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FOUNDATION IN PERMAFROST
ENVIRONMENTS
8.1 DEFINITIONS
The following definitions and terms applicable to permafrost have been used in
this chapter.
Active Layer The top layer of ground above the permafrost table that is
subject to annual freezing and thawing. This is also termed as annual frost
zone that thaws each summer and refreezes each fall.
Afreeze Bond Strength The bond or the adhesive strength that is developed
between the pile surface and the surrounding frozen soil.
589
590 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
Cold Regions Regions where frost penetrates the ground to a depth of about
0.3m or more at least once in 10 years.
Freezeback Time The time required for freezing the artificially thawed
ground or warm soil-slurry backfilled in an annular space around a pile
placed into the augered hole. Freezeback occurs due to natural conduction
from the surrounding permafrost.
Frost Depth The depth below ground surface to which the soil or rock
freezes in winter. This depth depends on the ground temperature during
winter, the soil type through which frost penetrates, and the ground surface
conditions (e.g., depth of snow cover, vegetation, and exposure to sunlight).
Frost Heave It is the upward movement of ground due to the formation and
growth of ice lenses in frost-susceptible soils.
Frost Table The frozen surface to which thawing of the seasonal frozen
ground has occurred at any time in spring and summer. This table is in the
active layer.
Ice-poor Frozen Soils Soils that do not have enough ice content to fill the
pore spaces completely. Normally, these soils have bulk density greater
than 1700 kg/m3 and also exhibit some intergranular contact. Therefore,
interparticle friction can be mobilized in these soils.
Ice-rich Frozen Soils Soils that contain ice in excess to that required to fill
pore spaces. Thus, there is no grain to grain contact in these soils. Bulk
density-including segregated ice-for these soils is typically less than
about 1700 kg/m3.
Latent Heat of Fusion The amount of heat that is required to melt the ice or
freeze the water in a unit volume of soil without changing the temperature.
Permafrost The thermal condition of the ground when the soils or rocks are
permanently frozen or are at temperature below 0°C continuously for over
at least two consecutive winters and the intervening summer. Moisture or
ice may or may not be present in these materials.
Seasonal Frost The freezing phenomena of the soils below ground caused by
subzero surface temperatures. This keeps the earth materials frozen only
during winter months.
Volumetric Heat Capacity The amount of heat that is required to change the
temperature of a unit volume of material by one degree.
Chapter 2 (Section 2.6.2) described various types of piles used in the permafrost
environment, Chapter 3 (Section 3.4.4) provided information on installation
methods for these piles, and Chapter 4 (Section 4.3) covered the mechanical and
deformation (creep) behavior of frozen soils. This chapter discusses the analysis
and design of piles in permafrost environment.
The design of pile foundation in permafrost area is influenced primarily by the
following factors:
1. The type and use of the structure (e.g., if the structure imparts heat to the
underlying permafrost then the depth of active layer-the depth below
which soil is permanently frozen-increases). This causes thawing of frozen
soils, resulting in the decrease of soil strength and the increase of
settlements.
2. Strength and deformation characteristics of foundation soils (e.g., mechan-
ical properties and deformation (creep) behavior of frozen soils are
temperature dependent).Frequently, these soils have high ice content (ice in
excess to that required to fill pore spaces), thus there is no grain to grain
contact. Therefore, these soils exhibit temperature unstable behavior. This
has been discussed in Chapter 4 (Section 4.3) and will be further discussed
in Section 8.2.1.
3. Ground thermal regime (e.g., temperature profile below ground both in
summer and winter). Assessment of ground temperatures should be made
both prior to and after construction during the entire life of the structure
because the behavior of frozen soils is greatly affected by temperatures.
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 593
4. Nature of foundation soils. If these soils are frost susceptible (their pore
space is such that on freezing they encourage the growth of ice lenses if
water is available),then these soils heave due to frost action resulting in the
application of adfreeze forces (upward forces along pile surface in an active
zone due to frost heave) on piles during winter. These soils also exhibit thaw
consolidation (downward movement of ground due to escape of water on
melting ofexcess ice) resulting in the application of downdrag forces on pile.
Section 8.2.2 further discusses frost heave forces, and Section 8.3.3 discus-
ses downdrag forces applied along the pile surface. If foundation soils are
composed of competent material such as ice-free rock, dense glacial till,
non-frost-susceptible soils (clean, well-drained sand or gravel), then pile
foundation design can be carried out in a conventional manner and frozen
conditions can be neglected. On the other hand, if the materials are frost
susceptible and are thaw unstable, then the following design concepts and
procedures should be used.
(a)
Figure 8.1 Behavior of frozen soil under uniaxial creep test at constant temperature. (a)
Typical plots of data from uniaxial compression creep tests conducted at a constant
temperature and confining pressure (Ladanyi, 1972), (b) strain-time relationship in a
constant stress creep test.
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 595
Strain, E
0
-
creep
Steady state
creep
-I
Accelerated
creep
Time, t
represented by plots shown on the lower right-hand corner of this figure. These
curves show that three distinct stages of creep, as shown in Figure 8.lb, can be
observed.
The first stage is called primary creep, which exhibits a continually decreasing
creep rate or slope of the time (t) and strain ( E ) plot. The second stage is called
steady-state creep where the slope is constant and a minimum creep rate is
reached. The third stage is when creep rate continually increases leading to failure
and is termed as tertiary or accelerated creep. The portion of the total curve,
each segment of curve represents, depends on the material and the stress level.
Primary creep dominates at low stress level in low-ice (ice-poor) content frozen
soils, while steady-state creep is exhibited by ice-rich soils under moderate stress
levels. A t high stress levels, accelerated creep occurs leading to specimen failure
after a short period of time.
In Figure 8.la, horizontal lines have been drawn at constant time t i , t, . . . t,.
At any one time, say t,, the stress (a) and the corresponding strain ( E ) have been
plotted on the top side of this figure. These are isochronous (equal time) stress-
strain curves. These plots show that stress-strain plots for frozen soils are time
dependent. Furthermore, if failure is defined by an arbitrary strain, E J , then failure
stress, u,, or the strength for each time can be obtained from Figure 8.la and can
be plotted with time as shown on the lower left-hand section of the figure. This
shows that the strength of frozen soils is time dependent and decreases with time.
Furthermore, similar creep curves can be obtained for varying temperatures and
confining pressures, which establishes that stress-strain and strength behavior of
frozen soil depends on time, temperature of test, soil type, and confining pressure.
The strain-time or the deformation-time behavior of frozen soils results in
596 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
75
94
73
\\
II
II
I
I
creep and strength reduction with time. This phenomena must be considered
when designing foundations on frozen soils. Figure 8.2 exhibits settlement-time
relationships of frozen soils under loaded plates subjected to constant loads q1
through q, where q1 < q2 < q 3 . . . < 4,. For small loads on ice-poor soils that
have some particle to particle contact, the deformation will gradually stop with
time. As shown by curves q1 through q 5 , ice-rich soils may exhibit steady-state
creep under low to medium loads. Heavier loads (q6 and higher) will exhibit
continuing deformations leading finally to failure. Actual values of these loads (q)
producing different creep patterns will depend on soil type, soil temperature, and
confining pressures.
Load-settlement behavior of a loaded plate obtained from settlement-time
data is shown on right side of Figure 8.2. A pseudo-instantaneous load-
settlement curve corresponds with settlement-time curves at t = 0 for various
loads (4).An isochronous load-settlement curve is for same time (e.g., t , used in
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 597
1. The soil must be frost susceptible (i-e.,the physical composition of the soil
should be such that it promotes the migration of surrounding moisture to
the freezing front and result in the formation of ice lenses). Generally silty
soils exhibit this behavior. Chapter 4 (Section 4.3) describes the grain size
criteria established by Casagrande (1932) for such soils.
2. There must be cold temperatures to propagate freezing.
3. There must be a source of water supply to feed the growth of ice lenses.
If all the above three conditions exist, frost heave would result first in 9 percent
volume increase due to freezing of pore water in soil and second due to the
migration of free moisture from below towards the colder surface. When this
water reaches the frost line it freezes, forming ice lenses. As these lenses expand
and grow, the ground surface moves upward resulting in increased heave. Thus,
the largest part of the frost heave occurs due to the formation and the growth of
ice lenses.
Frost-heaving ground can develop heaving forces on foundations in two ways.
The first consists of the development of vertical upward forces acting on the
underside of a foundation or grade beam. The second consists of the mobilization
598 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
of vertical forces along side of pile shaft in the frozen zone and is called adfreeze
force. Foundation design should therefore consider these vertical heaving forces
in the following two ways:
1. Frost heave forces acting on the underside of the foundationsand the grade
beams: Prediction of these heave forces on horizontal surfaces such as
underside of foundations, grade beams supported on ground, or spanning
between two piles and underside pile caps is dificult because the forces
depend on many variables, such as soil type, variation of soil temperature
with depth, availability of water, and overburden pressures. Heave force
pressures of as much as 110 psi (760 kPa) have been calculated by indirect
methods, such as from the estimation of weight of buildings known to have
been lifted by frost heave (Johnston, 1981). Heave pressures as high as 260
psi (1800 kPa) have also been measured on a 12-in. (300mm) diameter
anchored steel plate (Penner, 1970). It is recommended that rather than
designingfor such high potential uplift heave forces, foundations should be
placed well below the depth of seasonal frost penetration (the depth below
ground surface up to which the soil freezes during winter and thaws due to
seasonal temperatures).Similarly, in permafrost areas, foundations should
be placed below the active layer (the depth below ground surface where soil
thaws in summer and refreezes each winter).
2. Adfreeze forces acting upward tangentially on the sides or perimeter of
foundations of piles: Adfreeze forces develop when the foundation unit such
as the pile is pulled upward by the surrounding frozen soil during the
process of heaving. The magnitude of these forces should depend on the
development of peak adfreeze bond strength between the pile surface and
the frozen soil, a phenomena similar to the adhesive forces developed
between pile and the surrounding clay in temperate zones. Adfreeze bond
strengths have been measured in the field in various soil types and their
range varies between 6 to 30psi (40 to 210kPa) (Kiselev, 1974). Also,
according to the measurements made on uncoated steel piles, average
adfreeze bond stresses greater than 40 psi (275 kPa) have been reported
(Crory and Reed, 1965). The magnitude and the factors affecting these
adfreeze bond stresses and hence the adfreeze forces on pile perimeter has
not yet been fully investigated. Average adfreeze bond strength of 1Opsi
(70kPa) for wood and concrete piles and 15 psi (100 kPa) for steel piles have
been suggested by Davison et al. (1981). The magnitude of these upward
adfreeze bond strength is a function of ground temperature, depth below
ground, and ice content in the soil. Also, these values vary during the season
(e.g., peak adfreeze bonds are developed early in the season when heave
rates are high). However, the maximum uplift force along the pile surface
will develop when the length under adfreeze forces is maximum which
would occur when the maximum frost penetration has occurred. Also, it
should be recognized that these adfreeze forces decrease if relaxation of
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 599
F = pt,(c - O.SbT,)
where
F = total upward adfreeze force, kg
p = Pile perimeter in contact with frozen soil, cm
tf = thickness of frozen soil zone, cm
b = experimental parameter = 1.5 to 2.8 psi (10 to 19 kPa)
c = experimental parameter = 6 to 10psi (40 to 70 kPa)
T, = minimum soil temperature in freezing zone, "C
1. For soil temperatures 27°F (-3°C) or higher, the upward adfreeze forces
are 11.4psi (78.5kPa).
2. For soil temperatures below 27°F (- 3°C) the upward adfreeze forces are
8.5 psi (58.8 kPa).
In summary, the magnitude of actual frost heave and adfreeze forces depends
on soil type, moisture content, and permafrost temperatures and should be
measured in the field. In absence of field data, the foregoing values can be used as
a guide.
frozen soil and will be further discussed in Section 8.3. A combination of adfreeze
bond and the end bearing can also be mobilized to carry pile loads in permafrost
areas. When adfreeze bond is utilized to carry loads, piles must be well anchored
in permafrost before the loads are applied.
As discussed in Chapter 3 (Section 3.4.4) the most common method of
installing piles in permafrost areas is to auger a hole about 4 to 8 in. (100 to
200mm) larger in size than the required pile diameter. The pile is then dropped
into the hole, and the annular space between the pile and the surrounding soil is
filled with soil slurry. On freezing, an adfreeze bond is developed between the
slurry and the pile. This would require that the freezeback time, the time required
for the backfilled slurry to freeze in the annular areas surrounding the pile, be
estimated to ensure that adequate adfreeze bond has been mobilized before the
design load can be applied after pile installation.
The main factors that govern the freezeback time are:
The latent heat Q of slurry per meter of pile in joules per meter, depends on the
volume of slurry, the slurry water content w, and the dry density y d , of the slurry. If
it is assumed that the heat is conducted radially away from the pile and the slurry,
the latent heat of slurry is then given by the following expression (Crory, 1963):
The general solution of pile slurry freezeback time t provided by Crory (1963)
602 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
(8.3)
where
t = freezeback time, s
C = volumetric heat capacity of permafrost, J/m3"C
a = thermal diffusivity of permafrost, m2/s
Q = latent heat of slurry per m length of pile, J/m
AT = initial temperature of permafrost, "C below freezing
rz = radius of drilled hole for the pile, m
Example 8.1 A 200-mm (8-in.) diameter (2r,) steel pile was installed in a 300-
mm (12-in.) diameter (2r2) drilled hole. The annular space around the pile is
backfilled with sand slurry having a maximum temperature of 4°C. Estimate the
natural freezeback time without allowing permafrost temperature to exceed
- 1°C.Based on the field investigationsand laboratory tests it was found that the
average permafrost temperature AT is - 2"C, volumetric heat capacity C of sand
slurry is 2.75 x lo6 J/m3"C, the latent heat of slurry &lurry is 155 x lo6J/m3, the
thermal diffusivity of permafrost a is 15 x 10-'m2/s, and heat capacity C of
permafrost is 1.88 x lo6J/m'.
SOLUTION
t=4( Q )1.34
u 9.3CrfAT
r2 = 0.15 m a = 15 x m2/s Q = 6.58 x lo6J/m
C = 1.88 x lo6J/m3 AT = 2°C
6.58 x lo6
t=
= 297,754.5 sec
z 3.5 days
In this section, the allowable axial compression load, capacity, settlement, frost
action in active layers, and permafrost thawing effects on vertical piles in
permafrost are discussed. Permafrost may contain soils that are ice rich. These
soils contain ice in quantities that are significantly more than the volume of water
present in the same soil in the unfrozen state. Because of this, an engineer requires
the knowledge of thermal regime (i.e., the effects of changes in the ground thermal
profile due to seasonal temperature changes and the heat introduced into the
ground from pile foundations). Once the ground thermal aspects have been
established, the response of the frozen ground to the loading has to be assessed.
This section, therefore, first discusses the permafrost area thermal aspects
followed by a brief description of mechanical properties of frozen soils. Finally,
the load carrying capacity of vertical piles to axial loads are presented.
Permafvost Area Thermal Aspects Figure 8.3a exhibits the typical ground
temperature profile responding to the annual cycle of temperature change at the
ground surface. This figure also shows that in winter the ground is completely
frozen as exhibited by temperature profile on the left hand side. During summer,
the ground temperature to a depth, tal,is above O'C, and the ground thaws to this
depth. This layer, which thaws in each summer and then refreezes in winter, is
called the actioe layer. The summer temperature profile below ground in this case
is shown by the broken line in Figure 8.3a.
This thermal regime can be manipulated, for better or worse, by construction
activities. For example, a well-ventilated air space below a structure supported on
piles provides a shaded, cooler area in the summer. Also, this area is relatively
snow free in winter, resulting in lower ground temperatures due to the lack of
insulation from smaller or no snow cover. This results in a lower depth of active
layer and thus improves foundation temperature conditions. O n the other hand,
activities such as right-of-way clearing that could remove the surface cover of
organic layers and expose the surface to summer heat or introduction of heat to
604 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
Surface
temperature
Time
Temperature
- Temp. Tm 0 +
Active layer,td
1
Depth below ground
Applied axial
-.-.-.-.
(b)
Figure 8.3 Ground thermal aspect and typical upward and downward forces on a pile.
(a) Annual ground temperature variation, (b) schematic presentation of forces acting on
pile in permafrost during summer and winter including effects of permafrost degradation.
the ground from pile foundations will deepen the active layer locally. This is
called permafrost degradation. The excess water in this thawed layer would then
dissipate due to consolidation resulting in a downward movement of the soil.
This applies downward pressures, q,,,on the pile similar to the negative skin
friction discussed in Chapter 5 (Section 5.1.12). In winter, when the ground
PILES SUBJECTED TO AXIAL COMPRESSION LOADS 605
refreezes, the near surface soil applies upward adfreeze stresses, T,., along the pile
perimeter. This concept has already been discussed in Section 8.2.2.
Forces Acting on Axially Loaded Pile Figure 8.3b shows a schematic present-
ation of forces acting on a pile that has been subjected to an imposed applied
downward axial load Q,,. The right-hand side of this figure shows that in summer,
the soil used to thaw to a depth of tar,before pile installation. After pile installation
and due to the introduction of heat into the ground from construction activity,
the permafrost has thawed to an additional depth X, causing downdrag stresses
q,,, on pile surface for this thawed depth X. The left-hand side of Figure 8.3b
exhibits the application of upward adfreeze stresses T,., due to frost action or
heave when ground refreezes in winter. Below the depth of new active layer, the
ground remains permanently frozen both in summer and winter months. In this
area the pile is bonded with the surrounding frozen soil by adfreeze bond
strength t,. The adfreeze bond strength, t, is discussed in Section 8.3.1. Thus
a pile foundation subjected to axial downward load Q,, in permafrost must be
designed for the following conditions:
It is important to note that the depth of active layer that may develop during
the service life of a strucure must be estimated based on field probes during site
investigations and past local experience. This depth should be increased by about
2 ft (0.6 m) to account for local variations and increased thaw around pile due to
construction activity and the introduction of heat into the ground from the pile.
bonb strength 7, along pile perimeter in permanently frozen soil. The concept o
adfreeze bond strength is similar to the adhesive strength between pile and the
unfrozen soil. Like adhesive strength, the adfreeze bond strength is directly
related to the roughness of the pile. However, adfreeze bond strength is also
inversely related to soil ice content and the ground temperature. Long-term
adfreeze bond strengths are determined from long-term laboratory and field tests.
Based on these tests it has been proposed that adfreeze bond strength 7, can be
related to the long-term shear strength SI, by the following relationship (Weaver
and Morgenstern, 1981):
T, = mS,, (8.4)
where
SI, = CI, + adan 41,
C,, = long-term cohesion of permafrost
+,, = long-term angle of internal friction of permafrost
Typical values for m are given in Table 8.1 for various pile materials and their
surface features embedded in permafrost. The long-term shear strength SI,of a
+,,
frozen soil is similar to that of unfrozen soil (i.e., it depends both on frictional
and cohesive C,, components. However, since the normal stress on the adfreeze
plane between soil and pile is small (typically 100kPa), and thus long-term
frictional strength is generally insignificant. This term therefore may be neglected
in Equation (8.4)which can then be rewritten in the following form:
T, = mClt
500
400
100
I I I I I
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
Temperature, "C
Figure 8.4 Long-term cohesive strength, C,,, of frozen soils (Weaver and Morgenstern,
1981).
varved clay should be used from Figure 8.4. If the pile is placed in a predrilled hole
and the annular space is backfilled with a soil slurry mixed with the original
excavated soil, the varved structure of the original soil is destroyed and C,,for ice-
rich silt should be used from Figure 8.4. Furthermore, if this steel pile was
installed in winter by slurry method, a thin layer of ice will coat the surface of pile
due to moisture migration to the pile surface. In this situation, C,,for ice should be
used from Figure 8.4 (Weaver and Morgenstern, 1981).
The ultimate capacity of piles in permafrost can therefore be assessed by
consideration of adfreeze strength along the pile shaft. The contribution of end
bearing in most situations is small and can be neglected, which is on the safe side.
End bearing should only be considered when a dense, non-frost-susceptible ice-
free stratum is encountered below the pile (Davison et al., 1981; Weaver and
Morgenstern, 1981). The ultimate pile load capacity (Qv)ull can, therefore, be
determined from the following relationship:
608 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
where
R = pile radius
L = pile embedment length in permafrost below the active layer
T,(z)= the adfreeze bond strength of the frozen soil layer for the maximum
expected temperature along the depth
Parmeswaran (1981) and Frederking and Kerri (1983) also discuss the effect of
temperature on adfreeze strength of frozen soils. Allowable pile load capacity
(QJal1can then be calculated by using a safety factor of 2. After, (QJaa has been
estimated based on adfreeze bond strength, a design based on time-dependent
settlement (creep) has to be carried out to ensure that pile displacements under
structural load are tolerable.
Friction Piles in Zce-Rich Frozen Soils Consider the problem of a pile in frozen
ground (Figure 8.5). The following simplifyingassumptions are made to solve for
settlement of a pile:
Qua
To =- (8.7)
2nRL
where
Qua = axial downward load on pile = friction capacity = Q f
R = pile radius
L = the embedded pile length in permafrost
PILES SUBJECTED TO AXIAL COMPRESSION LOADS 609
Qua
Thawed
Frozen
J
fa J
It?
Lr=a
m--------Displacement
/
=u
------ ------_______.
Shear distorsion = y
Figure 8 5 Shear stresses and strains around pile in frozen soil (Nixon and McRoberts,
1976).
For a weightless soil, the applied shear stress tnat r = a is related to the shear
stress t at any other radius r( > R) by the following expression (Figure 8.5):
Johnston and Ladanyi (1972) analyze the problem for a frozen soil subjected to
simple shear under plane strain conditions and show that the flow law for a
general state can be written as follows:
where
3 = shear strain rate induced in frozen ground around a pile due to shear
stress T
610 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
n and B = constants obtained from a series of creep tests carried out on frozen
soil at a constant temperature (Table 8.2)
z=induced shear stress in frozen soil due to applied load Q,, on a
cylindrical pile in frozen ground
For the problem of a vertically loaded pile in frozen soil, the strain around the
pile in the tangential 8 direction is zero. Therefore, each element of the frozen
soil deforms under plain strain conditions (Nixon and McRoberts, 1976).
Equation (8.9) obtained for plain strain conditions can therefore be applied for
this problem. This is done by substituting equation (8.8)into equation 8.9, which
yields following equation:
(8.10)
The shear strain y can be related to displacement, as shown in Figure 8.5, and is
given by following expression:
du
y= -- (8.11)
dr
where
u = displacement at any radius r.
Similarly, shear strain rate 3 will be:
dli
y = -- (8.12)
dr
(8.13a)
PILES SUBJECTED TO AXIAL COMPRESSION LOADS 611
(8.13b)
This relationship gives the settlement rate ti(mm/yr) for ice and ice-rich frozen
soils. The load-carrying capacity Q, of a friction pile can then be obtained as
follows by combining equations (8.7) and (8.13b):
All the terms of this equation have 'been defined earlier. For a known
temperature, values of n and B have been taken from Table 8.2 and the
deformation rate ti/R and q, have been plotted for different temperatures in
Figure 8.6.
From this figure, for an acceptable deformation rate ti/R and at a known
ground temperature, the average allowable shaft stress T,,, and hence the load-
carrying capacity Q, of pile shaft, embedded in ice-rich soils, can be determined.
Friction Piles in Ice-Poor Frozen Soils Unlike ice-rich soils whose time-
dependent load settlement is governed by steady-state secondary creep, the
behavior of ice-poor soils is governed by primary creep. in Section 8.2.1 this creep
behavior of frozen soils was discussed. Ladanyi (1972) utilized the Mohr-
Coulomb failure theory to model the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the steady-
state (secondarycreep) rates. This approach may be extended to nonsteady creep
rates. Based on this, the primary creep for ice-poor soils can be expressed by
following relationship (Weaver and Morgenstern, 1981):
(8.15)
where
om= mean normal pressure (kP,) E
@l+ 62 + fJ3)
3
l C
D= ,[ + 1)*1
t = time elapsed after the application of load, h
8 = temperature below freezing point of water, 0°C
612 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
lo3
10' 1o2
Average applied shaft stress,
2 , kPa
Figure 8.6 Design chart for friction piles in ice or ice-rich soils (Weaver and Morgen-
stern, 1981).
deformation uR, the following expression has been suggested by Weaver and
Morgenstern (1981) for creep rate in ice-poor frozen soils:
(8.16)
Creep Settlement in Saline Permafrost Creep settlement data presented are for
permafrost soils in fresh water. However, in coastal areas, both fine and coarse
grained soils can be expected to contain some salt in pore water. Based on creep
test on saline frozen fine-grained soils, Nixon and Lem (1984) reported that there
is 10- to 100-fold increase in uniaxial creep rates when compared to freshwater
frozen soil tests. These results suggest that there will be an increase in
displacements as soil salinity increases. Nixon and Neukirchner (1984) applied
the results of creep tests on piles in saline frozen soils and produced a chart similar
to Figure 8.6 for pile displacement rates and the shaft stresses in saline soils as
614 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FILE FOUNDATION
I"'
UR (h-0.333 1
Normalized pile displacementRT3
N
c
O
w
O
w
0
.
c
k
c
e
-.\
Figure &7 Design charts for friction piles in ice-poor soils (a) Sflieid Clay (yI =
1.76 high3), (b) Hanovtr soil (y, = 1.78 Mdrn’), (c) Ottawa sand (yJ = 2.00 Mg/m’).
(Weaver and Morgeastern, 1981).
PILES SUBJECTED TO AXIAL COMPRESSION LOADS 615
Figure 8.8 Prediction of creep settlement for fresh water and saline ice-rich soils (Nixon
and Neukirchner, 1984).
shown in Figure 8.8. Curves both for fresh water and saline water are shown on
this figure. This figure clearly shows that creep displacements of vertically loaded
piles in saline water are higher than for equivalent fresh water soils and can be
used for design purposes.
Example 8.2 A 2Wmm (8 in.) diameter steel pipe pile was driven 16 m in ice-
rich silty soil. The life of the structure that is supported on this pile foundation is
20 years, and the maximum tolerable settlement throughout its life is 0.04m.
It is predicted that the maximum active layer will be 2.0m thick, and the
warmest ground temperature profile is expected to vary linearly from 0°C at
2 m depth to -5°C at 16m depth. The downdrag on the pile due to permafrost
degradation is neglected and frozen soils are in fresh water.
(a) Calculate the allowable axial load on pile.
(b) Calculate the allowable pile load if this pile is placed in augered hole filled
with sand slurry. The soil conditions consist of 10 m of ice-rich silt over ice-
poor sand.
616 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
Temperature, "C
t
Depth
Figure 8.9 Soil profile and ground temperature profile (for Example 8.2).
SOLUTION
Based on permafrost colder than - 1°C and from Figure 8.9, the effective pile
embedment depth L = 11.25 m. The average temperature over this depth is
- 3°C.
(i) Pile Capacity based on Adfreeze Strength
From Table 8.1, m = 0.6 for steel pile
From Figure 8.4, for ice-rich silt at - 3°C
Then, from equation (8.6), the ultimate pile capacity (Qu)ull is as follows:
(QJul1= 2~(0.1)(11.25)(135)
= 954.26 kN
0.04
Allowable pile settlement rate = -= 0.002 m/yr
20
ii 0.002 - 0.02/yr
-=--
R 0.1
t = 70 kPa
(Qvlult= 2n(0.1)(11.25)(70)= 494.8 kN
From (i) and (ii) the allowable pile load will be governed by settlement
consideration.
(b) As in (a), L = 11.25 m, and the average temperature for this depth is - 3°C.
(i) Pile Capacity Based on Adfreeze Strength
From Table 8.1, m = 0.6
Now, in this case, the adfreeze strength will be applicable between pile and
frozen sand slurry interface. Therefore, from Figure 8.4, long-term
cohesion for ice-poor sand at - 3°C will be:
From Table 8.3 for ice-poor soil, the following are creep parameters:
c = 1.32,b = 0.263,w = 21.0MP,hb”/”Ck,k = 1.0,then:
--U 0.04
= 0.016h-0*263
Rt0*263- 0.1(20 x 365 x 24)0.263
where
Davison et al. (1981)also recommended this approach for estimating the depth of
permafrost thawing (X).
The downward pressures ‘5th can then be calculated by using the concepts of
earth pressures at rest within the zone X as follows:
D = ( K Otan &y'-)n(2R)
XZ
(8.20)
2
D = 0.3nRyfXZ (8.21)
Q = Lateral
‘O7-
Height of I
I7
application
I1
Ground surface
Initial
location
of pile
- !- ‘I Rotated
location
of pile
BL
I
I
n Center of
rotation
I
I
Lateral
I.
4
L
pressure 2R
distribution
along pile
Figure 8.10 Configuration of a laterally loaded free-headed rigid pile (Nixon, 1984).
at the ground surface is u,, then displacement rate (ti = au/dt) at any depth can
be given as follows:
The creep rate t i for a laterally loaded cylindrical tube or strip loaded area can be
presented by the following expression (Nixon, 1978):
ti = IRB(Ap)” (8.23)
PILES SUBJECTED TO LATERAL LOADS 621
where
I = the influence factor and is equal to [(2/n)”($/2)”+’] (Ladanyi, 1975)
n and B = creep parameters (Table8.2)
Ap = horizontal stress on the loaded area
R = pile radius or half width of loaded area
From equations (8.22) and (8.23), an expression for Ap can be obtained as follows:
(8.24)
The two unknowns do and can be obtained by solving the following two
equations obtained from horizontal force and moment equilibrium, respectively:
(8.25)
2R fHHtdL APXdx - 2R
H+L
Apx dx = 0 (8.26)
(8.27)
(b)
Figure 8.1 1 Lateral load and displacement rates for rigid free-headed piles (Nixon, 1984).
(a) Solution for lateral load versus displacement rate for free-headed rigid pile for n = 3, (b)
design curves for creep data on ice and a specified lateral displacement rate.
PILES SUBJECTED TO LATERAL LOADS 623
.v . ... - ,"-.
" ,"
"Steady" creep
- creep
Zone of decreasing
rates due
rate for flexible
pile I 0.233 rn/year.* .
to bendin of
flexible pi): and
- stress read'ustmenl
along pile skan
-
mi V I I I
Charted soiution
' for short rigid pile J-
t
I
io = l o i m ( 9 1 2 ~ ~ 1t 0.24
i-
3 . m/year
I
-40I-45
t
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 50
Time, days
Figure 8.12 Comparison of solutions for flexible piles and short piles (Nixon, 1984).
Example 8.3 A 250-mm (10 in.) diameter 6 m (19.7 ft) long steel pile is embedded
in ice-rich silty frozen soil which is at - 3°C. Calculate the allowable lateral load
Q that can be applied at 1.8m (5.9ft) above ground. The allowable lateral
deformation over 20 year period at ground surface is 50 mm (2 inch).
H = 1.8 m
HIL = 1.816 = 0.3
50
ti, = -
20
= 2.5 mm/year
do 2.5
- = -= O.O2/year
R 125
From Figure 8.1 lb, for do/R = 0.02/year, HJL = 0.3 and at - 3"C, we get the
following:
624 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
-- -43kPa
2RL
Q = 43 x 2 x 0.125 x 6 = 64.5 kN = 14.5 kips
a4u
E I 7 = - 2RAp (8.28)
ax
where
E l = pile material flexibility
Ap = (d/IRB)’’” as given by equation (8.23)
li = aulat
x = depth
t = time
The boundary conditions at the top and base of embedded pile for bending
moment M and the horizontal shear load Q are as follows:
azu
M=-EI-=QH atx=O (8.29)
ax2
a3u
Shear=EI---=Q at x = O (8.30)
ax3
a2u
M=-El-=O atx-L (8.31)
ax2
a3u
Shear=EI---=O at x = L (8.32)
ax3
higher apparent creep rates for flexible piles can be anticipated for a significant
time period due to the flexibility of the pile and stress readjustment along the pile
shaft. This means that the time to achieve a near-steady pile creep velocity can be
greatly reduced if a more rigid pile is used. Field lateral load pile tests and further
analysis based on above formulation are required before design curves relating
the pile rigidity to the creep properties of surrounding soils for a given applied
lateral load and tolerable deformation can be established for design.
The foregoing analysis and design methods are based on limited field tests and
therefore need further pile load tests in the field to verify and improve the
theoretical treatment of the piles subjected to lateral loads in frozen soils. These
methods can, however, be used for estimating allowable lateral load on pile and
then the estimated load should be confirmed by field tests. When field tests are not
practical following limiting guidelines may be used:
1. For short-term loadings, such as construction, wind and seismic loads for
piles greater than or equal to 300mm (12in.) diameter and embedment
length greater than or equal to 6 m (20ft) the maximum allowable lateral
loads should be limited to the following:
(a) Steel pile: Maximum allowable lateral load = 77 kN (17.3 kips)
(b) Timber pile: Maximum allowable lateral load = 58 kN (13kips)
These recommendations are based on full-scale pile load tests carried out
on 300mm (12in.) diameter steel piles (Rowley et al., 1973, 1975).
2. For sustained long-term loads such as seasonal temperature loads that may
last for 6 months and for pipeline anchor forces, the allowable lateral loads
should not exceed 6 kips (Davison et al., 1981).
For pile design in permafrost area, the following steps are recommended:
Step I1 Since settlement and strength properties of warm frozen soils (tempera-
-
ture greater than l°C) are still poorly defined, the following three design
alternatives are used for such cases:
(a) If permafrost is thaw stable, carry out the design as if the soils are unfrozen.
This case applies to clean coarse-grained frozen soils.
(b) If permafrost is thaw unstable, then prethaw and compact these soils.
(c) Lower the permafrost temperature by using artificial rqfrigeration as
discussed in Chapter 2 (Section 2.6.2) and Chapter 3 (Section 3.4.4). Pile
626 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN O F PILE FOUNDATION
design is then identical to that for cold permafrost (temperature less than
- 1°C discussed as follows.
Step 111 If the ground temperature is colder than - 1"C, then the following
procedure is recommended:
(a) Determine the soil profile at the site and obtain highest measured
permafrost temperature. This can either be based on past experience or
records or thermocouple measurements for the project. Based on this,
determine the depth of permafrost table.
(b) Based on the nature of structure determine if permafrost thawing is likely
to occur. If there is a possibility of permafrost thawing, use equations (8.18)
and (8.21) to estimate the total downdrag force.
x = Ct&)O'5 (8.18)
D = 0.3aRy'X2 (8.21)
T, = mC,$ (8.5)
Use a proper factor of safety, say 2, to obtain (QJne. Then equate (QJnIl
with the following:
Design a pile to carry a maximum sustained vertical load of 200kN (44.8 kips)
when the maximum allowable pile settlement is 50 mm (2 in.) throughout the 20-
year life of the structure. Available materials at the site are timber (spruce)with an
allowable strength of 5000 kN/mZ(104.5 kips/ftz) and steel pipe and H pile with
an allowable strength of 62,OOOkN/m2 (1295 kips/ft2).
SOLUTION
R
or 200 = - (2R)' x 5000
4
628 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATION
200x4
.*.(2R)*= nx5000
Then use a 350-mm diameter predrilled hole and place the 225-mm
diameter pile surrounded by slurry and then allowed to freeze back.
2. Estimate downdrag force due to permafrost thawing or degradation. From
equation (8.18): X = C , , , ( C ) ~ * ~ .
X = 0.9(20)O*' = 4 m
when
Ctk= 0.9 (see Section 8.3.3)
t = 20 years
D = 0.3nRy'X' (8.21)
D = 0.3n( y ) ( 5 . 9 ) ( 4 ) 2 = 10.0kN
where
y = 1.6Mg/m3 = 15.7kN/m3 (1001b/ft3)
y' = y - yw = 5.9 kN/m3 (37.5lb/ft3)
If
L=20m
R = 0.225/2 m
T,= 0.7 x 150 = 105kPa (equation (8.5), Figure 8.4, and Table 8.1)
(Q& = 1484kN (Q& = 742 kN with FS = 2
OVERVIEW 629
If
L = 15m (QJU1, = 1113 kN (QJall = 556.5 kN
If
L = 10m (QJul, = 742kN (Q,,).,, = 371 kN
+
Sustained structure load downdrag force = 200 + 10 = 210 kN. From
above for L = 10m, (QJae = 371 kN > 210 kN. Therefore use a pile embed-
ment length of 10m. Total pile length = embedment + active layer + deg-
+ +
radation depth. Total pile length = 10 2 4 = 16m (53ft).
4. Embedment length based on settlement criteria. From equation (8.14):
Q j = K x 0.225 x 10 (200.050.2252
x
x )'I3( $)'I3(
2x
1 )'I3 = 474 kN
8.7 OVERVIEW
expected during its service life. The ultimate pile load capacity can then be
calculated by using equation (8.6), Figure 8.4, and Table 8.1.
2. The load required to maintain the settlement within tolerable limits over
the life of a structure can be estimated by considering a friction pile
subjected to simple shear under plain strain conditions. Equation (8.14) for
ice-rich soils and equation (8.17) for ice-poor soils can be used to estimate
this load. These equations require the use of experimentally determined
creep parameters. Although a large database on these creep parameters has
been collected, further site-specific data supported by long-term field pile
load tests should be encouraged to gather more information on soil-pile
creep behavior. Some information on creep settlement on saline permafrost
is also available. Additional work is required in this area.
The allowable pile load capacity can then be calculated by dividing the lower
value obtained from (1) or (2) above with a safety factor of 2. Analysis shows that
for ice-rich frozen soils, load capacity calculated from tolerable settlement criteria
governs while for ice-poor soils, the load capacity is generally governed by
adfreeze bond strength.
Allowable lateral load capacity of a short free-headed vertical pile can be
estimated from equation (8.27) and Figure 8.11. Nixon (1984) also gives a
formulation for a long elastic laterally loaded pile, which can be solved by a
computer program. These design methods are based on limited pile load tests.
Further long-term pile load tests are required to provide more confidencein these
design methods. In the meantime, design recommendations provided in Sect-
ion 8.4 for estimating capacity of laterally loaded piles can be used.
REFERENCES
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Johnston, G. H. (ed.), Permafrost Engineering Design and Construction. Wiley, 1981.
Johnston, G. H. and Ladanyi, B. “Field Tests of Grouted Rod Anchors in Permafrost,”
Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 9, No. 2, 1972, pp. 176-194.
Kersten, M.S. Thermal Properties of Soils, University of Minnesota, Engineering
Experiment Station Bulletin 28, 1949, p. 227.
Kiselev, M. F. “Standard Values of Specific Tangential Forces of Frost Heaving of Soils,”
J . Soil Mech. Found. Eng. (U.S.S.R), No. 3,1974, pp.41-43 (Translated by Consultants
Bureau, New York).
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NO.1, 1972, pp. 63-80.
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Permafrost,” Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 13, No. 1, 1976, pp.40-57.
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Saline Permafrost,” Proceedings, 2nd International Conference on Cold Regions
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NO.1, 1981, pp.8-16.
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pp. 8-16.
Robinsky, E. I., and Bespflug, K. E. “Design of Insulated Foundations,” J . Soil. Mech.
Found. Diu., ASCE, Vol. 99, No. SM9, 1973, pp. 649-667.
Rowley, R. K., Watson, G. H.. and Ladanyi, B. “Vertical and Lateral Pile Load Tests in
Permafrost,” Proceedings 2nd International Conference on Permafrost, Yakutsk,
U.S.S.R., North American Contribution, U.S.National Academy of Sciences, 1973,
pp. 712-721.
Rowley, R. K., Watson, G. H. and Ladanyi, B. “Prediction of Pile Performance in
Permafrost Under Lateral Load,” Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 12, No. 4, 1975, pp. 510-523.
REFERENCES 633