metals

Review
Comprehensive Analysis on the Performance and
Material of Automobile Brake Discs
Wanyang Li, Xuefeng Yang *, Shouren Wang, Jupeng Xiao and Qimin Hou
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, China; maidiyang123@163.com (W.L.);
me_wangsr@ujn.edu.cn (S.W.); xiaojupeng1113@163.com (J.X.); houqimin0313@163.com (Q.H.)
* Correspondence: me_yangxf@ujn.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-130-7536-2913




Received: 20 February 2020; Accepted: 13 March 2020; Published: 15 March 2020


Abstract: This article reviews the current status of automotive brake disc research and the prospects
for future research. At present, the research of brake disc performance mainly includes thermal
conductivity, thermal fatigue resistance, wear resistance, and brake noise. It is found that a new alloy
composite, heat treatment process, ceramic composite, new structure, and new materials are emerging.
At the same time, it was found that ceramic and resin were used as the matrix, fiber materials
were used as reinforcements to prepare brake discs, the addition of new fillers and the study of
special reinforcement materials have become new hotspots in the study of brake discs. In the future
development, carbon-fiber ceramic brake discs may become the main research focus of brake discs.

Keywords: alloy material; composite material; fiber materials; reinforcing material; brake disc

1. Automotive Brake Analysis

1.1. Analysis of External Conditions of Automobile Braking

Braking is quite a complicated process, and it is often affected and constrained by a variety
of environmental conditions. By analyzing the braking process of the car, it can be found that the
overall process can be divided into two major stages. The first phase is the reaction phase before the
driver makes a braking decision. Additionally, the distance generated within the reaction time is the
“reaction distance”. The second stage is from the beginning of braking until the car completely stopped.
Additionally, the distance generated within the braking time is the “braking distance”. In general,
people’s braking response time is between 0.3 and 1.0 s. The main factor affecting automobile braking
is the road adhesion coefficient. The exact analysis is shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Influence of different adhesion coefficients on brake distance.

Speed /(km·h−1 )
150 120 90
Adhesion Coefficient
1.0 151.08 106.69 69.39
0.7 189.02 130.99 83.06
Growth rate (%) 25 23 20

It can be seen that the smaller adhesion coefficient contributes to the longer braking distance,
the longer corresponding braking time, and the higher probability of a brake safety accident. At the
same time, the load of the car will affect braking. The car brake discs must have excellent braking
performance to meet the car’s braking needs under different road conditions.
Different friction conditions also have important effects on the friction and wear behavior of brake
discs. Experimental studies have been performed on the slippage of three types of brakes on iron

Metals 2020, 10, 377; doi:10.3390/met10030377 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2020, 10, 377 2 of 18

discs. They are named low-metal (LM) brake discs, semi-metal (SM) brake discs, and non-asbestos
organic (NAO) brake discs. It studied the average friction coefficients of SM, LM, and NAO brake discs
under friction steady state. The study found that as the contact pressure and sliding speed increase,
the friction coefficient and specific wear rate would decrease [1].
At present, disc brakes are used in automobiles and drum brakes are used in heavy vehicles.
With the requirements of new technical performance, the application of disc brakes in large cars will
gradually be promoted.

Table 2. The relation between braking distance adhesion coefficient and driving speed.
Speed/(km·h–1 )
The Road 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Adhesion Coefficient
Icy roads, clay wasteland 0.2–0.3 2 7.9 17.7 31.5 49.2 70.8 96.4
Wet asphalt and concrete 0.3–0.4 1 3.9 8.8 15.7 24.6 35.4 48.2
Dry gravel road 0.6–0.7 0.7 2.6 5.9 10.5 16.4 23.6 32.1
Dry asphalt or concrete 0.7–0.8 0.6 2.2 5 9 14 20.2 27.5

1.2. Working Analysis of Brake Discs

In the automobile transmission system, attached to the brake discs, the wheel hubs rotate with it.
The automobile braking mainly relies on the friction between brake pads and brake discs. The kinetic
energy of the high-speed rotating wheels is converted into a large amount of thermal energy through
the braking system, which puts forward requirements on the heat dissipation and thermal conductivity
of the brake discs. During the braking process, the heavy load on the brake discs and the severe friction
between the brake discs and brake pads require the discs to resist fatigue cracks and deformation,
improve the wear resistance of the material surface, and reduce brake noise.
In the process of friction braking, the friction system generates a boundary film on the friction
interface, which is different from the two matrix materials. Additionally, its composition and structure
are complex and diverse [2]. It will become an important influencing factor of automobile braking.
There is a reliability problem during the life cycle of the brake discs. The use of automobile
brakes will inevitably lead to the reduction of their reliability. Studies have demonstrated that there are
many optimization methods and analysis methods for brake disc reliability. An analytical model was
established to describe the brake disc by using random parameters and random process analysis [3].

2. Brake Disc Performance Analysis

Cast iron is a common material for automobile brake discs. Many researchers have pointed out
that vermicular graphite cast iron has relatively good friction and wear performances. Additionally,
it is used as the base materials for brake discs in most automobiles.
Gray cast iron has vibration damping, abrasion resistance, thermal fatigue resistance, compactness,
and other performance properties. The above features, a variety of superior properties, and cheap
prices make gray cast iron the first choice of today’s foundry industry.
The quantity, shape, length, and distribution of graphite in gray cast iron have a significant effect
on the mechanical properties of cast iron. Graphite in gray cast iron has a variety of distribution shapes.
According to the graphite distribution shape, there are six types, A, B, C, D, E, and F.
A-type (straight flake) graphite is a uniformly distributed graphite structure formed by
hypoeutectic gray iron when the eutectic property is high and the degree of subcooling is small.
It has less of an effect on the cleavage of metal. The pearlite content in cast iron with A-type graphite
is high, so both strength and wear resistance are good. B-type (rose-like) graphite often appears in
gray iron with high eutectic property and a high degree of subcooling. Due to the large degree of
undercooling, the fine graphite eutectics that are initially formed grow faster and are distributed
radially. The growth of graphite is slow and strip-shaped because of the release of the latent heat of
crystallization, and finally, the three-dimensional shape of graphite is similar to a rose. The graphite
in the core part is fine and dense. At the same time, ferrite is produced, which is detrimental to
Metals 2020, 10, 377 3 of 18

the properties of cast iron. Small amounts of B-type graphite are usually allowed. C-type (coarse
slab or block) graphite is typical graphite of hypereutectic gray iron. Since the graphite is produced
in the liquid state and has a considerable thickness, they are often connected or are very close to
each other, and the surrounding is often ferrite, so the performance of cast iron is greatly reduced.
Consider that gray cast iron is mostly hypoeutectic, C-type graphite is not allowed in any grade of
gray iron (except for piston rings and some brake drum discs). D-type (dendritic point) graphite
mostly appears in cast iron structures with low eutectic property or high undercooling. The reason
is that the supercooling degree of molten iron is large, thus it is also called supercooled graphite.
Undercooled graphite is often accompanied by undercooled ferrite, which is unevenly distributed
in the form of dendritic points. Thus, it is not good for cast iron performance. E-type (dendritic)
graphite is also an undercooled graphite. It is formed when the degree of subcooling is greater than
that of D-type graphite. Therefore, its distribution is more uneven. The directionality is more obvious
and the performance of cast iron is also more disadvantageous. F-type (star) graphite is the product
of hypereutectic cast iron under extreme subcooling. Its abrasion resistance is good and it is also
accompanied by a high-diffusion full pearlite matrix. Among them, primary graphite is C-type and
F-type graphite, which is precipitated under the hypereutectic composition. Hypoeutectic cast iron
has A, B, D, and E type graphite. Among them, A-type is evenly distributed and nondirectional.
It improves the uniformity, stability, and strength utilization of cast iron.
Research on the wear of cast iron, under different temperatures and different load pressures,
it was found that as the wear load increases, the change in the wear rate increases slowly, then rapidly,
and finally flattens. The average friction coefficient decreases rapidly and then flattens out.
Sugishita et al. [4] believed that the formation condition of the surface graphite film affected the friction
and wear behavior of cast iron. Additionally, they studied the formation of graphite film during the
wear process of gray cast iron by pin-disk friction and wear tester. Eyre et al. [5] found that 90% of the
wear scar area was covered by a red or black film even under slight wear in the wear of flaky gray cast
iron and ductile iron. The black film has good adhesion. The red film is not only easy to be powdered
but also easy to peel off. Montgomery et al. [6] thought that these surface coatings were mainly
derived from graphite in the cast-iron structure. However, some were also derived from iron oxides
(Fe3 O4 ). Terheci [7] conducted a more in-depth study on the wear mechanism of cast iron materials
and proposed a physical model of cast iron wear. Based on the noise characteristics of friction-wear
performance and friction process. The friction and wear of cast iron are proposed to be controlled by
the formation of abrasive particles, detached from the friction replica and captured by the friction
surface again by using a pin-disk experiment device. The model is shown in Figure 1. Referring to the
peeling mechanism shown in Figure 1a. Due to fatigue, the shearing effects of friction between friction
pairs, etc. will appear on the friction surface. During the friction process, the abrasive particles may be
recaptured by the friction surface by the two mechanisms shown in Figure 1b. Abrasive particles can
cause a significant increase in friction, either during spalling or during recapture.
 Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

between friction pairs, etc. will appear on the friction surface. During the friction process, the abrasive
particles may be recaptured by the friction surface by the two mechanisms shown in Figure 1b.
Abrasive particles can cause a significant increase in friction, either during spalling or during
Metals 2020, 10, 377 4 of 18
recapture.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of particle removal and entrapment. (a) Particle removal. (b) Two ways
ofFigure
particle entrapment.
1. Schematic diagram of particle removal and entrapment. (a) Particle removal. (b) Two ways
of particle entrapment.
2.1. Thermal and Thermal Analysis
2.1. In
Thermal and Thermal
the process Analysis
of friction between brake discs and brake pads, for the thermal conductivity of the
brake discs is higher than that of the brake pads, most of the heat is transferred to the brake discs during
In the process of friction between brake discs and brake pads, for the thermal conductivity of
the friction process. It accounts for approximately 60–70% of the total heat. The heat accumulated
the brake discs is higher than that of the brake pads, most of the heat is transferred to the brake discs
on the brake discs must be transferred and dissipated. Otherwise, overheating will lead to thermal
during the friction process. It accounts for approximately 60–70% of the total heat. The heat
fatigue failure to the brake discs.
accumulated on the brake discs must be transferred and dissipated. Otherwise, overheating will lead
There are many thermodynamic problems between the friction pairs of the braking system.
to thermal fatigue failure to the brake discs.
Majcherczak [8] measured the heat generation and distribution process under transient conditions by
There are many thermodynamic problems between the friction pairs of the braking system.
using micro and macro methods. It is different from the case where the contact surface temperature
Majcherczak [8] measured the heat generation and distribution process under transient conditions
is assumed to be equal in the classical models. They introduced a third body layer with a constant
by using micro and macro methods. It is different from the case where the contact surface
heat generation rate between the friction pairs. In addition, they used this model to study the heat
temperature is assumed to be equal in the classical models. They introduced a third body layer with
distribution between the friction pairs. Then they compared the results with the results of the classic
a constant heat generation rate between the friction pairs. In addition, they used this model to study
model. Aleksandrov and Nosko [9] described the relationship about the brake discs thermal resistance,
the heat distribution between the friction pairs. Then they compared the results with the results of
different parameters of friction materials, and temperature distribution. In the study, they found that
the classic model. Aleksandrov and Nosko [9] described the relationship about the brake discs
the average
thermal temperature
resistance, of the
different brake discofand
parameters the brake
friction pad isand
materials, different. Additionally,
temperature they In
distribution. used
the
astudy,
finite element model to simulate the influence of the thermal resistance of the
they found that the average temperature of the brake disc and the brake pad is different.friction material of
the brake disc they
Additionally, and the
usedpad on the
a finite heat distribution.
element Benseddiq
model to simulate et al. [10]ofused
the influence a two-dimensional
the thermal resistance of
finite
the friction material of the brake disc and the pad on the heat distribution. Benseddiq etof
element thermodynamic model to predict the wear and temperature distribution al.the brake
[10] used
disc and pad surfaces. Based on this, they discussed the different performances
a two-dimensional finite element thermodynamic model to predict the wear and temperature of friction and wear
performance
distribution of ofbrake discs with
the brake discdifferent
and pad structural
surfaces.designs.
Based on this, they discussed the different
performances of friction and wear performance of brake discsheat
There are three ways of heat loss: heat conduction, withradiation, and heatdesigns.
different structural convection.
Among them, heat conduction and heat convection became typical analysis directions for heat
loss. Heat conduction is the main form of heat transfer in brake discs. The main aspect of the effect
of heat conduction on the mechanical properties in brake discs is the superposition of thermal and
mechanical stress. It has requirements on the thickness of the brake discs, the thermal conductivity
of the materials, the connection results, and the air duct structures between the brake discs braking
Metals 2020, 10, 377 5 of 18

surface and the disc caps. For thermal convection, if the convective motion of the fluid is caused by an
external force. It is called forced thermal convection. If the convective motion of the fluid is caused by
the uneven density for temperature difference. It is called natural thermal convection. Each plane of
the brake discs’ surfaces have a thermal convection effect with the outside. For the interior of the air
duct, changing the internal structure of the air duct can achieve the purpose of increasing turbulence,
increasing the flow velocity and flow, and expanding the area of thermal convection. Thus, it can
increase the heat transferred by thermal convection. For friction surfaces, if you want to increase the
surface area of thermal convection, you can make grooves and holes. Additionally, if you want to
increase the thermal convection coefficient, you can increase the brake discs’ rotation speed, increase
the turbulence intensity by scribing.
Based on the excellent thermal conductivity and heat dispersion of cast iron materials [11], it is
widely used as the base material of automobile brake discs. Graphite plays an important role in
improving the thermal conductivity of brake discs and the thermal diffusion coefficient of materials
in cast iron. Differences in the constituent phases of graphite also lead to differences in thermal
conductivity, as shown in Table 3. The content of graphite in cast iron is proportional to the thermal
conductivity of materials.

Table 3. Thermal conductivity of constituent phases of cast iron.

0–100 ◦ C Thermal 0–100 ◦ C Thermal

Phase Phase
Morphology Conductivity/ Conductivity/
Composition Composition
(W·(m·K)−1 ) (W·(m·K)–1 )
Ferrite 71.2–79.6
Spheroidal graphite 83.7
Graphite Pearlite 50.2
Flake graphite 433.1–418.7 Cementite 7.1

2.2. Thermal Fatigue Analysis

Many wide and deep cracks are distributed on the surface of brake discs. It causes the brake
disc performance to decline or even fail. The occurrence of cracks is closely related to thermal fatigue
characteristics. When braking, the internal and external surfaces of brake discs will generate a huge
temperature gradient. Additionally, at the same time, tensile stress is generated at the surface of
materials [2].
Thermal decay is a phenomenon that the friction of the braking system causes the friction pairs’
temperature to rise and the friction coefficient to decrease. Its essence is the dynamic lubrication of the
lubricating film or air-cushion film generated between the brake friction pairs. For powder metallurgy
materials, its resistance to heat decay is strong. For resin matrix friction materials, its resistance to heat
decay is weak [12].
Hecht et al. [12] found that there is an approximately linear relationship between the thermal
conductivity and carbon equivalent of gray cast iron. At the same carbon equivalent, the longer the
graphite sheet, the better the thermal conductivity of gray cast iron.
Crack initiation, crack propagation, and crack instability propagation are the three stages of
fatigue failure. Different types of cast iron have different thermal fatigue resistance. Figure 2 is the
crack length analysis of different cast iron under the same conditions. Among them, the properties of
three gray cast iron about A, B, and C respectively correspond to HT200, HT250, and HT300. It can be
seen from the figure that the crack length of sample C is the longest, the crack length of sample A and
sample B are similar. At the same time, the variation range of the crack of sample C is the largest within
a certain range. The HT300, corresponding to the sample C, has a relatively low graphite content,
large strength, and large notch sensitivity. Sample C has a small graphite content and weak thermal
conductivity, so when braking, the sample’s temperature difference between the inside and the outside
will be large. It can result in large thermal stress. Therefore, the crack propagation speed of sample C is
faster than that of sample A and sample B. The graphite of the B sample is an A-type, and the A sample
 within conductivity,
thermal a certain range. The HT300,
so when braking, corresponding to the sample
the sample’s temperature C, has abetween
difference relativelythelow graphite
inside and
content,
the outsidelarge
willstrength,
be large. and large
It can notch
result sensitivity.
in large thermalSample
stress. C has a small
Therefore, thegraphite content andspeed
crack propagation weak
ofthermal
sampleconductivity,
C is faster thanso that
when ofbraking,
sample A the sample’s
and sampletemperature
B. The graphite difference
of the Bbetween
sample the
is aninside and
A-type,
the the
and outside will becontains
A sample large. It can result
A-type in largeand
graphite thermal
a smallstress. Therefore,
amount the crack
of D type propagation
supercooled speed
graphite.
Metals 2020, 10,
of sample
Although C377
the is faster than
thermal that of sample
conductivity of typeAAand sample
graphite castB.iron
Theisgraphite
greater of thethat
than B sample is an
of D type 6 of 18
A-type,
graphite
and The
[13]. the relatively
A sample coarse
contains A-type
A-type graphite
graphite and a small
is conducive to amount of D type supercooled
crack propagation. This resulted graphite.
in the
Although
crack the
propagation thermal
speed conductivity
of specimen ofB type
beingA graphite
faster thancast
thatiron
of is greater
specimen than
A
contains A-type graphite and a small amount of D type supercooled graphite. Although the thermal that
after of
180 D type
cycles. graphite
[13]. The relatively
conductivity of type coarse A-type
A graphite castgraphite is conducive
iron is greater than thatto crack propagation.
of D type This The
graphite [13]. resulted in the
relatively
crack A-type
coarse propagation speed
graphite of specimen
is conducive B being
to crack faster thanThis
propagation. thatresulted
of specimen
in theAcrack
afterpropagation
180 cycles. speed
of specimen B being faster than that
18 of specimen A after 180 cycles.
A
16
B
14

Crack length/mm
18 C
12 A
16
10 B
14

Crack length/mm
C
8
12
6
10
4
8
2
6
0
4
20 50 100 150 200 250 300
0 Cycles/N

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Cycles/N
Figure 2. Thermal cycle times—average crack length curve.
Figure 2. Thermal cycle times—average crack length curve.
It can be found Figure
that the2. fundamental structure of thecrack
Thermal cycle times—average cast length
iron iscurve.
still pearlite and many
small
It can be black
foundspots are fundamental
that the distributed structure
around the of thegraphite
cast ironby observing
is still pearlite the typicalsmall
and many
spotsItare
candistributed
blackmetallographic be found that
structure thethe
of
around fundamental
sample
the structure
after
graphite the
by of the
thermal
observing cast
fatigue
the iron
testisin
typical still pearlite
Figure and
3. The
metallographic many of
reason
structure
small
for this black spots
phenomenon are
may distributed
be that the around
cast iron the
sample graphite
was by
oxidized observing
when
the sample after the thermal fatigue test in Figure 3. The reason for this phenomenon may be that the it wasthe typical
exposed
tometallographic
cast iron airsample
at the was structurehigh
experimental
oxidized of the
when itsample after the
temperature.
was exposed tothermal
air at thefatigue test in Figure
experimental 3. The reason
high temperature.
for this phenomenon may be that the cast iron sample was oxidized when it was exposed
to air at the experimental high temperature.

Figure 3. Metallographic structure after the thermal fatigue test.

Figure 3. Metallographic structure after the thermal fatigue test.
2.3. Wear Resistance Analysis
2.3. Wear Resistance AnalysisFigure 3. Metallographic structure after the thermal fatigue test.
The wear resistance is a key factor in the service life of brake discs. In the friction and wear process
of2.3. Thediscs
brake wearandresistance
brake is a abrasive
pads, key factor in the
wear andservice
adhesive life of brake
wear are thediscs. In the
two main friction
ways and wear
of friction loss.
Wear Resistance Analysis
process of brake discs and brake pads, abrasive wear and adhesive wear are
Under the pressure and friction of the pairing materials, when the hardness of the hard phase the two main ways of
of the
friction
cast The
iron is wear
loss. resistance
Under
greater the the
than is a key
pressure andfactor
hardness the in
friction
of thethe
of
matrix,service
pairing
the lifematerials,
abrasive ofwear
brake discs.the
when
graduallyInappears
the friction
hardness theand
on of the wear
hard
surface
of the matrix. Therefore, the hard phase contacts the friction of the pairing materials to form the firstof
process
phase of of
the brake
cast discs
iron is and brake
greater pads,
than the abrasive
hardness wear
of the and adhesive
matrix, the wear
abrasive are the
wear two main
gradually ways
appears
frictionsurface.
friction loss. Under the pressure
The matrix and friction
and graphite of thethe
constitute pairing
second materials, when the hardness of the hard
friction surface.
phase of the cast
According ironwear
to the is greater than
of brake theand
discs hardness of thethe
brake pads, matrix,
wearthe
canabrasive wear
be divided intogradually appears
three categories:
mild wear, moderate wear, and heavy wear. The study found that different wear mechanisms of
different microstructures have different wear mechanisms [3]. Mild wear, the friction surface is
nearly intact and essentially free of deformation. The oxidized powder tightly covers the friction
surface. Moderate wear, the friction surface is covered with discontinuous oxidation. There are
microdeformation and large particles of abrasive debris. Heavy wear, the friction surface is severely
deformed, the roughness is increased. Additionally, it produces band-like loose wear debris.
categories: mild wear, moderate wear, and heavy wear. The study found that different wear
mechanisms of different microstructures have different wear mechanisms [3]. Mild wear, the friction
surface is nearly intact and essentially free of deformation. The oxidized powder tightly covers the
friction surface. Moderate wear, the friction surface is covered with discontinuous oxidation. There
are microdeformation and large particles of abrasive debris. Heavy wear, the friction surface
Metals 2020, 10, 377
is
7 of 18
severely deformed, the roughness is increased. Additionally, it produces band-like loose wear debris.

2.4. Noise Analysis

Currently, the braking noise has become become an an increasingly
increasingly important
important impact in automobile
automobile
manufacturing. When braking, the brake discs and the pairs were changed from an elastic contact to
plastic contact. From
From kinetic
kinetic energy to thermal energy, organic organic materials
materials began
began toto transform.
transform. As a
thefriction
result, the frictioncoefficient
coefficient dropped
dropped sharply,
sharply, the braking
the braking torquetorque decreased.
decreased. The braking
The braking are
are slipping
slipping
and and Additionally,
sticking. sticking. Additionally,
it produceditdifferent
produced different
levels levels
of noise. Someof experiments
noise. Some[14]experiments
compared[14]the
compared
laser speedthe laser
test speed
under roomtesttemperature
under roomand 100 ◦ C. Figure
temperature and 100 °C. Figure
4 shows 4 showsofthe
the results theresults of the
experiment.
experiment. have
Experiments Experiments
found that have found that
for different for materials,
friction different asfriction materials,
the speed as the speed
and temperature and
increased,
temperature
the movementincreased,
of frictionthe movement
noise of friction would
to high frequencies noise to high frequencies
decrease. would decrease.
At low frequencies, it wouldAtcause
low
frequencies,
the reductionitof would cause the
the friction noisereduction
[14]. of the friction noise [14].

Figure 4. Comparison of the laser velocity test at room temperature and laser velocity test at 100 ◦ C.
Figure 4. Comparison of the laser velocity test at room temperature and laser velocity test at 100 °C.
Blaschke et al. [15] defined the contact properties of the brake friction interface, and they analyzed
Blaschke
the brake et al. [15]
screaming defined
tendency usingthethe
contact
complex properties
eigenvalue of the brake Liu
method. friction
et al. interface, and they
[16] considered the
analyzed the brake screaming tendency using the complex eigenvalue method.
effects of parameters such as brake pressure, brake disc speed, friction factor on system characteristic Liu et al. [16]
considered
values the effectsthe
and achieved ofgoal
parameters such asbrake
of eliminating brake pressure,
screams brake disc speed,
by optimizing friction factor
the characteristic on
values.
system characteristic values and achieved the goal of eliminating brake screams
Guillaume et al. [13] used the finite element model of the brake for modal analysis, and used the by optimizing the
characteristic
complex values. method
eigenvalue Guillaume et al. [13]
to analyze theused the finite
stability of theelement model of the they
brake. Additionally, brakestudied
for modalthe
analysis, and
influence of theused the complex
change of dampingeigenvalue method
coefficient on thetostability
analyzeofthethestability of theFrancesco
brake discs. brake. Additionally,
[17] used a
they studied
simplified theelement
finite influence of the
model ofchange
the brake of damping
to consider coefficient onchanges
the friction the stability
in theoffrictional
the brakecontact
discs.
Francesco [17] used a simplified finite element model of the brake
surface, and performed complex eigenvalue analysis and transient nonlinear analysis. to consider the friction changes in
the frictional contact
For different surface,the
structures, and performed
brake discs havecomplex
differenteigenvalue analysisdistribution
specific pressure and transient nonlinear
rules. With a
analysis.
wide initial braking speed and a small braking specific pressure, sufficient braking torque is obtained
For different
to maintain structures,
sufficient braking the brakeTherefore,
stability. discs haveitdifferent specific
is an effective pressure
method distribution
to choose rules.
the right With
material
a wide initial braking speed
and ratio to reduce the brake noise. and a small braking specific pressure, sufficient braking torque is
obtained to maintain sufficient braking stability. Therefore, it is an effective
Some scholars [18] studied different frictional contact methods and came to a relationship method to choose the
right material
between and ratio sound
the frictional to reduce the brake
pressure levelnoise.
Lp and the surface roughness Ra. Swedish scholar
Some scholars [18] studied different
Hammerstrom et al. [19] applied patterned sandblasting frictional contact
to the methods
surface ofand came discs
the brake to a byrelationship
sampling.
On the one hand, the roughness of the local surface is increased, and on the other hand, the noisescholar
between the frictional sound pressure level Lp and the surface roughness Ra. Swedish of the
Hammerstrom et al. [19] applied patterned sandblasting to the surface of the brake discs by sampling.
automobile brake system is reduced. The characteristics of the friction interface are critical for friction
On the one hand, the roughness of the local surface is increased, and on the other hand, the noise of
noise. There is a variety of researches and attempts on friction noise. At present, most researches
the automobile brake system is reduced. The characteristics of the friction interface are critical for
focus on the influence of surface roughness on friction noise. It is an in-depth and unique research
idea to build a groove-shaped texture on the friction surface. Additionally, its research direction is
profoundly innovative.
The Taguchi method was founded by Dr. Taguchi of Japan. The core purpose of the Taguchi
method is to make the designed products stable in quality and low in volatility. It makes the production
process insensitive to various noises. The Taguchi is adopted for the robustness design of the brake
noise. Its interference factor is the fluctuation of the friction factor. The study found that the key
factors affecting brake screaming are the material, structure, operating conditions and environmental
conditions of the braking [20]. Under the random normal distribution, the statistical characteristics of
Metals 2020, 10, 377 8 of 18

system eigenvalues and the sensitivity of parameters are analyzed by the Monte Carlo method [21].
It was found that modifying the backplate thickness of the brake, which increases the support stiffness,
could improve the stability of the braking system and reduce braking noise. Using active and passive
methods of piezoelectric materials to suppress brake noise is a relatively new method and idea
on research.

3. Brake Disc Manufacturing Analysis

Graphite is the most basic component of frictional couples. The adjustment of the graphite content
in the material can change the density, friction coefficient, and wear rate in brake disc materials.
The material of the brake disc should not only have a good abrasion resistance but also a high and
stable friction coefficient [22].

3.1. Alloy Process

There are two ways to improve the strength and hardness of nodular cast iron. One is using
heat treatment and the other is using alloying [23,24]. The alloy element can improve and inhibit the
properties of brake disc materials. We can choose the appropriate Al and element ratios to achieve the
purpose of improving brake disc performance, increasing strength, and improving wear resistance.
At the same time, the service life of the brake disc can be extended.
The laser cladding technology is an important method to improve the surface properties of
materials. The tissue area of laser cladding is divided into three parts: the melting zone, hardened zone,
and matrix zone. In the process of laser rapid solidification, the grains are refined, and the hard phase
and new structure appear. It improves the wear resistance of the surface and the microstructure [25,26].
Additionally, by spraying an alloy coating on the surface of the cast iron materials, using a supersonic
flame spraying method, the wear resistance of the materials will be improved.
The alloy elements P and B are added to the common parts of cast iron materials and form a
hard phase, which increased the friction coefficient, reduced the wear rate and improved the friction
and wear performance of frictional couples. The low melting point hard phase formed by P and B
in cast iron illustrates its effect on the friction and wear properties of cast iron [7]. Since boron is a
strong carbide-forming element, a low content of boron can play a role equivalent to the high content
of phosphorus.
The research found that the appropriate ratio of ingredients and the reasonable selection of
alloy elements such as manganese, chromium, molybdenum, antimony, copper, and trace elements
stannum can improve brake disc performance. At the same time, they have a positive effect on the
gray cast iron matrix and graphite of brake discs. However, not all metal elements have a positive
effect on the performance of brake discs. Additionally, it is not that the more alloying elements added,
the mechanical properties are better. Figure 5 of the experimental study [27] shows the relationship
between the copper content and the average coefficient of friction. At 100 ◦ C, the increase of copper
content from 0% (V0) to 10% (V10) did not lead to an obvious change of the friction coefficient. However,
when the copper content increased to 30% (V30), the value of the coefficient of friction was significantly
reduced. At 200 and 300 ◦ C, copper plays an important negative role. The friction coefficient decreases
significantly with the increase of copper content. In other words, the presence of copper leads to a
reduction in the coefficient of friction [27]. Therefore, the combination of alloying elements and the
proper ratio of the alloying elements are extremely important.
Manganese dissolved in ferrite can increase its strength and hardness. The content of manganese
affects the mechanical properties of materials. The low content of manganese dissolved in the ferrite
plays a role of solid solution strengthening. The high content of manganese plays a substitution role to
form alloy cementite. Alloy cementite is beneficial to the formation and refinement of pearlite, and it
can improve strength and hardness, and reduce plasticity [28]. By optimizing the ratio of ingredients
and adjusting the chemical composition, the performance of brake disc can be improved.
 100 ℃
200 ℃

The coefficient of friction

0.44
300 ℃
0.42

0.40
Metals 2020, 10, 377 9 of 18
0.38
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18
0.36
Microalloying is an effective method to improve the mechanical properties of materials [29].
of copper leads to a reduction 0.34
in the coefficient of friction [27]. Therefore, the combination of alloying
Small addition of the microalloying element
V0 niobium
V10 can refine the flake graphite in gray cast iron
elements and the proper ratio of the alloying elements areV30
extremely important.
materials and improve material hardness, wedge Copperpressure
content/％ strength, and thermal cracking resistance.

0.46
100 ℃
Figure 5. Average friction coefficient measured in the experiment.
200 ℃

The coefficient of friction

0.44
300 ℃
Manganese dissolved in ferrite can increase its strength and hardness. The content of manganese
0.42
affects the mechanical properties of materials. The low content of manganese dissolved in the ferrite
0.40
plays a role of solid solution strengthening. The high content of manganese plays a substitution role
0.38
to form alloy cementite. Alloy cementite is beneficial to the formation and refinement of pearlite, and
it can improve strength and hardness,0.36 and reduce plasticity [28]. By optimizing the ratio of
ingredients and adjusting the chemical composition, the performance of brake disc can be improved.
0.34
Microalloying is an effective methodV0to improve V10 the mechanical
V30 properties of materials [29].
Small addition of the microalloying element niobium can/％refine the flake graphite in gray cast iron
Copper content

materials and improve material

Figure hardness,
5. Average wedge
friction pressure
coefficient strength,
measured in theand thermal cracking resistance.
experiment.
Figure 5. Average friction coefficient measured in the experiment.
3.2. Heat Treatment
Treatment Process
Process
The
TheManganese
heat-treat dissolved
heat-treat has a veryin
has ferrite can
important increase
role its strength
in improving and hardness.
the hardness, The and
strength
strength content
wear ofresistance
manganese
of affects
of brake the
brakedisc mechanical
materials.
disc materials. properties
The The
heat-treat of materials.
is commonly
heat-treat The low content
used in machining
is commonly of manganese dissolved
includes annealing,
used in machining in the ferrite
includesnormalizing,
annealing,
plays
quenching,a
normalizing, role of solid
tempering,
quenching, solution strengthening.
carburizing,
tempering, nitriding,
carburizing, The high
carbonitriding,content of manganese
laser heat-treat, laser
nitriding, carbonitriding, plays
electron a substitution
beam heat-treat,
heat-treat, electron role
toThe
etc.
beam form alloy cementite.
experimental
heat-treat, etc. The Alloy
research oncementite
the heat-treat
experimental is beneficial
research on theto
of nodular the iron
cast formation
heat-treat found and refinement
that its
of nodular mechanical
cast of pearlite,
iron foundproperties and
that its
it
have can improve
produced
mechanical strength
significant
properties and
havechanges. hardness,
producedFrom and reduce
the comparison
significant plasticity
changes. From of Figures[28]. By optimizing
6–8 aboutofthe
the comparison the
6, 7 and of
ratio
metallurgical
Figures
ingredients
structure,
Figure 8 about and
it can be adjusting
the found thatthe
metallurgical itschemical
structurecomposition,
structure, has changed
it can be found the performance
significantly.
that Theof
its structure brake disc can
decarburization
has changed be improved.
layer in the
significantly.
Microalloying
metallographic
The decarburization is
structure, an effective
layerasinshown method to improve
in Figure 9, isstructure,
the metallographic the
a disadvantageous mechanical
as shownfactor properties
that9,needs
in Figure of materials
to be avoided as
is a disadvantageous [29].
Small
much
factor as addition
possible.
that of the microalloying element
needs to be avoided as much as possible. niobium can refine the flake graphite in gray cast iron
materials and improve material hardness, wedge pressure strength, and thermal cracking resistance.

3.2. Heat Treatment Process

The heat-treat has a very important role in improving the hardness, strength and wear resistance
of brake disc materials. The heat-treat is commonly used in machining includes annealing,
normalizing, quenching, tempering, carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding, laser heat-treat, electron
beam heat-treat, etc. The experimental research on the heat-treat of nodular cast iron found that its
mechanical properties have produced significant changes. From the comparison of Figures 6, 7 and
Figure 8 about the metallurgical structure, it can be found that its structure has changed significantly.
The decarburization layer in the metallographic structure, as shown in Figure 9, is a disadvantageous
factor that needs to be avoided as much as possible.

Figure 6. Microstructure of nodular cast iron without heat treatment.

Figure 6. Microstructure of nodular cast iron without heat treatment.
In the normalization, a large amount of ferrite is converted to pearlite. The content of pearlite
increases in the matrix. Additionally, the content of carbon increases. Thus, the process improves
the strength, hardness, and wear resistance of nodular cast iron. In addition, it maintains a good
performance of plasticity. However, a decarburized layer was generated on the surface of materials after
normalizing treatment. It reduced the carbon content of the surface layer and decreased the strength
and hardness of material surface. A large amount of ferrite is transformed into bainite after isothermal
quenching. Lower bainite is a mechanical mixture that concluding carbon supersaturated flake ferrite
and internally precipitated carbides. It has excellent strength, wear resistance, and toughness. However,
its plasticity has been decreased.
The nitriding temperature required for ordinary gas is high and the holding time is long.
Figure
This process has resulted in6.low
Microstructure
productionofefficiency
nodular cast
andiron without
serious heat treatment.
energy waste [30]. The research
Metals 2020, 10, 377 10 of 18

on nitriding treatment of cast iron found that the wear of the matrix was mainly fatigue peeling.
Additionally, it was accompanied by abrasive wear. The wear of the nitriding samples was peeling
wear. Lattice distortion caused by nitriding treatment and residual compressive stress on the surface
after nitriding inhibit crack growth. In addition, it increased abrasion resistance [31,32]. After nitriding
treatment of HT250, a nitriding layer is formed on the surface. It not only improved the strength
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
of
10 of 18
the surface but also improved surface ability to resist plastic deformation [22,33]. It can be seen that
Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18
the compound layer is uniformed and the tissue is dense by the cross-sectional view of the nitriding
Metals 2020,
HT250 10, x FOR
sample PEER REVIEW
in Figure 10. 10 of 18

Figure 7. Microstructure of nodular cast iron normalized at 900 °C.

Figure 7. Microstructure of nodular cast iron normalized at 900 °C.
Figure 7. Microstructure of nodular cast iron normalized at 900 ◦ C.
Figure 7. Microstructure of nodular cast iron normalized at 900 °C.

Figure 8. Microstructure of ductile cast iron isothermal quenched at 900 + 250 °C.
Figure 8. Microstructure of ductile cast iron isothermal quenched at 900 + 250 ◦ C.
Figure 8. Microstructure of ductile cast iron isothermal quenched at 900 + 250 °C.
Figure 8. Microstructure of ductile cast iron isothermal quenched at 900 + 250 °C.

Figure 9. Microstructure of surface decarburization of ductile iron treated at 900 ◦ C.

Figure 9. Microstructure of surface decarburization of ductile iron treated at 900 °C.
Figure 9. Microstructure of surface decarburization of ductile iron treated at 900 °C.
In the normalization, a large amount of ferrite is converted to pearlite. The content of pearlite
Figure 9. Microstructure of surface decarburization of ductile iron treated at 900 °C.
increases innormalization,
In the the matrix. Additionally, the content
a large amount of carbon
of ferrite increases.
is converted Thus, the
to pearlite. process
The improves
content the
of pearlite
strength,
increases hardness,
in andAdditionally,
the matrix. wear resistance of nodular
the content cast increases.
of carbon iron. In addition,
Thus, the it maintains
process a good
improves the
In the normalization, a large amount of ferrite is converted to pearlite. The content of pearlite
performance
strength, of plasticity.
hardness, However,
andAdditionally, a decarburized
wear resistance of nodular layer was generated
cast increases. on
iron. In addition, the surface of
it maintains materials
a good
increases in the matrix. the content of carbon Thus, the process improves the
after normalizing
performance of treatment.
plasticity. It reduced
However, a the carbon content
decarburized layer was of generated
the surfaceonlayer
the and decreased
surface of the
materials
strength, hardness, and wear resistance of nodular cast iron. In addition, it maintains a good
strength and hardness
after normalizing of material
treatment. surface.
It reduced A carbon
the large amount
contentofofferrite is transformed
the surface layer andinto bainite after
decreased the
wear. Lattice distortion caused by nitriding treatment and residual compressive stress on the surface
after nitriding inhibit crack growth. In addition, it increased abrasion resistance [31,32]. After
nitriding treatment of HT250, a nitriding layer is formed on the surface. It not only improved the
strength of the surface but also improved surface ability to resist plastic deformation [22,33]. It can
Metals 2020, 10, 377 11 of 18
be seen that the compound layer is uniformed and the tissue is dense by the cross-sectional view of
the nitriding HT250 sample in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Optical micrograph.

Figure 10. Optical micrograph.
When using different heat-treat temperatures to study carbon–carbon composites, it can be found
When
that as using different
the heat-treat heat-treat
temperature temperatures
increases, the degree to of
study carbon–carbon
graphitization of thecomposites, it can be
composites increases.
found that as the heat-treat temperature increases, the degree of graphitization
The friction factor increases with the increase of heat-treat temperature. Additionally the friction of the composites
increases.
factor, The
linear friction
wear, and factor increases
mass wear withpeaked.
all have the increase of heat-treat
The oxidation weartemperature.
decreases with Additionally
the increasethe of
friction factor, linear wear, and mass wear all have peaked. The oxidation
the heat-treat temperature. The degree of graphitization has a certain effect on the friction and wear decreases with the
wear
increase of of
properties thematerials.
heat-treat Thustemperature. Thethe
we can get degree of graphitization
materials we need byhas a certain
properly effect on the
controlling the friction
degree
and wear properties
of graphitization. of materials. Thus we can get the materials we need by properly controlling the
degree of graphitization.
Therefore, to improve the performance of brake discs, we need to take appropriate inoculation
waysTherefore,
to treat thetomaterial
improvesurface.
the performance of brake discs, we need to take appropriate inoculation
ways to treat the material surface.
3.3. Composite Material Technology
3.3. Composite Material Technology
At present, the application of composites to brake discs has become the mainstream direction
aboutAt the present, the application
contemporary of composites
automobile. to brake
The application anddiscs has become
development the mainstream
of carbon–carbon direction
composites,
about the
carbon contemporary
fiber automobile.and
ceramic composites, The application and development
coating composite oxide film of carbon–carbon
materials has madecomposites,
great
carbon fiber ceramic composites,
contributions to the modification of brake discs.and coating composite oxide film materials has made great
contributions to the modification of brake discs.
Carbon–carbon composites have low density, high specific strength, high specific modulus,
stableCarbon–carbon
friction factor,composites
low linear have low density,
expansion highhigh
coefficient, specific strength,
thermal high specific
conductivity, goodmodulus,
ablation
resistance, good friction performance, and good thermal shock resistance. In particular, it ablation
stable friction factor, low linear expansion coefficient, high thermal conductivity, good can still
resistance,high
maintain good friction
strength performance,
performance and good temperatures.
at ultra-high thermal shockAdditionally
resistance. Init particular,
can resist the it can still
adverse
maintain
factors high by
caused strength performance
the friction at ultra-high
of brake discs. temperatures.
At the same Additionallyofitantioxidation
time, the manufacture can resist the coatings
adverse
factors
with good caused by theresistance,
oxidation friction oflowbrake discs.
price, At the
simple same moisture
process, time, the resistance,
manufacture andofenvironmental
antioxidation
coatings with
protection good oxidation
has become the focusresistance,
of competitionlow price,
amongsimple process,
enterprises moisture
today. Figureresistance,
11 shows and the
environmental protection has become the focus of competition among enterprises
morphological characteristics of carbon–carbon materials under the optical microscope. The (a)–(d) are today. Figure 11
shows the morphological characteristics of carbon–carbon materials under
test samples of hardness HS40, HS50, HS60, and HS70 respectively. The 1 represents the morphology the optical microscope.
The (a)–(d) areoftest
characteristics thesamples of hardness
surface close HS40, HS50,
to the non-friction HS60, The
surface. and 2HS70
is therespectively.
morphological The 1 represents
characteristics
the morphology characteristics of the surface close to the non-friction
of 2~10 mm under the friction surface. It can be found that the base damage of the carbon–carbon surface. The 2 is the
materials brake disc is not more than 60 µm, which does not affect its structure.
In addition to the influence of the environment on the friction and wear behavior of C/C composites,
different braking torques, loads, braking speeds, and temperatures will affect the friction and wear
behavior of C/C composites [34–36]. Under low energy conditions, granular abrasive debris is
mainly formed on the surface of the composites. It increased the friction coefficient and wear rate.
Under high-energy conditions, film-like wear debris is mainly formed on the surface of the composites,
and its function is similar to solid lubricants. It reduced the friction coefficient and wear rate of the
composites [37]. Awasthi [38] et al. considered that the wear mechanism of C/C composites includes
the formation and transfer of the abrasive film. Friction debris is constantly generated on the brake
disc surface by the pressure and the relative sliding of the friction surface. Additionally an abrasive
film will be formed. Repeated sliding causes part of the wear debris to fall off. As the substrate wears,
Metals 2020, 10, 377 12 of 18

new abrasive debris forms a new abrasive debris film. In recent years, the comparatively excellent
preparation method, the Chemical Liquid-Vapor Deposition (CLVD), was adopted by the United States
and France, and has been made great achievements [39,40]. Through the study on the friction and wear
properties of C/C composites, composites with better friction and wear properties can be prepared.
However, there are still various problems on the study of their friction and wear properties, which need
to be solved.
High friction composites have the advantages of controllable friction coefficient, good friction
resistance, high wear resistance, low noise, and stable performance in different working environments.
Its development has gradually replaced other products in the rail transportation industry [41,42].
The raw materials of high friction composites are complex and diverse. They can be roughly divided
into three categories: binders, reinforcing fibers, and fillers. Among them, fillers have the most
significant effect on the friction and wear properties of high friction composites. The effect on the
friction and wear performance to high friction composites mainly depends on the hardness, particle size,
morphology, and distribution of the filler. The filler with good performance can increase the friction
Metals 2020, 10,reduce
coefficient, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the wear 12 of 18
performance, increase the high-temperature stability of the composite,
and adjust product comprehensive mechanical properties. The filler with poor performance leads to
morphological characteristics of 2~10 mm under the friction surface. It can be found that the base
increased wear of composites, reduced stability of friction coefficient, and accelerated damage of dual
damage of the carbon–carbon materials brake disc is not more than 60 μm, which does not affect its
materials [43–46].
structure.

Figure 11. Surface morphology of the non-friction side and substrate of carbon–carbon materials with
Figure 11.
different Surface
surface morphology
hardness. of the
(a-1,a-2) non-friction
HS40; (b-1,b-2)side and(c-1,c-2)
HS50; substrate of carbon–carbon
HS60; materials with
(d-1,d-2) HS70.
different surface hardness. (a) HS40; (b) HS50; (c) HS60; (d) HS70
The new type of filler has a certain effect on the friction and wear properties of high friction
In addition
composites. Whentothethe influence
content of the environment
of high-performance fillers on the the
is low, friction
wear and wear behavior
mechanism is abrasive ofwear
C/C
composites,
and adhesivedifferent braking
wear, and torques,
the real contactloads, braking
surface speeds,
is largely and temperatures
continuous in wear. will
When affect
the the friction
content of
and wear behaviorfillers
high-performance of C/C composites
is high, the wear[34–36]. Underislow
mechanism energy
abrasive conditions,
wear granular
and fatigue wear, abrasive debris
the real contact
is mainly
area formed
is reduced, onthe
and thecrack
surface of theCho
appears. composites.
et al. [47]Itfound
increased the friction
that small coefficient
size zircon and reduce
fillers will wear rate.
the
Under high-energy
frictional conditions, and
stability of composites film-like
increase wear debrisof is
the wear mainly formed
composites. Bijwe etonal.the
[48]surface
compared of the
the
composites,
effects and its and
of nanofillers function is similar
microfillers on to
thesolid lubricants.
friction propertiesIt reduced the friction
of composites. coefficient
The study and wear
has shown that
rate of the composites
nanofillers [37].toAwasthi
are more likely [38] et
form stable al. considered
friction films andthat the wear
transfer filmsmechanism of C/Cof
upon the surface composites
materials
includes
and dual the formation
materials. and transfer
It increased of the
friction abrasive
stability andfilm. Friction
reduced debris
material is constantly
wear. As showngenerated on
in Figure 12,
the high-performance
the brake disc surface filler,
by thea pressure andwas
mixed filler, the prepared
relative sliding of the process
by a special friction and
surface. Additionally
a certain proportion.an
abrasive filmits
Additionally, will be components
main formed. Repeated sliding
are graphite causes Al
powder, part
2 O3of the2 ,wear
, MoS debris
ferrous to fall
powder, etc.off. As the
substrate wears, new abrasive debris forms a new abrasive debris film. In recent years, the
comparatively excellent preparation method, the Chemical Liquid-Vapor Deposition (CLVD), was
adopted by the United States and France, and has been made great achievements [39,40]. Through
the study on the friction and wear properties of C/C composites, composites with better friction and
wear properties can be prepared. However, there are still various problems on the study of their
friction and wear properties, which need to be solved.
High friction composites have the advantages of controllable friction coefficient, good friction
resistance, high wear resistance, low noise, and stable performance in different working
compared the effects of nanofillers and microfillers on the friction properties of composites. The study
has shown that nanofillers are more likely to form stable friction films and transfer films upon the
surface of materials and dual materials. It increased friction stability and reduced material wear. As
shown in Figure 12, the high-performance filler, a mixed filler, was prepared by a special process and
Metals 2020, 10, 377 13 of 18
a certain proportion. Additionally, its main components are graphite powder, Al22O33, MoS22, ferrous
powder, etc.

Figure 12. SEM image of a high-performance filler.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. SEM
SEM image
image of
of aa high-performance
high-performance filler.
filler.
A calcium sulfate whisker, as a functional filler, has a certain effect on tribological properties.
Four A calcium
calcium sulfate
sulfate whisker,
whisker as different
with a functional filler,(0,
contents has5, a10,certain
and 15effect
wt %onbytribological
weight) wereproperties.
used for
experimental research. It is recorded as C0 , C1 , C2 , and C3 . Figure 13 shows the wear of used
Four calcium sulfate whisker with different contents (0, 5, 10, and 15 wt % by weight) were for
the four
experimental research. It is recorded as C00, C11, C22, and C33. Figure 13 shows the wear of the four
materials under SEM, where (a) represents C0 , (b) represents C1 , (c) represents C2 , and (d) represents
materials
C under SEM, where (a) represents C00, (b) represents C11, (c) represents C22, and (d) represents
3 . It can be seen that the addition of calcium sulfate whisker improves the wear of the material surface
C33. It can be seen that the addition of calcium sulfate whisker improves the wear of the material
and increases the wear resistance of the material surface [28].
surface and increases the wear resistance of the material surface [28].

Figure 13. The worn surface under the scanning electron microscope. (a) C0 ; (b) C1 ; (c) C2 ; (d) C3 .
Figure 13.
Figure 13. The
The worn
worn surface
surface under
under the
the scanning
scanning electron
electron microscope.
microscope. (a)
(a) C
C00;; (b)
(b) C
C11;; (c)
(c) C
C22;; (d)
(d) C
C33..
Therefore, the study of reducing or increasing friction of inorganic particles as a filler in composites
Therefore,
has great the study
significance to the of reducing or
development of increasing
composites.friction of inorganic particles as a filler in
composites has great significance to the development
Friction materials have the function of transmission,of composites.
braking, deceleration, and parking in
mechanical transmission. The study on the properties of various friction materials in composites can
further reveal the friction and wear properties of composites. Reinforced fibers are the supporting
framework of the friction materials. It can improve the mechanical strength of the friction material
and withstand the strong impact and shear of braking. Reinforced fibers give the friction material
some toughness. Asbestos fibers were often used as reinforced fibers in the past. However, because
of the carcinogenicity of asbestos, the study of alternative fibers began. Currently, the widely used
substitute fibers include organic and inorganic. Organic fibers include polyethylene fibers, polyester
fibers, cotton, and hemp. Inorganic fibers include glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, boron fibers,
whiskers, etc.
Metals 2020, 10, 377 14 of 18

A new type of asbestos-free friction material is developed, which is made of resin as matrix and
glass fiber as reinforcing material. By the heat-treat, plasma treatment and coupling agent treatment of
glass fiber, the wear mass loss of material is reduced. Additionally, the friction and wear properties of
the material are improved.
Carbon fiber reinforced resin-based friction material is a friction material with good properties.
The resin-based friction material has the advantages of excellent friction and wear performance, simple
preparation process, strong performance and designability, and low cost. At high temperatures,
the resin-based friction materials decompose and decay, the friction coefficient decreases and the wear
rate increases [49]. A variety of reinforced fibers can be used for the filling modification of resin-based
friction materials, such as glass fiber, metal fiber, carbon fiber, ceramic fiber, etc. Among them,
carbon fiber has a stable friction factor and good abrasion resistance. In addition, it is a composite
that has a reliable performance, long service life, and low-contamination [50]. Carbon fiber has a
graphite-like structure, which gives the reinforced friction materials a better self-lubrication and
antifriction effect [51]. The thermal degradation resistance of the friction material reinforced by carbon
fiber is improved obviously. It has a lower wear rate at low speed, low temperature, and a wide load
range. Additionally, carbon fiber has high thermal stability. It exhibits better wear resistance under
high braking pressure. Studies have shown that carbon fiber reinforced paper-based friction material
has lower porosity. With a carbon fiber content approximately 55 wt %, the paper-based friction
material has a stable friction factor. In addition, with a carbon fiber content approximately 40 wt %,
the paper-based friction material has good abrasion resistance [52,53]. The increase of carbon fiber
content can improve the hardness, compression strength, and shear strength of materials. The addition
of nanoparticles to friction materials improved the microinterfacial structural components. It improved
physical properties and comprehensive properties of materials, and it increased wear resistance and
heat resistance.

3.4. New Structure and New Materials

On the basis of not changing the base materials of brake discs, from the perspective of the internal
structure improvement and external feature design, the research and development with a new structure
are realized. It has relatively high innovation. However, the modification of the brake discs is not large,
the production structures are complex and diverse. So, it is difficult to achieve mass production.
There is an international study about using palm kernel as reinforced composites. These brake
pads can use natural fibers such as palm kernel, the Nile rose, and wheat instead of alumina and
graphite powder as reinforced composites. In this work, palm kernel fiber particles are mixed with
alumina powder and graphite powder into type 1 composites in a certain ratio. Palm kernel fiber is
mixed with the Nile rose, wheat, aluminum, and graphite powder into type 2 composites. Table 4
shows the specific wear rate of palm kernel particles at different speeds and different volume fractions
of type 1 composites. Table 5 shows the specific wear rate of palm kernel particles at different speeds
and different volume fractions of type 2 composites. Figures 14–16 present the analysis results of the
study. Studies have found that the hardness of type 1 composites is greater than type 2 composites [54].

Table 4. Specific wear rates of palm-kernel particles of type 1 composites at different velocities and
volume fractions.

Specific Grinding Rate/(mm3 ·(N·m)–1 )

Sample Number
At 350 rpm At 450 rpm At 550 rpm
S1 0.000197 0.000230 0.000188
S2 0.001970 0.001690 0.001130
S3 0.000390 0.000460 0.000629
S4 0.000197 0.000230 0.000314
S5 0.000098 0.000380 0.000250
 S4 0.000197 0.000230 0.000314
S1 0.000197 0.000230 0.000188
S5 0.000098 0.000380 0.000250
S2 0.001970 0.001690 0.001130
S3 0.000390 0.000460 0.000629
Table 5. Specific wear rates of palm-kernel particles of type 2 composites at different velocities and
S4 0.000197 0.000230 0.000314
volume fractions.
Metals 2020, 10, 377 S5 0.000098 0.000380 0.000250 15 of 18
Specific grinding rate/(mm ∙(N∙m) ) 3 –1
Sample number
Table 5. Specific wear rates of palm-kernel
At 350particles
rpm of typeAt 2 composites
450 rpm at different
At 550velocities
rpm and
Table 5. Specific wear rates of palm-kernel particles of type 2 composites at different velocities and
volume fractions.
volume fractions. S1 0.000520 0.001640 0.000840
S2 0.001180
Specific grinding rate/(mm3∙(N∙m)0.000840
0.001130 –1)
SampleSnumber
3 Specific
0.000260Grinding Rate/(mm
0.0007103 ·(N·m)–1 )
0.000925
Sample Number At 350 rpm At 450 rpm At 550 rpm
S4 0.001320
At0.000520
350 rpm At 450 rpm0.002050At 550 rpm 0.002430
S1 0.001640 0.000840
S5 S1 0.002640
0.000520 0.002050
0.0016400.001130 0.000840 0.001680
S2 0.001180 0.000840
S3 S2 0.001180
0.000260 0.0011300.000710 0.000840 0.000925
S3 0.000260 0.000710 0.000925

mm ·(N·m)﹣1）
S4 0.001320 0.002050 0.002430
S4 0.001320 0.002050 0.002430
S5 0.002640 350 rpm
S5 0.002 0.002640 0.0020500.002050 0.001680 0.001680
450 rpm
3 1）
/（
rate﹣ 550 rpm

0.001
350 rpm
mm ·(N·m)

0.002
450 rpm
rate/（grinding

550 rpm
3

0.000
Specific

0.001

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Specific grinding

Fiber volume fraction/％

0.000

Figure 14. Influence of the palm kernel volume fraction on the wear rate of the type 1 composite
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
material. Fiber volume fraction/％

Figure 14. Influence of the palm kernel volume fraction on the wear rate of the type 1 composite material.
Figure 14. Influence of the palm kernel volume fraction on the wear rate of the type 1 composite
mm3·(N·m)﹣1）

0.003
material. 350 rpm
450 rpm
550 rpm
0.002
rate/（）

0.003
350 rpm
﹣1

450 rpm
mm3·(N·m)

0.001
550 rpm
rate/（grinding

0.002

0.000
Specific

0.001
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Specific grinding

Metals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

Fiber volume fraction/％
0.000
Figure 15. Effect of the volume fraction on the wear rate of type 2 composites.
Figure 15. Effect of the volume fraction on the wear rate of type 2 composites.
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Type 1 composites
Fiber volume fraction/％
Type 2 composites
3
Hardness/RHN

Figure 15. Effect of the volume fraction on the wear rate of type 2 composites.

1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Fiber volume fraction/％

Figure 16. Influence of fiber volume fraction on the hardness of various composites.
Figure 16. Influence of fiber volume fraction on the hardness of various composites.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusion
Currently in China, cast iron is the main base material of brake discs, while some high-end
automobiles use aluminum
Currently alloy,iron
in China, cast ceramics,
is theand composite
main oxide films.
base material Taking
of brake brake
discs, discs’
while performance
some high-end
into consideration,
automobiles use undoubtedly high-end
aluminum alloy, automobiles’
ceramics, base materials
and composite are better.
oxide films. Compared with other
Taking brake discs’
performance into consideration, undoubtedly high-end automobiles’ base materials are better.
Compared with other metal fibers such as steel, ceramics are a relatively new friction material. They
are mostly composed of metal oxides, carbides, and silicon carbide. Ceramics have a higher thermal
resistance. The melting point is between 1850 and 3000 °C. Additionally it is light in weight and
strong in strength [55].
Metals 2020, 10, 377 16 of 18

metal fibers such as steel, ceramics are a relatively new friction material. They are mostly composed of
metal oxides, carbides, and silicon carbide. Ceramics have a higher thermal resistance. The melting
point is between 1850 and 3000 ◦ C. Additionally it is light in weight and strong in strength [55].
The manufacturing cost of carbon fiber brake discs is only slightly higher than that of steel fiber
discs. Considering the performance, life, and noise, its comprehensive performance is better than steel
fiber discs. With the development and research of carbon fiber, the price of carbon fiber will inevitably
decrease. In addition, its production capacity will certainly increase. Therefore, carbon fiber brake
discs will be one of the main topics of future brake disc research.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.Y. and W.L.; methodology, X.Y. and W.L.; software, W.L.; validation,
W.L. and X.Y.; formal analysis, W.L.; investigation, W.L.; resources, X.X.; data curation, W.L.; writing—original
draft preparation, W.L.; writing—review and editing, X.Y.; visualization, W.L.; supervision, J.X. and Q.H.; project
administration, X.Y.; funding acquisition, X.Y. and S.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, (grant No.
51575234,515872122), the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (grant No. 2017M620286), the Key Research
and Development Program of Shandong Province, China (grant No. 2018CXGC0809), the Agricultural Machinery
Equipment Research and Development Innovation Plan of Shandong Province (grant No. 2018YF012), experts from
Taishan Scholars and Youth Innovation in Science and Technology Support Plan of Shandong Province University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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