Landscape Archaeology in the Region of the Confluence of the Trombetas and Amazon

Rivers

Report of Activities, 2006-2007

Projeto Trombetas, MPEG

Morgan Schmidt, João Aires, Carlos Agusto Barbosa, Vitor Martins, and Vera Guapindaia

December 2008

Introduction
Fieldwork that focused on archaeology of the landscape was carried out during a total of
4 ½ months between June 2006 and November 2007. Fieldwork was carried out at 3 sites in the
study area of the Trombetas project, directed by Vera Guapindaia of the Museu Paraense Emílio
Goeldi. The large site of Terra Preta (PA-OR-92) is located on Lake Batata, a permanent
floodplain lake beside the lower Trombetas River. The other two sites (Greig I, PA-OR-124 and
Greig II, PA-OR-125) are in the area of the plateaus, lying inside the area exploited by the
mining company Mineracão Rio do Norte for bauxite (Figure 1). The area of the tops of the
plateaus are strip mined for bauxite. The site Greig I lies next to an area of springs at the
headwaters of a stream in the lower ground between two plateaus, Greig and Bela Cruz. The site
Greig II is located on top of Greig plateau near the SE corner.

Terra Preta (PA-OR-92)

Fieldwork was carried out in June and October 2006 at the site located on Lake Batata
called Terra Preta, an immense black earth site that stretches for probably more than a kilometer
(several hundred meters were surveyed but the ends of the site were not yet reached) in a band
hundreds of meters wide along a gentle slope leading down to the lakeshore. Walkovers were
made at the site to attempt to locate earthworks or features that would indicate roads or other
specialized areas. Survey is difficult over most of the site because of thick brush. Many areas
are impenetrable without hard machete work. Some areas of the site are more open successional
forest or pasture with greater visibility of the ground surface that facilitates this type of
archaeological work. Some areas were in tall grass that made it impossible to see the subtle
changes in the topography that we were looking for. A section of the site that was under tall
grass was burned in order to provide better visibility of the ground surface. It was decided that
the burning would not interfere with archaeology at the site since it is burned every year anyway
by the resident farmers at the site and they were planning on burning it after our fieldwork was
finished for the season.
Walkovers identified one probable prehistoric lake access or road leading down the slope
to the lake shore. This road leading down the slope is similar in form to other lake and river
accesses, prehistoric, historic, or contemporary, in the Amazon region and, indeed, is of a similar
form to roads and trails in many places around the world. It consists of a wide (15 m) depression
leading down slope to the lake. The depression is most pronounced where the bank is at its
steepest. The depression was formed as preferential rainwater erosion took place in the trail.
The trail likely shifted positions within the general area of the depression and occasional
maintenance may have been carried out by leveling the ravines that form from erosion in the
trail. Many similar features were observed and mapped in the Upper Xingu at several sites
(Heckenberger et al. 2003; Heckenberger 2005) and in the Central Amazon at three sites
(Schmidt et al. 2007). These features form more readily on steeper slopes. The size of the
depression is a function of rainfall, steepness of slope, time in use, and density of use. Some of
the most dramatic of these features are located in the central Amazon leading down the steep
bluff from large millennium-old sites that were, at times, densely occupied. In both the Upper
Xingu and Central Amazon, many of these features (leading down to ancient ports and bathing
areas) are in use today by the current residents and visitors of the sites. Carvajal, among the first
group of Europeans to descend the Amazon, mentioned roads leading back to the interior and
also mentioned roads leading down to the waters edge from each neighborhood in large villages.
It is valuable to recognize features like roads, access ways, and trails during archaeological
survey of a site because they provide reference points and structure that can help form testable
hypotheses about the layout of the settlement and guide decisions of where to focus excavations.
Glimpses of low mounds with strange configurations and also what looked like abrupt
rises in the level of the slope made us suspect that there were topographic structures or micro-
relief at the site that could be of interest. It was hypothesized that these rises could be the edges
of roads that followed the contour of the slope (positively identified at Hialugihiti in the Upper
Xingu) or broad terraces. It was decided to create a detailed topographic map of several sections
of the site. A total station was used to map the relief along transects 5 m apart. Points were
recorded along the transects at approximately 2 m intervals. One section, approximately 120 x
110 m, was mapped in the area with the most intensive excavations. Two other slightly smaller
sections were mapped in an area of pasture where the ground surface and mounds were readily
visible. One of the mounds in this area was excavated (1 x 2 m). The excavation was terminated
at the water table (~1 m) but some dark soil and cultural material continued, remaining
unexcavated.
The topographic map of the largest area revealed three patterns that were not particularly
evident by walkovers and observations alone. The first pattern is what appear to be broad
terraces (approximately 20-25 m wide) going up the slope in a stepwise fashion. Several of these
were apparent in the 120 x 110 m mapped area. Perhaps, the most likely explanation for these
features is that they were built to create level surfaces for the construction of houses, possibly in
rows. These abrupt rises in the slope followed by broad relatively flat terrace were noticed in
other sections of the site when walking transects up and down the slope, but the continuity of the
terraces could not be determined easily because of the thick brush.
The second observation on the map and most easily discernable on the ground are groups
of low mounds. In the 120 x 110 m mapped area there were at least four mounds located in
separate areas. They all have the same characteristic form with a rectangular or somewhat oval
shaped platform currently elevated between 50-100 cm above the soil surface. The size is
roughly 1 x 3 m at the top and 6 x 8 meters at the base. These mounds underwent detailed
mapping (50 cm spacing between points) with the total station. Each mound appears to have one
low step on one side (west) that reaches about half way up. The mounds appear to be eroded but
all of them maintain the same general form. In two areas it was noticed, on the ground, that there
is apparently a semicircle of smaller mounds surrounding the west side of the taller central
mound, 5-6 m away from it. The third observation that became apparent in the topographical
map was that there are roughly circular (~25 m diameter), level areas surrounding each mound
group. These low mounds are interpreted to be a possible platform or stage where oration or
ceremony may have occurred, possibly the center of a small, localized public area or plaza.
Another possible alternative is that they may have been related to a structure (possibly inside)
such as a house. The possibility was considered that these could be natural features formed by
ants, termites, or tree throws, and it is likely that some similar features at the site actually are
natural. However, because of the consistency of size and form between mounds, the orderly
shape, and the wide, circular, leveled area surrounding the mounds, we are relatively confident as
to the artificial origin of at least some of the mounds on the site. Many of these possible mound
structures were observed around the site.
Possibly another type of mound was observed at the site with many occurring near the
lakeshore in at least one area. These are similar in size to the other mounds we have described
(3-4 m diameter) but they are rounded mounds with a trench surrounding them or a deep hole on
one side. Planned future excavations will investigate further the possible anthropogenic origin
and function of the mounds.
The difference in the distance between the transects (5 m) and points along them (~2 m)
caused an anomaly to occur on the topographic map that is an artifact of sampling because of
these uneven distances. It is purely visual however and does not interfere with the information in
the map. To avoid this in the future, the distances between transects and points should be the
same. The distances between the points can be lengthened or shortened depending on the relief
and the desired detail.
Soil samples were collected from all trench excavations and soil was examined and
samples were collected in transects from several areas of the site at different distances from the
lake. A transition was observed from variably thick (up to ~ 2 m) dark, terra preta near the lake
to less darkened (brown) anthrosols several hundred meters from the lakeshore to less impacted
soils several hundred more meters on.

Greig I (PA-OR-124)
Greig I is a site lying between the plateaus Greig and Bela Cruz. The site lies primarily
on a gentle slope that increases in steepness leading down to a stream and springs area. The
most concentrated cultural remains begin about 100 meters up the slope from the stream where
the land begins to level off. The site is adjacent to the headwater area of the stream that begins
with a large number of springs or “water eyes” (olhos de agua). Several anthropogenic
topographic features were identified at the site including an access way down to the stream, a
stream crossing, what appear to be excavated ponds in the area of the springs and stream, and
ring-shaped mounds of terra preta delineating flat, bowl-shaped depressions.
Several ring-shaped mound / bowl-shaped depression features were located in the
topographic position just above where the gently sloping land starts to drop off more steeply
towards the stream, which lies about 100 m down slope. The slight depression is a somewhat
oval-shaped flat area approximately 20 m across at the long axis and 10 m across the short axis
and lying with the long access parallel to the contour of the slope. It appears to have possibly
been leveled out of the slope to construct a terrace for building a structure. The flat area or
terrace is surrounded by slightly raised curvilinear mounds with deeper terra preta and higher
concentrations of ceramics visible at the surface and also occurring below the surface. It was
hypothesized that this feature could be the location of a structure such as a house. It was
suggested that the house was located in the center of the oval-shaped flat area and the curvilinear
mound was midden material that had been deposited around the house. It is also possible that the
mound served as a wall support, as was suggested for somewhat similar structures in the Upper
Xingu (Heckenberger 2005). In the Xingu case, it was suggested that midden material was
scraped aside to construct the mounds that then served as a base for the house walls. The
mounds at Greig I appear to be more similar to ring-shaped mounds described at two sites in the
Central Amazon (Laguinho and Hatahara) than to the ones in the Xingu case. Two trenches
were excavated on one of these features to test the hypothesis of a structure at the location,
surrounded by midden. One 2x26 m trench was excavated (in 1x1 m units) from the middle of
the flat area heading downslope and cutting across the downslope side of the mound. Another 1
x 10 meter trench was excavated perpendicular from the first and crossed the central flat area.
The excavations seemed not to refute the hypothesis of the location of a structure. They showed
relatively little darkened soil and few cultural remains in the central flat area and deeper
apparently midden material in the mound downslope. The pattern of deposition indicated that
material was thrown down the slope on the downslope side of the “ring”. Many features
interpreted as post molds near the center and at the edges of the flat area also support the
hypothesis of a structure at that location but do not confirm whether the walls of the structure
were inside or on top of the mound.
The largest and most obvious feature at the site is a “stream access” that goes downslope
to the bank of the stream. It is a very large (~12 m wide and 50 m long) U-shaped depression
cutting down through the steepest part of the stream bank to the stream’s edge. Between the base
of the steep slope and the stream’s edge is approximately 10 m of flatter ground where the U-
shaped depression ends. At the end, there are two small depressions leading out of it, one to the
left and the other to the right. Another feature that was even more obviously anthropogenic is a
stream crossing located about 100 m downstream from the excavated area of the site. This
consists of two of the deep U-shaped depressions leading down the stream bank on either side of
the stream and matching up, making it unmistakably an anthropogenic feature. This feature was
plotted by GPS. A stone artifact showing use wear was recovered from the streambed near this
location. Several other possible stream access ways were identified in the vicinity of the area
under excavation. An additional feature of this nature was identified near the site OR-77
approximately 30 m from where the Porto Trombetas – Terra Santa road crosses the stream.
Examining the stream and springs, it became apparent that there are several circular
depressions in the stream bed. These are apparently the locations of circular excavated ponds.
Some of the access ways articulate with the circular ponds lining up in the center of some of
them. It appears that these features lie side by side along the stream bed. A number of possible
circular ponds, approximately 10 m in diameter, were identified, with a couple of clear examples.
It appears that the possible ponds have filled in with sediment but the semicircular shape of the
side of the bank is clear. An area of the stream bed, including the ponds and access ways, near
the excavated part of the site was partially mapped with a total station. Several areas of springs
were also plotted by GPS. It was decided that detailed mapping of the features would help
clarify the pattern and some test units on the sides of the pond features may help to confirm
whether they were in fact excavated and are indeed anthropogenic features.
The fact that similar circular pond features with access ways were identified at Greig II
and that these features seemed to be more ubiquitous at springs associated with sites and not
found at other springs supports the hypothesis that they are anthropogenic features. We
hypothesize that the ponds were excavated by the inhabitants of the sites to construct deeper
pools to provide drinking water and places for washing, bathing, and possibly aquaculture. In
addition to the circular ponds, what look like excavated features at the sides of the stream bed
could have been sources of clay for making pottery. More convincing clay source features were
located at the springs near Greig II.
 Greig II (PA-OR-125) – The Plateau Site
Greig II was, in a way, the most impressive site of all because it was so unexpected. It is
a site with unexpected size and complexity located at the top of a bluff where no sites had been
located until the time of its discovery (isolated ceramic occurrences were found on two other
plateaus). The site is located in one corner of the plateau. We mapped areas of deeper terra
preta and more concentrated material (middens) near the edge of the plateau where it begins to
gently slope down and before it suddenly drops off. This concentration of material is also near
the start of two major access ways that lead down to the springs.
A detailed topographic map was made of the site with a total station. A total surface
collection was carried out and all artifacts were plotted. Several of what were interpreted to be
access roads down the bluff were mapped with GPS. First, a linear U-shaped depression
adjacent to the site and beginning at the top edge of the bluff was investigated. It leads down the
extremely steep slope to the base of the bluff where the land begins to level off some. A little
further on (~100 m) it reaches an area of springs and one headwater tributary of the stream. This
is the location where we first noticed the possible circular pond features in the area of the springs
where the stream begins. By walking along the top of the bluff edge we were able to locate
several other access roads that lead down the bluff. Two of the access roads lead directly from
either side of the site and go straight down the bluff; one to the springs at one of the headwaters
and another further down stream but also an area of abundant springs (this one has the clay
sources). The springs are abundant here at the base of the bluff in the headwaters area and all
along the sides of the stream for some distance.
The access roads down the side of the bluff can be best described as U-shaped
depressions. The access roads are identified by U-shaped depressions beginning just where the
slope starts to drop off and continuing downward in a straight line to the bottom of the slope.
The anthropogenic nature of a suspected feature is determined by following it down along its
entire length from top to bottom and confirming its continuous and consistent form. The size of
the depressions indicate that they were formed over a considerable period of time, minimally
decades and possibly centuries. There are two basic types of roads at Greig. There are ones that
follow the naturally most gentle slope formed by the contours of the plateau edge, and ones that
do not. The latter go straight up and down some of the steepest slopes without regard for the
natural contour. This type makes a direct connection between places above and places below,
even on the steepest of slopes. At least three of the major roads identified were of this latter
type. This type also forms as shortcuts, connecting up with larger roads. The roads leading
down to the springs from Greig II and down the plateau in the direction of Greig I consist of both
types. On the side of the plateau facing Greig I, there is a large and well-developed U-shaped
depression (that seems to follow the gentlest slope in a natural concave form of the bluff edge)
and, nearby, there are two or more (smaller, less defined) U-shaped depressions, parallel to one
another, leading directly down the steep bluff slope in the direction of Greig I. This fits
contemporary observations of trail systems where there are typically several similar nearby
routes (trails) and sometimes shortcuts to reach the same destination. The shortcuts and roads
joining up to one another were also observed at sites in the Central Amazon where access roads
lead up and down the edge of the river bluff. The entire upper edge of Plateau Greig was
surveyed and the features that are highly developed were only identified in two main areas: 1)
from Greig II down to the springs; and 2) the decent of the plateau to Greig I. The fact that they
mainly articulate known archaeological sites with water sources and other sites lends support to
their anthropogenic formation.
 We eventually located eight of these access road features that appeared to have had
significant foot traffic in the past. Four of these actually link up to the first one I described and
come out at the springs in the same location. The three access ways that link up to the first are at
increasing distances from the site. It is apparent that these roads received less traffic with
increasing distance until similar features further on have few obvious indications of foot traffic.
Another spring access road that appears to have received substantial traffic, based on erosion and
wear at the plateau edge, was located on the other side of the plateau from Greig II. It also had
suspected circular-shaped features but they are apparently smaller than the others located near
the sites and very indistinct. Several other roads were identified that lead down the bluff, parallel
to one another and in the same general area, and point directly toward the site of Greig I below.
Extending a line in either direction from these access ways would connect the two sites. This
indicates that it was the main road between the two sites and that it was heavily traveled in the
past and used for decades or centuries. Other access roads on plateau Greig likely offered a route
for travelers coming from places to the north, west, or south. The plateau had relatively easy
access for people coming from the Amazon River. It is closer to the Amazon than to the
Trombetas and could be nearly reached by boat by traveling up a nearby river.
The description of the access ways is similar to what was described at several sites
(Hatahara, Laguinho, Lago de Iranduba) in the central Amazon (Schmidt et al. 2007). A partial
description reads:

We can observe numerous examples of similar access ways all over Amazonia, both
modern and prehistoric. In many places where a trail cuts down a bank to the edge of a river or a
lake, a depression is formed with the help of foot traffic which leaves the soil bare of vegetation
and erosion from rainwater which runs preferentially down the exposed trial. After some time
the trail deepens to become a shallow ravine in which it becomes inconvenient to walk. People
begin to walk beside the (small) ravine and a new trail forms beginning the process of erosion
there. The trail is moved to a new location in the same general area beside that or alongside the
first and so on. Over time the area of the trails grows deeper and wider, forming a U-shaped
depression. A natural drainage with soil erosion, in contrast, typically forms a steep-sided ravine
with a “V” shape.
It was observed that the ancient roads that are currently in use today offer a good model
for how the U-shaped depressions formed over time. The trails migrate back and forth in the
same general location of the prehistoric roads (the depressions), continuing a process that began
many centuries ago. In the past when the population of the area was greater, these depressions
may have held several trails and routine maintenance including occasional leveling of the ravines
and cleaning a wider swath of road, accelerated the erosion process even further. The current
practice of sculpting stairs out of the clay in the bank for easier walking may have also been used
in the past (Schmidt et al. 2007:8).

Arriving at the base of the plateau from Greig II, one reaches the area of the springs and
the possible excavated ponds seen here are like the ones described above for Greig I. Here,
below Greig II, at the headwaters of the stream are several large circular features, approximately
10-12 m in diameter, side by side one another following the stream bed. They are, again,
relatively indistinct features that have filled in with sediment. It is hoped that by detailed
mapping of the features the pattern will become more clear.
 The idea of excavating a pond, damming a lake or stream, or digging a well in order to
create a deep pool for collecting water, bathing, or aquaculture is nothing new in the Amazon
region. It is a common practice today by the local population. Prehistoric wells were reported
long ago by Curt Nimuendaju near Santarem in the region of Belterra. In the Central Amazon,
what appear to be excavated ponds, connected to one another by canals at the base of the river
bluff below the sites, were recently described at two sites (Laguinho and Hatahara) (Schmidt et
al. 2007) in the study area of the Central Amazon Project (PAC) and similar looking features can
be identified in aerial photos of the site Lago Grande, another PAC site. Similar structures,
including excavated ponds, reservoirs, dams, canals, and artificial levees, were observed in the
Upper Xingu at several sites (Heckenberger 2005, Heckenberger et al. 2003) and have been
reported for many areas of the Amazon (Erickson 2000; Schaan 2008).
A probable source area for clay was located beside the stream in the area of the springs
below Greig II. These features appear as narrow trenches leading from the waters edge into the
river bank. This area around the stream is low and flat and has many springs. The trenches are
filled with clear water and contain a fine gray clay at the bottom. A sample of clay was collected
and a GPS point was recorded for the site. Samples of clay and several ceramic fragments were
left at the MRN laboratory for analysis. The clay mining function seems most likely hypothesis
as to the origin of these features.
Another observation at Greig was the abundance of fruit, nut, and palm species on top of
the plateau and around some areas of springs. From merely walking through the forest and
observing, nut trees such as sapucaia and another that resembles it (but is smaller) are especially
abundant. There are also Brazil nut, various fruits, and many useful palms.
Soil samples were collected from the profile in 5 cm levels at both Greig sites from 1
profile in each test pit and each available profile in larger excavation units (ex. a 1x1 unit has
four profiles and a 1x2 unit has 6).
Figure 1. Map of sites in the area of the plateaus.
Figure 2. Map of Greig Plateau showing sites, prehistoric roads and springs.