production is a very serious method when every component have to add accurately,
moreover the time of each process can’t be more or less than prescribed. The manufacture
15
method of the carbon ceramic discs is a very complex, when only exist one type of technology
which is described in the Capitol XC. It is a specific process to make that composite brake.
There would be very little defects that could be found in disc ring since the process is all
computerized and checked through computer guided machines but if there would be any defects
they would have to come from the sections that were man handled. For example the section
when the cores are inserted. These cores must be properly inserted and to make sure each and
every core fit inside a hammer is used. The inappropriate procedure would cause defects arising
inside the disc [9].

4.2 Thermo-mechanical distortion

Thermo-mechanical distortion caused by overheating of the disc brake rotor. It is often

a result of a poor design which the efficient and rapid heat dissipation ability of the rotor
reduces. As the rotor temperature increases the material becomes softer and gets easily reshaped
when the friction pads act on the rotor on the application of brake pedal. Initially, a corrugated
or warped longitudinal section is imparted to the friction surface of the rotor leading to a
prolonged contact with the friction pads. The corrugation depends on the temperature gradient
between the surface and the friction pads. The higher the gradient the more profound is the
deformation. These failure modes leads to improper heat dissipation hence proper design has to
be done [15].

4.3 Cracking

Cracking is developed due to non-uniform heat generation during braking action. This
is leads to formations of regions where the temperature is higher than other regions of the rotor
(formation of hotspots). Hence uneven expansion of the rotor creates formation of a hairline
crack and leads to damage of the whole disc. This is prevented by designing the rotor to
maximize heat dissipation and also maintaining temperature uniformity therefore reducing
chances of the formation hot spots [15].

16
CONCLUSION

This seminar project was dealing with the new technology of high performance brake
discs based on carbon-ceramic composites. Every brake have to fulfill some general conditions.
To understand these discs importance the dimensioning and manufacturing process was
presented. The process is relative complex and long due to the material properties of carbon
fiber and silicon carbide.

The special feature of carbon-ceramic brake discs is the ceramic composite material they
are made from. To know more about these composites reaction it is important to investigate the
material structure. The main matrix component silicon carbide governs great hardness while
the carbon fibers assent to high mechanical strength and provide the fracture toughness needed
in technical applications.

There are lot of advantages of these composite brakes thanks to the positive material
properties. To sum it up: low weight, great hardness and reduced wear rate, deformation
resistance and decreased brake fade. These positive properties improve the cars safety,
performance and comfort.

Furthermore there are also limitations with these brakes, like the initial cost, the higher
operating temperatures and limited brake pad selection. The driver have to consider these
disadvantages whether or not it is worth to that car.

The properties of carbon-ceramic material under dry and wet condition was ascertained.
The measured tribological performances shows that there is no much difference between dry
and wet conditions. Braking composites show superior tribological characteristics, including
high coefficient of friction good abrasive resistance and steady breaking. The main wear
mechanism is plastic deformation and abrasion. Under wet condition, frictional films form on
the worn surface. The coefficient of friction could maintain mostly, and the thickness loss
reduces to a certain extent.

Possible problems during manufacture could be in the section where are no robot
required. For example when the cores are inserted. The inappropriate procedure would cause
defects arising inside the disc. Also could cause defect the improper dimensioning which could
lead to thermo-mechanical distortion or cracking.

17
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 <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281768380_Report_of_Analysis_of_a_Ventilated_
Disc_Brake_Rotor_Using_CFD_to_improve_its_thermal_performance>

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