Excerpt from "Introduction to Number Theory" ©2013 AoPS Inc.

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INDEX

Index

0, see zero common divisors, 39–40

1, see one common multiples, 43
complementary counting, 96
abundant numbers, 116 composite numbers, 25–27
algebra identifying, 28–32
number sense, 287–291 congruence, 221
algebraic number theory, 282 congruence classes, see residue classes
AMC, ix conjecture, 110, 111
American Mathematics Competitions, see AMC converting base numbers, see base number systems
American Regions Math League, see ARML Conway, John, 282
ARML, x coprime, see relatively prime
art, see culture counting
Art of Problem Solving, vii, 320 addition as fast counting, 4
bundles, 141–144
base
exponentiation as fast counting, 5
number systems, 146
multiplication as fast counting, 5
base 10, see decimal number system
subtraction as fast counting, 4
base number arithmetic, 165
counting numbers, 2
base number systems, 144
cryptography, 63
addition of base numbers, 165–167
Caesar cipher, 86
commonly used, 148
Enigma, 89, 90
converting between bases, 150–154
scytales, 81
creative problem solving, 155–160
cubes of integers, see perfect cubes
division of base numbers, 172–174
culture
fractions and conversion, 209–211
Renaissance, art, and mathematics, 3
multiplication of base numbers, 170–172
subtraction of base numbers, 168–170 da Vinci, Leonardo, 3
units digit arithmetic, 184–186 decimal number system, 143
Benford’s Law, 194 decimals
Bhargava, Manjul, 282 converting to fractions, 205–208
binary, 147 repeating, 201–205
terminating, 195–200
Clay Mathematics Institute, 140
deficient numbers, 116
codes, 63
dividend, 48
commerce
divisibility, 11–13
mathematical development, 3

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INDEX

number sense, 283–287 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, 68

divisibility rules
algebraic problem solving, 255–257 Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 220, 239, 282
common rules, 247–254 GCD, see greatest common divisor
divisible, 12 GCF, see greatest common divisor
Division Algorithm, 48 generalized forms, 133
Division Theorem, 48, 60 Germain, Marie-Sophie, 239
divisors, 14–18 Goldbach’s conjecture, 302
counting game, 106 greatest common divisor, 41
counting problems, 94–100 greatest common factor, see greatest common divi-
divisor products, 101 sor
how to count them, 91–94 guessing, see problem solving strategies
making use of, 18–19
Harvard-MIT Math Tournament, see HMMT
negative, 15
hexadecimal, 149
proper, see proper divisors
HMMT, x
Egyptian fractions, 75
incongruent, 242
Enigma, see cryptography
induction, 237
equivalence, see congruence
integers, 1
equivalence classes, see residue classes
counting with, 2
Eratosthenes, 31
making integers out of integers, 3–6
Euclid, 42, 55, 57
negative, 1
Euclidean algorithm, 53–60
on the number line, 1
Euler, Leonhard, 246
positive, 1
extended Euclidean algorithm, 59
solving algebra problems, 125–136
factor, 14 zero, see zero
factor trees, 64–68 inverse, 264
game, 64 irrational numbers, 204
factorials, 111 isolating the variable, 136
factoring, 113
Lagrange, Joseph-Louis, 281
factoring
LCM, see least common multiple
common techniques, 128
least common multiple, 44
equating algebraic and prime factorizations,
Legendre, Adrien-Marie, 239, 246
128, 131
linear congruence equations, 261
number sense, 283–287
lists, see problem solving strategies
Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick, 130
lowest terms, 76
factors, see divisors
Fermat primes, 111 Mandelbrot Competition, ix
Fermat’s Last Theorem, 135 MATHCOUNTS, ix
Fermat, Pierre de, 110, 111, 135 Mersenne primes, 110, 117
Fibonacci, 124 Mersenne, Marin, 110
Fibonacci numbers, 124 Millenium Problems, 140
forms of numbers modular arithmetic, 217–223
fractions and decimals, 197, 213 addition and subtraction, 227–232
number sense, 292–293 algebra, 231, 237

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INDEX

multiplication and exponentiation, 232–238 relationship between GCDs and LCMs, 80–84
parametric expressions, 223 useful information about integers, 70
patterns, 238–241 prime numbers, 25–27, 109
using residues, 238 identifying, 28–32
modular inverse, 264 large primes and computing, 110
modulo, 220 polynomials, 246
modulus, 220 proof of infinitely many, 55
multiples, 7–10 problem solving, v
problem solving strategies
natural numbers, 2 expressing facts in multiple ways, 17
notation, iv finding new ways to look at problems, 51
mathematical symbols, 20 guessing, 34
number line, 1 narrowing lists of possible solutions, 296
number sense, 283 organize your work, 98
practice develops it, 289 play with simple examples, 34
number theory, iii practice develops number sense, 289
numerals, 141, 144 proof, 55
one proper divisors, 16
a divisor of every integer, 26 quadratic forms, 282
is a special number that is neither prime nor quotient, 48
composite, 27
organizing your work, see problem solving strate- radix, see base, 209
gies radix point, 209
Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 11, 282
palindromes, 117–120 rational numbers, 75
parameters, 133 reduced form, 76
parity, 295 relatively prime, 42
patterns remainder, 48
hunting for, 34 Renaissance, see culture
modular arithmetic, 240 repeating decimals, 201
perfect cubes, 6 residue classes, 226
perfect numbers, 116, 117 residues, 225
perfect powers, 6 resources, vii
perfect squares, 6 Riemann hypothesis, 140
pieces of eight, 211 Riemann Zeta function, 140
playing, see problem solving strategies Riemann, Georg Friedrich Bernhard, 140
Poincaré Conjecture, 140
positive integers, 2 SASTRA Ramanujan Prize, 282
prime factorization, 66 scale, see base
cornerstone of number theory, 68 Scherbius, Arthur, 89
derived from divisor counts, 99 sieve, 31
divisors, 73 Sieve of Eratosthenes, 28–31
GCD, 73, 74 Sieve of Nygard, 32
LCM, 70, 71 Simon’s Favorite Factoring Trick, 130
multiples, 70 simplification
problem solving, 78–80 making ugly equations nicer, 131

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INDEX

number sense, 294–297

of mathematics using notation, 20
using parameters, 134
Sophie Germain prime, 239
squares of integers, see perfect squares
systems of linear congruences, 272

terminating decimals, 195

theorem, 111
tree climbing, 195
Turing, Alan, 90
twin prime conjecture, 111, 302
twin primes, 111

Uccello, Paoli, 3
unit fractions, 75
units digits
arithmetic of, 177–183
casework, 182, 191
patterns in, 188
problem solving, 187–190
unreduced form, 76
unsolved number theory problems, 302
USA Mathematical Talent Search, see USAMTS
USAMTS, x

whole numbers, 2
Wiles, Andrew, 135
word problems
assigning variables, 127
translating words into math, 19

Ying, 43

zero, 1
is a multiple of every integer, 16

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