Earth Science Quarter 2: Module 7

Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE OCEAN BASINS
 The ocean basins are not featureless Earth surfaces. Much of our knowledge about the
topographic features that exist here is derived from the following technologies, seismic
surveying, echo sounder, side-scan sonar, and the measurement of the height of sea
surfaces by satellites.
 Most of the general information concerning the depth of the ocean basins was made
after World War I when the echo sounder was developed for military purposes. This
instrument accurately determines the time between the emission of a strong acoustic
pulse and the detection of its echo. Using this principle scientists can determine the
distance from the sounder to the ocean bottom. 

OCEAN BASIN
 The surface layer of Earth consists of a number of rigid plates that are in continual
motion.
 These geologic processes that occur on the surface of the Earth are weathering,
erosion, mass wasting, and sedimentation. In these processes, the role of ocean basins
in the formation of sedimentary rocks are included. 
 When early exploration of the oceans began, most scientists believed that the ocean
floor was completely flat and featureless. Furthermore, scientists believed that the
deepest parts of the ocean were located in their center. Soon, however, scientific
exploration (and modern technology) unraveled the mysteries of the ocean floor. 
 The ocean basins are transient features over geologic time, changing shape and depth
while the process of plate tectonics occurs. 

THE STRUCTURE OF OCEAN BASINS

 MID-OCEANIC RIDGE
 this feature constitutes 23% of the Earth’s surface.
 It is normally found rising above the ocean floor at the center of the ocean basins.
 Some volcanic islands are part of the mid-ocean ridge system like Iceland. 

 OCEAN TRENCHES

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  they are long narrow, steep-sided depressions that contain the greatest depths in the
ocean. 

 ABYSSAL PLAIN/HILL
 Remember that an ‘abyss’ is something that is very deep.
 Abyssal hill is found on the deep ocean floor, meanwhile, abyssal plains are so flat
because they are covered with sediments that have been washed off the surface of the
continents for thousands of years. 

 SEAMOUNTS
 A mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the
surface of the ocean.
 Seamounts are volcanic in origin. 

 GUYOT
 it is similar to a seamount, but it is a submerged volcanic mountain with a flat top.
 Guyot’s structure is due to erosive processes caused by waves after years. 

 CONTINENTAL SHELF
 A continental shelf is a shallow, gently sloping part of the continental crust. 

 CONTINENTAL SLOPE
 This part of the ocean basin extends and slopes after the continental shelf. The
boundary between the continental slope and the shelf is called a continental shelf
break. 

 CONTINENTAL RISE
 This feature is found in gently sloping areas before the ocean floor and at the base of
the continental slope and is formed by emerging accumulate deposits at the mounts of
many submarine canyons. 

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The following image displays the topography of the Earth’s terrestrial land surface and ocean
basins. Data for the image comes from satellite altimetry and ship depth soundings, and U.S.
Geological Survey digital elevation maps (DEM) of the Earth’s land surface.  In the ocean basin,
the gradation from red to yellow to green to blue indicates increasing depth. The red area that
borders the various landmasses is the continental shelf. This feature is structurally part of the
continental landmasses despite the fact that it is underwater. The yellow to the green zone
around the continental shelf is the continental slope and continental rise. The blue region in the
various ocean basins constitutes the ocean floor. In the center of ocean basins, the mid-oceanic
ridges can be seen with a color ranging from green to yellow to orange

THE EVOLUTION OF OCEAN BASINS

During the course of hundreds of millions of years, ocean basins evolve through distinct stages,
collectively, referred to as the Wilson Cycle. 

Wilson Cycle - uses plate tectonic processes to show the development and creation of ocean floors and
ocean basins. 

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THE EVOLUTION OF OCEAN BASINS
 EMBRYONIC STAGE
 the underlying mantle warms, it expands, elevating the overlying continent and
stretching the continental crust.
 Convection currents in the mantle also contribute to this stretching and eventually the
crust fractures, forming a rift valley.

 YOUNG STAGE
 a continent separates by an intervening oceanic basin.
 Continuous ocean basin widening ultimately gives way to seafloor spreading, the
establishment of Mid Ocean Ridge, true basaltic oceanic crust formation, pools of hot
brines, and sediment accumulation on rifted continental margins.
 A present-day example is the Red Sea.

 MATURE STAGE
 in this stage the ocean basin becomes widen. 
 Usually accompanied by transform faults and fracture zones.
 These regional structures offset the MOR (mid-ocean ridge) and magnetic anomalies.
 Well-established MOR spreading rate varies from 1cm/year to 15cm/year (Frisch et. al.,
2011) 
 Ocean basin is usually surrounded by passive continental margins containing the largest
accumulation of sediments. 
 Present-day examples are the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 

 DECLINING STAGE
 Subduction of a denser oceanic crust takes place beneath at one or more rifted
continental margins. 
 Collision leads to the Andean-type continental margin and Andean-type orogenic belts
above active subduction zones.
 This stage continues till the complete closure of the intervening oceanic basin and the
collision of two continents.
 The closure of an ocean basin compensates by the opening of lithosphere elsewhere. 
 TERMINAL STAGE
 due to subduction beneath various plates pacific is closing ocean. …

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  At this stage, most of the intervening oceanic crust between two continents subducts
and is recycled back into the mantle along the subduction zone rising to the surface to
build Andean/Cordilleran. 
 It is characterized by multiple deformations, metamorphic events, magmatic episodes,
gravitational collapse, folds, and faults. 
 An example is the Mediterranean Sea. 

 SUTURING STAGE
 it is illustrated by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates generating the
Himalayan Mountains.
 Continent-continent collision occurs
 The intervening oceanic basin is completely closed
 Crustal thickening and exhumation of deep crustal rocks take place
 The suture zone exposes ultra-high-pressure metamorphic rocks and ophiolites
 This stage is characterized by convergent related regional metamorphism, shearing,
seismicity, and crustal melting. 
 Example: Alpine-Himalayan Orogenic Belt, Appalachians

FIVE OCEAN BASINS FROM LARGEST TO THE SMALLEST

 PACIFIC OCEAN
 an ocean bordering eastern Asia, northeastern Australia, Antarctica, and western North

 ATLANTIC OCEAN
 an ocean bordering western Europe, western Africa, Antarctica, and eastern North and
South America

 INDIAN OCEAN
 an ocean bordering eastern Africa, southern Asia, western Australia, and Antarctica 

 NORTH SOUTHERN OCEAN

 the ocean bordering Antarctica and extending from 60 degrees south latitude

 ARCTIC OCEAN
 an ocean around the North Pole, bordering northern Europe, Asia, and North America. It
is the smallest ocean. 

MAP OF THE WORLD FROM THE SOUTH POLE

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  The world can best be visualized by viewing a globe from the south pole. From this
perspective, Antarctica is at the center of the world's oceans. Three ocean extensions
reach northward from Antarctica and extend toward the South Pacific, 
 South Atlantic, and Indian ocean basins between the continents. 

MAP OF THE WORLD FROM THE NORTH POLE → 

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