MCT341: Introduction to Autotronics

Lab Report (3)

Tires

Fady Kamil Thabet

20P9581
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. 2

TIRE STRUCTURE .................................................................................................... 3
Tread .................................................................................................................. 3
Belts ................................................................................................................... 3
Carcass ............................................................................................................... 4
Inner liner .......................................................................................................... 4
Sidewall.............................................................................................................. 4
Beads ................................................................................................................. 4
TIRE MANUFACTURING .......................................................................................... 4
TIRE DESIGNATION ................................................................................................. 6
TYPES OF TIRES ...................................................................................................... 9
Summer Tires ..................................................................................................... 9
Winter Tires ....................................................................................................... 9
Mud and Snow Tires .......................................................................................... 9
Run Flat Tires ..................................................................................................... 9
TIRE WEAR PATTERNS .......................................................................................... 10
Patchy Wear ..................................................................................................... 11
One-Sided Wear (Inner or Outside Edge) ......................................................... 11
Center Wear ..................................................................................................... 11
Edge Wear ........................................................................................................ 11
Cupped Tires .................................................................................................... 12
TIRE PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEM (TPMS) .................................................... 12
Indirect TPMS................................................................................................... 12
Direct TPMS ..................................................................................................... 13
REFERENCES......................................................................................................... 16
TIRE STRUCTURE

Figure 1 - Tire Structure

There are more advanced tire structures like airless tires, but in this report, we’ll
focus on the traditional tube tires structure.

Tread
Tread cap is typically made with an abrasion-resistant, higher-grip rubber
compound, which works with the tread base and tread design to provide traction.
(contact with road)

Belts
A belt of several layers of cords of high modulus of elasticity (usually steel or other
high-strength materials) is fitted under the tread. The cords in the belt are laid at a
low crown angle of approximately 20°. The belt is essential to the proper
functioning of the radial-ply tire. Without it, a radial-ply carcass can become
unstable.

Carcass
It is made up of several layers of flexible cords of high modulus of elasticity encased
in a matrix of low modulus rubber compounds, Those cords are largely responsible
for determining the strength of the tire.

Inner liner
The inner liner assures that the tire will hold high-pressure air inside, without an
inner tube, minimizing diffusion through the rubber structure.

Sidewall
In addition to giving the tire its height, the sidewall protects the tire against impacts
with curbs and other objects. The sidewall also contains all the markings which tell
you the important information about the tire, such as speed rating, load rating, and
tire dimensions.

Beads
The beads serve as the ‘‘foundations’’ for the carcass and provide adequate seating
of the tire on the rim.

TIRE MANUFACTURING

Tire manufacturing is the process of producing tires, which are the rubber coverings
used on wheels to provide traction, support the vehicle's weight, and absorb
shocks. The manufacturing process involves several steps, including the preparation
of raw materials, tire building, curing, and final inspection. Here's a general
overview of the tire manufacturing process:
Raw Material Preparation: The main component of tires is rubber, which is derived
from both natural and synthetic sources. Natural rubber is obtained from rubber
trees, while synthetic rubber is made from petroleum-based chemicals. Other
materials, such as carbon black, fabric, steel wire, and various chemicals, are also
prepared.

Tire Building: In this stage, the individual components of the tire are assembled.
The process starts with the inner liner, followed by the chafer (a strip of rubber that
protects the tire's sidewall), fabric layers (ply), steel belts, and bead wires (which
provide the tire's connection to the wheel). These components are placed on a tire-
building machine, and the layers are arranged according to the tire's specific design.

Curing: The green tire, assembled in the previous step, is transferred to a curing
mold where it undergoes vulcanization. Vulcanization involves subjecting the tire to
heat and pressure to chemically bond the rubber and other materials together,
resulting in a solid tire structure. The curing process typically takes place in a large
pressurized chamber called an autoclave or curing press.

Post-Curing and Finishing: After curing, the tire is removed from the mold and
undergoes post-curing processes to stabilize its properties. This includes trimming
excess rubber, inspecting for defects, and applying any required sidewall markings
or branding. The tire may also undergo additional treatments, such as buffing the
tread surface or applying a protective coating.

Final Inspection and Quality Control: Each tire goes through a rigorous quality
control process to ensure it meets the required standards. This includes checking
for defects, measuring dimensions, conducting balance tests, and inspecting the
tread pattern. Tires that pass the inspection are prepared for shipment and
distribution.
It's important to note that tire manufacturing processes may vary between different
manufacturers and tire types, as there are various types of tires designed for
different vehicles and purposes, such as passenger cars, trucks, motorcycles, and
bicycles. Additionally, advancements in technology have led to the development of
specialized manufacturing techniques and materials, improving tire performance,
durability, and environmental sustainability.

TIRE DESIGNATION

Tire designation refers to the various codes and markings that are used to identify
a tire's size, load capacity, speed rating, and other specifications. The most common
tire designation system used in North America is the P-metric system, which
identifies tire size based on its width, aspect ratio, and wheel diameter. Other
designation systems include the LT system for light truck tires and the Euro-metric
system for European vehicles.

Figure 2 - Tire Designation

 Figure 3 - Speed Symbol Table

Figure 4 - Load Carrying Capacity for each Load Index

Figure 5 - Department of Transportation (DOT) Designation
TYPES OF TIRES

Summer Tires
Summer tires, also known as performance tires, are designed for optimal
performance in warm weather conditions. They feature a tread pattern with fewer
sipes (small slits) and a harder rubber compound, which helps to provide excellent
traction on dry and wet roads. The tread design promotes effective water
evacuation, reducing the risk of hydroplaning. Summer tires offer enhanced
cornering stability, responsiveness, and high-speed capabilities, making them
suitable for sporty driving and performance-oriented vehicles.

Winter Tires
Winter tires, also called snow tires, are specifically designed to provide superior
traction and handling in cold weather conditions, including snow, ice, and slush.
They feature a unique tread pattern with deeper and more pronounced sipes, as
well as a softer rubber compound that remains flexible in freezing temperatures.
These design elements enhance grip on slippery surfaces, improve braking
performance, and enhance traction during acceleration. Winter tires are crucial for
safe driving in areas with harsh winter climates.

Mud and Snow Tires

Mud and snow (M+S) tires, also known as all-season tires, are designed to provide
a balance of performance in both dry and wet conditions, as well as light snow. They
feature a tread pattern that combines elements of summer and winter tires, with
moderate siping and a rubber compound that retains flexibility in a wide range of
temperatures. M+S tires offer good traction on wet roads and are suitable for areas
with occasional light snowfall. However, they may not offer the same level of
performance as dedicated summer or winter tires in extreme weather conditions.

Run Flat Tires

Run-flat tires are designed to allow vehicles to continue driving even after a
puncture or loss of tire pressure. These tires feature reinforced sidewalls that can
temporarily support the vehicle's weight without air pressure. Run-flat tires enable
drivers to continue driving at reduced speeds for a limited distance, typically up to
50 miles, allowing them to reach a nearby service station or safely change the tire.
However, it's important to note that run-flat tires typically have a stiffer ride and are
more expensive than conventional tires due to their specialized construction.

TIRE WEAR PATTERNS

The most common tire wear patterns are caused by the one of the following
reasons:
• Bad wheel alignment.
• Bad suspension parts.
• Bad tire pressure (over inflation or under inflation).
We’ll discuss next the common tire wear patterns, as shown in the following figure,
and their respective reasons.

Figure 6 - Tire Wear Patterns

Patchy Wear
If the tread wear looks patchy, you will see dips at various places on the surface. It
only wears away in certain areas, with patches revealing themselves through the
tire. Patchy tires will cause a bouncing sensation while driving. It can also affect the
way the car handles and the traction you experience.
In most cases, balancing the tires, getting a tire rotation, and inspecting the
suspension for worn parts are what’s needed to get it fixed.

One-Sided Wear (Inner or Outside Edge)

Wear on one side of the tire is otherwise referred to as toe or camber wear. If either
the inner or outer part of the edge is wearing faster than the rest of the tire, you
are looking at an alignment issue. Because the car is out of alignment, it’ll usually
pull to one side.
This also could be prevented by getting regular tire alignment.

Center Wear
Center wear is due to over inflation. This is because the area that is in contact with
the road (contact patch) is in the middle of the tire. When the pressure is increased,
this area bulges out into the road more, which increases its wear relative to the rest
of the tire.
This could be prevented by adjusting the wheel’s pressure to the manufacturer’s
recommendation.

Edge Wear
This is the exact opposite of the center wear. Due to under inflation, the contact
patch is protruding less into the road, so the edges wear more.
This could be prevented by adjusting the wheel’s pressure to the manufacturer’s
recommendation.
Cupped Tires
Cupping is a tire wear pattern that looks very different from the others. When a tire
is cupping, it develops scalloped or diagonal wear patterns. These tires can cause
vibration and shaking, leading to a rough ride, even on smooth road surfaces.
Tire cupping occurs when there’s a problem with the suspension system. As parts
fail, other issues can also occur with the suspension, leading to a more dangerous
drive. For this reason, you should never ignore the symptoms of tire cupping.

TIRE PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEM (TPMS)

A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) monitors the air pressure inside the
pneumatic tires on vehicles. A TPMS reports real-time tire-pressure information to
the driver, using either a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure
warning light. TPMS can be divided into two different types – direct (dTPMS) and
indirect (iTPMS).

Indirect TPMS
Indirect TPMS (iTPMS) systems do not use physical pressure sensors; they measure
air pressures using software-based systems, which by evaluating and combining
existing sensor signals such as wheel speeds, accelerometers, and driveline data to
estimate and monitor the tire pressure without physical pressure sensors in the
wheels. First-generation iTPMS systems are based on the principle that under-
inflated tires have a slightly smaller diameter (and hence higher angular velocity)
than a correctly inflated one. These differences are measurable through the wheel
speed sensors of ABS/ESC systems. Second generation iTPMS can also detect
simultaneous under-inflation in up to all four tires using spectrum analysis of
individual wheels, which can be realized in software using advanced signal
processing techniques.
iTPMS systems are sometimes referred to by other names, such as Ford's ‘Deflation
Detection System (DDS)’ or Honda's ‘Deflation Warning System (DWS)’.

iTPMS cannot measure or display absolute pressure values; they are relative by
nature and have to be reset by the driver once the tires are checked and all
pressures adjusted correctly. The reset is normally done either by a physical button
or in a menu of the on-board computer. iTPMS are, compared to dTPMS, more
sensitive to the influences of different tires and external influences like road
surfaces and driving speed or style. The reset procedure, followed by an automatic
learning phase of typically 20 to 60 minutes of driving under which the iTPMS learns
and stores the reference parameters before it becomes fully active, cancels out
many, but not all of these. As iTPMS do not involve any additional hardware, spare
parts, electronic/toxic waste, or service (beyond the regular reset), they are
regarded as easy to handle and customer friendly. As mentioned however, the
sensors must be reset every time changes are done to the tire setup, and some
consumers do not wish to have this added responsibility.

Direct TPMS
Direct TPMS (dTPMS) directly measures tire
pressure using hardware sensors. In each wheel,
most often on the inside of the valve, there is a
battery-driven pressure sensor which transfers
pressure information to a central control unit which
reports it to the vehicle's onboard computer. Some
Figure 7 - Direct TPM sensor units also measure and alert temperatures of the
tire as well These systems can identify under-
inflation for each individual tire. Although the systems vary in transmitting options,
many TPMS products (both OEM and aftermarket) can display realtime, individual
tire pressures whether the vehicle is moving or parked. There are many different
solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile
environments. The majority are powered by batteries which limit their useful life.
Some sensors utilise a wireless power system similar to that used in RFID tag
reading which solves the problem of limited battery life. This also increases the
frequency of data transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight which
can be important in motorsport applications. If the sensors are mounted on the
outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems, they are subject to
mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted on the inside
of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery change and the RF link
must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which increases the energy need.
Because dual wheel assemblies are side by side on each axle hub, a pressure sensor
is connected to each of the two tires, through the two pressure lines shown in the
photo.
A direct TPMS sensor consists of the following main functions requiring only a few
external components — e.g. battery, housing, PCB — to get the sensor module that
is mounted to the valve stem inside the tire:
• pressure sensor.
• analog-digital converter.
• microcontroller.
• system controller.
• oscillator.
• radio frequency transmitter.
• low frequency receiver.
• voltage regulator (battery management).
Most originally fitted dTPMS have the sensor mounted on the inside of the rim and
the batteries are not exchangeable. A discharged battery means that the tire must
be dismounted to replace it, so long battery life is desirable. To save energy and
prolong battery life, many dTPMS sensors do not transmit information when parked
(which eliminates spare tire monitoring) or apply a more power expensive two-way
communication which enables wake-up of the sensor. For OEM auto dTPMS units
to work properly, they need to recognize the sensor positions and must ignore the
signals from other vehicles.

Aftermarket dTPMS units not only transmit while vehicles are moving or parked,
but also provide users with some advanced monitoring options including data
logging, remote monitoring options and more. They are available for all types of
vehicles, from motorcycles to heavy equipment, and can monitor up to 64 tires at
a time, which is important for commercial vehicles. Many aftermarket dTPMS units
do not require specialized tools to program or reset, making them much simpler to
use.
REFERENCES

https://youtu.be/dLwsoM3WnuQ?si=QjDnlMoP7k4kHUkp
https://mechanicbase.com/tires/tire-wear-patterns
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tire-pressure_monitoring_system